q.

How have the formalists such as Eichenbaum and those influenced by them affected practice of
twentieth century literary study and criticism?

The formalist movement in literary criticism emerged in Russia in the early 20th century and was characterized by its emphasis on
the formal aspects of literary works, such as rhythm, meter, rhyme, metaphor, syntax, or narrative technique. The movement
was led by scholars such as Viktor Shklovsky, Boris Eichenbaum, Roman Jakobson, and Grigory Vinokur. Formalism rose to
prominence as a reaction against Romanticist theories of literature that centered on the artist and individual creative genius.
The formalists’ approach to literary study and criticism had a significant impact on the practice of twentieth-century literary study
and criticism. It shifted the focus from the author’s biography and intentions to the text itself . Formalism’s emphasis on form
over content influenced other critical movements such as New Criticism in the United States. The formalist approach also paved
the way for structuralism, post-structuralism, and deconstruction.

In summary, formalists such as Eichenbaum and those influenced by them have had a profound impact on twentieth-century
literary study and criticism by shifting the focus from the author’s biography and intentions to the text itself and emphasizing the
formal aspects of literary works.

q. What does Althusser mean by "reproduction of the conditions of production"?

Louis Althusser, a French Marxist philosopher, argued that the process of production of every social system
presupposes the process of the reproduction of the conditions of production . In other words, every social system
has to reproduce its conditions of production at the same time as it produces in order to exist. Althusser believed
that the reproduction of the productive forces is ensured by the wage system that pays a minimum amount to
the working class so that they may have to work every day and also may not raise in status. Wages are set not by
biological needs but by the historical minimum. According to Althusser, this process is carried out by what he
called “Ideological State Apparatuses” (ISAs), which include institutions such as schools, churches, and the media.
These ISAs are responsible for reproducing the dominant ideology of a society and ensuring that individuals
internalize it.

In summary, Althusser’s concept of “reproduction of the conditions of production” refers to the idea that every
social system has to reproduce its conditions of production at the same time as it produces in order to exist. This
process is carried out by ISAs, which reproduce the dominant ideology of a society and ensure that individuals
internalize it.

q. According to Elaine Showalter, gynocritics is the study of not only female as a gender status but
also the "internalized consciousness" of the female. Do you agree?

Elaine Showalter, an American literary critic, coined the term “gynocritics” in her essay “Toward a Feminist
Poetics” (1979). According to Showalter, gynocritics is a feminist literary criticism that focuses on the study of
women’s literature by creating a female framework for the analysis of women’s literature. It aims to go beyond
the established and prevalent dependency upon male literary culture and literature and to create a new tradition
of women’s literature, history, anthropology, linguistics, etc., that focuses on women’s internal experiences, their
sisterhood, and their subculture.

Showalter argues that gynocritics is not only the study of female as a gender status but also the “internalized
consciousness” of the female. She believes that gynocritics should focus on the study of women’s writing as a
distinct literary tradition and should examine how women writers have represented their own experiences and
how they have responded to male literary traditions.
In summary, I agree with Elaine Showalter that gynocritics is not only the study of female as a gender status but
also the “internalized consciousness” of the female. It is a feminist literary criticism that aims to create a new
tradition of women’s literature by focusing on women’s internal experiences, their sisterhood, and their
subculture.

q. According to Orientalism, knowledge about the East is generated not through actual facts, but
through imagined constructs. Elucidate with reference to Edward Said.
Orientalism is a term coined by Edward Said to describe the way the West constructs knowledge about the East
based on stereotypes, assumptions and fantasies. According to Said, Orientalism is not a neutral or objective
representation of reality, but a political and ideological project that serves the interests of colonialism and
imperialism. Orientalism creates a binary opposition between the West and the East, where the West is seen as
rational, civilized, modern and superior, while the East is seen as irrational, backward, exotic and inferior.
Orientalism also denies the diversity, complexity and agency of the Eastern peoples, cultures and histories, and
reduces them to a homogeneous and passive entity that can be dominated and exploited by the West. Said
argues that Orientalism is not only a discourse produced by scholars, artists and writers, but also a practice that
shapes the policies, institutions and relations between the West and the East. He calls for a critical awareness of
the power structures and interests behind Orientalism, and for a recognition of the voices and perspectives of the
Eastern subjects themselves.

q. Formalism as a Literary Theory.

Formalism is a literary theory that focuses on the intrinsic features of a text, such as its structure, style, language,
and symbolism, rather than its historical, social, or biographical context. Formalists argue that the meaning and
value of a text can be derived from its own formal elements, without reference to external factors. Formalism
emerged as a dominant mode of literary criticism in the early twentieth century, influenced by the Russian
Formalists and the New Critics. Some examples of formalist texts are T.S. Eliot's The Waste Land, Vladimir
Nabokov's Lolita, and James Joyce's Ulysses, which demonstrate how form and technique can shape the meaning
and impact of a text. Formalism has been challenged by various schools of criticism, such as Marxism, feminism,
postcolonialism, and poststructuralism, that emphasize the importance of considering the cultural, ideological,
and political implications of a text. However, formalism still has contemporary relevance as a way of analyzing
how a text creates its effects and communicates its themes through its form. Formalism can also help readers
appreciate the aesthetic qualities and artistic craftsmanship of a text, regardless of its historical or social context.

Formalism is a literary theory that emphasizes the structures of text, such as grammar, syntax, signs, literary
tropes, etc., and reduces the importance of a text’s historical, biographical, and cultural context. Formalism is
based on an analysis of a text rather than a discussion on issues more distant to the text. It is divided into two
branches: Russian Formalism and New Criticism.

Formalism has contemporary relevance in literary studies. It has influenced other critical movements such as
structuralism, post-structuralism, and deconstruction. Formalist approaches have been used to analyze various
forms of media, including film, television, and video games. Formalist approaches have also been used to analyze
digital literature and hypertext fiction. In summary, formalism as a literary theory has contemporary relevance in
literary studies. It has influenced other critical movements and has been used to analyze various forms of media.
q. What is the contribution of Edward Said to the Postcolonial Theory?

Edward Said was a Palestinian-American literary theorist and cultural critic who made significant contributions to
the field of postcolonial theory. In his seminal work “Orientalism” (1978), Said argued that the West has
historically constructed a false image of the East as primitive and inferior, which has been used to justify
colonialism and imperialism. He believed that the consequences of colonialism are still present in the form of
chaos, coups, corruption, civil wars, and bloodshed in many ex-colonies. Said’s work has been influential in the
development of postcolonial theory, which seeks to understand the effects of colonialism on societies and
cultures around the world.

Said’s contribution to postcolonial theory is his concept of “orientalism,” which refers to the way in which
Western scholars have constructed a representation of an idea of an East that was not the West and conversely
of a West that was not the East. He believed that this discourse of orientalism was used to justify colonialism and
imperialism by creating a false image of the East as primitive and inferior. Said’s work has been influential in
shaping postcolonial theory by exposing the dependence of colonial power on colonial knowledge .

In summary, Edward Said’s contribution to postcolonial theory is his concept of “orientalism,” which refers to the
way in which Western scholars have constructed a representation of an idea of an East that was not the West and
conversely of a West that was not the East. His work has been influential in shaping postcolonial theory by
exposing the dependence of colonial power on colonial knowledge.

q. What is the relation between Eurocentralism and Orientalism?

Eurocentrism and Orientalism are two concepts that are closely related. Eurocentrism refers to the idea that
European culture is superior to other cultures and that European values should be the standard by which other
cultures are judged. Orientalism, on the other hand, refers to the way in which Western scholars have
constructed a representation of an idea of an East that was not the West and conversely of a West that was not
the East. Orientalism is a form of Eurocentrism because it assumes the superiority of European cultural values
over those of non-European societies.

Orientalism is a product of Eurocentrism because it is based on the assumption that Western culture is superior
to non-Western cultures. It is a way of looking at the world that is based on a set of assumptions about what is
“normal” and what is “other”. Orientalism has been used to justify colonialism and imperialism by creating a false
image of the East as primitive and inferior.

In summary, Eurocentrism and Orientalism are closely related concepts. Orientalism is a product of Eurocentrism
because it assumes the superiority of European cultural values over those of non-European societies. It has been
used to justify colonialism and imperialism by creating a false image of the East as primitive and inferior.

q. Difference between gynocriticism and feminism?

Feminism and gynocriticism are two different approaches to literary criticism. Feminist literary criticism is
distinguished from gynocriticism because feminist literary criticism may also analyze and deconstruct literary
works of men. Gynocriticism, or gynocritics, refers to the literary study of women as writers. It is a critical practice
exploring and recording female creativity. Gynocritics are primarily engaged in identifying distinctly feminine
material within the literature written by women, uncovering the history of female literary tradition, and depicting
that there’s a female mode of experience and subjectivity in thinking and perceiving the self and therefore the
world.In summary, the essential difference between feminism and gynocriticism is that feminist literary criticism
may also analyze and deconstruct literary works of men, while gynocriticism refers to the literary study of women
as writers.

q.