UNIT 26

THE EXPRESSION OF DOUBT, CONDITION, HYPOTHESIS AND

CONTRAST

0. INTRODUCTION.
1. A LINGUISTIC FRAMEWORK
2. A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE NOTIONS OF DOUBT, CONDITION, HYPOTHESIS AND
CONTRAST.
2.1. PHRASE, SENTENCE AND CLAUSE STRUCTURE.
2.2. SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
2.3. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES: MAIN TYPES.
2.3.1. Syntactic classification.
2.3.2. Semantic classification.
3. THE EXPRESSION OF DOUBT.
3.1. VERBS.
3.1.1. Lexical verbs.
3.1.2. Auxiliary verbs.
3.2. NOUNS.
3.3. ADJECTIVES.
3.4. ADVERBS.
3.5. SPECIFIC SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES.
4. THE EXPRESSION OF CONDITION AND HYPOTHESIS.
4.1. DEFINITION: DIRECT VS. INDIRECT CONDITION.
4.2. THE FIRST TYPE: OPEN CONDITIONAL.
4.3. THE SECOND TYPE: HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONAL.
4.4. THE THIRD TYPE: PAST HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONAL.
4.5.OTHER CONDITIONAL TYPES.
4.6. COMMON POINTS TO REMEMBER.
5. THE EXPRESSION OF CONTRAST.
5.1. VERBS.
5.2. NOUNS.
5.3. ADJECTIVES.
5.4. ADVERBS.
5.5. CONJUNCTIONS.
5.6. PREPOSITIONS.
5.7. SPECIFIC SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES.
6. CONCLUSION
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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0. INTRODUCTION

This unit is primarily aimed to examine in English the expression of doubt, condition,
hypothesis and contrast in terms of their main structural features regarding form, function
and main uses in order to provide a relevant and detailed account of this issue.
In order to develop this paper we will first establish the linguistic framework and the basic
notions regarding this unit. In doing so, we shall concentrate not only on the grammatical
and structural elements through which these concepts are realized, but we shall also
emphasize the importance of meaning. Hence, semantics and pragmatics will also be
considered. In the following sections each of the concepts proposed, doubt, condition and
hypothesis will be studied in depth paying special attention to the main uses and
realizations of each of the concepts.
This paper has been foregrounded on some of the most relevant scholars in the field, Flor
Aarts and Jan Aarts, English Syntactic Structures(1988), whose material has been tested in
the classroom and developed over a number of years; and that of Thomson & Martinet, A
Practical English Grammar (1986). Furthermore, Quirk & Greenbaum, A University Grammar
of English (1973); and Quirk et al., A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language
(1985) have also been used.

1. A LINGUISTIC FRAMEWORK

In order to offer a linguistic description of the expression of doubt, condition, hypothesis

and contrast at sentence level, we must confine it to particular levels of analysis so as to
focus our attention on this particular aspect of language. Yet, although there is no
consensus of opinion on the number of levels to be distinguished, the usual description of a
language comprises four major components: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics,
out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical, and
semantic. However, we shall include here the field of pragmatics within our analysis since it
is a central element so as to fully understand the items to be described.
When answering the question of what they represent in linguistic terms, we deal with the
morphology and phonology of their elements within the phrase structure at sentence level
(i.e. pauses, stress, rhythm, tone and intonation in nouns, adverbs or prepositions), whereas
the how they are represented refers to the different grammatical categories (i.e.
conjunctions, nouns phrases, prepositional phrases, adverb phrases) and syntactic types of
sentences (or clauses) in which they are embedded.
Following Traditional Grammar guidelines, the expression of doubt, condition, hypothesis
and contrast is given by the grammatical category of adverbs, and therefore, adverbial
phrases which are classified according to their main semantic roles: space (position,
direction, goal, source, distance) , time (position, forward and backward position,
relationship in time), process (manner, means, instrument, and agency), degree (or
quantity) (emphasizers, amplifiers, downtoners), and finally, for our purposes, the notions
of (1) contingency where we find the relations of cause, reason, purpose, result, condition
and concession and (2) modality, by means of which the truth value of a sentence can be
changed by the use of adverbials or modal auxiliaries (may not). The hypothesis expression
is conveyed within the conditional guidelines, since it is part of it (third conditional:
hypothetical situations).

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Moreover, the former three notions are also classified according to their syntactic function
in conditional, hypothetical, and concessive clauses, which are embedded under the
category of contingency clauses as conjuncts, disjuncts and adjuncts whereas the
expression of doubt is mainly achieved by means of modal auxiliaries (Quirk & Greenbaum,
1973). Hence, at a pragmatic level, their combinations describe different situations, such as
'uncertain' statements (He may not be at home by now); 'conditions' put forward by the
speaker which refer to facts, scientific statements or true events (i.e. Water boils
100°C/Dogs hate cats); 'hypothesis' on certain conditions (i.e. If I had been here on time,
nothing would have happened); and finally, 'contrasts' or 'opposite views' between ideas,
facts or situations (i.e. He is so kind whereas his brother is really mean).

2. A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE NOTIONS OF DOUBT, CONDITION, HYPOTHESIS AND

CONTRAST

We shall start by revising some important notions which are closely related to the
description of sentence structures: for instance,
(1) the difference between phrase, clause and sentence since these three notions
may lead us to misunderstandings;
(2) the difference between simple, complex and compound sentences; and
(3) a brief typology of adverbs following syntactic and semantic guidelines within
adverbial clauses in order to locate the notions of doubt, condition, hypothesis and
contrast, which will be described in the subsequent sections.

2.1. Phrase, sentence and clause structure

We refer to the distinction between phrase, sentence and clause structure at a functional
level where they will function first, in terms of single units of syntactic description within the
structure of the phrase (noun phrase, adjective phrase, verb phrase, etc) and second, in
terms of larger units as part of the structure of the sentence (subject and predicate) or
embedded in the sentence structure, that is, clauses (subordinate).
Following Aarts (1988), these larger structures are, apart form the morpheme and the word,
"two major units of grammatical description". But let us examine their main differences.
First, the phrase structure is defined as a constituent which can be identified on the basis of
the word class membership of at least one of its constituent words which is called the 'head'
of the phrase (i.e. adverbial phrase). Note that the other elements show a relation of
dependency or subordination to the head (in noun phrases we find: determiners which are
divided into pre-central post determiners and modifiers: pre or post modifiers) and usually
determine the type of clause they are introducing by their own meaning (although:
concessive; in case: conditional ...).
Second, the sentence is actually identifiable on the basis of the relations holding among its
immediate constituents (subject, predicate, direct/indirect object, complement, adverbial,
and so on). It is the largest unit of grammatical description and that it does not function in
the structure of a unit higher than itself, we are ready to understand the duality sentence
vs. clause by means of two further possibilities.
Hence, when sentences are embedded in the structure of other sentences or in the
structure of phrases we call them 'clauses', which usually corresponds to the notions of
subordination (or embedding) and coordination. Note that clauses can have other clauses

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embedded in them, as in 'That she is rich is obvious' or 'The problem is that they have no
money left'.

2.2. Simple, complex and compound sentences

Up to this point, we shall approach the notion of sentence regarding the established
typology between simple, complex and compound sentences since quite often, the sentence
has been described as an indeterminate unit in the sense that it is difficult to establish
where one sentence ends and another begins.
Simple sentences can be defined as "a sentence in which none of the functions are realized
by a clause" (Aarts, 1988), that is, a simple sentence does not contain an embedded (or
subordinate) sentence as realization of one of its functions (i.e. He likes science fiction
films). In addition, a simple sentence is always an independent sentence which can occur on
its own (i.e. John is a bachelor vs. He says that John is a bachelor).
On the other hand, the complex sentence is defined as "those sentences in which one or
more sentence functions are realized by a clause (finite or non-finite)" (Aarts, 1988). Then a
complex sentence (or a clause) may contain one or more clauses in a relationship of
subordination (i.e. I wonder if you would tell me where my keys are). This type of clauses
can, in turn, contain more deeply embedded clauses (i.e. He went out although I begged him
not to leave).
Hence clauses can be classified in two ways. First, from a structural point of view by
distinguishing three types: finite clauses (i.e. If we go, we'll phone you); non-finite clauses
(i.e. Supposing that you want to go, just phone us); and verbless clauses (i.e. A heavy
smoker, David did not give up smoking). Secondly, in terms of the functions they play in the
structure of the sentence, for our purposes, as adverbial clauses (i.e. Without the support of
my Department, it would have been impossible to do it). As we shall see later, we shall
namely deal with this type for our study.
Finally, following Aarts (1988), compound sentences are defined as "a sentence in which
two or more sentences have been coordinated". Note that each of the sentences is
independent since there is no question of embedding. Thus, a compound sentence may
consist of (1) two (or more) simple sentences (i.e. Oil is now more expensive and that will
affect our economy); (2) a combination of simple and complex sentences (i.e. If he believes
that, he must be mad); and (3) two (or more) complex sentences (i.e. He must believe what I
say about the case and that is what matters now).

2.3. Adverbial clauses: main types

Since the expression of doubt, condition, hypothesis and contrast is to be realized by
means of adverbs, we have to deal first with the different types of adverbs and therefore,
the typology of adverbial phrases and clauses which are derived from this grammatical
category.
Adverbs can also be classified according to their main functions whereby we may find for
our purposes two main types:
(1) the syntactic function, which is related to the structure and position of adverbial phrases
at the sentence level;
(2) the semantic function, which is related to intrinsic aspects of adverbs since the intended
meaning is usually indicated by the introductory adjunct, conjunct or disjunct.

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 2.3.1. Syntactic classification
Regarding the syntactic function, adverbs, as seen, play their role within a larger linguistic
structure in order to modify verbs, adjectives, and nouns by means of other categories as
well. Consequently, both function and word class are relevant for our present purposes and
we shall examine the expression of doubt, condition, hypothesis and contrast through the
notion of adverbial phrase, an essential element in syntactic analysis.
An adverbial phrase is a constituent which can be identified on the basis of the word class
membership of adverbs, in this particular case, the relationship it holds among its
immediate constituents is referred to as sentence level. Following Quirk et al. (1990), in
terms of their grammatical functions, adverbs fall into four main categories: disjuncts,
conjuncts, subjuncts and adjuncts, which later on will lead us to the semantic classification
of adjuncts.
Briefly, we can make a further distinction among them, in which disjuncts and conjuncts
have a peripheral relation in the sentence vs. subjuncts and adjuncts which are relatively
more integrated within the structure of the clause. Note that although subjuncts have a
subordinate and parenthetic role in comparison with adjuncts, they lack the grammatical
parity with other sentence elements and therefore we shall not include them in our study.
Thus, syntactically, disjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence, being somewhat
detached from and superordinate to the rest of the sentence. We identify them because
most of them are prepositional phrases or clauses which express the speaker's authority for,
or comment on, the accompanying clause since they function as 'comment' words and are
used to express consequence: i.e. If I may say so without giving you offence, I think your
writing is immature.
Conjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence, being somewhat detached from and
superordinate to the rest of the sentence. We identify them because they serve to conjoin
two utterances or parts of an utterance, and they do so by expressing at the same time the
semantic relationship obtaining between them, for instance, contrastive (reformulatory -in
other words antithetic -instead-; concessive -still-). Our four notions are commonly
introduced by the conjunctions (or subordinators) "although", "if/unless" or "still+comma"
as in "My age is against me: still, it's worth a try" or "Although I look older, it's worth a try".
And finally, adjuncts function as constituents of a clause or sentence by means of finite and
non-finite clauses. Adjuncts, more than other adverbials, have grammatical properties
resembling the sentence elements subject, complement and object and as such, can be the
focus of a cleft sentence1 (i.e. Supposing your car breaks down at midnight, can you mend it
yourself?).

2.3.2. Semantic classification

Following Aarts (1988), the syntactic classification brings about the semantic function. As
stated before, CONJUNCTS function as the connecting link between the sentence in which
they occur and the preceding context. Semantically, they may express listing (in the first
place, secondly; furthermore, moreover), summative (therefore, in sum, to sum up),
appositive (for example, that is, i.e., specifically, in particular), resultive (as a result, in

1
The structure of a cleft sentence allows a writer to emphasize a part of a sentence in the same way that a speaker can emphasize part of a
sentence using voice stress. We could say "Coach CALHOUN came up with the program of recruiting players from foreign countries." and
by stressing the word "Calhoun" we let the listener know that we're distinguishing this coach from all others (in this particular context). To
create the same kind of stress in writing, we can "cleave" (split) the sentence into two parts: It was Coach Calhoun who came up with the
program of recruiting players from foreign countries.

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consequence), inferential (in that case, then ), transitional references (by the way, now;
meanwhile, eventually ); and, for our purposes, contrastive (better; on the contrary, on the
other hand; however, nevertheless, yet), DISJUNCTS express an evaluation of what is being
said either with respect to the form of the communication or to its meaning. They usually
function as 'comment' words, whereby they provide the speaker's comment on the content
or form of the utterance (i.e. If I may say so you do not look good today). Semantically
speaking, the semantic roles of disjuncts fall under two main headings: manner and
modality, and respect. Regarding modality, we find the nuances of emphasis, restriction and
approximation. It is the latter one which brings about the notion of 'probability' or
'uncertainty' (as well as modal auxiliaries), for instance, "They are probably going to
emigrate'".
On the other hand, ADJUNCTS add extra information to the action by means of descriptions
about place (at the station), time (yesterday morning), manner (with patience/in jeans),
means (by bike), instrument (with a fork) or, for our purposes, contingency, with respect to
condition (i.e. If he trains everyday, he will get fit very soon) and concession (i.e. Though he
trains everyday, he doesn't get fit).

3. THE EXPRESSION OF DOUBT

The expression of 'doubt' implies the notions of 'uncertainty of mind', that is, 'doubts about
something that we are not certain about' because we hesitate to believe in its existence
(physical or theoretical). By expressing doubt, we make statements less assertive since we
hesitate to believe in the information conveyed. In English we can convey different degrees
of doubt by using different grammatical categories, for instance, an assertive sentence like
"Mark is at home" may convey doubt by using adverbs, nouns (noun phrases), modal
auxiliary verbs or specific constructions, thus:
• "I doubt that he is at home",
• "He may be at home",
• "He is probably at home",
• "He might be at home",
• "It's possible that he is at home",
• "It's possible for him to be at home",
• "He is believed to be at home" or
• "There is a possibility that he is at home".
Therefore, we shall approach the expression of doubt in terms of grammatical categories
and specific syntactic constructions.
The expression of doubt may be conveyed by means of grammatical categories, both open
and closed classes, that is, through verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs (open) and also,
through prepositions and auxiliary verbs (close) among others.

3.1. Verbs
First of all, we must establish a relevant distinction regarding this open class category.
Following Quirk and Greenbaum (1973) and Aarts (1988), the two major types of verbs are
lexical and auxiliary, both belonging to two different grammatical categories, for instance,
the former constitute an open class where the latter constitute a closed class. Moreover,
since auxiliary verbs fall into the further distinction of primary auxiliaries and modal
auxiliaries, both subclassifications also belong to the small closed class (Quirk et al. 1990).

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Therefore, when dealing with doubt, we shall focus on both lexical (or full verbs) and on
those modal auxiliary verbs which convey the meaning under study (can, could, may, might,
shall, will, could , ... ) Moreover, we shall also find primary auxiliary verbs in combination
with the closed classes of prepositions since certain verb constructions need of periphrastic
forms to be realized (i.e. He is thought to be at home ).

3.1.1. Lexical verbs

Then, within the category of lexical verbs, we may find those which convey a certain amount
of scepticism towards the information referred to and have a kind of negative meaning,
such as 'doubt', 'disbelieve', 'question', 'review' and so on. Moreover, we may find some
verbs which express doubt in a degree scale, such as 'think-imagine-claim' (i.e. I
think/imagine/claim he is at home). Also, these verbs may be used in their negative forms
just to call into question the validity of a preceding utterance (i.e. I don't believe it/I don't
think so).

3.1.2. Auxiliary verbs

In this section we shall examine the auxiliary verbs within their semantic function, that is,
the different meanings they have with respect to the expression of doubt and their use in
everyday speech. It must be borne in mind that meaning establishes relevant differences in
use and significance, and in particular when dealing with people's attitude or personal point
of view about events or facts, as for our purposes, doubt. Within the field of semantics,
modals are said to show people's attitude and intention towards other people or events
through a wide range of ideas, nuances and concepts within different contexts, for instance,
to express a variety of circumstances when dealing with uncertainty and possibility.
We use may, might, can, could to express possibility in general and in this section we will
approach the slight differences among them. Thus, regarding the first pair, although 'may'
and 'might' normally express possibility, the latter slightly increases the doubt. Again,
although both of them are used for present and future (i.e. She may/might tell her
husband), 'might' must be used in the conditional when the expression is introduced by a
verb in the past tense (i.e. If you invited them they might come ) and in indirect speech (i.e.
He said he might visit us).
Moreover, 'may' and 'might' can be used in conditional sentences instead of 'will' and
'would' just to indicate the 'possibility' or 'certainty' of a result (i.e. If they see you they will
smile at you=certainty vs. If they see you they may smile at you=possibility ). When we say
that something was possible in the past, we can use either 'may/might' + perfect infinitive
(i.e. Where is Tom? - He may/might have gone already). 'Could' + perfect infinitive can also
mean that something was possible but didn't happen (i.e. The police could have caught him
= but they didn't catch him yet).
As we can see, 'may' and 'might' present no problems in the affirmative and negative form,
but they do with the interrogative forms since we must use the constructions 'be + likely'
(infinite form) or 'think', which are more usual than 'may' and 'might' (i.e. Do you think/Is it
likely that the plane will land on time?). Moreover, this pair can be used in speculations
about past actions using the structure 'may/might' + perfect infinitive (i.e. They may/might
have been here).
Secondly, regarding 'could' we can say it is an alternative to 'may' and 'might' (i.e. She
may/might/could be at the bank=Perhaps she is at the bank) in the affirmative form. In the
negative, though, there a difference of meaning between 'may/might' and 'could' since the

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former express possibility whereas the latter expresses negative deduction. For instance,
observe: 'He may/might not eat that sandwich meaning that perhaps he is not hungry any
more vs. 'He couldn't eat that sandwich' meaning that perhaps it is impossible for him to eat
it because of its size, taste, or whatever reason. In the interrogative we can use either
'could' or 'might' (i.e. Could/Might she be studying?= Do you think/Is it likely that she is
studying?).
Note that in the past, we use the construction 'could' + perfect infinitive to express that
something was totally impossible (i.e. He couldn't have eaten that sandwich). Moreover, we
often use the continuous form 'may/might/could + have been + -ing' to talk about a past
possibility (i.e. He didn't come to the party. He may/might/could have been sleeping).
Finally, 'can' is also used to express general possibility in the present and past only , and
chiefly in the affirmative. 'Can' makes reference to something that it is possible because
circumstances permit it in opposition to the kind of possibility expressed by 'may' (i.e. You
can go sailing = It is sunny ,the sea is calm and therefore, it is safe). Moreover, 'can' can also
express occasional possibility (i.e. Oysters can be quite dangerous = when eating them out of
date). 'Could' would be then used in the past (i.e. They could be quite understanding ).
Moreover, we must establish another relevant distinction between the notions of certainty
and deduction by means of can't and must, since we normally use 'can't' when we realize
that something is impossible (i.e. Patrick can't be in Greece now. I saw him at work this
morning) and 'must' when we realize that something is certainly true or we make
deductions (i.e. Nobody answered the phone. They must be out). Note the short answers, for
instance, 'Do you dare to jump?- Do not insist. She can't do it' and 'Is she in? - She must be.
Note that in both cases we increase the notions of impossibility or certainty by stressing
'can't' and 'must'.
Similarly, in the past we may also use 'can't' + perfect infinitive when we think something
was impossible (i.e. Someone took my money from the drawer. Nicky can't have done it) and
'must' + perfect infinitive when we feel certain something was true in the past (i.e. The
window was broken. Children must have done it when playing).

3.2. Nouns
Following Huddleston (1988), the expression of doubt is also realized by means of nouns or
noun phrases, although it is not so common as with auxiliary verbs or adverbs. For instance,
we find the nouns 'doubt' (i.e. I have serious doubts about your inner thoughts), 'possibility'
(i.e. There is a possibility of doing it correctly), 'probability' (i.e. There is a high probability
for you to win the lottery), 'likelihood' (i.e. Is there any likelihood of his leaving?), 'chance'
(i.e. You've got no chance to pull her tonight), 'uncertainty' (i.e. The uncertainties of a future
job), 'hesitation' (i.e. His doubts and hesitations were tiresome), 'disbelief' (i.e. It's your
disbelief that makes you so stubborn), 'among many more.

3.3. Adjectives
On expressing doubt we can also use adjectives which are drawn from other open
categories, for instance, the most common ones are 'possible' (i.e. Do you think it is possible
for him to arrive on time?), 'probable' (i.e. It is probable that ghosts exist), 'doubtful' (i.e.
Your words are doubtful), 'uncertain' (i.e. We have to face an uncertain future), 'likely' (i.e. It
is likely that she will have a baby soon), and so on. It is relevant to mention at this point that
the adjective 'likely' is to be found within specific syntactic constructions (i.e. He is likely to
fail his driving test) and its opposite 'unlikely' increases the degree of doubt considerably

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(i.e. He is unlikely to fail his driving test), though both of them express a lack of certainty.

3.4. Adverbs
Adverbs also express doubt , likelihood and chance by means of 'probably', 'uncertainly',
'possibly' among others (i.e. She'll probably prepare dinner). Yet, following Quirk et al.
(1990), there are certain disjuncts which make comments on the content of an utterance,
especially when relating to 'certainty' or 'uncertainty'. These disjuncts actually comment on
the truth value of what is said, expressing doubts or posing contingencies such as conditions
or reasons. For instance, by means of 'presumably, reportedly, allegedly undoubtedly,
apparently, theoretically' in a sentence such as "The play was (adverb) written by Francis
Romaire". However, there is no doubt that the most common adverbs are 'maybe' and
'perhaps', which are frequently used on their own (i.e. Perhaps she is still at work / Maybe
I'm wrong).

3.5. Specific syntactic structures

It is worth noting that apart from grammatical categories, we may find other specific clause
structures, such as 'It is possible (adjective) for him to be at home", "Do you think + future
time?": i.e. Do you think the Earth will be destroyed by an asteroid? or "I am + likely + to -
infinitive": i.e. I am likely to faint
It must be borne in mind that an adverb adjunct can usually be paraphrased by with its
adjective base in the vacant position: i.e. I am not completely sure about your leaving

4. THE EXPRESSION OF CONDITION AND HYPOTHESIS

The expression of condition will be examined together with that of hypothesis since both of
them are part of the classification of 'direct conditions' as 'open conditions' and
'hypothetical conditions'. Therefore, we shall approach these two notions by (1) defining
these concepts through the opposite items direct vs. indirect condition. Then we shall
examine (2) the different types of conditional sentences in terms of their main structural
features regarding form, function and use.

4.1. Definition: direct vs. indirect condition

The main difference between a direct condition and an indirect condition is that a direct
condition is related to the situation in the main clause whereas the indirect is not, for
instance, "If she arrives late, she will miss the bus" (direct) vs. "His style is so old-fashioned, if
I may so" (indirect).
As we can see, in uttering the latter sentence, the speaker does not intend the truth of the
assertion since the condition is independent on the implicit speech act of the utterance.
However, the former sentence does depend on the main clause.
Then, the expression of 'condition' will be examined in this section together with that of
'hypothesis' since we shall deal with 'direct conditions' which are classified into open
conditions or hypothetical conditions (Quirk et al. 1990). Generally, direct conditional
sentences show how a result depends on a condition, and therefore, the condition may be:
(1) possible and probable, (open)
(2) possible but improbable or unreal, or (hypothetical)
(3) impossible. (hypothetical)

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Hence, the latter two classifications are embedded under the label of 'hypothetical' since
they relate to imaginary situations in present time or in the future and unreal situations in
the past, and also convey the meaning of unreachable or not fulfilled results (in present,
past and future time).
On the one hand, open conditions (first type) are said to be neutral since "they leave
unresolved the question of the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of the condition, and hence also
the truth of the proposition expressed by the matrix clause" (i.e. If she is in Edinburgh, I'll
find her). As seen, this sentence leaves unresolved whether she is in Edinburgh, and hence it
leaves unresolved whether he will find her.
On the other hand, a hypothetical condition (second and third type), conveys "the
speaker's belief that the condition will not be fulfilled (for future conditions), is not fulfilled
(for present conditions), or was not fulfilled (for past conditions) and hence the probable or
certain falsity of the proposition expressed by the matrix clause". Quirk et al. (1990) propose
some sentences, for instance, 'If he changed his options, he'd be a more likeable person'
(conveying the implication that he very probably won't change his opinions in a future
situation); 'They would be here with us if they had the time' (conveying the meaning that
they presumably don't have the time in a present situation); and ' If you had listened to me,
you wouldn't have made so many mistakes' (conveying the implication that you certainly
didn't listen to me in a past situation). But let us examine each type.

4.2. The first type: open conditional

The first conditional type (also called open conditionals, possible and probable, and real) is
used to talk about a future possibility and its consequence (i.e. If I see her, I'll tell you). It
also represents general truths at least in the view of the writer, such as scientific facts (i.e.
Water boils at 100°C), true facts known by everyone (i.e. Dogs hate cats), and so on. The
conditions are said to be possible and the result virtually inevitable (i.e. If you add sugar to
coffee, it dissolves).
In terms of form, we may distinguish three subtypes depending on the verbal tense we
include in the main clause, for instance,
• IF + present form + present form where any present form may be used, that is,
present simple or continuous, present perfect simple or continuous (i.e. It invariably
rains if you have forgotten your umbrella).
• IF + present form + future form where again, any present form can be used in the
if-clause and any future form (simple continuous or perfect) in the main clause (i.e. If
that flight is fully booked, we'll find another one /If you have just flown in from
Canada, you'll probably be suffering from headache).
• IF + present form + imperative, where once more any present form can be used
with an imperative form (i.e. If he comes, tell me/If you aren't feeling well, make me
know).
Moreover, we may find other possible variations of the basic form when adding the implicit
meaning of 'obligation, possibility or permission' by means of modal verbs in the main
clause. So, instead of the construction IF+present+future, we may have (Thomson &
Martinet, 1986):
• (a) if+present+may/might (conveying possibility) as in "If you work hard, you might
pass";

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 • (b) if+present+may (permission) or can (permission or ability) as in "If your reports
are successful you may/can publish them" (permission) or "If it stops raining we can
go out" (permission or ability);
• (c) if+present+must/should (or any expression of command) as in "If you are too
fat, you should eat less" (obligation).
• (d) if+present+another present tense (to express automatic or habitual results) as
in "If you heat ice it turns to water).
• (e) When 'if is used to mean 'as/since', a variety of tenses can be used in the main
clause (i.e. Anne hates Madrid=since she hates Madrid why does she live there?).
It must be borne in mind that 'if (positive condition) can express negative condition by using
'unless' (instead of 'if ... not') with positive verbs (i.e. She won't wear it unless she likes it).
They often introduce non-finite and verbless clauses (i.e. If ready, we can go/Unless
expressly forbidden, we'll enter). Negative condition is introduced by the subordinator
'unless' which functions at the level of finite adverbial clauses. Note that other compound
conditional conjunctions are also used since they are approximately synonymous with
'provided that', 'as long as', 'so long as' and 'on condition that'.

4.3. The second type: hypothetical conditional

The second conditional type (also called hypothetical conditionals, possible but improbable
or unreal) is used to talk about an imaginary present or future situation and its consequence
(i.e. If I had a lot of money, I'd buy a house in Hollywood). The conditions then are said to be
hypothetical and therefore, possible but improbable or unreal in the present (i.e. If I had
money, I'd travel around the world=but I haven't money) or in the future (i.e. If someone
tried to blackmail me I would report the police=but I don't expect anyone will try to
blackmail me). It represents unreal conditions where it is clearly expected that the condition
will not be fulfilled (i.e. If you came, we would go shopping), and so on.
In terms of form, there is no difference between the first and second types of conditional
sentences since type 2, like type 1, refers to the present or future, and the past tense in the
if-clause is not a true past but a subjunctive, which indicates unreality or improbability. The
syntactic structure is as follows: IF + past form (simple or continuous) + present conditional
simple or continuous (i.e. If I had more time to see my friends we would travel to Italy).
Note that the past tense in the if-clause may be replaced by the form 'were to' + infinitive
(i.e. If you were to travel, I would go with you).
In terms of use, the second conditional is used:
• when the supposition is contrary to known facts (i.e. If I lived near my school I'd be
in time for work=but I don't live near my school/If I were you, I'd smoke=but I am not
you).
• When we don't expect the action in the if-clause to take place (i.e. If I saw a ghost
at night I'd scream=but I don't expect to see a ghost).
• Sometimes, the second type is used as an alternative to type 1 for perfectly
possible plans and suggestions (i.e. Will Peter be in time if he gets the three o'clock
bus?).
Note that the use of 'will' instead of 'would' makes the question less polite. Moreover, we
may find other possible variations of the basic form in the main clause when adding modal
verbs. For instance:
• 'Might' or 'could' may be used instead of 'would' to express certain result (i.e. If
you tried harder you would succeed), possible result (i.e. If you tried again you might

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 succeed), ability (i.e. If I knew her number I would ring her up now) and ability or
permission (i.e. If he had a permit he could get a job).
• The continuous conditional form may be used instead of the simple conditional
form (i.e. If I were on holiday I would/might be touring all day).
• If + past tense can be followed by another past tense when we wish to express
automatic or habitual reactions in the past (i.e. If anyone interrupter her she got
furious).
• When 'if is used to mean 'as' or 'since' a variety of tenses is possible in the main
clause (i.e. The pills made him dizzy. All the same he bought/has bought/is buying
some more).
• Other variations are if + past continuous (i.e. If we were going by boat I'd feel sick)
and if + past perfect (i.e. If he had taken my advice he would be a rich man now).

4.4. The third type: past hypothetical conditional

The third conditional type (also called past hypothetical conditional, unreal and impossible)
is used to speculate about something that happened in the past and how it could have been
different (i.e. If I had worked harder, I would have earned more money=but I didn't work
hard so I didn't earn money). The conditions then are said to be hypothetical in the past and
therefore, unreal and impossible and show how a result in the past or present depends on a
condition in the past. Then since we cannot change that condition or its result, they are
known as impossible conditional, where the condition is not to be fulfilled.
In terms of form, when it expresses a past result, it is as follows: IF + past perfect
simple/continuous + perfect conditional simple/continuous (i.e. If you hadn't lost the car
keys, we would have been at home five hours ago). On the contrary, if it expresses a present
result, the syntactic construction is as follows: IF + past perfect simple/continuous + present
conditional simple/continuous (i.e. He'd be playing in the team today if he hadn't gone
down with an attack of flu).
Moreover, we may find other possible variations of the basic form in the main clause, for
instance:
• When adding modal verbs, for example, we may use 'might' or 'could' + perfect
infinitive to replace the past conditional which suggests that the result is probable
rather than certain (i.e. I might have got the job if I hadn't been late for the first
interview).
• Conditional clauses, especially unreal ones, may have subject-operator inversion
without a conjunction (i.e. Had I known, I would not have gone out/Were she in
charge, she would do things differently/Should you change your mind, nobody would
blame you/Should she be interested, I'll phone her). The effect is more formal.
• The combination 'if only' is an intensified equivalent of 'if' typically used in
preposed unreal conditions (with no non-assertive requirement) to express a wish
(i.e. If only somebody had told us, we could have warned you).

4.5. Other conditional types

Other types of conditionals are found under the form of specific syntactic constructions or
coordination process.
• Inversion. As stated above, conditional clauses, especially unreal ones, may have
subject-operator

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 • Inversion without a conjunction as the effect is more formal. (i.e. Had I known, I
would not have gone out/Were she in charge, she would do things
differently/Should you change your mind, nobody would blame you/Should she be
interested, I'll phone her).
• Coordination, by means of conjuncts such as 'but' and 'and' (i.e. Say it again and I'll
leave forever/Open the safe or I'll shoot).
• Non-finite clauses (i.e. You have to be eighteen to drink alcoholic drinks).
• Other means such as the use of adverbial phrases, such as 'According to...' (i.e.
According to my expectations, the train will arrive at five o'clock).
• Rhetorical conditional clauses, which give the appearance of expressing an open
condition but they actually make a strong assertion. We may distinguish two main
types: (1) If the propositition in the main clause makes no sense (absurd), the
proposition in the conditional clause is shown to be false (i.e. If they are rich, I'm
Onassis); (2) if the proposition in the conditinal clause (which contains measure
expressions) is patently true, the proposition in the matrix clause is shown to be true
(then the if-clause is placed in final position) (i.e. He's ninety if he's a day).
• Alternative conditional-concessive clauses. According to Quirk et al. (1990), the
correlative sequence 'whether...or (whether)' combines the conditional meaning of
'if' with the disjunctive meaning of 'either...or'. If the second unit is a full finite
clause, 'whether' may be repeated (i.e. He's getting married, whether or not he finds
a job). Other correlative sequence is 'with...without' (i.e. With a bank loan or without
it, we'll buy a house).

4.6. Common points to remember

• The order of clauses. As we have seen, conditional sentences have two parts: the if-
clause and the main clause. The if-clause may come first or second in a statement,
depending on which part is uppermost in the speaker's mind (and therefore
stressed). For instance, in a sentence like "If I go skiing, I'll tell you", 'If I go skiing' is
the if-clause (and therefore the subordinate clause) and 'I'll tell you' is the main
clause.
• Punctuation. From the example above, it can be seen that while a comma is
necessary when the if-clause comes first, no comma is needed when the order is
reversed (i.e. I'll tell you if I go skiing).
• Different types, different tenses. Since there are three types of conditional
sentences, each kind contains a different pair of tenses and therefore, lexical and
auxiliary verbs will be used in order to convey the meaning required: probability,
improbability or impossibility.
• Expressions introducing conditional clauses. Conditional sentences are usually
associated with the conjunction 'if' but there are several other expressions which
may introduce this type of sentences. For instance,
• 'even if' as a synonym of 'even though' conveys the meaning of contrast or
concession (i.e. You must leave tomorrow even if you are not ready).
• 'whether ... or' or 'if ... or' states a duality of choice between 'yes' or 'no' (i.e. Tell
me whether I am right or not). Note that we can also omit 'or' (i.e. Tell me whether I
am right).
• 'when' often substitutes 'if when the result of the condition is virtually inevitable
(i.e. When you put sugar in hot milk, it dissolves).

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 • 'unless', the negative counterpart of 'if, introduces a negative condition. The
unless-clause is usually roughly similar to a negative if-clause. With unless there is a
greater focus on the condition as an exception ('only if ... not'). There are therefore
contexts in which the unless-clause cannot occur (i.e. I feel much happier if he
doesn't come with us BUT NOT: unless he comes with us).
• 'but for', meaning 'if it were not for' or 'if it hadn't been for' (i.e. My father pays all
my fees. But for that I wouldn't be living alone).
• 'otherwise' means 'if this doesn't happen/didn't happen/hadn't happened' (i.e. We
must go back before midnight; otherwise we'll be locked up).
• 'provided (that)' can repalce 'if when there is a strong idea of limitation or
restriction and it is namely used with permission (i.e. You can park here provided you
have a special card).
• 'suppose' or 'supposing (that)' means 'what if ...?' (i.e. Suppose nobody knows
it=What if nobody knows it?). It may also introduce suggestions (i.e. Suppose you ask
him).
• Others subordinators are 'given (that)' and 'assuming (that)' which are used for
open conditions where the speaker assumes were, are, or will be fulfilled and from
which a proposition is deduced (i.e. Given you are ill, we won't go out). Also, 'granted
(that)' introduces clauses when used as a premise for a deduction, but usually
implies a previous statement on which the premise is based (i.e. Granted that he is a
policeman, we are safe here). They both tend to be used in formal written style,
particularly in argumentation.
• 'As long as' or 'so long as' are, however, less formal than the semantically similar
but formal 'provided (that)' and 'providing (that)'. 'Just so (that)' tends to appear in
informal conversation.
• Other subordinators are 'in case' to give the reason of the action in the main clause
(i.e. I always slept by the phone in case someone rang during the night); 'if only' to
express a wish or regret according to the tense used, for instance, 'if only + present
tense/will' expresses hope (i.e. If only he comes in time), 'if only + past/past perfect'
expresses regret (i.e. If only he didn't smoke); and finally 'if only + would' expresses
regret about a present action (i.e. If only he would drive more slowly).
• Others are 'without' (i.e. No temple is of interest without my face beside it,
grinning) and 'on condition that' (i.e. He would only agree on condition that he
apologized).

5. THE EXPRESSION OF CONTRAST

The expression of 'contrast' implies the notions of 'comparison and contrast between two
items'. By expressing contrast, we make statements which contrast with what has been said
previously either by means of coordination or subordination with respect to the main
clause: i.e. Although he hadn't any money, he lived comfortably.
Hence, in English the notion of comparison in terms of contrast is to be found in 'concessive'
clauses or clauses of concession introduced/coordinated by conjuncts (conjunctions),
disjuncts (adverbs) or adjuncts (other means such as finite/non-finite clauses), which are
realized by different grammatical categories, specific syntactic constructions and
punctuation.

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The expression of contrast may be conveyed by means of grammatical categories, both
open and closed classes, that is, through verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs (open) and
also, through prepositions (in combination with adverbs and adjectives) among others.

5.1. Verbs
The expression of contrast is realized by the grammatical category of verbs, which convey
the meaning of contrast such as: 'contrast', 'compare', 'measure', 'contend', 'differentiate',
'make a choice between' among others. They usually reflect the notion of 'comparison'
literally.

5.2. Nouns
The expression of contrast is also realized by means of nouns or noun phrases, although it is
not so common as verbs or adverbs. For instance, we find the nouns 'contrast' (i.e. Contrast
may make something appear more beautiful), 'comparison' (i.e. I hate comparisons),
'contrariety' (i.e. There are many contrarieties in nature), 'concession' (i.e. Expressing
concession is our goal in this study) and so on.

5.3. Adjectives
On expressing contrast we can also use adjectives which are drawn from other open
categories, for instance, the most common ones are 'contrastive' (i.e. This is a contrastive
link), 'different' (i.e. You are different from the rest), 'opposition' (i.e. He has to face strong
oppositions in politics) and so on.

5.4. Adverbs
Adverbs are the most common means to express 'contrast' since they are quite usual in
speech. For instance, 'though' can be used as an adverb meaning 'however' (i.e. I can't stay
long. I'll have a coffee, though). It's always used with commas (both of them). Moreover,
'however' and 'nevertheless' are also adverbs and are used when adding a comment which
contrasts with what has been said before. 'However' is always separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas (i.e. That's one good reason. It is not, however, the only one). On
the other hand, 'nevertheless' is followed by a comma when it begins a sentence (i.e. He
had not slept that night. Nevertheless, he seemed as energetic as ever).

5.5. Conjunctions
Clauses of concession are namely introduced by conjunctions, that is, conjuncts. For
instance, 'although' and 'even though', which are used in a similar way. They introduce a
statement which makes the main information in the sentence seem surprising: i.e.
Although/Even though the number of deaths are well publicised, they have increased this
summer.
Other conjunctions are 'while' and 'whereas' (quite formal) which states strong contrast: i.e.
I like meat whereas/while she likes fish.
'But' and 'yet' are also conjunctions which are used to introduce a statement which
contrasts with what has been said previously, although 'yet' is more emphatic: i.e. So a mass
media approach may work. But it needs to be controlled. / If asked what is wrong we should
answer in terms of hospitals, doctors and pills. Yet we are all making lots of decisions about
health care.

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 5.6. Prepositions
'Despite' and 'in spite of' are prepositions and are followed by nouns (or gerunds). (i.e.
Despite extensive press campaigns, the number of smokers continues increasing). They
cannot be followed by a clause and in case we need to introduce it, we have to use the
construction 'despite/in spite of the fact that + clause (i.e. In spite of the fact that it was
raining, we went out). Moreover, we may find, prepositional phrases such as 'on the one
hand vs. on the other hand', 'not only ... but also', 'all the same', etc.

5.7. Specific syntactic structures

It is worth noting that apart from grammatical categories, we may find other specific clause
structures, such as:
• Idiomatic expressions such as 'much as' (i.e. Much as I hated to do it, I had no
choice), no matter how (much/many) (i.e. I want you to buy it, no matter how much
it may cost), no matter how long (i.e. I'll finish the job, no matter how long it takes),
however (much) (i.e. We cannot agree with him, however much we respect him),
whatever (i.e. Whatever his faults, he was generally liked), for all (i.e. For all his
severity, he was a kind man at heart), notwithstanding (i.e. The student's knowledge
is so little, his high level of education notwithstanding), 'come what may', 'even' (i.e.
Even if he is poor, he's an honest man) and so on.
• Coordination links such as 'but' (i.e. He is so rich, but he is not happy), 'and' (i.e. I
am twenty-six years old and my sister is just twenty) and 'or' (i.e. Will you come now
or in twenty minutes?).
• Comparative clauses, where two or more objects, people or situations are
contrasted by means of comparison (i.e. Your car is faster than mine).
• Stylistic contrast, by means of which semi-synonyms may often be contrasted in
terms of their use (i.e. Horses sweat, gentlemen perspire, but ladies merely glow).
Here the contrast makes reference to the different levels of politeness we can
convey by literary expressions.

6. CONCLUSION

All along this study we have scrutinized the expression of doubt, condition, hypothesis and
contrast essential ideas that are generally conveyed in everyday speech. We have specially
paid attention to how these are conveyed in terms of form and function since there is not
just one single way of expressing them.
Hence, the importance of how to handle these expressions cannot be understated since one
cannot communicate without it. Learners are expected to be able to recognize and produce
all the above clause types. However, language learners do not automatically recognize
similarities which seem obvious to teachers; learners need to have these associations
brought to their attention.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Aarts, F., and J. Aarts. English Syntactic Structures. Functions & Categories in
Sentence Analysis. London: Prentice Hall Europe, 1988.
 Council of Europe Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common
European Framework of reference, 1998.

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  Greenbaum, S. and Quirk, R. A Student's Grammar of the English Language. London:
Longman Group UK Limited, 1990.
 Huddleston, R. English Grammar, an Outline. Cambridge University Press. 1988.
 Huddleston, R. and G.K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language.
Cambridge University Press. 2002
 Quirk, R & S. Greenbaum. A University Grammar of English. London: Longman, 1973.
 Sánchez Benedito, F. Gramática Inglesa: Editorial Alambra, 1975.
 Thomson, A.J. and A.V. Martinet. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University
Press, 1986.

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