Bull Eng Geol Environ (2014) 73:611–619

DOI 10.1007/s10064-013-0563-7

ORIGINAL PAPER

Stabilization of clay soils using lime and effect of pH variations

on shear strength parameters
M. H. Ghobadi • Y. Abdilor • R. Babazadeh

Received: 25 July 2012 / Accepted: 26 November 2013 / Published online: 10 December 2013
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Abstract This paper presents the results of geotechnical stiffness of soft clays causes bearing capacity failure and
and mineralogical investigations on lime treated clay soils excessive settlement, leading to severe damage to buildings
from Hamedan City, Iran, and effects of pH variations on and foundations.
their shear strength parameters. Initially, lime was added in The usual method for soil stabilization is to remove the
different percentages and laboratory experiments were unsuitable soil and replace it with a stronger material.
conducted after curing times. The results indicate that these The high cost of this method has driven researchers to
soils can be stabilized satisfactorily with the addition of look for alternative methods, and one of these methods is
about 7 % lime. Also, investigation of the relationship the process of soil stabilization. In recent years, scientific
between lime-treated geotechnical properties and lime techniques of soil stabilization have been introduced
percentage and curing time demonstrates high regression (Bell 1993; Rogers et al. 1997). Stabilized soil is, in
coefficients for the proposed relationships. Several labo- general, a composite material that results from combi-
ratory tests were performed on treated and untreated clay nation and optimization of properties in individual con-
soils with lime mixed with pore fluids with different pH stituent materials (Basha et al. 2005). The techniques of
values including 3, 5, 7 and 9. The results of shear strength soil stabilization are often used to obtain geotechnical
tests indicated that the undrained shear strength parameters materials improved through the addition of such
for untreated clays increased considerably if the pore fluid cementing agents as cement, lime or industrial by-pro-
had a high pH (pH = 9) or a low pH (pH = 3). It can also ducts such as fly ash and slag, into soil. Extensive studies
be found that for lime-treated soils, maximum cohesion and have been carried out on the stabilization of soils using
friction angle values are achieved at pH = 9. various additives such as lime and cement. Lime is
widely used in civil engineering applications such as road
Keywords Clay  Lime  pH  Shear strength  construction, embankments, foundation slabs and piles
Hamedan  Iran (Al Rawas and Goosen 2006).
Extensive studies have been carried out on the stabil-
ization of clay soils using lime (Basma and Tuncer 1991;
Introduction Bell 1996; Kassim and Chern 2004; Mohamed et al.
2009; Sherwood 1993). As investigated by Sabry (1977),
Clay soils are commonly stiff in the dry state, but lose their many significant engineering properties of soft soils can
stiffness when saturated with water. Soft clays are char- be beneficially modified by lime treatment, as lime
acterized by low bearing capacity and high compressibility decreases the plasticity index, increases the workability
(Mohamed et al. 2009). The reduction in strength and and shrinkage limit, reduces shrinkage cracking, elimi-
nates almost all swelling problems, increases the Cali-
fornia Bearing Ratio (CBR) and soil strength, as well as
M. H. Ghobadi (&)  Y. Abdilor  R. Babazadeh
increases permeability of soils. In addition, lime can be
Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Bu Ali Sina
University, Mahdieh Ave., 65175-38695 Hamedan, Iran extended at deep in situ levels, either in the form of lime
e-mail: Amirghobadi@Yahoo.com column or lime injection (Okumura and Terashi 1975).

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612 M. H. Ghobadi et al.

Quick lime treatment on soft clayey soil improves sta- Materials and methods
bility and bearing capacity of soft clay. Croft (1967)
found that the addition of lime significantly reduces the The soil used for the study was clay collected from
swelling potential, liquid limit, plasticity index and southwest of Hamedan City, Iran (Fig. 1). The studied soil
maximum dry density of the soil, and increases its opti- is a residual soil that is collected at a depth of about 0.5 to
mum water content, shrinkage limit and strength. Bell 1 m, and is normally consolidated. The disturbed soil was
(1996) indicated that the optimum addition of lime nee- excavated, placed in plastic bags, and transported to the
ded for maximum modification of the soil is normally laboratory for preparation and testing. Laboratory tests
between 1 and 3 % lime by weight, and further additions were performed on the clay soils to determine basic
of lime do not bring changes in the plastic limit, but properties. The clay obtained was light brown in color, and
increase the strength. However, other studies reported the extreme precautions were taken during sampling to keep
use of lime between 2 and 8 % in soil stabilization the clay in its natural water conditions. A particle size
(Basma and Tuncer 1991). distribution curve of Hamedan clay is shown in Fig. 2. The
When lime is added to clay soils in the presence of grain size distribution of untreated (natural) soil samples
water, a number of reactions occur leading to the indicates that the soil is composed of 12 % sand, 65 % silt
improvement of soil properties. These reactions include and 23 % clay, which can be classified, according to
cation exchange, flocculation, carbonation and pozzolanic ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) D422
reaction. The cation exchange takes place between the (1990), as CL. Properties of untreated clay are shown in
cations associated with the surfaces of the clay particles Table 1. The lime used for the study is hydrated lime or
and calcium cations of the lime. The effect of cation Ca(OH)2 in the form of fine powder.
exchange and attraction causes clay particles to become In this work, a number of specimens from the natural
close to each other, forming flocs; this process is called clay samples were investigated. To investigate the effect of
flocculation. Flocculation is primarily responsible for the lime on geotechnical properties of these soils, lime was
modification of the engineering properties of clay soils added to each specimen at room temperature, in the order
when treated with lime. The lime–clay reactions depend on of 1, 3, 5 and 7 % by weight. The lime was thoroughly
several factors, such as the mineralogical composition of mixed by hand until homogeneity was reached, and the
the clay soil, the quantity of lime employed for treatment, mixture was quickly stored in a large plastic bag to prevent
the moisture content of the soil, the curing time and the loss of moisture content. After preparing the mixture of soil
temperature (Sherwood 1993). and lime, curing time was allowed. At the end of the curing
Broderick and Daniel (1990) reported that the lime and time (7, 15, 30 and 45 days), the remolding operation for
cement stabilized soils are less vulnerable to attack by specimens’ preparation for uniaxial compressive and direct
organic chemicals in comparison to untreated soils. shear test in maximum dry density was performed, and
Furukawa et al. (1994) investigated the variation of the lime-treated soil specimens were tested. The mineralogy of
engineering properties of freshly cement-stabilized the clay and non-clay minerals of the soil used were
decomposed granite soil cured in water and in 0.2 N acid identified by the X-ray diffraction technique (XRD). Semi-
solution, and indicated that the CBR obtained from the quantitative estimation of clay minerals was based on peak
specimens cured in the 0.2 N acid solution was lower areas, and on peak height for non-clay minerals, as pro-
than that cured in water. The strong alkaline conditions posed by Pierce and Siegel (1969).
were able to release silica and alumina from the clay The geotechnical experiments conducted in the present
mineral and eventually react with lime to form new study include grain size analysis, unconfined compressive
cementation products. The success of the lime treatment tests and compaction test. All tests were conducted in
process is highly dependent on the available lime content, accordance with the ASTM (1990–2000).
curing time, soil type, soil pH and clay minerals (Kassim
and Chern 2004). Limited research has been conducted to
determine whether pH variations will affect properties of Results and discussion
lime-stabilized soils. Additional studies are therefore
necessary to explain the erosion mechanism of lime-sta- Mineralogical analysis
bilized soils due to pH variations. Before studying pH
variation effects on strength parameters of clay soils, the In this section, the results of XRD on the soil used are briefly
additive content of lime required was determined, based presented. The results of XRD on the untreated soil speci-
on the uniaxial compressive strengths and compaction mens indicated that kaolinite, illite and cholorite were the
tests obtained from stabilized soils having various addi- principal clay minerals of the soil sediment (Fig. 3). Other
tive contents. non-clay minerals were also detected in the bulk samples,

123
Stabilization of clay soils using lime 613

Fig. 1 Location map of the study area

Fig. 2 Grain size distribution

of Hamedan clay

including quartz and feldspar. As can be seen in Figs. 4, 5

and 6, XRD of the lime-treated soil illustrated that a relative
decrease in peak intensities of kaolinite, illite and cholorite
was observed with increasing lime percent. This is attributed
to the pozzolanic reactions of lime with these minerals,
leading to the destruction of their structure. Meanwhile,
kaolinite showed a lesser rate of decreased relative peak
intensity with increasing lime content than those of illite and
cholorite, which can be attributed to the relative stability of
kaolinite compared with other clay minerals.
Fig. 3 XRD results for natural clay
Compaction test

The compaction characteristics of clay soils were studied in moisture content were carried out on soils after 7, 15, 30
the laboratory using standard Proctor test based on the and 45 days, after mixing with 1, 3, 5 and 7 % lime by
ASTM D698 (2000). Compaction tests to determine the weight. The results are plotted in Fig. 7a, b in the form of
effect of lime on maximum dry density and optimum maximum dry density and optimum moisture content

123
614 M. H. Ghobadi et al.

Table 1 Basic properties of untreated clay

Property Value

Natural moisture content (%) 9.2

Color Light brown
Clay (%) 23
Silt (%) 65
Sand (%) 12
LL (%) 32
LP (%) 22
IP (%) 10 Fig. 6 XRD results for treated clay with 7 % lime
Specify gravity 2.55
Maximum dry density (g/cm3) 1.74 The following reasons could explain this behavior: (1)
Optimum moisture content (%) 19.6 the lime causes aggregation of the particles to occupy
Uniaxial compressive strength (KPa) 14.2 larger spaces, and hence alters the effective grading of the
Soil classification CL soils; (2) the specific gravity of lime is generally lower than
the specific gravity of soils tested; (3) the pozzolanic
reaction between the clay present in the soils and the lime
is responsible for the increase in optimum moisture
content.

Uniaxial compressive strength

The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of untreated clay

was estimated to be around 14.24 kPa, which indicates a
very soft soil. In order to investigate the effect of lime on
uniaxial compression strength of these soils, tests were
carried out according to ASTM D2166 (2000) on clayey
Fig. 4 XRD results for treated clay with 3 % lime samples mixed with different percentages of lime. The
amount of lime added to the clay was in the range of
1–7 %. To prepare the specimens for uniaxial compressive
strength test, at the end of the each curing time, the samples
were remolded in maximum dry density derived from
compaction test (1.74 g/cm3), and then samples were tes-
ted. The results show that the stress–strain curves of
untreated soils exhibit a continuous deformation until a
steady state is reached; with no true failure points observed
(Fig. 8). This is in agreement with the behavior of normally
consolidated soils, which do not exhibit pronounced stress–
strain peaks. Figure 8 also shows that the stress–strain
curves of lime-treated soils exhibit gradual pronounced
Fig. 5 XRD results for treated clay with 5 % lime peaks, depending on the lime percent and curing time,
which are attributed to the cementation of soil particles due
versus lime content. The results obtained from the study to pozzolanic reactions mentioned earlier.
show that with increasing lime content, maximum dry It can also be seen from Fig. 9a, b that UCS increases
density shows a decreasing trend and reduced ratio with the increase of lime percent and curing time. For
depending on the lime content and curing time. It can also example, with the addition of 7 % lime, a considerable
be seen from Fig. 7b that optimum moisture content improvement in UCS was achieved after a curing time of
increases with the increase of lime percent and curing time. 30 days. Therefore, the optimum lime content and proper
Similar behaviour was observed by other researchers for curing time for lime-treated soils is at least 7 % and
lime-stabilized clayey soils (Hossain et al. 2007; Rahman 30 days, respectively. Figure 10 also shows that elastic
1986; Ola 1977; George 1976; Bell 1996; Gay and Schad modulus (Es) increases with the increase of lime content.
2000). As shown in Fig. 9b, an increase in curing time has not

123
Stabilization of clay soils using lime 615

a
Maximum dry density (gr/cm3)

1.8
1.78 7 Day
1.76 15 Day
1.74 30 Day
1.72
45 Day
1.7
1.68
1.66
1.64
1.62
1.6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Lime (%)

Fig. 7 The effect of lime content on a maximum dry density,

b optimum moisture content

resulted in any significant increase in strength of treated

soil, and also there is a reduction in strength when curing
time is 45 days. The reason for this phenomenon could be
that because sample preparation, compaction and remold-
ing is done after curing period, the bonds and cohesion
between soil particles caused by the addition of lime may
be destroyed.

Statistical analysis of test results

A multiple regression analysis using SPSS software, ver-

sion 17 was carried out to obtain the relationships that
correlate the geotechnical properties of lime-treated soils
(i.e. unconfined compressive strength, modulus of elastic- Fig. 8 Stress-strain curves of untreated and lime-treated clay soils for
ity, maximum dry density and optimum moisture content) curing time of a 7 days, b 15 days, c 30 days and d 45 days
with the curing time (t) and lime content (%LC). The
following equations were derived: useful in the sense that they give a quick guide to the
UCS ¼ 29:216 þ 6:93LCð%Þ  0:146t ðDaysÞ ð1Þ characteristics of lime-treated soft clay soils.

E ¼ 0:164 þ 0:033LCð%Þ  0:009t ðDaysÞ ð2Þ

cd ¼ 1:8  0:016LCð%Þ  0:001t ðDaysÞ ð3Þ Effect of pH variations on soil shear strength
parameters
xopt ¼ 19:33 þ 0:317LCð%Þ þ 0:029t ðDaysÞ ð4Þ
Strong coefficients of correlation, r, between the measured The undrained shear strength of clays is an important
and predicted values using the above equations were geotechnical parameter used during construction processes.
obtained and found to be equal to: 0.83, 0.80, 0.92 and 0.73 It is also important for foundations in clayey soil, as it is
for UCS, Es, dry density and optimum moisture content, often assumed that a clayey deposit will take longer to
respectively (see Fig. 11a–d). The above equations are consolidate than the construction period/application of

123
616 M. H. Ghobadi et al.

Fig. 9 a Effects of lime percent a 80

and b Effects of curing time on
unconfined compressive 70
strength 60

UCS (KPa)
50

40
7 Day
30
15 Day
20 30 Day
10 45 Day
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Lime (%)

80
b
70
60
UCS (KPa)

50
40
1%
30
3%
20
5%
10
7%
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Curing time (Day)

0.5 dissolution processes and changes in the surface electrical

Elastic modulus (MPa)

0.4
properties of clays in response to changes in pH are
involved. The influence of pH on kaolinite dissolution
0.3
works in two different ways: at low pH, aluminum disso-
0.2 7 Day ciates preferentially (Wieland and Stumm 1992), while at
0.1
15 Day
high pH, silica dissociates preferentially (Brady and
30 Day
45 Day Walther 1989). For kaolinite, the isomorphic substitutions
0 are negligible as they show few permanent charges
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Lime (%) (5–25 cmol kg-1), i.e. the overall surface charge of kao-
linite is neutral. However, edge charges are of great sig-
Fig. 10 Effects of lime percent on the modulus of elasticity nificance. For a kaolinite edge face area of 1–10 m2/g, the
development of one positive charge amounts to
load. In view of this, enhancement of the undrained shear 0.4–4 cmol kg-1 (White 1997; Gajo and Maines 2007).
strength by varying the pH of the pore fluids could be a Therefore, highly pH-dependent edge surface charges
useful way of accelerating the construction process, but characterize the behavior of such clays. The edge surfaces
very little data regarding such a relationship have been become positive at low pH values due to the adsorption of
found in the literature. Wang and Siu (2006) observed that H? ions, and more negative at high pH values due to the
kaolinite increases its compressibility at high pH values adsorption of OH- ions (Gratchev and Sassa 2009). As a
due to edge-to-face (EF) association. Gori (1994) studied consequence of bonding or the elimination of protons, the
the influence of pH on the Atterberg limits of kaolinite and charge of the edges becomes dependent on the pH values.
concluded that the liquid limit of kaolinite is not dependent In acid ranges, positive edge charges are generated through
upon the pH of pore fluids, because it is not related to the an excess of protons, which are compensated through
double layer of such clays (Sridharan and Prakash 1999; anions. With increasing pH, the density of charge decrea-
Gori 1994). ses. The edge becomes slowly uncharged, because
From this brief literature review, it is suggested that pH increasing negative edge charges generate through disso-
potentially influences the mechanical resistance of clays. It ciation of Si–OH, and in the stronger alkaline range,
is not clear, however, which main mechanisms are leading through Al–OH dissociation. This is a typical situation for
to such changes. Santamarina et al. (2002) suggest kaolinite. Therefore, the edge-to-face (E–F) flocculation

123
Stabilization of clay soils using lime 617

a 90 Table 2 The effect of pH variations on cohesion and friction angle

80 R2 = 0.83 values of Hamedan untreated clay soils
Observed values

70
60 pH Cohesion (KPa) Friction angle (deg)
50
40
30 3 34.21 17
20 5 30 13
10
0 7 28.5 12
15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
9 45.26 19
Predicted values

b 0.45
0.5
R 2 = 0.804
Observed values

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Predicted values

c 1.85
Observed values

1.8
R 2 = 0.922
1.75
1.7
1.65
1.6 Fig. 12 The relationship between pH pore fluids and undrained
1.55 cohesion of clay soils
1.5
1.62 1.64 1.66 1.68 1.7 1.72 1.74 1.76 1.78 1.8
Predicted values
and were conducted on treated and untreated samples
d 23.5 compacted at maximum dry density and optimum moisture
23
Observed values

R2 = 0.732 content. The normal stress was chosen to be 0.5, 1.0 and
22.5
22 2.0 kg for all the specimens. The results of tests indicate
21.5
that the undrained shear strength parameters for untreated
21
20.5 clays increased considerably if the pore fluid had a high pH
20 (pH = 9) or a low pH (pH = 3). The results of undrained
19.5
19.5 20 20.5 21 21.5 22 22.5 23 shear strength for untreated soils are shown in Table 2 and
Predicted values Figs. 12 and 13.
As can be seen in Fig. 12, for untreated clay soils at high
Fig. 11 The relationship between observed and predicted values:
a UCS, b elastic modulus, c dry density and d optimum moisture
and low pH, the undrained shear cohesion reaches 35 and
content 45 kPa. According to Jasmund and Lagaly (1993), through
the addition of NaOH, a negative charge at the edges arises
and edge (-)/face (?) contact occurs, such that the viscous
prevails at low pH, while the face-to-face (F–F) associa- resistance increases. This phenomenon has led to an
tions predominate at high pH. In this research, several increase in shear strength parameters of soils. The possible
laboratory tests were performed on untreated and treated mechanism that could be accepted in relation to increasing
lime clay soils mixed with pore fluids with different pH shear strength parameters in low pH values has been
values. The pH was determined using a combined glass explained by Brandenburg and Lagaly (1988). According
electrode (portable pH-meter). The pH values that were to this assumption, due to occurrences of edge-to-face
used in this study varied from 3 to 9 using 1 M HCl or 1 M flocculation at pH lower than 4 and an increment in H?
NaOH solutions to control the pH. concentration, the materials become slightly stiffer than
when the pore fluid is only water.
Effect of pH variations on untreated soils
Effect of pH variations on lime: treated soils
In order to investigate the relationship between pH varia-
tions and shear strength parameters of untreated soils, In order to investigate the pH effect on lime-treated soils,
direct shear tests were performed following ASTM D 6528, soils treated at curing time of 30 days and lime percent of

123
618 M. H. Ghobadi et al.

west of Iran, were investigated and discussed. Lime was

added in the order of 1, 3, 5 and 7 % by weight, and
experiments after 7, 15, 30 and 45 days were conducted.
Relationships that correlate the geotechnical properties of
lime-treated soils were developed. In addition, the
research explored the influence and the effect of the pH
of pore fluids on the shear strength of clay soils. The
study has led to the following conclusions regarding
lime-treated clay soil.
X-ray diffraction technique of the lime-treated soil
illustrated that a relative decrease in peak intensities of
kaolinite, illite and cholorite was observed with increasing
Fig. 13 The effect of pH variations on the friction angle of clay soils
lime percent. This is attributed to the pozzolanic reactions
of lime with these minerals, leading to the destruction of
their structure. The results obtained from the study show
Table 3 The effect of pH variations on cohesion and friction angle
values of Hamedan clay soils that with increasing lime content, maximum dry density
shows a decreasing trend and reduced ratio depending on
pH Cohesion (KPa) Friction angle (deg)
the lime content. In addition, the unconfined compressive
3 19.2 23 strength of soil can be increased by nearly five times by the
5 18 22 addition of at least 7 % lime after a curing time of 30 days.
7 23 26 Also, a remarkable improvement in modulus of elasticity
9 35.17 31 can be achieved by the addition of lime, depending on the
curing time. Overall, the research reported in this study
proves that soft Hamedan clay can be stabilized satisfac-
7 % were selected. Shear strength parameters of these soils torily with the addition of at least 7 % lime after 30 days of
were determined using direct shear tests in different pH curing time.
values of pore water (pH = 3, 5, 7 and 9). The results of In order to investigate the effect of pH on shear strength
direct shear tests performed on lime treated soils are shown of treated and untreated soils, shear strength parameters of
in Table 3. With a decrease in pH, the free Ca2? ions were these soils were determined using direct shear test in dif-
almost completely leached and the adsorbed Ca2? ions ferent pH values of pore water (pH = 3, 5, 7 and 9). Based
began to leach. This change resulted in a significant on the results of undrained shear strength tests for untreated
decrease in the strength of the stabilized soils. The shear clays, it was found that the undrained shear strength
strength parameters decreased considerably when the pH parameters would increase considerably if the pore fluid
values decreased to less than 3.0. The free and absorbed, had a high pH (pH = 9) or a low pH (pH = 3). At an acid
even hydrated, Ca2? ions were sharply released to leach pH, this behavior could be related to the increased disso-
under the increased acidic condition (pH = 3) and this lution of Al3?, which acts as a coagulant increasing the
reaction caused a great decrease in strength (Kamon et al. internal resistance, whereas at an alkaline pH, the
1996). As can be seen in Figs. 12 and 13, the values of increasing ionic strength favors face-to-face aggregation.
undrained cohesion and friction angle increased with an In order to investigate the pH effect on lime-treated
increase in the pH values of the pore fluid. The maximum soils, soils treated at a curing time of 30 days and lime
cohesion and friction angle values were achieved at pH 9. percent of 7 % were selected. The results of direct shear
This relationship explained the fact that the neutralization test in different pH values of pore water (pH = 3, 5, 7 and
of lime-stabilized soils resulted in a decrease in shear 9) indicated that with a decrease in pH, the free Ca2? ions
strength parameters. It is evident that the alkalinity is an were almost completely leached and the adsorbed Ca2?
effective agent for stabilization of clay soils. ions began to leach. This change resulted in a significant
decrease in the strength of the stabilized soils. The shear
strength parameters decreased considerably when the pH
Conclusions values decreased to less than 3.0. It was also found that
maximum cohesion and friction angle values were
The results of geotechnical and mineralogical investiga- achieved at pH 9. It is evident that the alkalinity is an
tion on lime-treated soft clay soils from Hamedan City, effective agent for stabilization of clay soils.

123
Stabilization of clay soils using lime 619

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