SPE-171079-MS

Flow Assurance Applied Research Proposal for Heavy Oil Crudes from
Green Offshore Naturally Fractured Reservoirs to Delivery Points
Rodolfo Camacho-Velázquez, SPE; A. Paulina Gómora-Figueroa, Miguel Cortés- Cortés, Víctor Pérez-Robles,
and Martín Velázquez-Franco, Pemex E&P

Copyright 2014, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Heavy and Extra Heavy Oil Conference - Latin America held in Medellin, Colombia, 24 –26 September 2014.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
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Abstract
This paper presents a research project proposal to ensure the optimum flow assurance for the development
of heavy crudes, from offshore reservoirs to delivey points, considering several field facilities, which
include optimum application and performance of chemicals to suppress or attenuate the precipitation of
organic and inorganic deposits, corrosion inhibitors, as well as the treatment of emulsions produced due
to the presence of formation water during production. The interaction between chemicals employed in
well stimulation treatments and those used for crude dehydration is also considered.
This proposal intends setting the basis to optimize flow assurance by minimizing the chemical dosage
in the production and transportation facilities, maximizing the useful life of the employed chemical
products. In order to achieve this goal it is necessary to include;
– Laboratory studies to characterize heavy oil, water and gas properties and the interactions between
the different fluids present, which allow evaluating the generation and stability of emulsions,
hidrocarbons stability, and corrosion index of water, for example.
– Evaluation of chemicals for flow assurance in the reservoir, lifting fluids in production wells,
including artificial lift systems, as well as surface transportation and treatment fluids, and the
interaction between these chemicals at different points during hydrocarbons production.
– Generation of reservoir, well completion, wellbore and surface transport models.
Pressure analyses show that production is dominated by high porosity vugs, and that the vertical
permeability of vuggy areas is relevant for fields sharing an aquifer due to water channeling and the
possible formation of emulsions inside the reservoir in the reion close to the producing wells.
The assessement of the aforedmentioned issues can lead to the control and/or prevention of emulsion
formation, solids deposition and corrosion. Besides, addressing each of these issues individually, it is
important to assess the influence of a mixture of several chemicals at the bottomhole and surface facilities,
providing useful information to anticipate and avoid additional complications derived from the application
of several chemicals to address flow assurance problems from the reservoir to the delivery points.
2 SPE-171079-MS

Table 1—Fields of heavy and extra-heavy oil divided in different development phases.

Introduction
In the South-East Gulf of Mexico there is a heavy crude development project that includes 18 fields. The
closest and the farthest fields to the coast are 130 and 145 km from the coast, respectively. The majority
of the wells drilled in this area are exploratory. Up to date, two types of reservoirs have been found, one
in the Cretaceous and another one in an oolitic bank of the upper Jurassic Kimmeridgian. In the
Cretaceous, the main productive formation is a brecchia, which is made up of fragments of mudstone-
wackestone, occasionally packstone with intercrystalline porosity, and secondary porosity in networks of
fractures and dissolution cavities (vugs). Although, the porosity in the matrix is low, the secondary
porosity is high due to diagenetic processes; especially vugular porosity is abundant, observing in some
cases dissolution caves.
These offshore fields have crude oil viscosities ranging from 42 to 1220 cP, with water depths of 100
to 681 m, and a high content of H2S, from 1.72 to 28.79% mol gas, and CO2, from 4.45 to 31% mol gas
(see Table 1).
From the 18 fields, the two closest to the coast exhibit lower water depths and higher API density (10.5
and 13 oAPI), and they will be developed during the first stage of the project (Phase 1). After Ref. 1
The A-1 well penetrated 160 m of the brecchia, in the Cretaceous, producing 4126 STB/d of 10.5°API
oil. In addition, for the A-DL1 well, the water-oil contact was determined in the Cretaceous at 4228 m
depth, using resistivity logs. While the T-1 well produced 13° API oil.
SPE-171079-MS 3

Figure 1—Reservoir viscosity vs. temperature behavior for different fields of heavy and extra-heavy oil, After Ref. 1

These heavy oil reservoirs are currently in their initial stage of development with oils in a density range
between 8 and 13° API. It is worth to mention that most of the fields in this project share a regional
aquifer.
The most significant factors involved in the production of heavy oils with artificial systems of
production (ESP) are the geological characteristics of the formation, scale deposits, well architecture
(vertical to horizontal), well completion (shoots, slotted linner), together with the oil characteristics, which
include temperature, pressure, API, viscosity, besides the presence of corrosive gases (e.g., CO2 and H2S),
and composition of connate water. The abovementioned factors are related to the precipitation of
asphaltenes and paraffins, the formation of emulsions, and corrosion problems2.
Given the complexity of components in these reservoirs, and the difficulties confronted during the
recovery of the crude oil is inevitable to employ of different chemical products to ensure and improve the
production as well as transport of crude oil from the well to the surface. Therefore it is extremely
important to establish an effective methodology, which allows undertaking the potential problems that
may arise in an efficient manner. Consecuently, it is necessary to carry out, first of all, the physicochem-
ical and rheological characterization of oil and the different species formed due to the resulting conditions
that imposes exploitation of heavy crude oil.
Heavy and extra-heavy oils are characterized by their high viscosity at reservoir conditions; see Fig.
1, so primary recovery of these crudes is generally low. That is, for heavy oil exhibiting a viscosity greater
than 100 cP, the primary recovery by solution-gas-drive will be around 7– 8% of the original volume of
oil.
Generally as oil is produced, the pressure decreases until the bubble pressure is reached, releasing
lighter components and dissolved gases (N2, H2S, CO2). This solution-gas-drive process supports the oil
recovery by the expansion of the released gas from oil. In the case of heavy oils, gas bubbles remain
dispersed in the oil phase for a long period of time, thus affecting viscosity and foaming properties of oil3.
The comprehension of this phenomenon in oil rate and recovery is of great interest in the oil industry4-5.
4 SPE-171079-MS

In heavy oil reservoirs, water and gas drives are not favorable, since the mobility of water and gas are
extremely high compared with the mobility of the oil, so displacement efficiency is poor. Additionally,
in many cases at least one aquifer is associated with the reservoir so the effect of the water properties in
the process of hydrocarbons production is of great importance.
In the presence of an aquifer underlying the heavy oil reservoir, critical rate and water irruption time
are irrelevant since critical rates are very low for both vertical and horizontal wells, and as a result, the
irruption of water is fast (often a few weeks or months), especially if there are channels of high
connectivity of the reservoir with the aquifer such as networks of fractures or vugs or even both. In these
reservoirs, an important aspect to assess is the evolution of the water cut after the irruption and determine
the influence of the main parameters on the recovery of reserves as: the length of horizontal wells,
production rate, water/oil ratio mobilities, spacing between wells, reservoir thickness, and permeability
anisotropy. This evaluation is carried out to the economic limit usually defined by a minimum oil rate or
a maximum water rate.
During the production process, the fluid is subject to diverse shear rates, which combined with heat,
pressure, and chemicals, present in water or oil, may result in the formation of emulsions. The viscosity
effects exhibited by emulsions tend to be complicated due to its variable composition, average drop size
and its distribution within the emulsion, and viscosities of each phase. Thus, measurements of viscosity
in a wide range of temperature and shear conditions are necessary. As temperature grows, the viscosity
decreases exponentially6-7.
Previously, it has been reported in the literature the blocking of the porous medium by the presence of
emulsions in the vicinity of producing wells in clastic reservoirs8-9; however, the presence of emulsions
in naturally fractured reservoirs (NFR), including the presence of vugs (NFVR), has not been reported
until now. The generation of emulsions within the reservoirs represents a significant problem since large
reserves of heavy oil are related to NFR and NFVR, which normally present associated aquifers. Also, the
connectivity of the network of fractures and vugs might impose suitable mixing scenarios for the
formation of emulsions, especially in the vicinity of the producing wells.
Emulsions can be generated at many locations of the production system such as in the wellbore region,
within the well, surface facilities, transportation and refining. Therefore, it is important to comprehend the
properties of the formed emulsions to control or inhibit their formation, so as to improve the recovery and
production processes. Despite the large number of studies on this subject, there are still many uncertainties
related to the generation and the behaviour of emulsions derived from hydrocarbons production10.
It is known that the deposition of paraffin and asphaltenes increases as the hydrocarbons production
progresses. The asphaltenes are complex aromatic compounds that are almost always associated with
paraffins along the production system. These compounds are characterized by their high molecular weight
and their solubility in solvents such toluene or xylene. Under reservoir conditions, resins and maltenes in
the oil act as natural dispersants of asphaltenes; however, up to date it is not well understood how these
components stabilize/interact with the asphaltenes to avoid their precipitation11.
An alternative to prevent the organic scale deposition in the production system is by using diluents such
as light oil, kerosene or naphtha (47° API), which are injected through a capillary pipe to the bottom-hole
and mixed with heavy oil to act as asphaltenes dispersants and reduce oil viscosity. Subsequently, the
diluted mixture is raised to the surface by an electro-centrifugal pump (ESP). Note ESPs are not suitable
for lifting oil with high viscosity, hence it is common to use these type of pumps to lift cold production
of diluted fluid with reduced viscosity after injection of solvents.
All the abovementioned, combined with the presence of connate water and the potential generation of
emulsions, together with the deposition of inorganic scales, and the corrosion by-products obtained due
to the reaction between gas (H2S, CO2) and water, represent a major challenge for the development
offshore-heavy oil projects. For example, so far it is not completely understood the relationship between
asphaltenes deposits and corrosion; however, it is considered that corrosion may promote the aggregation
SPE-171079-MS 5

of asphaltenes. Thus, the prevention and control of corrosion through the application of chemical additives
may be useful for preventing asphaltene deposits. In this regard, the prevention and study of asphaltene
deposits should be considered as an open area for research and technological development12.
Flow assurance strategies are an integral part of production operations that incorporate a wide range of
techniques to optimize production. The purpose of this proposal is to set the basis for optimizing the flow
assurance, minimizing the dosage of chemical compounds in the production facilities and maximizing the
useful life of chemical treatments. Note that it is also important to consider and assess the potential
interaction between various chemicals used for the diverse treatments during the different stages of oil
production and processing. In this regard, the development and production of heavy and extra-heavy oil
offshore fields represents a major challenge to guarantee flow assurance, this proposal presents a research
project for laboratory assessment, pilot testing and implementing the optimum design of flow assurance
for heavy crudes from green offshore reservoirs to delivery points, considering the whole production
system of several fields. Therefore, research and development, of different chemical products is required
in order to suppress or attenuate the problematic displayed in this paper.

Background
Heavy crude oil is characterized by diverse properties such its boiling point (above 350 °C) and its API
density, which normally is less than 20. Molecules containinig long carbon chains (C30⫹) constitute this
type of oil, presenting structural variety and, thus, complexity, in addition to the high content of polar
species (e.g. asphaltenes and resins). All the characteristics described result in the increment in the boiling
point, molecular weight, density, viscosity, as well as the refractive index. The rheological response of a
heavy crude oil depends strongly on the physical and chemical characteristics like strength of particle
interactions, volume fraction, size and shape of the particles, among others12-13.
In the cases where asphaltene and paraffin deposits are formed, the most common method to attack
such deposits involves the use of xylene or kerosene, which have been quite successful for dissolving the
organic deposits, however, since these solvents are expensive this method it is not always accessible.
Consequently, the application of this method is reserved for cases where the methods of hot oil and water
are not successful14.
Another approach, to attack the formation of organic deposits is by the introduction of paraffin crystals
modifiers, which often affect the estabilization of asphaltenes in solution/oil, leading to their precipitation.
On the contrary, the use of asphaltene dispersants distresses the paraffin solubility, resulting in precipi-
tation issues12.
On the other hand, variable fluid shear rates may cause the deposit of paraffins and asphaltenes in the
formation, wellbore, superficial lines, treatment ships, and storage tanks. In addition, discontinuous
surfaces act as points of formation for paraffin crystals and asphaltene deposits. Furthermore, asphaltenes
shown to be shear-stress sensitive, thus it is necessary to minimize the turbulence in the production and
transportation lines in order to avoid the generation of asphaltene aggregates. For instance, sudden
expansions in lines and a large number of valves should be avoided, since they enhance turbulence to the
fluid, hence the deposition of asphaltenes. Inherently, ESPs produce plenteous turbulence, leading to the
formation of asphaltene deposits and emulsions. During hydrocarbons production, these are disturbed, as
with the use of ESP, maltens and resins are destabilized due to shear stress and shear rates, as well as
electrostatic interactions, resulting in the formation of asphaltene aggregates and precipitates. If in the
production process, the flow rate is too low, the likelihood of paraffin deposit increases. On the contrary,
if the speed of the fluid is too high, the probability of asphaltenes deposit is increased13,15. Additionally,
it is recommended to apply chemicals upstream, thus it is necessary to use capillary tubing to inject these
chemicals at the bottom of the well.
6 SPE-171079-MS

Some aspects to consider in the process of de-asphaltening and solvents to be used are the thermal
behavior of heavy oils, the response of pressure-viscosity as well as the influence of resins11,16.
Asphaltene precipitation is favored by the use of n-alkanes.
Asphaltene deposits may be formed in chokes, on the vacuum side of pumps, storage tanks, and the
well tubing. The molecular weight of the asphaltene and its great dispersion through the crude determine
the oil viscosity. Since asphaltene viscosity is high, there are difficulties associated with its deposit,
production rate and pumping power, which have a considerable impact on the production of hydrocar-
bons11,13,16.
Other types of solid deposits formed along the production system are inorganic scales, which may lead
to the obstruction of the production lines. Depending on several factors, such the rock type and the
composition of connate water, it is possible to observe different sorts of inorganic scales (e.g. CaCO3,
CaSO4, BaSO4, SrSO4). These deposits may be in the reservoir, the production tubing, or surface
facilities. The problems associated with scale deposits include the formation damage, blockage in
perforations or gravel packs, constrained/blocked flow lines, safety valves, chokes, and pump failure and
corrosion issues. As a consequenece and depending on the severity of the scale deposition, the mechanism
to remove such scales may vary from chemical treatment to mechanical removal. For instance, in the case
of calcium carbonate scale (CaCO3), the method commonly used to remove this scale is by addition of
hydrochloric acid (HCl). Since the geology of these heavy oil reservoirs are constituted by carbonates, it
is expected to observe the formation of CaCO3 in the production lines during the increment of water ratio.
The application of hydrochloric acid to remove deposits of inorganic salts, in wells containing asphaltenes
results in coagulation of these aggregates, therefore it is of great importance to carefully select the best
chemical method in order to avoid the generation of additional problems. Since the geology of several
heavy oil reservoirs are formed by carbonates, these are often subject to acid stimulation, resulting in the
formation of asphaltene deposits in the porous medium17-19.
It is a common practice at offshore fields to combine stimulation treatments with scale inhibitors, which
might result in severe reservoir damage due to chemical-rock-brine incompatibility during the stimulation
treatment at low pH environments. Thus it is required chemical compatibility between scale inhibitors and
the overflow brines with the rock and fluids in the formation. The basic mechanisms of interaction
between the aforementioned chemicals and the reservoir components are adsorption-desorption and
precipitation-dissolution. For instance, in dolomitic reservoirs, the dissolution of calcium and magnesium
carbonates lead to an increment of water pH, along with a concentration raise of Ca and Mg ions in water.
Squeeze treatments must be developed based on laboratory tests and the generated data should be used to
determine the best chemicals and conditions to be applied for each proposed system. In addition, it is
necessary to asses the performance of these chemicals under different parameters, including compatibility
between these and other chemicals, (injected throw the line up to tank conditions), as well as the influence
of pH on inhibitors chemistry, inhibitor return profile, inihibitor dosage, and impact on produced brine
composition. There are different methods to predict scale formation index of water samples, which turn
to be useful tools to determine the source of the scales precipitation and it is helpful in the screening
criteria of different inhibitors20-22. Some models have the ability to predict the squeeze behavior for some
years23-24.
In a mature field close to the heavy oil fields, objective of this work, a great portion of production
maintenance is based on stimulation treatments and gas conformance. These treatments, commonly based
on sea water, are flushed into the reservoir to improve well productivity index. Once these chemicals and
their reactions byproducts are sweeped away and recuperated on the surface it is usually found a variety
of minerals and salt species, such iron carbide (Fe3C), pyrite (FeS2), calcite (CaCO3), halite (NaCl),
siderite (FeCO3), anhydrite (CaSO4), gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O). The aforementioned species affect the
efficiency of crude oil stabilization and dehydration process since these byproducts form precipitates that
alter the separation stage of crude oil, which might result, for example, in sales revenue penalties due to
SPE-171079-MS 7

Figure 2—Stimulation treatment influences separation process.

an excess of salt amounts present in the in the processed crude oil (140 – 90 PPB) exceeds the standard
limit (50 PPB). Fig. 2 illustrates this phenomenon, in which the reservoir stimulation treatment modifies
the chemical equilibrium. Iron control is one of the major concerns in the stimulation treatments, to avoid
iron precipitation, sometimes polymers are used to increase fluid viscosity. Also, surfactants are used to
improve the contact between the live and spend acid with reservoir rock. These chemical products and
some other additives, used in stimulation treatments, need to be studied in order to determine their
interaction in the destabilization of connate water separation process.
On the other hand, the presence of water along with the hydrocarbons productions may lead to the
generation of emulsions. Either oil in water (O/W) or water in oil (W/O) emulsions, often require the use
of mechanical, heating or chemical methods to release the oil from the water, which could imply a
significant investment in energy, equipment, and resources. Note that infrastructure is needed for storing
chemicals (demulsifiers), as well as heaters to separate the water from the oil. It is necessary to take great
care in the study of the properties of emulsions since, depending on the conditions and properties of the
fluids (e.g. salinity, pH, water composition, oil density and viscosity) as well as the water-oil ratio it is
possible to observe different types of emulsions, such W/O, O/W, and it is even possible to form multiple
emulsions W/O/w, and O/W/o. Although a predominant form of emulsion will be present, the existence
of both forms in the same system can take place through the inversion point of the emulsion. The selection
of the demulsificator is crucial for breaking emulsions, and to date its mechanism of action still is not fully
understood. In this regard, it is crucial to understand the behavior and properties of the potential formation
of emulsions in the system and the role and effect that different chemicals might play during the treatment
of emulsions10,25, 26.
The demulsifiers are chemicals containing solvents, surfactants, flocculants, and wettable agents. The
types of chemicals and the operational conditions to treat emulsions are important factors to consider since
the selection of an inappropriate method might generate either no effect or detrimental results, leading to
the generation of other problems of contamination or precipitation of organic solids. The accurate dose
will depend on the oil characteristics and the particular type of emulsion. Another aspect to consider in
the control of emulsions is the introduction of chemicals into the process. For example, the insertion of
chemicals into the well has a significant impact on the costs of completion, since these must be injected
into the bottom of the wellbore. Hence, the location of capillary tubes along the well is critical. Besides
it is required the utilization of pumps to inject such chemicals10,25,27.
8 SPE-171079-MS

Some of the most common demulsifiers are based on propylene and ethylene oxide monomers. A
variety of substrates can be used with propylene and ethylene oxide to form polymeric demulsifiers;
examples include polyols, polyamines, and alkiyphenosl-formaldehyde resins. In addition to the surfac-
tants, solvents such as xylenes and toluene and co-solvents such as methanol and ethylene glycol or
monobutyl ether are often employed for the formulation of the demulsifiers.
Currently, there are three main solutions for the transportation of the heavy crude oil. The preferred
option for transporting highly viscous crude is dilution via the addition of lighter hydrocarbons, as the
implementation of this method is simple and convenient. The other proposed solutions for heavy oil
transportation are heating of pipelines, the generation of O/W emulsions via the use of surfactants and
preprocessing. There is an exponential relationship between the viscosity of the resulting mix and the
diluent volume fraction, which makes dilution a very efficient method. However, to obtain acceptable
limits for transport, a fraction as high as 30% (v/v) of diluent is required, involving two affairs; a large
capacity of the pipeline, as well as the availability of the diluent. Thus, it is required to develop solutions
to reduce the volume and cost of the diluent. A recent idea for the transport of heavy oil is the use of
friction modifiers/viscosity modifiers in combination with dilution for optimization, enabling a substantial
increase in the capacity of the pipeline28-32. In the case of heavy crude oil fields, in the Basin under study,
it is planned to mix the oil with light crude to dilute it and get a mix of 21° API.
The formation of emulsions as a heavy oil transportation method consists in the dispersion of the heavy
oil in water with stabilized droplets, which leads to a significant reduction in the viscosity. A typical
emulsion is composed of 70% oil, 30% water, and 500-2000 ppm of chemical additives (surfactants). The
resulting emulsion has a viscosity in the range of 50 to 200 cp to the operating conditions and is stable.
However, the process to separate the oil from water phase is complex. Besides, it is necessary to consider
the investment for treatment and cleaning of the water used. When this process is not successful, the costs
for the producer can be high due to the economic penalties introduced by the presence of water in crude
oil. Therefore, before the application of chemicals to produce or treat emulsions it is essential to assess
the properties of chemicals to be employed, as well as the stability, properties and rheology of emulsions
produced. Incidentally, the rheology of emulsions is of great importance for transport. Some of the
parameters that control the rheology of emulsions are the fraction of dispersed oil volume and the
distribution of the size of the drops. Stability and rheology of emulsions depends on several parameters
and require further research to understand the relationship between microscopic interaction and emulsion
macroscopical rheological properties33.
Oliveira and Gonçalves34 present the main rheology models, applicable for characterization of
emulsions in the laboratory. While, H.P. Ronningsen35 obtained a correlation to predict the viscosity of
W/O emulsion in the North Sea.
It is important to mention that oil demulsification, for heavy crude oil emulsions, represents a
considerable challenge for three main reasons36-39:
– The density of the oil is very close to the water; the smaller the density difference of the phases,
the more stable emulsion is obtained.
– Heavy oils contain a large amount of asphaltenes; asphaltenes act as surfactants, which might lead
to extremely stable emulsions.
– The inversion of the emulsion is difficult to control, which leads to the dispersion of fine droplets
of water in oil, increasing stability of emulsion, due to the high oil viscosity.
The complexity of the mixture present in heavy oil requires the use of different chemicals to confront the
problems that arise during the production and transportation of these crudes such as the formation of
emulsions, asphaltenes and paraffins deposition, corrosion and generation of inorganic scales. It is
common to find combinations of these problems, thus it is vital to determine economic and effective
SPE-171079-MS 9

chemical methods to use, in order to guarantee the flow assurance from the reservoir to superficial
facilities.

Research Proposal
The proposal consists of four main areas: I- Laboratory Characterization Studies, II –Research and
Development of Chemicals, III - Numerical Modeling, and IV – Health, Safety, and Environment (HSE)
manual.I.

I. Laboratory Characterization Studies

(A) Chemical characterization of heavy oils and their gas
● Characterization of the rheological properties, with live and dead oil, depending on pressure,
temperature, shear velocities, in the absence and presence of different types of solvents, viscosity
reducers, and other fluids employed during the production process.
● Characterization of asphaltene and resin contents in heavy oils. Evaluation of the asphaltenes
stability in oil, with and without solvents used for the de-asphaltening. Study of the thermal
behavior of heavy oils, considering the viscosity dependence of the oil with temperature described
by Arrehenius equation.
● Colloidal characterization of heavy oils to obtain information about the stability of the asphaltenes
and other suspended particles. The required parameters are the polidispersividad in mass and/or
volume, aggregation state of asphaltenes. The following or other techniques may be used: scanning
X-ray and neutrons (SAXS and SANS), NMR, rheology and fractionation (such as ultra-centrifu-
gacion, and fractionation by solvents) techniques
● The characterization of hydrocarbons must include, but not be limited to: Expansion at constant
composition (CCE), for the determination of bubble point, compressibility, and density, separation
testing, compositional analysis, (SARA) liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR), infrared spectroscopy, UV spectroscopy studies of equilibrium
vapor-liquid with live oil and solvent and/or water at high temperatures, as well as calculations of
molecular modeling.
● Development of correlations applicable to extra-heavy and heavy crudes by experimental means
(e.g. viscosity, flow, surface tension, etc., rheological behavior patterns) physical and computer
modeling to be used in the process and transport simulators.
(B) Characterization of water
● Characterization of formation water under reservoir conditions and atmospheric conditions.
Measurement and monitoring of water properties at different periods of time under several
pressure and temperature conditions. The analysis should include chemical composition, deter-
termination of physical and chemical properties, prediction of scale formation index (e.g. CaCO3,
CaSO4 BaSO4) along the well, and prediction of the corrosion index of water.
● The geochemical evolution of formation water and its interactions with the rock.
● Characterization and study of the different types of water-based fluids employed during drilling,
stimulation, production and processing, and their effect in the presence of formation water.
Analysis of the interaction between formation water and the aforementioned fluids.
● Determination of the present bacteria in the formation water. Quantification of bacteriological
growth due to the mixture of formation water with seawater. Measurement of the blockage and
corrosion effects produced by the bacteria along the production process.
● Determination and validation of sour gases (CO2 and H2S) dissolved in water, using different
salinity concentrations and chemical compositions, under various pressure and temperature con-
10 SPE-171079-MS

ditions. Characterization of CO2 and H2S through isotope ratios quantification. Determination of
pH and dissolved gases (CO2, H2S) in water to model the scale tendency along the well.
(C) Studies of the formation, rheological behavior, and stability of the different types of emulsions
● Rheological characterization of emulsions, with live and oil dead, using different fractions of water
(connate water and seawater) and various conditions of pressure, temperature, shear velocities,
including shut-in and starting conditions. Analysis of the effects of mixing rate and the time of
emulsification, by means of average droplet size measurement and distribution of droplets, and
emulsions stability.
● Development of a general viscosity correlation for heavy crude oils for both, W/O and O/W, types
of emulsions, at temperatures between 5 and 130 °C, with water cuts between 5 and 80%, and
shear rates between 30 and 500 sec-1. Comparison of predicted values, obtained with this
correlation, and experimental data. It would be desirable that the correlation can be established in
terms of the molecular weight of the heavy oil only, or perhaps it might also consider the content
and type of resins and asphaltenes present in the oil.
● Comparative analysis of the effect of different demulsifiers, and selection of the most appropriate
chemicals by means of: dynamic simulators, lab testing, and pilot plant tests.
(D) Solution-gas-drive tests in fractured-vuggy formations
● Taking into account reservoir pressure and temperature conditions, it is desired to examine the
presence of foamy flow, given the components of the reservoir, that is, light and heavy hydro-
carbons (eg. CH4, C2H6), corrosive gases (CO2, H2S), and the inteactions with formation water.
(E) Stability studies of hydrocarbons in contact with treatment fluids (carbonate stimulation, corrosion
inhibitors, viscosity reducers, demulsifiers, among others)
● Considering reservoir pressure and temperature conditions measure and validate asphaltenes
deposition in cores of fractured vuggy formations, in the presence of various inorganic acids and
organic solvents used in acid stimulation.
● Evaluate how the chemical stimulation treatments reacts with materials inside the wellbore, in
order to avoid operational problems, such as tripping of separation equipment in gas oil separation
plants, off-specification crude oil, and high pressure drops in flow lines.
II-Research and Development of Chemicals
(F) Flow assurance at the reservoir
● Using vuggy and fractured carbonate cores, investigate the paraffin and asphaltene depositions in
the reservoir nearby the producing wells, and develop chemicals to inhibite or control the
formation of these organic scales. Additionally, study the formation of organic scales due to acid
stimulation in carbonate reservoirs. The elaboration of different chemicals to dissolve or avoid
asphaltenes clusters and precipitation should be compatible with those employed during acid
stimulations.
● Perform different tests of proposed stimulation-inhibition treatment tests to avoid formation
damage and incompatibility with reservoir fluids, with the minimum concentration.
● Development of chemicals or surfactants to control oil emulsification at different cuts of water and
production rates, for their application in fractured reservoirs (NFR), as well as in fractured vuggy
reservoirs (NFVR) with different properties of matrix and fractures, vugs, respectively, in the area
nearby to the producing well, including various completion types of shooting, slotted piping,
etcetera (see Figures 3 and 4).
● Develop environmentally friendly alternatives compared to existing commercial systems41.
SPE-171079-MS 11

Figure 4 —Brecchia core from the upper Cretaceous, showing vugular

Figure 3—Brecchia from the upper Cretaceous, showing vugular poros- porosity. After Ref. 40
ity determined through tomography. After Ref. 40

(G) Fluid lifting in wells

● Generation of emulsions with live and dead oil, O/W, W/O, O/W/O, W/O/W, using synthetic brine
samples exhibting the reservoir water composition and various water cuts (up to 80% water) in
order to reach the inversion point to get the maximum viscosity of the mixture. Development of
chemicals to control or suppress the formation of emulsions, and different demulsifiers for
breaking the emulsions obtained. In particular the chemicals to be used should be compatible with
oil and not produce undesired precipitates and/or other associated problems. Camparisons of the
cost and efficiency of applying chemical methods with thermal, mechanical, electrical methods
used to break emulsions should be developed. It is desired to considerate the use of combined
methods (e.g. chemical and electrical), in order to evaluate the performance of the various
chemicals.
● Development of different flow additives for the operation conditions of the heavy oil fields (eg.
ionic liquids), involving different modifiers of the formation of paraffin crystals in the case of oils
with a high content of these species. It is essential to test different temperature conditions in order
to evaluate the additives performance.
● Determination of CO2 and H2S concentrations in the fluids, and the assessment of corrosive
potential in the presence of different water cuts, so as to maximize the useful life of the pipe, by
using dynamic tests with corrosion inhibitors in test circuits. It is required to develop corrosion
inhibitors compatible for heavy crude oil at offshore fields and assess their performance in the
12 SPE-171079-MS

presence of O/W and W/O emulsions at different temperature and pressure conditions. It is also
necessary to evaluate the implementation of such corrosion inhibitors in the presence of bacterial,
inorganic and organic deposits. Establish the optimal conditions for the application of corrosion
inhibitors during operating conditions.
● Evaluation of inorganic and organic scaling at the operating conditions.
● Assessment of the influence of the mixture of different chemicals (e.g. diluents, solvents, flow
improvers, corrosion inhibitors, demulsifiers, organic and inorganic deposit inhibitors, stimulation
acids) injected at the bottom of the well. Study of the effects deriving from the joint application
of these chemicals in the problems mentioned previously. In particular, when such chemicals are
co-injected through a single injection line. To successfully develop this point it is recommended
to take into account the following:
– Different temperature and pressure conditions.
– Free and dissolved gas content.
– Several compositions and concentrations of water
– Different shear rates imposed by production rates, including shut-in and opening wells, and
different artificial lift systems such ESP.
– Different configuration angles of wells and the presence of chokes and valves.
(H) Surface transport
● Dilution of heavy crude oil with lighter oils represents the easiest solution for oil transportation on
the surface in this Basin. However, this is not a sustainable solution given the expected volume of
heavy oil produced compared to the light oil availability. Therefore two issues need to be
addressed, first of all, it is required to investigate the precipitation of asphaltenes and other organic
deposits due to the mixture with lighter hydrocarbons under different conditions of temperature
and pressure, and second, it should be considered the effect of dissolution of wet gas with sour
gases (CO2 and H2S) in the light oil and the impact of such gases in the mixer and multi-stage
pump.
● Alternatively, it is required to assess the performance of friction and viscosity modifiers in the
resulting diluted heavy oil mixture to significantly reduce pressure loss by friction under turbulent
flow conditions. In addition it is recommended to compare the functioning of these products in the
presence of different types of emulsions such as O/W, W/O, O/W/O, W/O/W and simulate their
behavior through the producing system, analyzing the modifiers efficiency and emulsions stability.
● Control and monitoring of deposits of paraffin and asphaltenes in subsurface and surface lines,
treatment ships, and storage tanks.
● Breaking of emulsions using different chemicals. The development of these chemicals will depend
on the composition of the oil and water, pH, temperature, content of organic and inorganic
suspended solids, viscosity, emulsion type (W/O, O/W, or multiple) and their properties. Evalu-
ation of the costs associated with the implementation of these chemicals and the comparison with
the thermal, mechanical, and electrical methods is acclaimed.
● Determination of the concentrations of H2S and CO2 present in the hydrocarbons mixture and its
corrosive potential, for diverse water cuts and different pressure and temperature conditions. It is
required to consider the presence of wet gas bubbles in heavy crude oil, in the case of dilution with
light oils, and the effects of turbulence during the mixing (e.g. multiphase pump, mixer). In order
to accomplish the aforementioned it is necessary to determined the solubility of H2S and CO2 in
different types of oil under different conditions.
● Research and development of chemicals evaluated under dynamic conditions similar to those
expected during the operating conditions of heavy oil fields for this project. Determine optimal
SPE-171079-MS 13

conditions for the application of corrosion inhibitors during operating conditions. Finally, it is
important to avoid the formation of undesired effects or by-products (e.g. precipitation of solids
and/or generation of emulsions), hence the complete understanding of the performance mechanism
of the chemical products and their interaction with other components of the system is essential.

III - Numerical Modeling

I) Numerical modeling in naturally fractured vuggy reservoirs and well completion in the vicinity of the
producing area
● Modeling of solution-gas-drive in naturally fractured vuggy reservoirs42 (NFVR), to investigate
possible presence or generation of foamy flow.
● Discrete and continuous modeling for analysis of generation of emulsions at different water
saturations, pressure, and production rates, in both fractured (NFR) and fractured vuggy reser-
voirs42 (NFVR), with different properties of matrix, fractures and vugs, respectively, in the vicinity
of the producing well, including completion like slotted liner.
● Modeling the possible asphaltene deposits in the porous medium, due to the presence of various
chemicals used during acid stimulation.
● Discrete and continuous modelling for the analysis of asphaltene deposits at different pressures,
and production rates, in both, NFR and NFVR, exhibiting diverse properties of matrix, fractures,
and vugs, in the vicinity of producing well, including completion like slotted liner.
● Modeling of rock dissolution as function of the pH and temperature, taking care of re-disolution,
adsorption-desorption process, under wormhole flow geometries, considering both NFR and
NFVR.
J) Numerical modeling inside wellbore
● Employment of commercial simulators of flow in pipes in stationary and transient regimes to study
the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids and its viscosity properties, as well as different types of
emulsions under diverse conditions, including the inversion point. For the generation of emulsions
it is required to consider the existing experimental data, available correlations in the simulator of
flow in pipelines, as well as additional data required to predict the generation of emulsions, their
effects, stability and the mechanical condition of the wells. Note that the water cut, temperature,
pressure, and shear velocity (due to ESP systems) will favor the generation of emulsions. It is
recommended to estimate the effect of various inhibitors of emulsions and demulsifiers under
conditions of shut-in and start of production.
● Prediction of the effect of temperature, pressure and shear velocity (due to flow rates and
instruments that will manage the various systems of production such as the ESP), in the deposition
of paraffins and asphaltenes, considering lab data and available correlations for heavy oil flow in
the simulator, evaluating the accuracy of these correlations. The range of the variables should
consider from the bottom of the well to the wellhead, including different positions of the ESP,
storm valve, the seabed, and the water surface towards the platform. Consideration of the flow rate
effects on precipitation and deposition of organic solids (paraffin and asphaltenes) is required.
● Determination of the viscosity of the heavy oil and and different types of emulsions with different
water cuts at different flow rates, pressures and temperatures, including shut-in and opening
conditions (including heat losses along the pipe), considering the presence and absence of different
diluents and flow improvers, and their effect on the ESP efficiency.
● Simulation of electric heating in the well with and without flow improvers.
● Modelling of the corrosive rate of H2S and CO2 in the presence of different water cuts, with and
without the presence of different amounts of corrosion inhibitors used during production. It is
14 SPE-171079-MS

Figure 5—Numerical wellbore modeling of pressure and temperature profiles. An increment is observed due to the ESP, exhibiting a production rate
of 2560 BPD.

desired to simulate the presence of O/W and W/O emulsions at different temperature and pressure
conditions. It is also necessary to evaluate the ocurrence of inorganic and organic scales deposits.
● Modelling the effect of strong pressure drops, as those occurred in the ESP, when the precipitation
of inorganic deposits is present, and how the scale inhibitor affects the life of the ESP. In addition
it is desired to evaluate the presence of emulsions such as O/W, W/O, O/W/O, W/O/W and
simulate their behavior through the producing system.
(K) Numerical modeling of surface transport
●Make use of commercial flow simulators in pipes to study the behavior of the dilution with lighter
oils, use of drag reducer, and generation and breaking of emulsions.
● Prediction of deposits of paraffins and asphaltenes in superficial lines, treatment ships, and storage
tanks, considering the influence of different pumps, and different conditions of temperature and
pressure.
● Simulation of the electrical heating in superficial lines, treatment ships, and storage tanks for both
crude transport and breaking of emulsions.
● Modeling the corrosive rate of H2S and CO2, in the presence of different water cuts, together with
the presence of different dosages of anti-corrosive chemicals, and including the absence of these.
Also, modeling the removal of H2S and CO2 from the gas stream using physical solvents and
amines.
● Modeling of the presence of free wet gas bubbles in the heavy crude oil before mixing with light
oil, including the mixer and multiphase pump. Investigate the corrosive potential of this wet gas
and its dissolution capacity in the light oil.
● Modeling the influence of the mixture of different chemicals (diluents, solvents, flow improvers,
demulsifiers, corrosion inhibitors, and friction reducers), injected in the bottomhole and at surface
to control the generation of emulsions, the deposition of asphaltenes and paraffins, corrosion, in
the solution of each of these problems.
IV-Integrated HSE Manual
The application of chemical products should be accompanied by an HSE manual that shall contain at least
the following:
● All reports and documents required to obtain the chemicals and be used in appropriate form and
time.
SPE-171079-MS 15

● It is required to generate the procedures for the personnel protection on board and the environment,
as well as the management of waste produced in the facilities. It should contain the evacuation
plans in case of contingency, training and maintenance strategies and its periodicity and detailed
description of appropriate security signaling.
● A monitoring plan should provide the detailed description of the well instrumentation and surface
facilities, involved in the chemical/treatment to be implemented; including, for example, the use
of portable mini-separators for testing of demulsifiers. This section should establish the variables
to be registered.
● The production design may consider in advance the field characteristics before, during and after
the application of the chemicals, reflecting costs of the chemicals injection, treatment duration,
well and facilities conditions. Additionally, it should include the measures to be considered in case
the wells are closed during a certain period of time, together with the safety procedures. Depending
on the chemicals and the injection methods the restoration of injection wells it might be required
as well.
● For the pilot evaluation section it is required to monitor the tests over all execution time, assessing
the different variables as flow rate, before, during, and after treatment, economic indicators.
This HSE manual will be used for field applications.

Concluding Observations
The development of different chemicals, and the analysis of their joint effect on the different components
of production (reservoir, well, pipes and surface facilities), requires to perform studies and analysis on the
chemical and physical processes involved during the production process as well as modeling their
behavior. It is essential to investigate the minimum concentrations of all products and maximize the
efficiency of the chemical treatments, through lab experiments, numerical simulation and pilot tests.
Additionally, it is necessary to carry out the economic analysis for each of the chemicals proposed.
It is important to emphasize that for each proposed chemical is required to develop laboratory and field
tests. The chemical products to be employed should perform in efficient, economic and environmental
friendly manner. In addition, it is essential to carry out different laboratory and field evaluations with the
various mixtures of proposed chemicals for the different problems herein described, leading to the
determination of the optimal sequence of chemicals to be applied to obtain the most efficient results.
Additionally, it is important to emphazise that the evaluation of the joint application of different chemicals
may derive in other problems or undesired by-products affecting the performance of the employed
chemicals.
Finally, the previously described issues confer considerable and unique challenges for heavy crude oil
fields development, so the success of this project depends on a comprehensive study that allows the design
and implementation of an action plan, minimizing risks and uncertainties, as well as their associated costs.
It is necessary the collaboration between different areas of study to elucidate the best conditions and
practices to confront the problems associated to the production and transportation of hevy crude oils, since
the utilization of the different chemicals (e.g. diluents, solvents, flow improvers, corrosion inhibitors,
demulsifiers, organic and inorganic deposit inhibitors, stimulation acids) into the well during the
production may have great impact in all engineering areas involved.
For the developement of this propoasl is essential to consider the dosage of chemicals along with the
residency time to be employed during the experimental tests, the modeling simulations as well as the
technological design of the tests, since there are considerable operational and space restrictions at offshore
plattaforms. The successful application of these considerations may facilitate the generation of more
realiable data to be scalable to field conditions.
16 SPE-171079-MS

Acknowledgements
The support of Pemex E&P is acknowledged.

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