INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH SERVICE MANAGEMENT

OBJECTIVES

I. Define terms; management,leadership,administration

II. Describe the principles of management
III. Explain the functions of management
IV. Mention the characteristics of a manager
V. Outline the functions of a manager

Introduction

It is very important to teach and train nurses and midwives in leadership and management so as
to ensure they better able to work together with the other health team managers and prepare them
for practice.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Management: is the process of influencing others with the specific intention of getting
them to perform effectively and contributing to meet the organizational goals.
(Dmker,1967)

OR

Is the process of making efficient use of resources and to get people to work harmoniously
together in order to achieve the organizational objectives/goals.

OR

Is the process of getting work done through other people.

2. Leadership: is the process of influencing others towards a goal.(Bennie and Nanas,

1985)
3. Leader: is an influential person who has the ability to lead a group or department without
having a formal appointment.
4. Manager: is a formally and officially responsible individual for the work of a given
group. For example; ward in charge, principal of a school is officially responsible to
ensure that the unit accomplishes its tasks well.
5. Authority: is the legitimate right to a manager or a leader by an organization in order to
command subordinates and to act in the interest of an organization to achieve its goals.
6. Power: is to influence others to act. Or it’s the ability to impose the will on others to
bring about certain behavior. (This power can be reward power, coercive power)
7. Nursing management: is the process of working through nursing personnel to promote
and maintain health, prevent illness and suffering. Therefore the role of nurse manager is
to plan, organize, direct and control available resources in order to provide effective care
to groups of clients efficiently.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE LEADER AND THE MANAGER

LEADER MANAGER
 May or may not have an official  Appointed officially to the position.
appointment.

 Have the power and authority to  Have power and authority to enforce
enforce decisions as long as followers decisions.
are willing to be lead.

 Influence others either formally or  Carry out predetermined policies, rules

informally and regulations

 Has a variety of roles than the manager  Carries out specific functions, duties
and responsibilities
.
 Manipulates resources (people, money  Focuses on group process, information
etc) to achieve organizational goals. gathering, feedback and empowering
others.

 A manager strives to obtain results by  A leader chooses to achieve goals

making rules, remaining in control, and through passion, heart, (human
reacting to situations they may emotions) and charisma achieves power
encounter.(achieves power by virtue of through influence and charisma.
his/her position)
 Leaders have individuals who believe
 Managers have subordinates who in what they say, otherwise known as
follow their rules. followers.

 A manager performs all five functions  Leader influences people to work

of management. willingly for group objectives.
  Manager is accountable for self and  Leaders have no well defined
subordinates behavior and performance. accountability.

 People follow manager by virtue of job  People follow them on voluntary basis.
description.

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

These are the means by which one actually manages, that is, gets things done through others—
individually, in groups, or in organizations.

1. Management by objectives (MBO) or result oriented management (ROM)

This principles addresses management by focusing on the stated organizational goals and
objectives. Therefore the manager sets up measures effective to achieve the stated
goals/objectives.

2. Learning from experience

This involves analyzing the set organizational goals and the results achieved over a period of
time. Any gaps observed which might have hindered the effective attainment of the objectives
are addressed through proper planning in order to come with strategies necessary for this
achievement as well as avoiding those which might have led to the identified management gaps.

3. Delegation

This is when somebody is temporarily given/lent power/authority/responsibility of the other.

This usually happens when owner of the responsibility is absent or when assessing the leadership
ability of the other individual.

4. Division of labour
This is when work is distributed to individuals of the team/group usually according to their
abilities. This principle is useful in ensuring efficient and economic resource utilization.

5. Substitution of resources

This is more applicable when the resources that are used to provide a service become scarce or
too expensive. In order to achieve the objectives without incurring losses, different resources
which can be used to achieve the results are used.

6. Convergence of work

There is need for work activities and resources to support each other in order to achieve the
objectives.

7. Functions determine structure

In management function regards to the technical nature of work and how it takes place. While
structure pertains to administration rules and standards in particular to authority and
responsibility assigned to individuals. For example, for an individual to get a managerial
role/responsibility her/his technical ability for that post is highly considerable.

8. Management by exception

Always ensure that more essential and critical issues are addressed first that is post ponement of
decision making until you are sure that the decision you have made is applicable and necessary at
that time.

9. Shortest decision path

Decision should be made as close as possible in time and place to the objective of the decision.
 FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

There are five primary functions of management, these are;

1. Planning: this the systematic way of making decisions that will affect the future of the
organization. It involves foreseeing the effects of current actions in the long run in the
future.
2. Organizing: this involves determination of the activities that need to be done in order to
reach the organizational goals. These activities should also be assigned to proper
personnel.
3. Staffing: Is the process of hiring and retaining suitable work place for the organization.
4. Directing: this is concerned with leadership, communication, motivation and supervision
so that the employees perform their activities in the most efficient way in order to achieve
organizational goals.
5. Controlling: this consists of those activities done to ensure that the events do not deviate
from the pre-arranged plans. For example, establishing standards for work performance,
measuring performance, taking corrective actions to correct any deviations.

CHARACTERISTICS/QUALITIES OF A GOOD MANAGER OR LEADER

 Knowledgeable: since the management problems are complex and many faced, a
manager should be knowledgeable in order to process the information into useful data for
decision making and also differentiate between facts and non- facts.
 Decisiveness: a manager should have the ability to prompt and desirable decisions.
 Ability to handle conflict: should be able to listen, positively respond to criticism and
handle conflict and differences in a constructive manner.
 Emotional stability: he should be able to adjust to life, calm, cool and calculated reaction
to undesirable situations and obstacles.
 Honesty & Integrity: are crucial to get your people to believe you and buy in to the
journey you are taking them on

 Have vision: know where you are, where you want to go and enroll your team in charting
a path for the future
  Inspirational: inspire your team to be all they can by making sure they understand their
role in the bigger picture
 Ability to Challenge: do not be afraid to challenge the status quo, do things differently
and have the courage to think outside the box
 Communication Skills: keep your team informed of the journey, where you are, where
you are heading and share any roadblocks you may encounter along the way

FUNCTIONS OF A MANAGER

 Recruitment, maintaining and firing of staff. This is vital to ensure that you have
competent and enough staff to do the available tasks.
 Formally evaluate performance of staff on a regular basis for example through appraisal,
support supervision and provide feedback accordingly.
 Recommend staff for promotion or further study which will motivate the staff and also
enable the organization to have staff with expertise.
 Prepare and adhere to the proposed budget so as to ensure appropriate resource utilization
and minimize loss/wastage.
 Assign and program the work of staff members so as to prevent role conflict.
 Should be able to handle problems/conflicts occurring at work place.
 Plan for the activities of the organization
 Empower the employees through assigning responsibilities or delegation.
 Motivate workers so as to better perform their roles which will lead to attainment of
organizational objectives.
 Create a suitable environment for retention of the staff which also motivates them.
 Advocate for staff to the high level managers
 LEADERSHIP

Leadership does not mean dominating the subordinates as it is the case with leadership; however,
the leader’s job is to get work done by other people, and make people willingly want to
accomplish something. So effective leadership means effective and productive group
performance.

DEFINITION:

Leadership is the process of influencing the thoughts and actions of other people to attain the
desired objectives.

LEADERSHIP STYLES/TYPES

A leadership style is a leader's way of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating
people.

There are many different leadership styles but commonly used are;

1. AUTOCRATIC/AUTHORITARIAN LEADERSHIP:

The autocratic leadership style allows managers to make decisions alone without the input of
others or consultation of their team members even if their input would be useful. Managers
possess total authority and impose their will on employees. No one challenges the decisions of
autocratic leaders. This leadership style is found in large bureaucracies like police,army,prisons.

Characteristics of autocratic leaders

 Have high concern for work than for the people who perform the work.
 Set rigid standards and methods of performance and expect the subordinates to obey the
rules and follow them subordinate/followers are motivated by coercion
 Decision making is basically for the manager with no subordinate involvement
 Emphasis is on difference in status that is I and You.
 Information must always flow from top to bottom
 Should never be criticized nor their action
Advantages of autocratic style

 Quick Decisions
An autocratic style of leadership can be effective in work environments where decisions
need to be made quickly. The sole responsibility rests with the leader, and she makes the
decision without the need to consult others.

 Close Oversight
In an autocratic work environment, the leader typically keeps a close watch on the
activities of the workers. This eliminates the tendency for workers to relax at work that
may occur with more lenient management styles. The result can be increased productivity
and speed, as workers who fall behind are quickly identified and corrective measures are
taken. Quality may improve, as the employees' work is monitored constantly. Time
wasting and the need to waste resources is also reduced.

 It's Easier to Set Policy

This is because in autocratic leadership style, there are no opposing political ideologies to
stand in the way of policy making.

 Less time consuming especially in decision making and taking action.

 Very efficient especially in times of crisis

Disadvantages of Autocratic or dictatorial leadership

 One way communication without feedback leads to misunderstanding, and

communications breakdown.
 An autocratic leader makes his own decisions which can be very dangerous in this age of
technological and sociological complexity.
 It fails to develop the worker's commitment to the objectives of the organization.
 It creates problems both with employee morale and production in the long-run; due to
their resentment.
 It is unsuitable when the workforce is knowledgeable about their jobs and the job calls
for team work and cooperative spirit.
  Limited Freedoms and Access to Information especially for the employees/subordinates.
 Motivation of employees is compromised since they do not exercise their rights.
 Employees are less creative.

DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP/PARTICIPATIVE/CONSULTATIVE

Definition:

Is a type of leadership style in which members of the group take a more participative role in the
decision-making process. There is redistribution of power and authority between employees and
managers to provide employee involvement in decision-making. Democratic leadership attempts
to manage with democratic principles, such as self-determination, inclusiveness, equal
participation and deliberation.

Characteristics
 Leader is people oriented
 Togetherness is emphasized
 Delegation of tasks to other employees and subordinates along with full responsibility
makes them accountable for their actions and tasks as well empowered.
 Openness to feedback (initiatives and otherwise) from the managers and subordinates.
 Members’ suggestions and guidance direct the effective management of the
organization.
 Emphasis is on ‘we ‘rather than ‘I’ and ‘You’.
 Communication flows in all directions that is from up and bottom

Advantages:

 All the people involved use their skills together for the completion of a certain task and
hence, almost all ideas are taken into consideration and carefully debated.
 Communication gap is reduced. Tension between the leader and team members is
decreased as a result of which fear of rejection and denial also reduces – this makes all
sorts of issues addressable. An autocratic leader, on the other hand, would have certain
 demands and expectations from his subordinates which make the employees fear the
leader.
 A positive work environment is created. This means that a culture of junior workers getting
a fair amount of responsibility and challenges is encouraged. When there are the right vibes
among employees, work becomes more pleasurable.
 Promotes cooperation and team worker among the members of the organization.
 Employee turnover reduction. A democratic leadership makes people feel empowered at
work as it is essentially performance based. A majority of the workers appreciate this
method of management as it secures them a safe future with the company.
 Delegation of Responsibility is achieved whereby a democratic leader will delegate
responsibility among members of his or her team to facilitate member participation in
making decision.

Disadvantages:

 Some managers adopt democratic leadership to please their subordinates but fail to follow
the technique in its entirety. They might simply take in all the ideas and end up never
implementing them.
 The decision making process might be delayed which may affect organizational progress.
 May create a feeling of frustration and ill-will especially among some employees whose
decisions/suggestions are undermined.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE STYLE/FREE- REIN/ULTRALIBERAL/DELEGATIVE

Definition

Is a type of leadership style in which leaders are hands-off and allow group members to make
the decisions. This type of leadership involves little direction and lots of freedom for workers.
The leaders sit back and watch the activity or results take effect.

Characteristics of Laissez-Faire Leadership

Laissez-faire leadership is characterized by:

 Very little guidance from leaders

 Complete freedom for followers to make decisions

 Leaders provide the tools and resources needed

 Group members are expected to solve problems on their own.

Advantages:
 Allows visionary workers the opportunity to do work they want to do free from
interference.
 No work for the leader
 Instills a sense of responsibility among team members especially those who are self
driven.
 Best leadership style where employees are highly motivated and achievement oriented.

Disadvantages
i. less group satisfaction
ii. Less group/work productivity since workers may not possess the necessary skills to complete
a job.
iii. Poor quality of work since workers lack direction from leaders and also lack the guidance and
support of the leader
iv. Jobs fall back on someone else or are not completed since there is lack of clear job
description
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE LEADERSHIP STYLE TO USE
 Manager’s personal background: that is his/her personality, knowledge, values, ethics and
experiences the manager has or what she/he thinks will work.
 Staff being supervised: the style varies depending upon the individual staff and what will
best respond to.
 Organization: that is the traditions, values and concerns of the organization highly
influence the manager on which style to use.
 FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT IN DETAILS
1. PLANNING
Planning is the first step in the management process and every manager is expected to
understand its essence in order to be successful in their managerial role. Planning is particularly
important because of scarce resources and uncertain environment with competition for those
resources.
Definition:
Planning is a decision making activity requiring the process of ascertaining objectives and
deciding on activities to attain those objectives.
Or: is the process of preparing for change and coping with uncertainty by formulating future
courses of action.
Or: is ensuring that the important organizational objectives are accomplished as and when
desired.
Or: is having a specific aim/purpose and coming up with ways/methods for the achievement of
the goals.

REASONS FOR PLANNING/PURPOSE OF PLANNNING

1) To successfully achieve the organizational goals and objectives through the set strategies.
2) To ensure effective resource utilization including human resource so as to prevent
resource wastage.
3) To better cope with situational crisis since this was anticipated and hence planned for.
4) To ensure effective control of the resources especially human resource.
5) To guide decision making since it specifies the action and steps to be taken in order to
achieve the organizational goals. By enabling the managers to make decisions on current
and future activities.
6) To enable anticipation of problems and thus facilitating smooth flow of organizational
operations.
7) To identify gaps and areas requiring change; this will be addressed for the better of the
organization. This can be achieved through periodic review of the organizational
activities.
8) To give meaning to work since employees will work towards a well defined goal.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PLAN

  Should be simple and comprehensive so that all the employees can grasp its significance
and thus easily put into action. It should as well be detailed enough so that it can cover all
aspects of the operation necessary to achieve the objectives.
 Should have clear, well-defined and easily understood objectives.
 A good plan should also be well balanced and flexible. That is the existing resources are
well allocated for proper utilization so that the short term gains are not achieved at the
cost of long term gains.
 Should also be flexible enough to incorporate any changes in the resources.
 Time bound. That is should be established for a specific period of time.
 Actionable; a good plan should be have set out strategies for achieving organizational
goals which are practical.
 Should incorporate all the departments within the organization to promote unity and
focus on the overall objective i.e. involve participation by subordinates.
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE PLANNING
 Aims of organization in the plan must be clear, reasonable and attainable.
 Involve subordinates in the planning process. This will ensure acceptance of the plans by
those who are to implement it.
 Assign planning responsibility to the right people that is those who are involved with the
operation.
 Do not be over optimistic with the anticipated results but rather see what is there than
what you want to see.
 Keep the plan flexible but putting under constant review and adjustment where necessary.

LEVELS OF PLANNING
There are basically three levels of planning associated with the different managerial levels: these
are;
1. Strategic planning/long term planning:
 Conducted by top management like chief executive officers, directors, presidents, vice-
presidents
 Involves determining the direction in which the organization should be run
 Long-range/term planning (a period of up to 10years)
  Deals with total assessment of the organization’s capabilities, it’s strengths and
weaknesses.
2. Intermediate planning:
 Coves a time frame of about 6months to 2years
 Conducted by middle management which includes department heads
 Middle managers have to refine broad objectives into more workable and realistic plans.
3. Operational planning:
 These plans are responsibilities of lower management like unit supervisors.
 Short range plans covering a time span from 1week to one year
 These are more specific and determine how a specific job is to be completed in the best
way
PLANNING PROCESS/STEPS IN PLANNING

1. ASSESSMENT: this involves collecting adequate data about the organization so as to

answer questions of:

 Where are we?

 What do we have to work with?
 Where do we want to be?
 How do we get there?

This information is then analyzed and interpreted as a meaningful whole. Assessment will
also help the manager to identify needs of the organization as well as its strengths and
weaknesses.

2. ESTABLISH AND CLEARLY DEFINE GOALS/OBJECTIVES:

This portion of the planning process should include a detailed overview of each goal,
including the reason for its selection and the anticipated outcomes of goal-related projects.
For example, the objective of the hospital is to provide quality health care.

3. IDENTIFY RESOURCES
 Each goal should have financial and human resources attached for its achievement or
completion.

4. PRIORITY SETTING
There is need to priotise the objectives as well as resources in regard to their importance.
The tasks deemed most important will be approached and completed first. The
prioritizing process may also reflect steps necessary in completing a task or achieving a
goal.
5. DEVELOPMENT OF STRATEGIES

These are measures set up for the achievement of the organizational objectives. This step also
involves assigning timeline for the achievement/accomplishment of a task. However there
should also be consideration of the abilities of the staff in assigning them duties or work as a
strategy for achievement. It is also necessary to formulate policies, rules and regulations as a
way of controlling organizational activities.

6. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PLAN:

This is the action stage of the planning process where all the identified strategies are
implemented/put into action for the attainment of the organizational goals. However, this
stage will require a combination of all skills and coordination of all factors.

7. EVALUATION OF THE PLAN:

The plan should be re-evaluated periodically so as to measure its progress and effectiveness in
order to correct any deviations and make adjustments where necessary. This can also be done
through requesting a monthly progress report from department heads.

BENEFITS OF PLANNING
1. Planning provides performance standards which assist in the development potential and
standards for measuring the progress of the organization are essential in organizational
control.
 2. Improves the competitive strength of the company since deviations are easily identified
basing on the set standards and thus addressed in regard to the expected standard.
3. There is reduced risk and uncertainty since these are anticipated early enough and
strategies to overcome them are put up accordingly.
4. Promotes proper and effective utilization of the organizational resources hence
minimizing wastage.
5. Planning enables manager to focus on the future than the present hence giving them
purpose and direction.
6. Provides a framework for decision making. Knowing the organizational objectives and
methods to achieve them eliminates ambiguity in the decision making process.
7. Proper planning motivates the workers especially if they are involved in the planning
process.

ASSIGNMENT: OUTLINE 10 LIMITATIONS OF PLANNING

DAY TO DAY PLANNING ACTIVITIES OF THE NURSE MANAGER

 A practical day to day planning by the nurse manager has great value in managing her
unit. This is what she is expected of :
 At the beginning of each day, make a list of actions to be completed for the day. Cross off
the actions as they are achieved/completed or at the end of the day.
 Carry over actions which are not completed to the next day either do them first or decide
whether those need to be done at all.
 Plan ahead for the meetings. Distribute agenda in advance.
 Identify developing problems and put them in appropriate portion of the management
plans.
 Review the plan on a scheduled basis with the key managers so that each knows the
personal responsibilities for the activities.
 Review the appropriate portions of the development plan with the subordinate managers
when they are counseled. Department, unit or clinic plans be reviewed at the same time.
 Plan for educational programs for student educational experiences in the division of
nursing.
 Plan for evaluation of clinical administrative practices to decide whether the objectives
were achieved.
 DELEGATION
Introduction:
A manager alone cannot perform all the tasks assigned to him. In order to meet the targets,
the manager should delegate authority.
Definition:
Delegation of Authority means division of authority and powers downwards to the
subordinate.
Or: Delegation of authority can be defined as subdivision and sub-allocation of powers to the
subordinates in order to achieve effective results.
Or: Delegation is the assignment of responsibility or authority to another person (normally
from a manager to a subordinate) to carry out specific activities

Elements of Delegation/Principles of delegation

 Authority – is the power and right of a person to use and allocate the resources
efficiently, to take decisions and to give orders so as to achieve the organizational
objectives. Authority must be well- defined. All people who have the authority should
know what is the scope of their authority is and they shouldn’t mis-utilize it.
Authority is the right to give commands, orders and get the things done.
 Responsibility - is the duty of the person to complete the task assigned to him. A
person who is given the responsibility should ensure that he accomplishes the tasks
assigned to him. If the tasks for which he was held responsible are not completed,
then he should not give explanations or excuses. Responsibility without adequate
authority leads to discontent and dissatisfaction among the person. Responsibility
flows from bottom to top. The middle level and lower level management holds more
responsibility. The person held responsible for a job is answerable for it. If he
performs the tasks assigned as expected, he is bound for praises. While if he doesn’t
accomplish tasks assigned as expected, then also he is answerable for that.
 Accountability - means giving explanations for any variance in the actual
performance from the expectations set. Accountability cannot be delegated. For
example, if ’A’ is given a task with sufficient authority, and ’A’ delegates this task to
B and asks him to ensure that task is done well, responsibility rest with ’B’, but
 accountability still rest with ’A’. The top level management is most accountable.
Being accountable means being innovative as the person will think beyond his scope
of job. Accountability, in short, means being answerable for the end result.
Accountability can’t be escaped. It arises from responsibility.
 Functional clarity – The functions to be performed, methods of operation and results
expected must be clearly defined.
Differences between Authority and Responsibility

Authority Responsibility

 It is the legal right of a

person or a superior to  It is the obligation of subordinate
command his to perform the work assigned to
subordinates. him.

 Authority is attached
to the position of a  Responsibility arises out of
superior in concern. superior-subordinate relationship
in which subordinate agrees to
carry out duty given to him.

 Authority can be
delegated by a  Responsibility cannot be shifted
superior to a and is absolute
subordinate
  It flows from top to
bottom.  It flows from bottom to top.

THE STEPS OF SUCCESSFUL DELEGATION

1. Determine what you will delegate. Effective delegation begins with defining your
responsibilities. Write down all of your activities and responsibilities. Review your master list
and categorize all of the items into two secondary lists: things you alone must do and things that
others could do or help you complete. Anything that falls into the second list presents an
opportunity for delegation.
2. Choose the right person to delegate the task to. Andrew Carnegie said, "The secret to
success lies not in doing your own work, but in recognizing the right person to do it." The key to
finding the right person to delegate an assignment to is matching skills and attitude to the task at
hand.
3. Clarify the desired results. When the results are clear, it allows the employee to use his or
her own creativity and resources to accomplish the task. An added benefit of effective delegation
is the individual may find a better and more effective way to accomplish the task or achieve the
desired results.
4. Clearly define the employee's responsibility and authority as it relates to the delegated
task. Clearly communicate the expectation, responsibilities, and timeline. Be sure to ask the
employee to share his or her understanding.
5. Establish a follow up meeting or touch points. The follow up meetings should be focused on
two things-monitoring progress and determining the need for assistance. The number of follow
up meetings will vary based on the scope of the task or project and whether the employee is new
or a long term member of the department.

BENEFITS OF DELEGATION

 Delegation can improve quality of work by allowing the employees who have direct
knowledge of products and services to make decisions and complete tasks.
  Employees/delegates have more time to do their own jobs when they assign tasks to
others.
 Saves time for the accomplishment of a task since the sub tasks have been delegated to
other employees hence work is done in shortest time possible.
 Development; when you delegate you will teach your team members new skills and give
them the opportunity to develop themselves and achieve their goals.
 Raises employees’ self-esteem whereby when you give a teammate a task, it shows that
you have trust and confidence in them. Having interesting and challenging work feels
good, and being trusted to complete the job raises self-esteem.
 Builds teamwork: Delegating new tasks to team members allows them to build contacts
with others whom they do not normally work. This can lead to greater teamwork and
communication networking.
 Provides continuity of work: When a manager is on leave the work is taken by
subordinates and provides continuity in functions.
DISADVANTAGES OF DELEGATION
 Burden on Employees: Giving an employee too many tasks to complete. If you place too
much of a burden on your employee’s shoulders, that employee may stop viewing
himself as a trusted employee and start viewing himself as an abused employee.
 Poor quality of the work done: If work is delegated to wrong/unskilled personnel may
yield poor results.
 Failures result in destroying worker confidence.

CONSTRAINTS TO EFFECTIVE DELEGATION

 Lack of confidence in the subordinates.
 Reluctance of the supervisor to delegate since he/she feels can accomplish the task.
 Feeling of insecurity that is the subordinate may subsequently take over her role.
 Lack of communication skills to make the delegate understand her/his
role/responsibilities.
 The delegate may lack technical skills required to accomplish the task.
 Lack of willingness by the staff/subordinate to take up the responsibility.
  Prestige and power consciousness by the manager
 Confidential nature of task
 Legal impediments associated with the way the task is done/accomplished.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT DELEGATION

 Size of organization: usually small organizations have limited role/activities to
accomplish therefore delegation is minimal yet in bigger organizations delegations is
very necessary.
 Importance of the duty or decision: important sensitive organizational decisions need
the involvement and control by the top manager while less sensitive/important tasks can
 Task complexity: some tasks are better performed by the managers because of their
expertise and thus cannot be delegated since the subordinates may lack enough expertise
to accomplish them. Whereas others may be performed by any employee of the
organization.
 Organizational culture: these are the norms, expectations and values of the organization
whereby some organizations always prefer the manager to be the final decision maker in
all organizational activities hence do not opt/support delegation which is opposite in other
organizations.
 Qualities of subordinates: before delegating roles to subordinates consideration of their
abilities, strengths and weaknesses should always be put at the back of the mind.

GUIDELINES TO EFFECTIVE DELEGATION

 Defining the task clearly
 Outlining the scope of the task
 Assigning a deadline for follow up and task completion.
 Clear unity of command; each person in an organization should report to one supervisor.
 Trust the delegate in terms of honest and confidence
 The duration of the delegated task should be specified to the delegatee
 Explain to others that you have already delegated the work and to whom
 Do not interfere unless asked to and be prepared for some mistakes
 Members of the organization should know the proper flow of authority and chain of
command

ORGANISATION AS A MANAGEMENT FUNCTION

Introduction:
When two or more people co-operate to perform a task, it is usually convenient to divide
responsibility so that each of them takes care of certain aspects of the job. Organization
involves grouping people together in a stable yet working pattern.
Definition:
This is the planned design of the corporate structure showing the relationships between
employees and the function each should perform to make the organization work effectively
towards given objectives.
OR is the process of combining the work, which individuals or groups have to perform with
the facilities necessary for its execution using available resources.

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION
1. Scalar principle: The lines of authority should be clearly stated and should run from the
top to the bottom of the organization. This line of command is referred to as chain of
command. The major decisions are mad and policies formulated at the top and they filter
down through various management levels to the workers.
2. Unity of command. Each person in the organization should report to only one boss. And
each person should know how he reports to and who reports to him. This process eliminates
ambiguity and confusion that can be caused, when a person has to report more than one
superior.
3. The responsibility and authority of each supervisor should be established clearly and
in writing. This will clarify the exact role of the supervisor as to limits to his authority.
Authority is defined as the formal right to require action from others. Responsibility is the
accountability of that authority. With clearly defined authority and responsibilities, it will be
easier for the supervisor to trace and handle problems and make quick decisions when
necessary.
4. The higher authorities are responsible for the acts of their subordinates. The
executive cannot dissociate himself from the acts of his subordinates. Hence he must be
accountable for the acts of his subordinates.
5. The authority and responsibility should be delegated as far down the hierarchical
line as objectively as possible. This will place the decision making power near the actual
operations. This gives the top management more free time to devote into planning and
overall policy making.
6. The number of levels of authority should be as few as possible. This would make the
communication easier, clear and the decision making faster. A longer chain of command
results in ‘run a rounds’.
7. The principles of specialization should be applied wherever possible. Precise division
of work facilitates specialization which then leads to efficiency and
quality. Every person should be assigned a single function whenever
possible
8. The line functions and staff functions should be kept separate. The line functions are
those that are directly involved with the operations that result in the
achievement of company objectives. Staff functions are auxiliary to the
line functions and offer assistance and advice.
9. The span of control should be reasonable and well established. The span of control
determines the number of positions that can be coordinated by a single
executive. The span of control could be narrow with relatively few
individuals who report to the same manager or wide with many
subordinates under the supervision of the same manager.
10. The organization should be simple and flexible. It should be simple because it is easier
to manage and flexible because it can quickly adapt to changing conditions. It should be such
that it easily expanded or reduced at times of demand.

ADVANTANGES/ BENEFITS OF GOOD ORGANIZATION

  Facilitates attainment of organizational objectives through proper coordination of all
activities
 A minimal conflict among employees since the chain of command is clear for
everybody.
 Overlapping and duplication of work is eliminated since work is distributed among
employees accordingly
 There is decreased likelihood of run-around. This can occur when we don’t know
who is responsible for what. This is avoided since responsibilities are clearly
established.
 Facilitates promotions since the organizational chart clearly points the positions of all
individuals relative to one another.
 It aids wage and salary administration. Compensation administration policies get
easier to apply since there is a clear stipulation on the benefits of certain jobs in the
company.
 Communication is simplified sine the lines of communication and flow of authority is
quite clear in the organizational chart..
 Good organization provides a basis for effective planning in the short and long run
like expansions and contraction of activities.
 There is increased cooperation and sense of pride. The employee has adequate
freedom within the domain of his responsibility and authority since they are all clear
to him thus boasting morale.
 It encourages creativity. Because of the sense of belonging and high morale and with
the help of clear cut accountability, recognition of skill and appreciation for
contribution, it encourages resourcefulness, initiative and a spirit of innovation and
creativity.
ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

This is the arrangement and interrelationship of the component parts and positions within the
institution.
OR this is the network of horizontal and vertical relationships among the members of a group
designed to accomplish common objectives.
OR it is a system of formal relationships that govern the activities of people in an
organization.
IMPORTANCES OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE
I. Is the foundation upon which the whole structure of management is built.
II. It specifies division of work which helps define teams who work closely together.
III. Promotes hierarchy in the organization since it provides a clear chain of command
and defines which employees report to which managers.
IV. It shows different areas of specialization indicating hierarchy and authority structure.
V. A structure helps define exactly who the correct decision maker for each employee is.
NB: AN ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE IS REPRESENTED BY A CHART
DRAWING KNOWN AS THE ORGANIZATION CHART.

TYPES OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

l) Line organization
This is the simplest type of organization where the authority is embedded in the hierarchal
structure, and it flows in a direct line from top of the managerial hierarchy down to different
levels of managers and subordinates and down to operative level of workers.
The line organization can be a pure line or departmental line type. In pure line type set-up, all
similar activities are performed at any one level. In departmental line organization, the
respective workers and supervisors are grouped on a functional basis e.g. academics,
research, and finance etc.

A LINE ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

Medical director

Hospital administrator

Principal nursing officer

 In-charge OPD In- charge Maternity In- charge medical ward

Ward nurses Ward nurses Ward nurses

Advantages of line organization

 Is simple to understand and operate
 Responsibility, authority and accountability are all clear-cut, easily assignable and
traceable
 Communication is fast, easy and feedback can be acted upon faster
 Due to small structural size, discipline among all can be maintained easily and effective
control can be easily exercised
 Applicable to small sized organizations enabling people to know each other better and
tend to feel close to each other.
Disadvantages of line organization

 It is rigid and inflexible and there is a tendency to become dictatorial.

 The growth of the organization in regard to work and size makes the structure less
effective
 Line officers being involved in day-to-day operations make them have little time for
systematic and strategic planning
 Due to strict accountability, different departments may be more interested in their self
interests, rather than overall organization interests and welfare.
 There is no provision for specialists and specialization which is essential for growth and
optimization.

II) Line and Staff organization structure

III) Matrix organization

ORGANISATION CHARTS
An organization chart is a graphical portrayal of the various positions in the organization and the
formal relationships among them.

Types of organizational charts

There are many but are broadly classified into two;

i) Vertical charts:

 Called top to bottom chats

 Lowest position is shown at the bottom.
 Widely used

ii) Horizontal Charts:

 Called left to right chart

 Highest position is placed at the extreme right and lowest is at the extreme left.

Advantages/ Uses of organizational charts

 Shows clearly the various positions and how they relate to one another
 Shows at glance the lines of authority and responsibility
 Provides a basis of planning organizational change
 Provides guidance to outsiders to whom they should contact
 Serves as a valuable guide to the new personnel
 Helps to point out inconsistencies and deficiencies
 Provides a framework for classification and evaluation of personnel
 Provides clues to the lines of promotion
 It facilitates communication.

Principles of Organization Charts

 Should have a clear title

 Should clearly show the lines of authority
 Positions of equal ranks must be shown at the same level
  Solid lines must be used to indicate the line of authority
 Staff relationships indicated by dotted lines
 Complete chart should be on a single sheet
 Colours may be used to indicate different departments.

Limitations of Organization Charts

 Fails to recognize informal relationships

 Does not represent flexibility
 It introduces bureaucratic rigidity in the formal relationships
 Shows the relationship which is supposed to exist rather than what actually exist
 Fail to show how much authority and responsibility an individual can exercise due to
over simplification
 Poorly designed charts cause confusion and misunderstanding
 They may create superiority and inferiority feelings and lead to conflicts in the
organization
 STAFFING FUNCTION OF MANAGEMENT

The managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through proper
and effective selection, appraisal and development of the personnel to fill the roles assigned to
the employers/workforce.

According to Theo Haimann, “Staffing pertains to recruitment, selection, development and

compensation of subordinates

Staffing is the management activity that provides for appropriate and adequate personnel to
fulfill the organization’s objectives. The nurse manager decides how many and what type of
personnel are required to provide care for patients. Usually the overall plan for staffing is
determined by nursing administration and the nurse manager is in a position to monitor how
successful the staffing pattern is as to provide input into needed change.
Staffing is a complex activity that involves ensuring that the ratio of nurse to patient provides
quality care. The situation of a nursing shortage and the high activity levels of admitted patients
to acute care areas complicate this process.
Staffing depends directly on the workload or patient care needs. An ideal staffing plan would

provide the appropriate ratio of caregivers for patients’ individual needs based on data that

predict the census.

THE STAFFING PROCESS

The staffing function consists of the following sequential steps;

1. Analyze the job - by preparing job description, job specification and job analysis
2. Actual recruitment – This would explore all the internal and external sources from where the
required personnel can be recruited.
3. Employee selection – This crucial step involves using such techniques as would identify and
isolate the suitable people who would eventually be selected.
4. Retention – When the right people have been hired, they must be retained so that they stay
with the organization for a long time. This step discusses such factors that are influential in
maintaining the work force.
5. Training and development – This consists of all such programmes that assist in continuous
growth and development of employees.
6. Performance appraisal and career development - This step involves devising methods that
would judge an employee’s performance over a period of time and providing opportunities to
employee’s performance over a period of time and providing opportunities to employees to
develop their careers and managerial talents.

JOB DESCRIPTION

This is a systematic, organized and written statement of ‘who does what, when, where, how and
why’, and is a tangible outcome of job analysis. It describes the work to be performed, the
responsibilities and duties involved, conditions under which the work is performed, the
relationship of one job with other similar or dissimilar jobs and the skill, education, and
experience required. A job description is used for a variety of purposes such as recruitment and
selection, job evaluation etc. A job description generally contains the following data;

1. Job identification: It includes job title, code number of the job if any, the department or
division to which the job belongs.
2. Job summary: It is a brief summary, in a sentence or two, explaining the contents of the
job, its hazards or any other specific aspects.
3. Duties performed: It is a comprehensive listing of the duties together with the
importance of each duty and the percentage of time devoted to each major duty. Included
are any other additional responsibilities like custody of money, training of subordinates
etc.
 4. Supervision: If supervision is required, then it gives the number of persons to be
supervised along with their job titles and extent of supervision involved and whether it is
general supervision or close supervision.
5. Machines, tools and equipment used: This will include the type of machinery handled
and the type of raw materials used.
6. Working conditions: It gives us the working environment in which the job holder must
work. Here are listed any special working conditions in terms of cold, heat, noise levels,
dust, fumes and any other hazards that might pose a risk to life and the probability of
such a hazard occurring.

Importance of job description

 Reduces confusion and misunderstandings

 Communicates to workers in clear terms as to what they are required to do.
 Gives greater job satisfaction as the worker knows what is expected of him
 Useful in recruiting, training and placement of right workers to the right jobs
 Reduces discrimination and assist in objective performance appraisal.
 DIRECTING FUNCTION OF MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

This is a management function performed but top level management in order to achieve the
objectives of an organization. It is considered life-spark of the organization which sets in motion
the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for
doing the work.

DEFINITION

These are the steps a manager takes to get subordinates and others to carry out the organizational
plans or to achieve organizational objectives.

OR

Directing means giving instructions, guiding, counseling, motivating and leading the staff in an
organization in doing work to achieve organizational goals.

Directing involves:

 Telling people what is to be done and explaining how it is to be done

 Issuing instructions and orders to the subordinates
 Inspiring them towards achievement of the organizational objectives
 Supervising the subordinates’’ activities
 Providing leadership and motivation

Importance of Directing
  It guides and helps the subordinates to accomplish the given tasks as expected
 It provides the necessary motivation to the subordinates to complete the work
satisfactorily and striving to do the best
 It helps in maintaining discipline of the workers through the continued supervision of
their work
 Helps to integrate the various activities carried out in the organization.
 The leadership involved in directing helps to create an appropriate work environment and
build up of team work.

PROCESS OF DIRECTING/ STEPS OF DIRECTING

 Defining the objectives

 Organizing the effort
 Measuring work
 Developing people

ELEMENTS OF DIRECTING

Communication: Is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person
to another. It is a bridge of understanding. Communication involves exchange of ideas and
information in order to create mutual understanding. It is a process of telling, listening and
understanding. A manager has to explain the plans and orders to his subordinates and to
understand their problems.

He must develop a sound two- way communication system so as to be always in touch with his
subordinates. Sound communication fosters mutual understanding and coordination among
different units of the organization.

Leadership: This may be defined as a process by which a manager guides and influences the
work of subordinates in desired direction. Leadership is the process of guiding and influencing
subordinates for the accomplishment of desired goals. It involves the integration of
organizational interests with personal goals. A person can be an effective manager when he
possesses the qualities of a good leader.
It is through leadership that a manager can build up confidence and zeal among his subordinates.
In order to guide his subordinates in the desired direction, a manager should adopt an appropriate
style of leadership. The pattern and quality of leadership determines the level of motivation.
Leadership is always related to a particular situation.

Motivation: Means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the subordinates with zeal to work.
Positive, negative, monetary, non- monetary incentives may be used for this purpose. Motivation
implies inspiring the subordinates to work with zeal and confidence. No administrative action
can succeed unless the subordinates are motivated to contribute their best efforts to the common
task.

In order to activate and actuate his subordinates to work in the desired manner, a manager has to
make use of appropriate incentives. Various financial and non-financial incentives are available
to a manager for this purpose. Motivation is a continuous process of understanding and satisfying
human needs.

Supervision: This implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of
watching and directing work and workers. This is ensuring that work is being done as planned.
Every manager has to supervise the work of his subordinates to see that they do their work as
desired. Supervision is one important element of the process of directing.

But supervision is particularly important at the operating level management. The supervisor is in
direct personal contact with the workers and he acts as the link between workers and
management.

he communicates the policies, plans and orders of management to the workers

he also brings workers’ grievances, suggestions and appeals to the notice of management

effective supervision is essential for the accomplishment of desired goals.

the purpose of supervision is to ensure that subordinates perform their tasks according to
prescribed procedures and as efficiently as possible.
 CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Definition of Conflict

Conflict is an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties

Other definitions,

• A battle, contest or opposing forces existing between primitive desires and moral,
religious or ethical ideas ( Webster’s Dictionary)

• A state of incompatibility of ideas between two or more parties or individuals

Types of conflicts

• Inter-personal and intra-personal

• Inter-group and intra-group

• Competitive and Disruptive

General causes of conflicts

• Poor Communication: – little, wrong, No information

• Poorly defined goals

• Divergent personal values

• Lack of cooperation/trust
 • Competition of scarce resources

• Unclear roles/lack of job description

STAGES OF CONFLICT

1. Latent conflict.

2. Conflict Emergency.

3. Conflict Escalation.

4. Hurting/Stalemate.

5. De-escalation

6. Settlement/ Resolution

7. Post conflict peace building and reconciliation.

Latent conflict.

People have different ideas, values, personalities and needs, which can create situations where
others agree with their thoughts or actions. This in itself is not a problem, unless an event
occurs to expose these differences

Conflict Emergency

At the emergence stage, conflict starts to set in as the parties involved recognize that they have
different ideas and opinions on a given topic. The differences cause discord and tension. The
conflict may not become apparent until a "triggering event" leads to the emergency (or
beginning) of the obvious conflict.

Conflict Escalation.
If the parties involved in a conflict cannot come to a resolution, the conflict may escalate. When
a conflict escalates, it may draw more people into the situation, heightening any already
existing tension. The escalation stage is intense and during this stage people pick sides and view
their opponents as the enemy.

Stalemate(hurting)

Stalemate is the most intense stage and arises out of a conflict escalating. During the stalemate
stage, the conflict has spiraled out of control to a point where neither side is in a position to
agree to anything.

• The pain of continuing the conflict exceeds that of maintaining the confrontation, and
thus called hurting stalemate.

• By this point, participants are not willing to back down from their stances, and each side
insists that its beliefs are ultimately right.

• Even in a situation where a member of one side feels that there may be merit in the
other side’s stance, there’s an unwillingness to admit it because of a need to protect
interests.

De- Escalation.

Even the most intense conflicts calm down at some point, as one or more of the persons
involved in the conflict realize they are not likely to reach a conclusion if they continue with
their unwillingness to look at the conflict from all sides. During this stage, parties begin to
negotiate and consider coming up with a solution.

Dispute settlement/Resolution.

After hearing from all parties involved in the conflict, participants are sometimes able to come
up with a resolution for the problem they are facing. As an administrator, you may have to work
with the involved parties to settle the conflict very well by shifting the focus to what is really
important.
Post conflict/peace building.

If the parties reach a solution, it’s necessary to repair the relationships that may have been
damaged during the escalated conflict because It’s more likely that the participants used harsh
words or even fought while in the midst of the conflict.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

 Conflict management is the practice of identifying and handling a conflict in a sensible,

fair and efficient manner.

Approaches used,

1) The conflict styles.

2) The “interest-based relational approach”.

3) The tool-conflict resolution process.

1. The conflict resolution styles.

• Competition (win-lose situation)

• Accommodation (win-win situation)

• Avoidance (lose-lose situation)

• Compromise (lose-lose situation)

• Collaboration (win-win situation)

i. Competition:

• Take a firm stand, and know what you want. Operate from a position of power, drawn
from things like position, rank, expertise, or persuasive ability. This style can be useful,

 When there is an emergency and a decision needs to be made fast.

  When the decision is unpopular.

 When defending against someone who is trying to exploit the situation selfishly.

However it can leave people feeling bruised, unsatisfied and resentful when used in less urgent
situations.

ii. Collaboration.

Try to meet the needs of the parties involved. Be highly assertive, cooperate effectively and
acknowledge that everyone is important. This style is useful

• When you need to bring together a variety of viewpoints to get the best solution.

• When there have been previous conflicts in the group.

• When the situation is too important for a simple trade-off.

iii. Compromising:

Try to find a solution that will at least partially satisfy everyone. Everyone is expected to give
up something. Compromise is useful,

• When the cost of conflict is higher than the cost of losing ground.

• When equal strength opponents are at a standstill.

• When there is a deadline looming.

iv. Accommodating:

This style indicates a willingness to meet the needs of others at the expense of the person's
own needs. The accommodator often knows when to give in to others, but can be persuaded to
surrender a position even when it is not warranted. This person is not assertive but is highly
cooperative.

Accommodation is appropriate,
  When the issues matter more to the other party.

 When peace is more valuable than winning.

 When you want to be in a position to collect on this "favour" you gave.

• However people may not return favours, and overall this approach is unlikely to give the
best outcomes.

v. Avoiding:

• Seek to evade the conflict entirely, delegate controversial decisions, accept default
decisions, and don’t hurt anyone's feelings.

• This style can be appropriate,

 When victory is impossible.

 When the controversy is trivial.

 When someone else is in a better position to solve the problem.

• However in many situations this is a weak and ineffective approach to take.

2. INTEREST-BASED RELATIONAL APPROACH

This type of conflict resolution respects individual differences while helping people avoid
becoming too entrenched in a fixed position. It involves;

a. Making sure that good relationships are the first priority.

b. Keeping people and problems separate

c. Paying attention to the interests that are being presented.

d. Listening to what both parties have to say.

e. Set out the facts

 f. Explore options and solutions together.

3. USING THE TOOL: A CONFLICT RESOLUTION PROCESS

This involves the following steps,

i) Set the scene.

 Make sure that people understand that the conflict may be a mutual problem, which
may be best resolved through discussion and negotiation rather than through raw
aggression.

 If you are involved in the conflict, emphasize the fact that you are presenting your
perception of the problem. Use active listening skills to ensure you hear and understand
other's positions and perceptions.

 And make sure that when you talk, you're using an adult, assertive approach rather than
a submissive or aggressive style.

ii) Gather information

• Here you are trying to get to the underlying interests, needs, and concerns. Ask for the
other person's viewpoint and confirm that you respect his or her opinion and need his
or her cooperation to solve the problem.

• Try to understand his or her motivations and goals, and see how your actions may be
affecting these.

iii) Agree about the problem

This sounds like an obvious step, but often different underlying needs, interests and goals
can cause people to perceive problems very differently. You'll need to agree the problems that
you are trying to solve before you'll find a mutually acceptable solution.
 • Sometimes different people will see different but interlocking problems – if you can't
reach a common perception of the problem, then at the very least, you need to
understand what the other person sees as the problem.

iv) Get possible solutions.

• If everyone is going to feel satisfied with the resolution, it will help if everyone has had
fair input in generating solutions. Brainstorm possible solutions, and be open to all
ideas, including ones you never considered before.

v) Negotiate the solution.

• By this stage, the conflict may be resolved: Both sides may better understand the
position of the other, and a mutually satisfactory solution may be clear to all.

• However you may also have uncovered real differences between your positions. This is
where a technique like win-win negotiation can be useful to find a solution that, at least
to some extent, satisfies everyone.

• There are three guiding principles here: Be Calm, Be Patient, and Have Respect.

Remember these,

• Assure privacy

• Empathize than sympathize

• Listen actively

• Maintain equity

• Focus on issue, not on personality

• Avoid blame
 • Identify key theme

• Re-state key theme frequently

• Encourage feedback

• Identify alternate solutions

• Give your positive feedback

• Agree on an action plan

How to prevent conflicts

• Communicate effectively

• Frequent meeting of your team

• Allow your team to express openly

• Sharing objectives

• Having a clear and detailed job description

• Distributing task fairly (do your appointment duties, job description, task assignment)

• Never criticize team members publicly

• Always be fair and just with your team

• Being a role model

 STAFF MOTIVATION
Definition
Is an inner impulse or an internal force that initiates and directs the individual to
act in a certain manner to satisfy a need.
Motivating force is a need that comes from within an individual, like to make a
living, gain status and respect or to remove a source of frustration.
Motivation is a process which begins with a need that must be satisfied by the
individual who feels it. This results in activity and or behavior that is intended
to satisfy the need. If activity or behavior is blocked, it results in frustration.
NOTE: Job performance = Ability + Motivation.
Lack of motivation leads to job dissatisfaction which results to high turnover
rates and decreased productivity.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION
1. POSITIVE MOTIVATION
This involves proper recognition of employee efforts and appreciation of
employee contribution towards the organizational goal achievement.
Positive motivation improves the standard of performance, leads to good
team spirit and pride, a sense of cooperation and feeling of belonging and
happiness.
Examples of positive motivators
 Praise and credit for work done
 Sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates
 Delegation of authority and responsibility to subordinates
 Participation of subordinates in the decision making process.

2. NEGATIVE OR FEAR MOTIVATION

This motivation is based upon force, fear and threats. The fear of
punishment or unfavorable consequences affects behavioral changes, like
fear of failing in the exam, fear of being fired or demoted.
 However, this approach should be avoided since it creates hostile state of
mind which affects sense of loyalty and co-operation which may result in
poor performance and low productivity.
3. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
This motivation is induced by external factors which are primarily financial
in nature. These include:
 Higher pay
 Retirement plans
 Profit sharing schemes
 Health and medical insurance
 Maternity leave
 Paid vacation
4. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
This is concerned with the state of self actualization, in which satisfaction of
accomplishing something worthwhile motivates the employee further. These
are primarily non- financial rewards;
 volunteerism
 praise
 recognition
 responsibility
 esteem
 power
 status
 participation

MOTIVATION PROCESS
Steps of the motivation process
1. Analysis of the situation requiring motivation:
This involves critically analyzing the situation so as to ascertain whether
motivation is necessary. Putting in mind that members of the group have
different needs hence difference in the motivating factors/need.
2. Preparing, selecting and applying appropriate motivators
This step requires one to list all devices of motivation, a selection made of such
motivators that motivate different people under different circumstances. Proper
timing and extent of motivation is also considered.
3. Follow up on the results of application
There is need to know that the selected motivators are indeed providing the
desired motivation. This can be accomplished by getting and evaluating the
feedback. if these motivators are not showing the optimum effect, then
alternative motivation should be selected and applied.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. MONISTIC THEORY, BY TAYLOR

He believed if energetic people with high productivity learned that they earned
no more than a lazy worker, he would lose interest in hard work, and incentive
 system is needed to prevent this loss. Therefore, Taylor’s believed the more one
works, the more he/she should earn and also believes that money is the primary
motivator for all the workers.
2. MASLOW’S MODEL/THEORY BY ABRAHAM MASLOW
This theory shows hierarchical needs and how they motivate an individual in
work performance. The theory is based on two assumptions i.e.
 Human beings have many needs that are different in nature
ranging from biological needs at lower level to psychological
needs at the upper extreme.
 These needs occur in order of hierarchy so that lower level
needs must be satisfied before higher level needs arise or
become motivators.
His theory explains human behavior in a more dynamic and realistic manner and is
primarily based upon people’s inner states as a basis for motivation and
environment conditions do not play any role.
A need that is satisfied is no longer a need. Therefore this theory makes
management aware that people are motivated by a wide variety of needs and
management must provide an opportunity to satisfy these needs through creating a
physical and conceptual work environment, so that people will be motivated to
achieve organizational goals.
i. Physiological needs can be catered for by offering adequate wages and
salary. Some bonuses, life insurance, medical insurance, job security,
cost of living increment, pension plans.
HIGHER LEVEL NEEDS CAN BE SATISFIED BY:
ii. Social needs can be satisfied through providing opportunities for
employees to interact by providing coffee breaks, lunch facilities,
creating team spirit, conducting periodic meetings with subordinates.
 iii. Self esteem needs can be satisfied by designing more challenging tasks
and provide positive feedback on performance of employees, giving
recognition and encouragement for performance and contribution,
adequate training and executive development.
iv. Self actualization needs can be satisfied by giving opportunity to shape
their own jobs, freedom of expression hence opening up channels of
communication, encourage creativity.

3. HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY OF MOTIVATION

This theory emphasizes factors in the environment that contribute to the
behavior/action. According to Herzberg, two categories of factors are;
i. Hygiene or maintenance factors: these are factors that prevent
dissatisfaction at the work place.
ii. Motivation factors: these have positive effect on job satisfaction.
- Hygiene factors do not motivate people. They prevent dissatisfaction and
maintain status quo. They produce no growth but prevent loss. The absence
of these factors leads to job dissatisfaction.
The elimination of dissatisfaction factors does not mean satisfaction and simply
maintain a zero level of motivation.
Examples of these factors include: wages, salary, employee benefits, company
policies and administration rules that govern the working environment, inter-
personal relations with peers, supervisors, and subordinates.
- Motivation factors are related to the nature of work itself and are intrinsic to
the job itself. They have a positive influence on morale, satisfaction,
efficiency and higher productivity. some of the factors are;
 Job itself: people are motivated to work so as to achieve the goals of
work without absenteeism, long hours.
  Recognition: if management recognizes the employee’s work is a
motivating factor.
 Achievement, an achieved goal gives a sense of accomplishment
 Responsibility; helps employees and enables them to grow.

4. ACHIEVEMENT NEED THEORY (MCCLELLAND)

McClelland claimed that human needs are socially acquired and that humans feel
basic needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. Need for achievement is the
drive to exceed one's former accomplishments, to perform an activity more
skillfully or effectively than before. A person with high achievement need to spend
much time thinking about how to improve personal performance, how to overcome
obstacles to improvement, and what feelings will result from success and failure.
McClelland claims that a person with high achievement need to set moderate,
realistic goals enjoys problem-solving activities, and desires concrete feedback on
performance. The need for affiliation consists of a desire for friendship, love, and
belonging that causes a person to spend much time and planning how to establish
friendly personal relations. Persons' with high affiliation need are sensitive to
others' feelings, support others' ideas, and prefer jobs involving conversational give
and take. Need for power is the desire to control the means of influencing others
and resisting control by others. Persons with high power need to spend much time
thinking about how to gain authority, dominate decisions, and change others'
behavior. Such persons are likely to be articulate, demanding, and manipulative in
dealing with peers and subordinates.

5. EQUITY THEORY (ADAMS)

Adams's (1965) equity theory of motivation suggests that an employee
continuously compare her or his work inputs (skill, effort, time) and outcomes
(status, pay, privileges) with those of other employees. The employee perceives
inequity whenever her/his rewards are disproportionate to those received by other
employees for the same amount of input. Feelings of inequity motivate an
employee to resolve the inequity by reducing input, attempting to increase
outcomes, selecting a different comparison worker, or resigning. Equity does not in
any way imply equality; rather, it suggests that those employees who bring more to
the Job deserve greater rewards.

6. EXPECTANCY THEORY (VICTOR VROOM)

Victor Vroom's expectancy theory of human motivation indicates that a person's
attitudes and behavior are shaped by the degree to which they facilitate the
attainment of valued outcomes. According to Vroom's theory, the amount of an
employee's job effort depends on her or his perception of the relationship between
good performance and specific outcomes.

7. McGREGOR’S THEORY X AND Y

In any organization there are X and Y workers. Whereby;
- X workers are lazy; motivating them to work requires pushing, helping,
forcing and coarsing. Demoting, disciplining them, persuading, inspiring
them and showing them how they can manage work.
- Y workers are work fun/loving, therefore to motivate them you should
encourage them, energize them, recognize them, and give them incentives
even if small.