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Features of Semiconductor

• Semiconductors are materials whose electronic properties are

intermediate between those of Metals and Insulators
• They have conductivities in the range of 10 -4 to 10 +4 S/m.
• The interesting feature about semiconductors is that they are
bipolar and current is transported by two charge carriers of
opposite sign.
• Controllable conductivity
• These intermediate properties are determined by
- Crystal Structure bonding Characteristics.
- Electronic Energy bands.

Types of Semiconductor

Pure Intrinsic Extrinsic

• no defect, no impurities • may not be 100% pure • with impurities, defects
• regular array of atoms • very very small defects, • conc. of e and h are not
without any disruption impurities) same at equilibrium
 Possible: within the bulk • conc. of e and h are same at - e.g., doped semicond.
semiconductor but not at the equilibrium
surface. • behaves as an insulator at
• Conc. of e and h are same at 0K
equilibrium

Semiconductor

Single/Elemental Compound
(perfect regular array of (Array of more than one
one type of atoms) type of atoms)
e.g., GaAs, AlGaAs, IngaAs, Inp,
e.g., Si, Ge etc.
SiGe etc.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor
Valence Cell

Covalent bonds
Si

Si Si Si

Si

Conduction band KE of Electron

Ec = E - Ec

Ec
E
Ef
Electron Fermi energy level
energy

Ev KE of Hole
= Ev - E

Valence band

Distance

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Energy vs. k (momentum vector)

E Conduction E Conduction
band band

Eg
Eg

k k

Valence band Valence

band

Indirect Band gap

Direct Band gap

Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

• Energy spectrum of an electron moving in the presence of periodic potential

field is divided into allowed and forbidden zones.
• In crystals, the inter atomic distances and hence, the internal potential
energy distribution vary with direction of the crystal. Hence the E-k
relationship and hence energy band formation depends on the orientation of
the electron wave vector to the crystallographic axes.
• In few crystals like GaAs, the maximum of the VB occurs at the same value
of k as the minimum of the CB as shown in below. This type is called direct
band gap semiconductor.
• In few semiconductors like Si the maximum of the VB does not always occur
at the same k value as the minimum of the CB. This we call indirect band
gap semiconductor.
• In direct band gap semiconductors the direction of motion of an electron
during a transition across the energy gap remains unchanged.
– Hence the efficiency of transition of charge carriers across the band gap is more in
direct band gap than in indirect band gap semiconductors

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Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

• When a suitable form of energy is supplied to a semiconductor then electrons take
transition from VB to CB.
– Free electron in CB and simultaneously free hole in VB is formed - known as e-h pair
generation.
– In intrinsic semiconductor: e-h pairs may be generated due to breaking of covalent bonds at
temp>0K due to thermal energy. So, free electrons will be available at CB. Number of CB
electrons is exactly equal to the no. of vacant sites or holes in VB

Let ‘dn’ be the Number of Electrons available between

energy interval ‘E and E+ dE’ in the CB. Then, dn can be Electron
written as, Energy, E
KE of
CB Ec
dn  g ( E )dE f ( E )
Electron
= E - Ec
Ec

where, g(E) is the Density of States (DoS) at energy interval E to E+dE

Ef
i.e., number of states per volume and in the energy interval E and E + dE. Fermi energy level
Unit of DoS is per vol. per eV; f(E) is the probability of electron occupancy
at energy E. Note: ‘n’ is sometimes called ‘n0’ also to denote its value at Ev
KE of Hole
= Ev - E
equilibrium.
VB
E2

n   g ( E ) f ( E )dE
Electron concentration (per
Distance
vol.) in energy interval E1 to
E2 is then, E1

What is the expression of g(E) and what is f(E)??

Density (per vol.) of electron in CB

We know that the density of states i.e., the number of energy states per unit volume within
the energy interval E and E + dE is given by

Mass of electron should be replaced by effective mass here. Actually

4 3 1
motion of electron is influenced/affected by atomic array of crystal g ( E )dE  ( 2 m ) 2
E 2
dE
structure, other carriers inside the bulk crystal etc. when it moves
within the solid, unlike the case of electron’s motion in vacuum.
h3
Total effects (force) on the motion of electron can be represented in
terms of its mass, called effective mass which is different from its
4  2
3 1
rest mass. Effective mass may be higher or lesser than rest mass. It g ( E )dE  ( 2 m ) E 2
dE
is generally symbolized by superscript, star. So, h3

In case of CB, E starts at the bottom of the CB, Ec and DoS in

Energy

CB is generally symbolized by gc(E). So, DoS in CB can be

written as,

4  2
3 1
Ec
g c ( E ) dE  3
( 2 me ) ( E  E c ) 2
dE
h

4 3 1 Ev
 2
Similarly, g v ( E )dE  ( 2 mh ) ( E v  E ) 2
dE
h3

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Density (per vol.) of electron in CB contd…

1
f (E) 
E  EF
Probability of 1  exp( ) 1
kT
an Electron
For all possible temperatures E  E F  kT

f (E)
occupying an
1
energy state E f (E) 
E  EF
(Fermi-Dirac exp( ) 0
kT
distribution) is
E  EF E E
f ( E )  exp ( )  exp( F )
kT kT
top of the band

n0  g
Ec
c ( E ) f ( E ) dE Substituting g c(E) and f (E) w e get


4 3 1
EF  E
n0  h
Ec
3
( 2me ) 2 ( E  Ec ) 2 exp(
kT
) dE


4 3
( 2me ) 2  ( E  Ec ) 2 exp( E F  E ) dE
1
n0  3
h Ec kT


4 3
E 1
E
n0  3
( 2me ) 2 exp( F )  ( E  Ec ) 2 exp( ) dE..(1)
h kT Ec kT

Density (per vol.) of electron in CB contd…

let , E  Ec  x
E  Ec  x
dE  dx

4 3
EF 1
E

 2
Solution n0  3
( 2 me ) exp( ) ( E  Ec ) 2
exp( )dE
h kT 0 kT

4 3
E 1
E x
n0  3
(2me ) 2 exp( F )  ( x) 2 exp ( c )dx
h kT 0 kT

4 3
E  Ec 1
x
n0  3
(2me ) 2 exp( F )  ( x) 2 exp ( )dx.....(2)
h kT 0
kT
1
1
4 3
E  Ec 3
2
n0  3 ( 2me ) 2 exp( F
 1
x 3
2
As,  ( x ) exp(
2
kT
) dE  ( kT ) 2
2
) {(kT ) 2 }
0
h kT 2
2me kT 32
f rom ( 2)
E  Ec
n0  2 ( 2
) exp( F ).....(3)
h kT
E F  Ec 2me kT 32
Alternatively, n0  N c exp( ), where N c  2 ( )  Effective DoS in CB
kT h2

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Density (per vol.) of holes in VB

Let ‘dp’ be the Number of holes or Vacancies in the energy interval ‘E and E + dE’ in the
valence band

dp  g v ( E )dE {1  f ( E )} where, [1- f(E)] is the probability of

Ev existence of a hole and gv(E) stands for
p0   g ( E ){1  f ( E )}dE
v
bottom of the band
DoS at E in VB

4  2
3 1
Since Ev is the energy of the
Now, g v ( E )dE  3 (2mh ) ( Ev  E ) 2 dE top of the valence band
h
1 E  EF 1
1  f (E)  1  { }or[1  f ( E )]  1  {1  exp( )}
E  EF kT
1  exp( )
kT
neglecting higher order terms in above exp ansion for higher T values
E  EF
1  f ( E )  exp( )
kT

Density (per vol.) of hole in VB contd…

Ev
p0   g ( E ){1  F ( E )}dE
v
bottom of the band
Substituting gv(E) and
4 E  EF
Ev 3 1
[1-f(E)], expression for

 2
hole concentration p0  3
( 2 mh ) ( E v  E ) 2
exp( )dE

h kT
becomes as follows
4  EF v
3 E 1
E

 2
p0  3
( 2 mh ) exp( ) ( E v  E ) 2
exp( )dE
h kT  kT

Ev  E  x, so , E  Ev  x and dE   dx
4  EF
3 v E 1
E
p0  3
( 2mh ) 2 exp( )  ( Ev  E ) 2 exp( ) dE
h kT   kT
Solution
4  EF E x
3 1 0
p0  3
( 2mh ) 2 exp( )  ( x ) 2 exp( v )( dx)
h kT  kT

4

3
E  EF 1
x
p0  3
( 2mh ) 2 exp( v )  ( x ) 2 exp( ) dx...(4)
h kT 0
kT

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Density (per vol.) of hole in VB contd…

1

1
2 4 3
E  EF 3
2
x
p0  3 (2mh ) 2 exp( v
1 3
As,  ( x ) exp(
2
) dE  ( kT ) 2 )(kT ) 2
kT 2
0
h kT 2
2mh kT 2

E  EF
f rom ( 4) 3
p0  2( ) exp( v )...(5)
h2 kT
Ev  E F 2mh kT 32
Alternatively, p0  N v exp( ), where N v  2 ( )  Effective DoS in VB
kT h2

In intrinsic Semiconductors n0 = p0, So, n0= p0 = n i (say), ni is

called intrinsic Carrier Concentration
ni2  n0 p0 , so, ni  n0 p0
2me kT 32 E F  Ec 2mh kT 32 E  EF
ni  {2 ( 2
) exp( )}{2 ( 2
) exp( v )}
h kT h kT
2kT 32   34 E  Ec
ni  2( 2
) (me mh ) exp( v )
h 2kT
2kT 3 3
 Eg  Eg
ni  2( 2 ) 2 (me mh ) 4 exp( )...(6) or ni  N c N v exp( )...(7)
h 2kT 2kT

Fermi level in intrinsic Semiconductors

In intrinsic semiconductors n 0  p 0
2me kT 32 E  Ec 2mh kT 32 E  EF
2( 2
) exp( F )  2( 2
) exp( v )
h kT h kT
2me kT 32 E F  Ec 2mh kT 32 E  EF
( 2
) exp( )  ( 2
) exp( v )
h kT h kT
2E m 3 E  Ec
exp( F )  ( h ) 2 exp( v )
kT me kT
2 EF 3 m E  Ec
taking logarithms on both sides,  log( h )  ( v )
kT 2 me kT
3kT m 3 E  Ec
EF  log( h ) 2  ( v )
4 me 2
In intrinsic semiconductor weknow that me  mh
Ev  Ec
EF  ( )
2
Thus the Fermi energy level EF is located in the middle of the forbidden band

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Fermi level in intrinsic Semiconductors

Conduction band
Ec

Ec
E
mh*  me*
Ef
Electron
energy
Ev

Valence band

Position

Temp. dependence of intrinsic carrier concentration

• In intrinsic
Semiconductors n0 = p0,
So, n0 = p0 = ni at
equilibrium
• As temp. is increased
number of broken bond
(also carriers) increases