Brain computer interfaces (BCIs) are devices that enable direct communication between the brain and

external devices, such as computers, robots, or prosthetics. BCIs can be used for various purposes,
such as restoring lost functions, enhancing abilities, or exploring new possibilities. In this essay, I will
discuss the history, types, applications, challenges, and future of BCIs.

The history of BCIs can be traced back to the discovery of the electrical activity of the human brain by
Hans Berger in 1924. He was the first to record and analyze brain waves using
electroencephalography (EEG) ¹. In 1973, Jacques Vidal coined the term brain–computer interface and
proposed a system that could use EEG signals to control a cursor on a screen ². Since then, many
researchers have developed and improved various BCI systems using different methods and
technologies.

The types of BCIs can be classified based on how they acquire and process brain signals. The most
common classification is based on the invasiveness of the electrodes that measure the brain activity.
Non-invasive BCIs use electrodes that are attached to the scalp or worn as a cap or helmet. They are
easy to use, safe, and affordable, but they have low spatial resolution and are susceptible to noise
and artifacts. Examples of non-invasive BCIs are EEG, magnetoencephalography (MEG), and functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) ³. Partially invasive BCIs use electrodes that are implanted under
the skull but above the brain tissue. They have higher spatial resolution and signal quality than non-
invasive BCIs, but they still have some risks of infection and inflammation. Examples of partially
invasive BCIs are electrocorticography (ECoG) and endovascular electrodes ³. Invasive BCIs use
electrodes that are inserted into the brain tissue. They have the highest spatial resolution and signal
quality, but they also have the highest risks of damage, rejection, and infection. Examples of invasive
BCIs are microelectrode arrays and optogenetics ³.

The applications of BCIs can be divided into two categories: medical and non-medical. Medical
applications aim to restore or improve the functions or quality of life of people with disabilities or
diseases. For example, BCIs can be used to control prosthetic limbs, wheelchairs, exoskeletons, or
neurostimulators for people with paralysis, amputation, or spinal cord injury . BCIs can also be used to
monitor or treat neurological disorders, such as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, or
depression . Non-medical applications aim to enhance or explore the abilities or experiences of
healthy people. For example, BCIs can be used for entertainment and gaming, education and learning,
neuromarketing and neurofeedback, or neuroenhancement and neuroethics .

The challenges of BCIs are mainly related to the technical, ethical, and social aspects of their
development and use. Technical challenges include improving the accuracy, reliability, usability, safety,
and compatibility of BCI systems . Ethical challenges include ensuring the privacy, security, consent,
autonomy, responsibility, and dignity of BCI users . Social challenges include addressing the stigma,
discrimination, accessibility, affordability, and regulation of BCI technologies .

The future of BCIs is promising but uncertain. On one hand, BCIs have the potential to revolutionize
many fields and domains of human activity and interaction. On the other hand, BCIs also pose many
risks and uncertainties that need to be carefully considered and addressed. Some possible scenarios
for the future of BCIs are:

- Brain-to-brain communication: BCIs could enable direct transmission of thoughts, emotions, or

sensations between two or more brains without using any external devices or languages .

- Brain-to-cloud interface: BCIs could enable direct access to online information or services by
connecting the brain to the internet or cloud computing platforms .

- Brain-to-artificial intelligence interface: BCIs could enable direct collaboration or competition

between human intelligence and artificial intelligence by connecting the brain to intelligent machines
or systems .

- Brain-to-gene interface: BCIs could enable direct manipulation or modification of genetic material by
connecting the brain to gene editing tools or techniques .

In conclusion, BCIs are fascinating and powerful devices that can bridge the gap between the brain
and the external world. They have a long history of research and development that has led to various
types and applications. However, they also face many challenges that need to be overcome or
addressed before they can reach their full potential. The future of BCIs is bright but also complex and
unpredictable. Therefore, it is important to keep an open mind and a critical eye when exploring the
possibilities and implications of this emerging technology..

Source: Conversation with Bing, 10/26/2023

(1) Brain–computer interface - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain

%E2%80%93computer_interface.

(2) Brain–computer interface: trend, challenges, and threats.

https://braininformatics.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40708-023-00199-3.

(3) Brain Computer Interface | Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/brain-

computer-interface.

(4) Getty Images. https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/experiment-with-brain-computer-

interface-in-royalty-free-image/538431566.
the history of BCIs and how they developed. Here is a summary of the main events and milestones in
the field of BCIs:

- In 1924, Hans Berger discovered the electrical activity of the human brain and developed
electroencephalography (EEG), which is the measurement of brain waves using electrodes attached to
the scalp ¹².

- In 1973, Jacques Vidal coined the term brain-computer interface and proposed a system that could
use EEG signals to control a cursor on a screen ¹². He also conducted the first online experiments with
human subjects using EEG-based BCIs ⁴.

- In 1988, Farwell and Donchin developed a BCI system that used the P300 event-related potential to
spell words on a screen ⁴. This system was later improved by Wolpaw and colleagues, who also
developed a BCI system that used sensorimotor rhythms to control a cursor ⁴.

- In 1999, Kennedy and colleagues implanted the first neurotrophic electrode into the brain of a
paralyzed patient, who was able to communicate by producing vowel sounds using a speech
synthesizer controlled by his neural activity ⁴.

- In 2002, Nicolelis and colleagues demonstrated that monkeys could control a robotic arm using an
invasive BCI based on microelectrode arrays implanted in their motor cortex ⁴. They also showed that
monkeys could use feedback from the robotic arm to adjust their neural activity ⁴.

- In 2006, Hochberg and colleagues reported the first human use of an invasive BCI based on
microelectrode arrays implanted in the motor cortex. The patient was able to control a computer
cursor and a robotic arm using his neural activity ⁴.

- In 2011, Collinger and colleagues reported the first human use of an invasive BCI based on
microelectrode arrays implanted in the sensory cortex. The patient was able to feel tactile sensations
from a robotic hand using electrical stimulation of his neural activity ⁴.

- In 2013, Grau and colleagues demonstrated the first brain-to-brain communication using non-
invasive BCIs based on EEG and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). They were able to transmit
binary information between two human subjects located in different countries ⁴.

- In 2016, Rao and colleagues demonstrated the first brain-to-brain collaboration using non-invasive
BCIs based on EEG and TMS. They were able to solve a cooperative task between two human subjects
located in different buildings ⁴.

- In 2019, Stocco and colleagues demonstrated the first brain-to-brain network using non-invasive
BCIs based on EEG and TMS. They were able to connect three human subjects in a distributed
network and perform a collective task ⁴.

These are some of the most significant achievements in the history of BCIs, but there are many more
that I have not mentioned. BCIs have progressed rapidly and brought with them a plethora of
applications, such as restoring lost functions, enhancing abilities, or exploring new possibilities.
However, they also face many challenges, such as improving the accuracy, reliability, usability, safety,
and compatibility of BCI systems, as well as ensuring the privacy, security, consent, autonomy,
responsibility, and dignity of BCI users. The future of BCIs is promising but uncertain, and it will
depend on how we use this technology for good or evil.
Source: Conversation with Bing, 10/26/2023

(1) The history of Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) - Timeline - RoboticsBiz.

https://roboticsbiz.com/the-history-of-brain-computer-interfaces-bcis-timeline/.

(2) Brain–computer interface - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain

%E2%80%93computer_interface.

(3) 15 Years of Frontiers in Human Neuroscience: The History of Brain ....

https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/53804/15-years-of-frontiers-in-human-neuroscience-
the-history-of-brain-computer-interfaces.

(4) Building Cost Information Service - Wikipedia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_Cost_Information_Service.
how does BCIs work ?

BCIs are devices that enable direct communication between the brain and external devices, such as
computers, robots, or prosthetics. BCIs work in three main steps:

- Collecting brain signals: BCIs use electrodes to measure the electrical activity of the brain. The
electrodes can be attached to the scalp (non-invasive), implanted under the skull (partially invasive),
or inserted into the brain tissue (invasive) ¹.

- Interpreting brain signals: BCIs use algorithms to decode the brain signals and extract meaningful
information from them. The algorithms can be based on different features of the brain signals, such
as frequency, amplitude, or pattern ³.

- Outputting commands: BCIs use the interpreted brain signals to control a connected device
according to the user's intention. The device can be a computer, a robot, a prosthetic limb, or a
stimulator ⁴.

For example, a BCI system could allow a paralyzed person to control a wheelchair by thinking about
moving left or right. The BCI would collect the brain signals from the person's motor cortex, interpret
them as left or right commands, and output them to the wheelchair's motor ⁵.

BCIs have many potential applications, such as restoring lost functions, enhancing abilities, or
exploring new possibilities. However, they also face many challenges, such as improving the accuracy,
reliability, usability, safety, and compatibility of BCI systems, as well as ensuring the privacy, security,
consent, autonomy, responsibility, and dignity of BCI users ¹. The future of BCIs is promising but
uncertain, and it will depend on how we use this technology for good or evil.

Source: Conversation with Bing, 10/26/2023

(1) How Brain-Computer Interfaces Work | HowStuffWorks.

https://computer.howstuffworks.com/brain-computer-interface.htm.

(2) Intro to Brain Computer Interface - NeurotechEDU. http://learn.neurotechedu.com/introtobci/.

(3) The Introductory Guide to BCI (Brain-Computer Interface) - EMOTIV. https://www.emotiv.com/bci-

guide/.

(4) How Does Brain-Computer Interface Work - Explore Biotech. https://explorebiotech.com/how-

does-brain-computer-interface-work/.

(5) Brain-Computer Interface: How Implant Works, Risks, Benefits - Insider.

https://www.insider.com/brain-computer-interface-what-is-it-how-does-it-work-2022-9.