CUME 504 - Tutorial and Answer Worksheet 2019

1) Define the term robotics. Discuss the role of robots in engineering. [6]
(ii)A programmable machine consisting of mechanical, electronic and electrical units resembling living
creatures in being capable of moving independently. It is designed to execute one or more tasks
automatically with speed and precision.
(iii) Most robots today are used to do repetitive actions or jobs considered too dangerous for humans. In
engineering an industrial robot is a robot system used for manufacturing. Typical applications of robots
include welding, painting, assembly, pick and place for printed circuit boards, packaging and
labelling, palletizing, product inspection, and testing; all accomplished with high endurance, speed, and
precision. They are usually found in the automotive industry and electronics were high accuracy is required.
However, Robots are blamed for rising technological unemployment as they replace workers in increasing
numbers of functions. The use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot
autonomy and potential repercussions have been addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the
future. For now, the industry has gained so much from the use of robots.

2) a) Discus the software elements of robots and different teaching methods of robot.[10]
The software elements include the knowledge base of the design and operation of robotics systems
they include:
 Dynamic system modelling and analysis- Formulating mathematical models for mechanical,
electrical, fluid, and combined systems; numerical solution of motion sing softwares like MATLAB
Simulink to determine the transfer function.
 Feedback control- which enables the system to adjust its performance to meet a desired output
response
 Sensors and signal conditioning- Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering,
converting, range matching, isolation and any other processes required to make sensor output
suitable for processing after conditioning. MATLAB, GNU and Octave.
 Actuators and power electronics- Different types of electric actuators have versions for various
power configurations and come in many styles and sizes depending on the application. So, there is
need to size the power components using softwares like PROTEUS
 Hardware and computer interfacing- There are 5 types of interfacing including command line.
Graphical user interface (GUI)menu driven, Form based, natural language and those can be achieved
through programming
 Computer programming- Computer programming is the process of writing instructions that get
executed by computers but in the case of robots it is the use programming of the microcontroller that
gives commands to the robotic sensors and actuators.
Different teaching methods of a robot
1. Teaching Pendant

The most popular method of robot programming is probably the teach pendant. According to the British
Automation and Robot Association, over 90% of robots are programmed using this method. The robot
teaching pendant has changed a lot throughout its lifetime, but often consists of, what looks like, a giant
handheld calculator. Early pendants were large, grey boxes with magnetic tape storage. The modern teach
pendants are more like a touchscreen tablet, as the technology has developed to suit the ever-evolving users.
To program the robot, the operator moves it from point-to-point, using the buttons on the pendant to move it
around and save each position individually. When the whole program has been learned, the robot can play
back the points at full speed.

Advantages of a Teaching Pendant

 Most traditional industrial robots come with a teach pendant, which makes them familiar to
technicians.

 They allow precise positioning, as the robot can be programmed using numerical coordinates, in
either world coordinates, robot coordinates or another coordinate system.

 Teach pendants are great for simple movements, such as painting in a straight line or over a large flat
surface.

Disadvantages of a Teaching Pendant

 Disruptive to the whole system due to robot downtime. The robot must be put into "teach mode" and
all operations using the robot halted until it has been programmed.

 Requires training to learn and program.

 Might be difficult for skilled craftspeople who are unfamiliar with programming.

2. Simulation/Offline Programming
Offline programming, or simulation, is most often used in robotics research to ensure that advanced control
algorithms are operating correctly before moving them onto a real robot. However, it is also used in industry
to reduce downtime and improve efficiency. It can be a particularly useful method for SMEs, as robots are
more likely to be reconfigured multiple times than they are in mass production environments. Programming
offline means that this does not interfere with production too much. Offline programming allows the robot to
be programmed using a virtual mockup of the robot and task. If the simulation software is intuitive to use,
this can be a quick way to test an idea before moving it to the robot.

Some modern simulation packages are quite straightforward to use. This video shows the RoboDK software
with two robots performing pick and place from a conveyor belt. The simulation can be set up within a
matter of minutes, once you are familiar with the software, using a library of common robots and objects.

Some simulators also allow you to enter a CAD part and the system will automatically generate the robot
trajectories. This can improve the efficiency of programming even further.

Advantages of Offline Programming

 Reduces downtime required for robot programming. Programs are developed offline, so the robot
only has to be halted while the new program is being downloaded and tested.

 Can be quite intuitive, especially if the robot can be moved around in a 3D CAD environment with
drag and drop techniques.

 Easy to test many different approaches to the same problem, which would be inefficient for online
programming methods.

Disadvantages of Offline Programming

 Virtual models will (probably) never be able to represent the real world with 100% accuracy.
Programs may still need to be altered after they are applied to the real robot.

 Might take longer overall. Although offline programming reduces the downtime of the robot, it
means that someone has to spend extra time developing the simulation, as well as testing it on the
robot.

 Can sometimes end up wasting time sorting out simulator issues instead of solving production
challenges. This could be related to the quality of the simulator.

3. Teaching by Demonstration

Teaching by demonstration (and more specific methods like Kinetic teaching) offers an intuitive addition to
the classic teach pendant. These methods involve moving the robot around, either by manipulation a force
sensor or a joystick attached to the robot wrist just above the end effector. As with the teach pendant, the
operator stores each position in the robot computer. Many collaborative robots have incorporated this
programming method into their robots, as it is easy for operators to get started immediately using the robot
with their applications.

Advantages of Teaching by Demonstration

 Quicker than traditional teach pendants. It removes the need for multiple button pressing, allowing
the operator to simply move the robot to the desired position.

 More intuitive than both traditional teach pendants and simulation programs, as the task is
programmed in almost the same way a human operator would perform it. This makes it simple for
operators to learn. Generally, this method requires no knowledge of programming concepts or being
familiar with 3D CAD environments (as simulation does).

 Very good for detailed tasks which would require many lines of code to achieve the same effect,
such as welding or painting of intricate shapes.

Disadvantages of Teaching by Demonstration

 As with traditional a teach pendant, this method uses the physical robot for programming. This
means that it does not reduce downtime, as much as offline programming.

 Moving the robot to precise coordinates is not as straightforward as with the other methods. This is
especially true with some joystick-based systems, where there is no way of entering a numerical
value. Kinetic teaching combines these features by allowing for the entering of exact numerical
coordinates along with positioning-based coordinates.

 Not so good for tasks which are "algorithmic" in nature. For example, if a robot had to paint a flat
surface by moving horizontally along the surface, then move down an inch, move horizontally in the
opposite direction, etc. Moving the robot by hand would be arduous and inaccurate for such a task.

b) Discuss the need for dynamic stabilisation of a robot. [10]

 Dynamic stability is a measure of the ability of a robot to maintain its balance while in motion.
 A robot with two or three legs, or that rolls on two wheels, can have excellent stability while it is
moving, but when it comes to rest, it is unstable. A two-legged robot can be pushed over easily when
it is standing still. This is one of the major drawbacks of biped robots. It is difficult and costly to
 engineer a good sense of balance, of the sort you take for granted, into a two-legged or two-wheeled
machine, although it has been done.
 Robots with four or six legs have good dynamic stability, but they are usually slower in their
movements compared with machines that have fewer legs.

 In traditional legged robots, stability is maintained by having at least three contact points with the
ground surface at all time.
 With biped machines, only two points are in contact with the ground surface; for that reason
algorithms to achieve balance must be implemented.
 To solve the biped robot stability at walking, a simplified model of feet force sensors feedback can
be used as a controlling input which tries to maintain stability at walking.
 Even so the mechanical design goal is to ensure that the robot at walking will achieve dynamic
balance.
 Dynamic balance is partially provided by the control algorithm; however, the mechanics design plays
a very important role for the robot's ability to do the correct movements.
 A way to reach it, is finding a correct mass distribution for the robot, thus the robot will be able to
achieve the stability at walking.
 These movements can therefore be made rapidly without generating large moments which would
further destabilize the robot.
 To achieve this, the COM should be placed in a location low enough to stabilize the robot inertially,
but high enough so that it can be moved only small amounts to correct for undesired behaviour.
 The correct placing for the COM is the lower trunk, similar to humans. This provides for stability
and allows the trunk to be moved, shifting the COM to achieve desired accelerations to counteract
existing undesired accelerations.

3) What are the various methods for determining a desired trajectory joint? Discuss any one method in
brief. [15]

4) What are sensors used for in robotics? Explain. [5]

Answer 1
Basically, what a sensor does is takes a physical property and transfers it to an electrical signal. An example
of this is a temperature sensor takes the physical property "temperature" and converts it into a signal that the
robot can interpret. Sensors are important to robotics for two main reasons. First of all, they allow the robot
to become more autonomous because it can perceive its own environment and through programming it can
make decisions based on what it perceives. I Sensors are also important to robotics for remote operation,
because they give the remote users the ability to "see" what is going on and make decisions about what the
robot should do next.
Answer 2
a. Gather information from the surroundings and send it to the controller.
b. Robot sensors can only be used if the robot’s program asks for information from them!
c. Similarly, the robot can only act on information from the sensors if its program tells it to do
so.
d. The sensors send information through the wires (similar to the nervous system in the human
body) that connect them to the controller, which uses the information if its program requires
it.

b) what are the different type of sensors used in robotics [10]

• Resistive sensors-bend sensors, potentiometer, resistive photocells

• Tactile sensors-contact switch, bumpers…
• Infrared sensors -Reflective, proximity, distance sensors…
• Ultrasonic Distance Sensor
• Inertial Sensors (measure the second derivatives of position)-Accelerometer, Gyroscopes,
• Orientation Sensors-Compass, Inclinometer
• Laser range sensors-Vision, GPS, …
5) a) what are the advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic grippers? [6]
Advantages
 High efficiency and high power to size ratio.
 Complete and accurate control over speed position and direction of actuators are possible.
 No mechanical linkage is required i.e., a direct drive is obtained with mechanical simplicity.
 They generally have a greater load carrying capacity than electric and pneumatic actuators.
 Self-lubricating and non-corrosive.
 Hydraulic robots are more capable of withstanding shock loads than electric robots.
Disadvantages
 Leakages can occur causing a loss in performance and general contamination of the work area. There
is also a higher fire risk.
 The power pack can be noisy typically about 70 decibel or louder if not protected by an acoustic
muffler.
 Changes in temp alter the viscosity of hydraulic fluid. Thus, at low temperatures fluid viscosity will
increase possibly causing sluggish movement of the robot.

b) With the help of a sketch diagram, explain the principle and working of optical encoder.[8]

 Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are
widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts.
 The figure shows the construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with three
concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light
passing through the holes.
 These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the mechanical
element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted.
 The inner track has just one hole which is used locate the ‘home' position of the disc. The
holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer track by one-half of the width of
the hole.
 This arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in
clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise
direction they lag behind.
 The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one
revolution, the resolution would be,360°/100=3.6°.
6) What is inverse kinematic problem? Explain the solution to the inverse kinematics problem with
example. [10]
 Inverse kinematics is the mathematical process of recovering the movements of an object in the
world from some other data.
 In robotics, inverse kinematics makes use of the kinematics equations to determine the joint
parameters that provide a desired position for each of the robot's end-effectors.
 Specification of the movement of a robot so that its end-effectors achieve the desired tasks is known
as motion planning. Inverse kinematics transforms the motion plan into joint actuator trajectories for
the robot.
 An inverse kinematics problem is when there is information on the position of the end effector
only without information of the joint variables that have achieved that position.
 In other words, it answers the question: "given the desired position of a robot's hand, what should be
the angles of all the joints in the robot's body, to take the hand to that position?"
Example

7) In which type of production, robots are preferred for loading and unloading function? Explain.
[10]

8) Illustrate a robot gripper with a) cam operated b) gear operated c) lever (links) operated fingers
[15]
9) Define rotation transformation and explain how to represent the transformation for rotation of an angle
about x,y and z axis. [10]
10) Find the manipulator jacobian matrix J (q) of the two planner articulated robot. [6]
11) a) Explain the Langrange Euler formulation for robot arm.
b) differentiate clearly with reference to 2 – jointed manipulator of RR type and LL type
[10]
12) Explain the different types of actuators that can be used for the robot joints. [9]
Based on the source of Input Power actuators are classified in to three groups :
1. Pneumatic Actuators.
• These utilize pneumatic energy provided by the compressor and transforms it into
mechanical energy by means of pistons or turbines.
2. Hydraulic Actuators.
• These Transform the energy stored in reservoir into mechanical energy by means of
suitable pumps.
3. Electric Actuators.
 • Electric actuators are simply electro-mechanical devices which allow movement
through the use of an electrically controlled systems of gears

13) Classify robots illustrating their characteristics and applications. [12]

14) Explain the double axis rotation method to find out trajectory of end effect. [10]
15) a) Enumerate the difference between tactile and non tactile sensors.
Tactile sensors are sensitive to touch, force or pressure, and are made using light (optical), electricity or
magnetism. The stimulus-to-response pathways seen in electronic touch sensor operation mimics the human
body process that involves our skin, signal transmission via the nervous system, and brain.
A common application of tactile sensors is in touchscreen devices on mobile phones and computing. Tactile
sensors may be of different types including piezoresistive, piezoelectric, capacitive and elastoresistivity
sensors.
Non-Tactile Sensors for Robots and Planning of Sensor Application. Noncontact sensors are important
sensors for robots, in tasks involving trajectory modification, dimensional measurements, vehicle guidance
and error detection.

b) What are position sensors what are the different types of position sensors? What are the conditions
that determine the choice of a particular type of a position sensor. [10]
A position sensor is any device that permits position measurement. It can either be an absolute position
sensor or a relative one (displacement sensor). Position sensors can be linear, angular, or multi-axis. Some
position sensors available today: Capacitive transducer.
Types
 Potentiometric Position Sensor
 Capacitive Position Sensor
 Magneto strictive Position Sensor
 Eddy Current-Based Position Sensor
  Hall Effect-Based Magnetic Position Sensors
 Optical Position Sensor.
Consider what is being sensed: Are you striving to sense a process parameter (temperature pressure, flow),
an object’s presence, the distance to the target, or the position of a mechanism?
1. Consider what is being sensed: Are you striving to sense a process parameter (temperature pressure,
flow), an object’s presence, the distance to the target, or the position of a mechanism?
2. Environmental condition: Is the sensor suited for the environmental condition which it will inhabit?
What are the unique environmental conditions?
3. Range: What is the measurement limit of the sensor? Will the target sit within range?
4. Control interface: What type of controller interface and switching logic is required?
5. Resolution: What is the most granular increment detected by the sensor?
6. Composition of the target: What is the material composition of the substance that will be sensed? Is it
metal, is it plastic?
7. Repeatability: Is the variable sensed consistently measured under the same environment?
8. Form factor: How much physical space is available for the sensor and what form best fits the
application?
9. Special requirements: Newly added components might create new conditions to be considered. For
example, piezoelectric vibration transducers succeed at converting mechanical energy into electrical by
stressing a piezoelectric crystal. Its electrical energy output is a direct function of the transducer design and
the mechanical energy input. As a result, the crystal may need to be protected against vibrations exceeding
beyond a set threshold.
10. Hazardous environments require more than the sensor: Realize that sensors are but one segment of
the overall control system; connectors and cables like Class 1 Division 1 must also be accounted for

16) What is the function of a gripper? Discuss various types of grippers used in industrial robots
[8]
 Just like a hand, a gripper enables holding, tightening, handling and releasing of an object. A
gripper is just one component of an automated system. A gripper can be attached to a robot or it can
be part of a fixed automation system.
Vacuum Grippers
The vacuum gripper has been the standard EOAT in manufacturing because of its high level of flexibility.
This type of robot gripper uses a rubber or polyurethane suction cup to pick up items. Some vacuum
grippers use a closed-cell foam rubber layer, rather than suction cups, to complete the application.

Pneumatic Grippers
The pneumatic gripper is popular due to its compact size and light weight. It can easily be incorporated
into tight spaces, which can be helpful in the manufacturing industry. Pneumatic robot grippers can either
 be opened or closed, earning them the nickname “bang bang” actuators, because of the noise created when
the metal-on-metal gripper operates.

Hydraulic Grippers
The hydraulic gripper provides the most strength and is often used for applications that require significant
amounts of force. These robotic grippers generate their strength from pumps that can provide up to
2000psi. Although they are strong, hydraulic grippers are messier than other grippers due to the oil used in
the pumps. They also may need more maintenance due the gripper being damaged because of the force
used during the application.

Servo-Electric Grippers
The servo-electric gripper appears more and more in industrial settings, due to the fact that it is easy to
control. Electronic motors control the movement of the gripper jaws. These grippers are highly flexible and
allow for different material tolerances when handling parts. Servo-electric grippers are also cost effective
because they are clean and have no air lines.
17) Explain the different techniques for finding the inverse kinematics for any manipulator.
[5]
 Algebraic method
 Iterative method
 Jacobean invasion method
 Genetic programming
 Jacobean transpose method
 Optimisation based method

18) State characteristics of work which promote application of robots and discuss robot application in
painting. [10]
 Military Services: Military robots are some of the most high-tech and important robots used today.
These state-of-the-art machines save lives by performing extremely dangerous tasks without
endangering humans. Some common robots used by the military are Explosive Ordinance Disposal
(EOD) robots, which are capable of examining suspicious packages and surrounding areas to find
and even deactivate improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and mines.
 Car Production: Robots are used in the automobile industry to assist in building cars. These high-
powered machines have mechanical arms with tools, wheels and sensors that make them ideal for
assembly line jobs. Not only do robots save more money in manufacturing costs, but they also
perform tough tasks at a pace no human could possibly do. Robots also make car manufacturing
safer because they can take on dangerous and difficult jobs in place of humans. Automotive
industry robots are capable of performing a wide range of tasks such as installation, painting and
 welding, and aren’t restricted by fatigue or health risks, therefore making them an incredibly useful
and irreplaceable part of car production.
 Space Exploration: One of the most amazing areas of robotics is the use of robots in space. These
state-of-the-art machines give astronauts the chance to explore space in the most mind-boggling
ways. The most commonly used space robots are the Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) and the
Remote Manipulator System (RMS), which are both used in a variety of space missions. ROVs can
be unmanned spacecraft that orbit freely or land when it makes contact with an outer space surface
and explore the terrain. Both capture remarkable data and visual footage that would never be
humanly possible without the assistance of robots. RMS mechanical arms also help astronauts
perform very important and difficult tasks during space missions.
 Remote and Minimally-Invasive Surgery: Robot-assisted surgery has truly changed the face of
medicine by expanding surgeons’ capabilities in ways no human could. Surgical robots are directed
by human surgeons who use a computer console to move instruments attached to robot arms. The
surgeon’s movements are translated by a computer and then performed on the patient by the robot.
Today’s surgical robots are so advanced that it’s possible for surgeons to perform remote surgery
without physically being in the operating room or even in the same country! Robot-assisted surgery
has improved the limitations of minimally invasive surgery and has many advantages over traditional
open surgery, including greater precision, smaller incisions, less pain and decreased blood loss.
Surgical robots, such as the da Vinci Surgical System, are used for gynecologic, colorectal, prostate,
throat cancer surgeries, as well as bariatric surgery, angioplasty and bypass surgery.
 Underwater Exploration: Underwater robots have radically changed the way we see the world from
the ocean floor. Underwater robots can dive longer and deeper than any human, and they provide
an up-close look at marine life. These amazing machines are equipped with sensors, high-definition
cameras, wheels and other technology to assist scientists when they explore docks, ocean floors,
dams, ship bellies and other surfaces. The most common underwater robots used today are the
remote-operated vehicles (ROVs) that are controlled by humans sitting in the command center.
ROVs are connected by cable to ships and are the best tool for gathering data and images of life
under water.
 Duct Cleaning: Duct cleaning is done best by a robot that can actually fit into these hazardous and
tight spaces. Robots provide a more effective and efficient cleaning than manual brushes. It’s also
safer for industrial and institutional markets to use robots because workers are not exposed to
harmful chemicals or enzymes that come from dust mites. Duct cleaning robots are used in hospitals
and government buildings that may have hazardous or contaminated environments, as well as
embassies and prisons for a shorter and more secure cleaning. Using duct cleaning robots translates
to quicker, safer, cheaper and more effective duct cleanings without the need of a human.
 Investigating Hazardous Environments: Robots have become increasingly important for
investigating and researching hazardous and dangerous environments. These robots are capable of
 entering an active volcano to collect data or a burning building to search for victims. Robots such as
the Scout Throwable Robot are used by law enforcement agencies and fire departments to help find
information about people stuck inside a building, and even have the ability to detect grenades or
explosives in the area. These unmanned robots also save lives because they prevent people from
having to enter the hazardous environment before they knowing what to expect.
So, in simpler words. Characteristics are:
a. Hazardous environments
b. Repetitive works
c. Difficult work
d. Tiresome work
e. Work that requires speed
f. Work that requires accuracy
Robot application in painting
To learn more about robotic automation, don't hesitate to give us a call.

1.) APPLY PAINT EVENLY

We program robots to apply industrial paint evenly to parts and equipment. Since robots are precise, they
don't leave behind drips or other imperfections. Instead, each piece of equipment is sprayed evenly with just
the right amount of paint for a flawless finish.

Industrial robots are able to recognize what areas to paint by using software, algorithms, sensors, and
cameras. By recognizing patterns, your robotic painting systems are able to paint with high accuracy and
comply with your specifications. Best of all, you'll be able to reduce waste by making sure each product
coming out of the painting assembly line is ready for the next step.

2.) SAVE FLOOR SPACE

A slim robotic arm can be installed on a wall, shelf, or rail. Our industrial painting robots can reach farther
than their predecessors, giving you more floor space in your factory. We understand that you have a limited
amount of space to put robots and industrial machinery. Fortunately, our industrial painting robots are able
to fit in tighter spaces because of their slim design.

3.) ACCESS AND PAINT MORE PARTS

A robotic arm is slim enough to reach more nooks and crannies. In the past, it would take time for a human
worker to cover every surface with paint. Today, industrial robots are programmed to recognize the edges of
equipment so they can apply an even spray without wasting paint.

4.) PROTECT HUMAN WORKERS

Many of the companies we work with say their employees are their best assets. Before implementing
automation technology, make sure your employees understand their new roles working alongside industrial
robots. While robots still require human supervision, they significantly reduce your team's risk of injury or
illness.

In the past, industrial paint exposed workers to carcinogens, iso-cyanides, and VOCs (Volatile Organic
Compounds). Fortunately, our automated paint systems are specifically designed for painting. Even if the
worse happens, robotic arms are built to survive explosions. The same can't be said of human arms, which is
why we highly recommend industrial painting robots. Robotic automation systems are also more precise
while painting, which means you'll end up needing to dispose of less hazardous waste.

5.) CUSTOMIZE AUTOMATION

Factory floors are busy with limited floor space, which is why we highly recommend industrial painting
robots. By using anti-collision software, we can create a team of industrial robots that work in close
proximity. This means that you don't have to worry about painting robots crashing into each other and
needing repair. When you add more than one industrial painting robot, you'll notice your productivity
drastically improve.

19) Define degrees of freedom and discuss the various degrees of freedom associated with the polar
coordinate robot arm and body. [8]
In robotics, the degree of freedom of a mechanical system is the number of independent parameters that
define its configuration the number of degrees of freedom is equal to the total number of independent
displacements or aspects of motion. A machine may operate in two or three dimensions but have more than
three degrees of freedom.

3-DOF POLAR ARM CONFIGURATION

 The polar arm configuration is shown in the fig It consists of a prismatic joint that can be raised or
lowered about a horizontal revolute joint. The two links are mounted on a rotating base.
 These various joints provide the capability of moving the arm endpoint within a partial spherical
space.
  Therefore, it is called as ―Spherical co-ordinate‖ configuration. This configuration allows
 manipulation of objects on the floor.
Disadvantages
 Low mechanical stiffness
 Complex construction
 Position accuracy decreases with the increasing radial stroke.
Applications: Machining, spray painting
Example: UNIMATE 2000 series, MAKER 110

20) a) List the advantages and disadvantages of offline programming. [5]

Advantages of Offline Programming

 Reduces downtime required for robot programming. Programs are developed offline, so the robot
only has to be halted while the new program is being downloaded and tested.

 Can be quite intuitive, especially if the robot can be moved around in a 3D CAD environment with
drag and drop techniques.

 Easy to test many different approaches to the same problem, which would be inefficient for online
programming methods.

Disadvantages of Offline Programming

 Virtual models will (probably) never be able to represent the real world with 100% accuracy.
Programs may still need to be altered after they are applied to the real robot.

 Might take longer overall. Although offline programming reduces the downtime of the robot, it
means that someone has to spend extra time developing the simulation, as well as testing it on the
robot.

 Can sometimes end up wasting time sorting out simulator issues instead of solving production
challenges. This could be related to the quality of the simulator.

21)

a) Obtain the joint torques of the two link joint in fig 22 given that l1=25cm, l2=15cm, θ1=450, θ2=300
and static forces at the end of link 2 are: Fx=25N and Fy=40N. [15]
 b) The first-link is motionless at an initial angle of 200. It is desired to move the joint in a smooth
manner to a final angle of 800 in 4 seconds. Find the coefficients of a cubic that accomplishes this
motion and brings the manipulator to rest at the goal. Plot the position, velocity, and acceleration of
the joint as a function of time. [15 marks]

22) Consider a five bar-link planar robot shown in figure below, Given that: link 1 = 4 units, link 2 = 5
units, link 3 = 2 units, link 4 = 3.5 units and the distance between joint 2 and joint 5 = 2 units, determine
the active joint variables given that the end effectors coordinate are (8:8).
[15]
 24 Explain the difference between Gray code and Binary code using relevant examples also stating the
importance of the difference. [5]

a) With aid of diagrams explain the directional control of DC motors using an H bridge. [5]

In general, an H-bridge is a rather simple circuit, containing four switching element, with the load at the
centre, in an H-like configuration:
  The basic operating mode of an H-bridge is fairly simple: if Q1 and Q4 are turned on, the left lead of
the motor will be connected to the power supply, while the right lead is connected to ground. Current
starts flowing through the motor which energizes the motor in (let’s say) the forward direction and
the motor shaft starts spinning.

 If Q2 and Q3 are turned on, the reverse will happen, the motor gets energized in the reverse
direction, and the shaft will start spinning backwards.

 In a bridge, you should never ever close both Q1 and Q2 (or Q3 and Q4) at the same time. If you did
that, you just have created a really low-resistance path between power and GND, effectively short-
circuiting your power supply. This condition is called ‘shoot-through’ and is an almost guaranteed
way to quickly destroy your bridge, or something else in your circuit.

b) A robot's control memory has 8-bit storage capacity. It has two rotational joints and one linear joint.
Determine the accuracy for each joint, if the linear link can vary its length from as short as 0.4 m to as
long as 1.2 m and the deviation is 0.05 for rotary joints and 0.03 for linear joint.
[15]

25) Obtain the joint angles of the dog’s legs, given the body position and orientation. [25]

Given CB = 20cm, AB = 25 cm, link 1 = 12cm, link 2 = 13cm, link 3 = 10cm,

link 4 = 14cm
26) Outline the steps that can be used to derive the Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameters for a two
degree of freedom robot. [15]