Form Five

PHYSICS FORM FIVE GBHD DEIDO
MODULE I: FIELDS: MAGNETIC FIELDS AND THEIR EFFECTS
TARGETED COMPETENCES
At the end of this module, leaners should be able to:
 Understand how a simple magnet can be made

 Understand how to identify that a rock is a magnet by suspension in air.
 Appreciate that not all materials can be magnetized
 Appreciate that the only true test to determine a magnet is repulsion.
 Locating position with the help of a magnetic compass (plotting compass)
 Produce alternating current and electric motor
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CHAPTER I: MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS
I. MAGNETS
A magnet is a substance that has the ability to attract some substances placed closed to it..
Magnets are named according to their shapes. Examples are the bar magnet, flat magnet, ring
magnet, horseshoe magnet, electromagnet and natural rock magnetite.
Properties of magnets
 Magnets attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt.

 All magnets have two poles: The North Pole and South Pole. There are not magnets
with only one pole.
 The magnetic force of a magnet is stronger at its poles than in its middle
 A freely suspended magnet oscillates and always come to rest lying in the geographical
N-S direction of the earth.
II. MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. Ferromagnetic materials or magnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials or magnetic materials are material that can be attracted by a

magnet. They can be converted into magnets. That is, they can be magnetized.
Magnetic materials are classified into two categories namely:
 Hard magnetic materials: These are magnetic materials that are not easily magnetised
and also not easily demagnetised once magnetised. Therefore they retain their
magnetism for a long time once magnetised. They are used in making permanent
magnets. Examples include steel, alcomax and magnadur.
Uses of permanent magnets:
o They are used as a magnetic compass needle.

o Fitted at the doors of freezers and refrigerators to keep the door closed
o Used in some computers as magnetic memories.
 Soft magnetic materials: These are magnetic materials that are easily magnetised and
easily demagnetised once magnetised.. They are used in making electromagnets.
Examples include soft iron, nickel, cobalt...
Uses of soft magnetic materials:
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o They are used to produce powerful temporary magnets

o Used to make the core of transformers
o Used to protect or shield an object from unwanted magnetic fields.
2. Non-magnetic materials
Non-magnetic materials are materials that cannot be attracted by a magnet and cannot
be magnetized. They include: brass, copper, zinc, aluminium, glass, wood, plastics, and
rubber.
III. MAGNETISATION AND DEMAGNETISATION

1. Magnetisation
 By contact (single and double touch method)
To magnetize a magnetic material, one pole of a bar magnet is strokes several times and
consistently on the iron bar in one direction. The pole at the end where the stroke ends is
opposite to the magnetizing pole.
(a) Single touch (b) Double touch
 By magnetic induction
 The magnetic material is brought very close to a permanent magnet and it is magnetised.
 If the material is steel, it becomes permanently magnetised while iron immediately loses
its magnetism when the permanent magnet is removed.
 Electrical method
This is the most effective method of magnetizing a magnetic material such as iron or
steel.
- A bar of magnetic material is placed inside a long coil of conducting wire consisting of
many turns called solenoid.
- The direct current in the solenoid is switched on for a moment and then switched off.
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- The magnetic material is magnetized by the strong magnetic field generated in the
solenoid.
- The poles of the magnet produced depend on the direction of the current flowing in the
solenoid.
2. Demagnetisation
This is the lost or reduction of the magnetic effects of a magnet. A magnet can be
demagnetized by:
 Strong heating
Heating a magnet to a high temperature increases the vibrations of its atoms.
This will totally destroy any magnetization of the material
 Hammering
Hammering a magnetic material in free magnetic field region will reduce its magnetization
 Electric method
The bar magnet is place inside a solenoid connected to an a.c (alternating current) supply. The
current is switched on and the magnet slowly withdrawn from the solenoid.
IV. MAGNETIC POLES

Basic law of magnetism
Like poles of a magnet repel and unlike pole attract.
Test for the polarity of a magnet
 Attraction occurs between unlike poles of a magnet and as well as between a magnetic
material and either poles of a magnet
 Repulsion occurs only between like poles of a magnet. Therefore repulsion is the only
sure test for polarity.
V. THE EARTH MAGNETISM
The earth behave as a giant magnet with the north magnetic pole the geographical south
pole (southern hemisphere) and the south magnetic pole the geographical north pole (northern
hemisphere).
However, the earth’s magnetic poles do not coincide exactly with earth’s geographical
poles.
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The angle between the direction of the magnetic north and the direction of geographical
north at a particular point is called the angle of declination.
The earth’s magnetic field is of great importance since charged particles given off by
the Sun are trapped in this field and are hindered from causing damage to life on Earth.
Thus, a shield from high-speed, charged particles exists around the Earth.
A magnet suspended near the earth surface always points in a north-south direction.
Hence, the Earth's magnetic field can be to identify the poles of a magnet.
VI. MAGNETIC FIELDS

The magnetic field is the region around a magnet where its magnetic influence can be felt.
Magnetic field is a vector quantity.
Magnetic field is represented by lines of force or magnetic field lines that indicate its
strength and direction.
Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given area.
Properties of magnetic field lines

 They move from the North pole to the South pole.
 The field lines from the same magnet never cross over
 They tend to repel each other sideways.
 They behave like stretched elastic cords which always try to shorten themselves.
 The strength of the field is shown by density of the field lines. Therefore the closer the filed
lines, the stronger the magnetic field.
Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet
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Plotting magnetic field lines
 Using Iron filings

 Place a card or stiff and thick paper over a strong bar magnet. Sprinkle a thin layer of
iron filings over the card with the help of a sprinkler and then tap the card gently.
 The iron filings arrange themselves in a regular pattern. This arrangement of iron filings
gives a rough picture of the shape of the magnetic field patterns produced and not the
direction.
 Using a magnetic plotting compass
Using a plotting compass to map out a magnetic field
The magnet is placed at the centre of a large sheet of paper and its perimeter is outlined.
The ends of the magnet are marked and a plotting compass is positioned near to the North Pole
so that the curved South Pole end of its needle surrounds the dot. The position of the North Pole
end of the plotting compass is marked by a dot on the paper. The compass is advanced such
that its South Pole end now lies over the dot where the North Pole end was previously, and the
new position of the North Pole end is marked. This is continued until the dots reach the other
end of the magnet or extend off the paper. The dots are joined by a smooth line with an arrow
to indicate the direction of the field line. The process is repeated to produce several other field
lines.
Magnetic flux patterns

The diagrams of magnetic field lines are known as magnetic flux patterns. They may
be uniform (e.g., magnetic field lines due to the earth alone) or non-uniform (e.g., magnetic
field lines due to a bar magnet).
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Forces of attraction exist between dissimilar poles due to the longitudinal tension
within the field lines joining them.
Forces of repulsion exist between similar poles due to the lateral push between the
field lines passing close to each other.
Fig. Examples of flux patterns

A neutral point is a point within a field where a small body will experience no force
(point X in the above diagram)
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CHAPTER II: MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF A STEADY CURRENT
I. MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERNS OF CONDUCTORS CARRYING

CURRENT
1. Magnetic field pattern due to current in a straight conductor
Experiment shows that the pattern of the magnetic field lines produced by a current in a
straight wire are in the form of concentric circles with the wire at the centre.
The directions of the magnetic field lines can be determined by using Right-Hand Grip
Rule or Maxwell’s Right Hand Screw Rule.
According to the Right-Hand Grip Rule II, if a wire carrying a current is gripped with the
right hand with the thumb pointing along the wire in the direction of the current, the other
fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field around the wire.
According to the Maxwell’s Right Hand Screw Rule a right-hand screw advances in the
direction of the current, then the direction of rotation of the screw represents the direction of
the magnetic field due to the current.
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The magnetic flux pattern in a straight wire carrying current is usually given in a plane
view, where the conductor is represented by a circle. A dot in the circle shows that the current
is coming out of the plane. A cross in the circle shows that the current is moving into the plane.
Note: When the direction of the current is reversed, the magnetic field lines direction also is
reversed.
2. Magnetic field pattern due to two current carrying conductors

The magnetic fields of pairs of conductors with current in the same direction and opposite
directions are shown below.
3. Magnetic flux pattern due to current in a flat coil
The field lines all point in the same direction inside the coil. The field line at the centre of
the coil is in the form of a straight line. Outside the coil, the field lines of one section oppose
those of the other section.
4. Magnetic flux due to current in a solenoid

A coil of conducting wire consisting of many turns is called solenoid. When a current pass
through a solenoid, it behaves like magnets.
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This magnetic field is stronger inside the solenoid than outside.
The magnetic field lines inside the solenoid are close and evenly spaced showing a strong
uniform field.
The field lines are uneven and more widely spaced outside the solenoid. The direction of field
lines outside the solenoid is opposite to the direction of the field lines in the solenoid.
Factors affecting the magnetic field strength of a solenoid

 The size of the current (I) through the conductor: The larger the current through the
conductor, the stronger the magnetic field it will produce.
 The number of turns per unit length of the conductor: The higher the number of
turns per unit length of the conductor, the stronger the magnetic field produce.
 The distance from the conductor: The magnetic field strength decreases as the
distance from the current carrying conductor increases.
 The permeability or the nature of the medium: Magnetic field set up when the core
of the solenoid is made of soft iron is stronger than when it is made of air or vacuum
because the soft iron concentrates the field line through it.
II. ELECTROMAGNETS
An electromagnet is a magnet produced by a current in a solenoid with soft iron core.
An electromagnet is a temporary magnet; that is, it acts as a magnet when the current is
switched on and ceases to be a magnet when the current is switched off.
As the current flows through the solenoid, a magnetic field is produced. This magnetic field
magnetizes the core which picks up magnetic material. When the current is switched off, the
solenoid and its soft iron core immediately demagnetize and then release the magnetic material
picked up before.
Soft iron is used in electromagnets because:
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 A soft iron core is able to concentrate magnetic field lines through it, and thus a stronger
magnetic field is produced.
 A soft iron core can easily be magnetized and demagnetized. That is, it loses its
magnetism as soon as the current stop flowing.
Factor that affects the strength of an electromagnet
1. The size of current through the solenoid
The larger the size of the current in the solenoid, the stronger the electromagnet.
2. Number of turns of the wire of the solenoid

The greater the number of turns of the wire of the solenoid, the stronger the electromagnet
3. The core material

An electromagnet whose core is made of a very soft magnetic material is strong than one whose
core is made of iron only
Advantages of electromagnets over permanent magnets
 Electromagnets can be switched on and off while permanent magnet cannot.
 The strength of an electromagnet can be varied by varying the current or the number of
turns or the material of the solenoid while the strength of a permanent magnet cannot be
changed.
 The polarity of an electromagnet can be reversed by sending the current in the reverse
direction.
Uses of electromagnets
 Electromagnet are used to lift heavy weights in industries
 They are also used to operate electric bells, circuit breakers, galvanometers (used to measure
tiny current), and in telephone earpieces
 They are used to separate magnetic materials from other non-magnetic materials such as
copper, brass and aluminium.
 They are used as switches in magnetic relays to pass on messages from one part of an
electric circuit to another.
III. FORCES ACTING ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD: MOTOR EFFECT
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force
when the magnetic field direction is not parallel to the current direction.
The direction of this force can be determined using the Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
The Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule said that if the first finger, the second finger and the
thumb of the left hand are placed mutually at right angles to each other so that the First finger
point in the direction of the Field, and the seCond finger point in the direction of the Current,
then the thuMb will point in the direction of the Motion (force).
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Factors that affect the magnitude of the force in a current carrying conductor place in a
magnetic field
 The magnetic flux density or strength of the magnetic field (B): The stronger the
magnetic field, the greater the force.
 The size of the current (I) through the conductor: The larger the size of the current,
the greater the force.
 The length of the conductor: The longer the conductor the greater the
 The angle (θ) between the conductor and the magnetic field lines The larger the
angle θ or sin (θ), the greater the force.
If θ is the angle between the field and the current (I) flowing through the conductor of
length (ℓ), then the force (F) due to a magnetic field of strength or flux density (B) is given by
the following expression 𝐹 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝑙 sin 𝜃.
A conductor carrying current will experience a zero or minimum force on it when it is

placed parallel to the direction of the magnetic field (θ= 0°)
F =IBl sin0=0
A conductor carrying current will experience a maximum force when place at right angle
to the field direction (θ= 90°)
F =IBl sin90=IBl
The figure below describes how two magnetic fields interact to produce a force.
Field due to permanent Field due to current Combined field of the

magnets carrying conductor two interaction fields
IV. APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTOR EFFECT

When a rectangular coil carrying current is place in a magnetic field, with its sides lying
perpendicular to the field, equal and opposite forces are developed on the opposite sides. Such
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equal and opposite forces that act on an object and which do not pass through the same point
are called a couple. The couple produces a turning effect to make the coil rotate around an axis
in clockwise direction as shown in the diagram below.
When the direction of the current is reversed, the direction of rotation also reverses.
Examples of electrical equipment whose operation is based on this turning effect are the
dc motors, moving coil loudspeakers and moving coil meters.
1. Electric Motor: Direct Current Motor

A direct current motor converts electrical energy into kinetic energy. The figure below
shows a diagram of a simple direct current motor.
It consists of a rectangular coil of wire placed between two permanent magnets. Two carbon
brushes, P and Q are held against the commutators, X and Y with a slight pressure with the
aid of springs. Both ends of the coil are soldered to commutators X and Y made of two semi-
circular copper rings.
The commutators are used to reverse the direction of current in the coil every half rotation
so that the coil continues to turn in the same direction. In other words, the commutator is an
automatic switch, which reverses the current in the coil twice in one complete revolution.
The carbon Brushes are used to contact the commutators so that the current from the
battery enters the coil.
The working principle of the direct current motor is explained below
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Stage 1: first half rotation

The force on AB acts upwards while the force on CD
acts downwards. These two equal and opposite
forces form a couple which causes the coil to rotate
in clockwise direction until the coil is in the vertical
position.
Cutting field lines at 90°
Stage 2: vertical position

At this position, (upright), the contact between the
carbon brushes with the commutator is broken. There
is no turning force on the coil because no current
flows in it. But the coil continues to rotate because
of its inertia.
Stage 3: Second half rotation

When the coil is in a horizontal position again, the
sides of the coil changes position. The commutator
reverses the direction of the current in the coil to
ensure that the forces on the coil turn the coil in one
direction only. So, the coil is still rotating in a
clockwise direction. Side AB is now on the right-
hand side with a downward force on it while side CD
Cutting field lines at 180° is on the left-hand side with an upward force on it
Stage 4: Vertical position
The contact between the carbon brushes and the

commutator is broken again. The current flow is cut
off but the coil continues to rotate even though there
is no turning effect because of its inertia.
The above processes are repeated, causing the coil
to rotate continuously until the current is switched
off.
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Factors which affect the speed of rotation of the motor

 The speed of rotation of the motor increases when
 The strength of the magnetic field is increased (use stronger magnet)
 The number of turns of wire in the coil is increased
 The area of the coil is increased
 The coil is wound over an iron core.
 The size of the current is increased
2. Moving Coil Galvanometer

The galvanometer measures or detects tiny current passing through it or small p.d (potential
difference) across it.
A moving coil meter consists of a large number of turns of fined insulated copper wire
round a light aluminium frame which can be rotated freely in the gap between the permanent
magnet and the soft iron cylinder.
Two spiral hairsprings X and Y are used to control the angle of rotation of the coil. The
hairsprings are wound in opposite directions to compensate for thermal expansion.
The pointer is fixed to the axis of rotation to show the magnitude of the current on a
linear scale.
Figure: Pivoted moving coil meter

Operating principle
 When a current flows through the coil, two opposite forces are set up on the sides of the
coil. These two forces form a deflecting couple which rotates the coil and moves the
pointer across the scale.
 The rotation of the coil is resisted by the two hairsprings.
 The coil comes to rest when the turning couple is balanced by the opposing couple of
the hairsprings. The pointer shows the magnitude ofthe current.
 When the current is cut off, the opposing couple from the hairsprings restores the coil
to its original position and the pointer returns to the zero mark
Sensitivity of a moving coil meter
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A moving coil meter can be used to measure current in milliamperes and microamperes
if the sensitivity of the meter is increased.
The sensitivity of a moving coil meter can be increased by:
 Increasing the area of the coil,
 Increasing the number of turns of the coil,
 Using hairsprings of lower stiffness,
 Using a coil and pointer of smaller mass.
The above factors enable a larger rotation of the coil with a smaller current.
The maximum current or voltage that can be measured by a moving coil galvanometer
is called the full-scale deflection current or voltage. This is the current or voltage needed to
move the pointer from its zero position to the end of the scale.
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CHAPTER III: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an induced current or emf in a

conductor or coil by changing the number of magnetic lines of force passing through it.
I. DEMONSTRATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

In order to demonstrate the electromagnetic induction, Faraday carried out of the
following experiments.
 Experiment 1: Using a straight conductor

A straight insulated conductor wire AB is connected to a centre-zero galvanometer and
held between the gap from the south and north poles of two permanent magnets as shown in
the figure below.
The actions taken in the investigation and the observation are as follow
 When the magnetic field is kept stationary, and the conductor AB is moved upwards such
that it cuts across the magnetic field lines, a deflection is observed on the galvanometer. If
the conductor is now moved downwards, the deflection is in the opposite.
 When the conductor AB is held stationary and the magnetic field is moved upwards,
meaning that the magnets are moved upwards, the same deflection is observed. If the
magnetic field is now moved downwards, the deflection is in the opposite.
 When both the conductor and magnetic field are held stationary, there is no deflection on
the galvanometer.
This implies that when the conductor or the field is moved, the magnetic field lines are cut
by the conductor and there is an emf (voltage) induced in the conductor. The induced e.m.f.
causes induced current to flow. The direction of the current induced depends on the direction
of motion of either the conductor or the magnetic lines.
 Experiment 2:Using a solenoid and a bar magnet
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An insulated copper wire is wound round a cardboard tube to form a solenoid with many
turns. The ends of the copper wire are connected to a centre-zero galvanometer that can measure
both the direction and the magnitude of the current flowing through the solenoid.
The following effects are observed
 When the solenoid is fixed and the magnet moved towards it, there is a deflection of the
galvanometer, showing that a current is being induced in the solenoid
 If the magnet is moved away from the coil, the deflection changes direction. This means
that reversing the direction of movement of the magnet reverses the direction of the
induced current.
 If the magnet is kept stationary and the solenoid moved away or towards it, the same
results are obtained.
 If both the magnet and solenoid are held stationary, or moved at the same speed in the
same direction, there is no deflection of the galvanometer.
This implies that when there is a change of magnetic flux linkage (the total number of
magnetic field lines cutting through the solenoid) in a solenoid, and induced current is produced.
Factors that affect the induced e.m.f/induced current

o The strength of the magnetic field: The stronger the field, the larger the induced emf
o The speed at which the magnet, conductor or coil is moved: The higher the speed at
which the magnet or coil is moved, the larger the induced emf.
o The length of the conductor within the magnetic field or the number of turns of
the coil: If L or N is large, the induced emf and hence the deflection of the galvanometer
is also large.
II. LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Faraday’s law
Faraday’s law states that “the magnitude of the induced electromotive force (emf) is
directly proportional to the rate of change of the number of magnetic field lines in the
solenoid or the rate at which a conductor cuts through the magnetic field lines”.
2. Lenz’s law
Lenz’s law states that “the direction of the induced e.m.f or induced opposes the change
producing it”.
The diagrams below give an explanation of Lenz’s law.
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When a north pole is moved towards the end P, the end P becomes a north pole to
produce a force of repulsion to oppose the change (in this situation, the motion of the bar
magnet) which produces it. The current flows in the direction as shown.
When a north pole is moved away from the solenoid, the end P becomes a south pole to
produce a force of attraction to oppose the motion of the bar magnet which produces the induced
current. The direction of the current is reversed and the galvanometer needle is deflected in the
opposite direction.
When a south pole is moved into the solenoid, the end P becomes the South Pole by
induction.
When the South Pole is moved away from the solenoid, the end P becomes a north
pole by induction.
Lenz’s law and conservation of energy

We know that when a magnet is moved towards or away from a solenoid, a current is
induced in the solenoid. However, electrical energy cannot be created without any form of work
being done. Therefore, when a magnet is moved towards or away from a solenoid, work must
be done to overcome the opposing force. This work consequently appears as electrical energy
in the conductor.
Thus, mechanical energy of our hand used to push the magnet towards or away from the
solenoid is converted into electrical energy which creates the induced current.
Direction of the induced current in a straight wire
When motion and a field are used to produce current, the direction of the induced current
is given by the Fleming’s right-hand rule (FRHR).
FRHR state that, if the thumb and the first two fingers on the right hand are held at right
angles to each other with the first finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field and the
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thumb in the direction of the motion, then the second finger points in the direction of the
induced current.
Thumb= Father (force); First finger=Mother (Magnetic field); Second=Children (current)
III. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: DIRECT

CURRENT GENERATOR AND ALTERNATING CURRENT
GENERATOR
An electric generator is a device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
If a generator produces direct current, it is called direct current generator. Likewise, if a
generator produces alternating current, it is called alternating current generator. Both d.c and
a.c generators make use of electromagnetic induction to produce a current.
1. Direct current generator

The construction features are similar to an electric motor. The difference is that the coil of
the generator is not connected to a battery but to a load (e.g., resistor or bulb).
Functioning
 When the two half rings of commutator are connected to the two ends of the generator
coil,
 One carbon brush is at all times in contact with the coil arm moving down in the
magnetic field while the other carbon brush alwys remains in contact with the coil arm
moving up in the magnetic field.
 Due to this, the current in the outer circuit always flows in one direction. So it’s a
direct current.
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If the output of d.c. generator is connected to a cathode ray oscilloscope, a current against
time graph is plotted as shown in the figure below.
Output of a direct current generator
2. Alternating current generator
Functioning
 As the coil ABCD rotates in the anticlockwise direction, the side AB and CD move
down and up respectively cutting across the magnetic field lines.
 After half a revolution, the sides AB and CD of the coil will interchange their
positions. As a result, the direction of induced current in each side of the coil is
reversed.
 Since the direction of the induced current in the coil is reversed after half revolution so
the polarity of the two ends of the coil also changes. The end of the coil which was
positive in the first half of revolution becomes negative in the second half and vice
versa.
IV. MUTUAL INDUCTION AND APPLICATIONS
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The production of an emf or current in a secondary circuit or coil as a result of a changing

emf or current in the primary circuit or coil is known as mutual induction.
The coil A is connected to a battery and a switch, while a sensitive galvanometer is
connected to the coil B.
When the switch of the coil A is either opened or closed permanently, there is no deflection
of the galvanometer. However, we observe that as soon as the switch of the coil A is closed, the
galvanometer shows a momentary deflection. Similarly, when the switch is opened, the
galvanometer again shows a momentary deflection but this time its direction is opposite to that
of the previous case.
We can explain these observations using Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. When
the switch of coil A is closed, a current begins to flow in the coil due to which magnetic field
is developed across the coil. Some of the magnetic lines of force of this field start passing
through the coil B. Since current is changing in the coil A, hence number of magnetic lines of
force across the coil B also changes due to which a current is induced in the coil B in accordance
with Faraday's law.
Transformers
The transformer is an electrical device used to step up or step down an alternating voltage.
It is a practical application of mutual induction.
A transformer has two coils, electrically insulated from each other, but wounded around the
same iron core.
One coil is called the primary coil and the other the secondary coil. The primary coil has
𝑁𝑝 turns while the secondary coil has 𝑁𝑠 turns.
The figures below show the structure and symbol of a transformer
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Operating Principle of a Transformer:
 When AC is passed through the primary coil which acts as an electromagnet, it generates
a constantly changing magnetic field.
 This changing magnetic field passes round the soft iron core to the secondary coil where
The induced output current in the secondary coil is larger than the input current.it induces an
alternating
emf.
 This emf in turn induces alternating current in the secondary coil.
Types of transformers
 Step down transformers
The number of turns of the secondary coil is greater than in the primary coil. Ns >
o The number
of turns of the secondary coil is less than in the primary coil. Ns < Np
o The induced output voltage in the secondary coil is smaller than the input voltage. Vs
<Vp
o The induced output current in the secondary coil is larger than the input current. Is >
Ip
o Found in radio sets and high-tension line, stepping down the high tension to values
that can use at home
 Step up transformers
o The number of turns of the secondary coil is greater than in the primary coil. Ns > Np
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o The induced output voltage in the secondary coil is larger than the input voltage. Vs >
Vp
o The induced output current in the secondary coil is smaller than the input current. Is <
Ip.
o Commonly found in the cathode ray oscilloscope, grinding mills, transformers of TV
sets, and carpentry workshops to drive machines.
Transformer turn ratio
The alternating voltage (V) in a transformer is directly proportional to the

number of turns (N) of the coil i.e
𝑽𝑷 𝑽𝑺
𝑽∞𝑵⇒ =
𝑵𝑷 𝑵𝑺
𝑵 𝑽
Therefore, transformer turns ratio is 𝑵 𝑺 = 𝑽𝑺
𝑷 𝑷
Efficiency of a transformer
In practice, some energy is always converted into heat in the core and the windings of
the transformer. As a result, the electrical energy or power output across the secondary coil is
less than the electrical energy or power of the primary coil.
𝑰 𝑽
The efficiency of the transformer is given as: 𝜼 = 𝑰𝑺 𝑽 𝑺 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷 𝑷
The efficiency of a transformer is always less than 100%
If there is no loss of energy in a transformer, all the energy supplied to the primary coil will be
transferred to the secondary coil. Such a transformer is known as an ideal or perfect
transformer which has an efficiency of 100%.
Hence, for an ideal transformer, the output power is equal to the input power i.e 𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑰𝑷 𝑽𝑷
Energy losses in a transformer and remedies
Energy losses Remedy
Energy lost as heat in the coils due to coil resistance Thick copper wires for coils are used
Energy lost as heat in the core due to eddy currents The core is laminated to discard the eddy currents
generated in the core
DJATSA IDRISS 24
Energy lost in continuous magnetisation and The core is made of soft iron for easily
demagnetisation of the core magnetisation and demagnetisation of
Magnetic flux leakage in the core The primary and the secondary coils are wound on
the same soft iron core to improve flux linkage
Example 1: The primary coil of a transformer has 1200 coils and the mains voltage is 240V. If
a radio set requiring 6V has to be operated from this transformer, determine: a) The number of
turns of the secondary coil. b) The current supplied to the primary coil if the radio draws 1.5A
from the transformer
Example 2: A step up transformer has 10000turns on its secondary coil and 100 turns on its
primary coil. An a.c current of 3A flows in the primary coil when it is connected to a 12V a.c
supply.
Calculate the
a) Power input into the transformer
b) E.m.f induced across the secondary coil
c) Maximum current that flows in a circuit connected to the secondary coil if the transformer is
100% efficient
d) Maximum current that flows in a circuit connected to the secondary coil if the transformer is
18% efficient
DJATSA IDRISS 25
MODULE II: ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
MODERN PHYSICS AND BASIC ELECTRONICS.
 Appreciate the relative size of an electron.

 Appreciate that bigger things are built from smaller ones.
 Able to draw anatomic structure showing where the electron is found.
 Appreciate the dangers of long exposure to ionizing radiations.
 Know medical applications of ionizing radiations and other positive application.
DJATSA IDRISS 26
CHAPTER I: CONCEPT OF ATOM
I. THE NUCLEAR MODEL OF THE ATOM
An atom is the smallest portion of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
The nuclear model of atoms consists of:
 Protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons (uncharged particles) make up the
nucleus of the atom.
 The electrons (negatively charged particles) move around the nucleus in a cloud. Some
closer and some further from the centre of the nucleus.
 The atom has a central nucleus where most of the mass of the atom is concentrated. It
is positively charged.
 The nucleus is very small compared to the size or shell around the nucleus that contains
electrons.
The size of things
o 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 ≅ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 ≅ 10−15 𝑚

o 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 ≅ 10−15 𝑚 𝑡𝑜 10−14 𝑚
o 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 ≅ 10−10 𝑚
II. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom is electrically neutral. The atom of an element is made up of three particles namely:
protons, neutrons and electrons.
Property Sub-atomic particles
Proton Electron Neutron
Relative mass 1 1/1840 1
Relative charge +1 -1 0
Location in the atom Nucleus Electronic shells Nucleus
1 0 1
Symbol 1𝑃 −1𝑒 0𝑛
DJATSA IDRISS 27
Effect on electrical nature of Excess makes atom Excess makes atom No effect
the atom positive neagtive
III. SOME TERMS USED IN ATOMIC PHYSICS

 Atomic number (Z) or proton number
It is the total number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.
In a neutral atom, z = the number of electrons in the atom
 Nucleon or mass number (A)
It is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atom. It is denoted A.
A = Z + N where N = number of neutrons.
In general, the standard notation of any atom X can be written as 𝑨𝒁𝑿
For example 23 35 4
11𝑁𝑎 , 17𝐶𝑙 , 2𝐻𝑒
That is 23
11𝑁𝑎 has 11 electrons, 11 protons and 12 neutrons (23 – 11).
 Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers. Some examples of isotopes include:
o Oxygen has 3 isotopes: 168𝑂; 178𝑂; 188𝑂

o Hydrogen has 3 isotopes: 11𝐻 ; 21𝐻 (𝐷𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚); 31𝐻 (𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑢𝑚)
Each form of an element is called a nuclide.
Example: Tin (Sn) has 25 isotopes, the lightest being 108

50𝑆𝑛. Knowing that all the isotopes of
tin exist, write the symbol of the heaviest atom.
IV. STABILITY OF THE NUCLEUS: THE N/Z RATIO
The stability of a nucleus depends on both atomic number and the number of neutrons it
contains, i.e. the neutron-proton ratio (N/Z ratio).
It is found that for stable nuclide,
 N/Z = 1 for the lightest

 N/Z > 1 for the heaviest
The more the neutron-proton ratio is closer to one, the more stable the nucleus is.
DJATSA IDRISS 28
Examples:
23
o 11𝑁𝑎(N/Z = 1.09) and 2411𝑁𝑎 (N/Z = 1.18) therefore Sodium-23 is more stable than
Sodium-24.
o 126𝐶 (N/Z = 1.0) and 146𝐶 (N/Z = 1.17) therefore Carbon-12 is more stable than
Carbon-14.
DJATSA IDRISS 29
CHAPTER II: RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is the random and spontaneous emission of ionising radiations like alpha,
beta and gamma radiations by unstable nuclei to give more stable ones with the release of
energy.
A material which can give off these radiations are said to be radioactive.
Radioactivity can be classified as natural and artificial radioactivity.
 Natural radioactivity is not induced or occurs without any external excitation.

 Artificial radioactivity it is induced and done by bombarding the atom with fast
moving particles like protons and neutrons.
I. BACKGROUND RADIATIONS
Background radiations are radiations coming from the environment and can be detected
by a counter even in the absence of an obvious radioactive source.
Possible sources of background radiations include:
- Industrial wastes.
- X-rays from TV screens and from medical sources.
- Rocks in the earth’s crusts
- Cosmic radiation from outer space
- Building materials made from radioactive elements.
- Radioactive carbon in plants and plant materials.
II. RADIATIONS PRODUCED BY RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
The radioactive radiations are: alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays. These
radiations affect the matter they pass through by causing ionization.
The following table summarises the distinguishing properties of these three radiations:
Property 𝜶 – particle 𝜷 - particle 𝜸 - particle
Range in air About 5 cm About 500 cm Obeys the inverse

square law
DJATSA IDRISS 30
Ionising ability in air Strong ionising ability Weak ionising ability Very weak ionising
ability
Stopped by A sheet of paper or the About 5 mm thickness At least 3 cm thickness

skin of aluminium of lead
Deflection in a magnetic Slight deflection Much deflection No deflection

or electric field
Relative charge +2 -1 0
Relative mass 4 1/1840 0
Nature Helium nucleus Electron Electromagnetic wave
4
Symbol 2𝐻𝑒 𝑜𝑟 42𝛼 0
−1𝑒 𝑜𝑟 −10𝛽 𝛾
Speed in air ≈ 107 𝑚/𝑠 ≈ 108 𝑚/𝑠 3.0 𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠
Deflection of alpha, beta and gamma radiations in uniform magnetic and electric fileds
These radiations are released from the radioactive sources (thick lead containers) into electric
and magnetic fields as shown:
It is observed that:
 Alpha and beta particles are deflected in both magnetic and electric fields because they
are charged.
 Alpha particles are less deflected because they are massive whereas beta particles are
more deflected because they are less massive.
DJATSA IDRISS 31
 Gamma radiations are not deflected in magnetic and electric fields because they carry
no charge
In an electric field,
 Alpha particles are deflected towards the negative plate because they are positively
charged.
 Beta particles are deflected towards the positive plate because they are negatively
charged.
Detection of radioactive radiations
 The Geiger-Müller (GM) counter
When radiation enter a GM counter through the mica window, they create argon ions and
electrons. These ions and electrons are accelerated towards the electrodes; on reaching the
electrode, the ions produce a current pulse which is amplified and felt either to a scaler or a
rate meter.
A scaler counts the total number of particles or pulses of radiations detected by the tube:
A rate meter gives the count per second or count rate directly.
 The cloud chamber
A cloud chamber is a device which enables the tracks of charged particles to be seen. alpha,
beta and gamma radiations can therefore be identified from the tracks they produced in the
cloud chamber..
o The cloud chamber contains supersaturated vapour, when radiations enter the cloud
chamber, they ionize the vapour which condenses to form droplets.
o The tracks of the radiations become visible as trails of droplets which can be
photographed.
 Alpha particles tracks are thick, straight and short
 Beta particles tracks are thin, wavy (crooked) and long
DJATSA IDRISS 32
 Gamma radiations do not produce tracks because they have no charge and least
ionising. However, they knock off electrons from the atoms in their path, these
electrons ionize the air in the cloud chamber to produce tracks of low speed beta
particles. The tracks are faint and broken.
III. RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive decay is the disintegration of unstable nuclei to give more stable ones during
radioactivity with the release of energy.
The change of the nucleus of an element to the nucleus of another element because of
the emission of radiations is called transmutation.
The nucleus that decays or disintegrate is called the parent nucleus while the new
nucleus that is produced is called the daughter nucleus. The daughter nucleus and the emitted
radiations are known decay products.
1. Alpha decay
During alpha decay, the parent nucleus loses an alpha particle or Helium nucleus. That is
2 protons and 2 neutrons. Therefore its mass number reduces by 4 while the proton number
reduces by 2.
Supposed an excited nucleus X undergoes an alpha decay to become a more stable nucleus
Y then:
𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 42𝐻𝑒
Note that a nuclear equation is always balanced.
Example:
235 231
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2. Beta decay
During a beta decay, a neutron changes to a proton and an electron as shown:

1
0𝑛 → 11𝑃 + −10𝑒
DJATSA IDRISS 33
The daughter nucleus has the same nucleon number but its proton number increases by one
and its neutron number decreases by one:
𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴
𝑍+1𝑌 + −10𝑒
Example:
14
6𝐶 → 14
7𝑁 + −10𝑒
3. Gamma emission
During a gamma decay, the protons and neutrons rearrange themselves to make the nucleus
more stable. Energy is lost in the form of a gamma ray and the parent nucleus X remains
unchanged.
𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴𝑍𝑋 + 𝛾 (𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
IV. RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
The rate at which a radioactive material disintegrate is called the activity or count rate and is
defined as the number of disintegration per unit time.
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑨) =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
The law of radioactive decay states “the rate of decay is proportional to the number of
nuclei that have not yet decayed”
That is 𝑨 ∞ 𝑵
𝐴 = 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Where {
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
The half-life (𝑻𝟏 ) of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for the number of atoms present in
𝟐
a given sample to decay half its initial value.
𝑵𝑶 𝑵𝑶 𝑵𝑶
𝑵𝑶 → → →
𝑻𝟏 𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝟒 𝑻𝟏 𝟖
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Or
𝑨𝑶 𝑨𝑶 𝑨𝑶
𝑨𝑶 → → →
𝑻𝟏 𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝟒 𝑻𝟏 𝟖
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Where 𝑵𝑶 and 𝑨𝑶 are respectively the number of radioactive atoms initially present and the
activity of the radioactive sample at t = 0.
DJATSA IDRISS 34
𝑵𝑶 𝑨𝑶
Elsewhere 𝑵 = or 𝑨 = with N the number of radioactive atoms and A the activity of
𝟐𝒏 𝟐𝒏
the sample of the sample at any time t and n is the number of half-lives (𝒕 = 𝒏 𝑻𝟏 ).
𝟐
Radioactive decay curves
A typical decay curve for a radioactive material is shown below:
Before plotting the activity against time graph, each of the readings has to be corrected for
background radiation that is subtracting background radiation from each reading.
Example (Homework):
An experiment was carried out to measure the activity of radon-222; a radioactive isotope of
radon. When the instrument was switched on in the absence of the radon-222 source and left
unaltered, the following readings were obtained for time intervals of one minute each
Counts/minute 26 25 30 17 27
The radon-222 source was then placed in front of the instrument and readings taken every day.
The following readings were obtained
Time (days) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 12 14 16 20
Count rate 225 197 171 146 126 115 90 71 57 47 43 40

(counts/minute)
i) Give the name of the phenomenon responsible for the counts in the first table
ii) Calculate its average value
iii) Use the second table to make a third table of values taking into consideration the first
table.
iv) Plot a graph of count rate against time.
v) Use your graph to find the average value of the half-life of radon-222.
DJATSA IDRISS 35
V. USES OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
1. Nuclear energy and mass defect
According to Albert Einstein from the theory of relativity; energy and mass can be
interchangeable by the equation:
𝚫𝑬 = 𝚫𝒎 𝑪𝟐
𝚫𝑬 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
Where {𝚫𝒎 = the change in mass or mass defect
𝐂 = speed of light
The energy equivalent to the mass defect is called binding energy.
2. Artificial nuclear reactions

 Nuclear fission: it is the process in which a heavy nucleus splits up into lighter nuclei
with the release of energy.
Example: 𝟏𝟎𝒏 + 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟗𝟐 𝟏
𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 + 𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟑 ( 𝟎𝒏) + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
 Nuclear fusion: is a process where two light unstable nuclei combine to form a heavier
and more stable nucleus with the release of energy.
Example (Hydrogen bomb): 𝟐𝟏𝑯 + 𝟐𝟏𝑯 → 𝟑𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
3. Applications of radioactivity
 Medical uses
o Killing of cancerous cells with cobalt-60 and caesium-137.
o Checking the functioning of the thyroid gland with iodine-131.
o Sterilize medical instrument
 Industrial uses
o Locate leakages in pipelines with gamma emitting isotopes (tracers)
o Control the thickness of thin sheets.
o Production of electricity with nuclear reactors.
 Agricultural uses
o The uptake of fertilizer by plants with phosphorus-32 (a beta emitter) for
example.
 Uses of dating
Some radioactive elements are used in dating to determine the age of rocks and other
fossils.
o Carbon-14 dating is used in archaeology to determine the age of ancient
wooden objects.
o Uranium dating is used to determine the age of rocks.
VI. SAFETY AND HAZARD OF RADIOACTIVITY
DJATSA IDRISS 36
When radiations penetrate the body, they cause ionisation of cells and this can lead to the change
in structure of the cell and therefore both long and short term effects. Some of these effects
include:
 Damage of the reproductive cells which can lead to sterility or birth defects.
 Blood cancer or leukaemia
 Skin burns
 Cataract or blurred vision due to the destruction of the eye lens.
Because of the dangers to the exposure of radiations, precautions are taken when handling
radioactive materials; some of which include:
 Radioactive sources should never be handled with bare hands, tongs and special holders
should always be used.
 Sources should not be pointed at people.
 Hands should be properly washed after carrying out experiments with radioactive
sources.
 Sources of radiation should be locked up in thick lead containers.
 Lead impregnated jackets should be used when being exposed to radioactive radiations.
 Do not eat or drink when working in environment with high levels of radiation.
DJATSA IDRISS 37
MODULE III: MECHANICS
 Appreciate the importance of force in everyday life situations.

 Solve problems involving addition and subtraction of forces.
 Name and describe everyday situations where torques and couples are used
DJATSA IDRISS 38
CHAPTER I: FORCES
A force is a push or a pull exerted by a body on another.
It is a vector quantity. Its magnitude is measured in newton using a newton-meter.
I. CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES
Forces are classified into two main categories namely contact forces and action-at-a
distance forces (non-contact forces).
 Contact forces: these are forces that act between objects that are physically touching
each other. Examples include frictional force, tensional force, drag force or air
resistance and normal reaction force…
 Non-contact forces: these are forces that act between bodies irrespective of whether
they are touching each other or not. Examples are gravitational force, electrostatic force
and magnetic force.
Effects of a force: a force can produce the following effects
 A force can move a stationary body.

 A force can stop a moving body.
 A force can change the direction of a moving body.
 A force can change the shape (size) of a body.
 A force can change the speed of a moving body.
II. TYPES OF FORCES
1. Weight (W)
The weight of an object is the gravitational pull of the object by a planet. Weight always
acts vertically downwards from the centre of mass of an object.
Weight depends on the mass of a body (m) and the acceleration due to gravity (g). W = m g.
DJATSA IDRISS 39
Acceleration due to gravity varies from one planet to another and also across the entire earth,
then weight varies from place to place.
Variation of g on the earth surface
Acceleration due to gravity is higher at the poles than at the equator because:
 The earth is not a perfect square: Polar Regions are closer to the centre of the earth.
𝟏
Therefore g is higher at the poles since 𝒈 ∞ 𝒓𝟐
 The earth rotates about its axis: at the equator, a greater part of the gravitational pull
of the earth on the body provides the centripetal force and so the resulting pull (weight)
becomes minimum at the equator and then g is also minimum.
Mass of an object: it is the quantity of matter in the body. Mass is a scalar quantity and is
measured using a balance.
Difference between mass and weight
Mass Weight
It is the quantity of matter in a body. It is the gravitational pull of a planet on a body
It is constant everywhere It varies from place to place
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.
It is measured in kilogram It is measured in newton
2. Normal reaction force
It is the perpendicular force exerted by an object on another when they are in contact due to its
weight.
3. Frictional force (Fr)
It is the force which opposes motion between objects or surfaces in contact as they slide over
each other.
DJATSA IDRISS 40
 Static friction: is the frictional force that must be overcome to cause a stationary object
to move.
 Dynamic or kinetic friction: is the frictional force that opposes the motion of a body
in motion.
Advantages of friction
 Friction enables us to walk since it acts between our feet and the rough ground.
 The lighting of a match stick is application of friction.
 It is due to friction that wheels turn and move forward without slipping.
Disadvantages of friction
 Friction causes wear and tear of movable parts of machines.

 Friction decreases the efficiency of a machine.
 Friction increases the energy required to operate machines.
Ways to overcome friction
 Use lubricant (oil…) for moving part of machines.

 Use ball-bearings between moving surfaces.
4. Upthrust force
It is an upward force exerted by fluid molecules on a body which is partially or totally immersed
in the fluid.
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓

{
𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
DJATSA IDRISS 41
Archimedes’ principle: It states that, when a body is completely or partially immersed in a

fluid, it displaces an amount of fluid whose weight equals to the Upthrust on the body.
Law of floatation: the weight of a floating body is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
 If the weight of a body is greater than Upthrust, the body sinks.

 If the weight of a body is less than Upthrust, the body rises in the fluid.
 If the weight of a body is equal to Upthrust, the body floats.
5. Drag force or fluid friction (Fv)
it is a dynamic frictional force that opposes the motion of a body through a fluid. In air, the
drag force is known as air resistance.
The drag force depends on:
 Speed of the body in fluid: the faster the body moves through a fluid, the greater the
drag force on it.
 Density of the fluid: the denser the fluid, the greater the drag force.
 Viscosity of the fluid: the more viscous the fluid is, the greater the drag force.
 Surface area of the body in the fluid: it increases with increase in the surface area of
the body in fluid
Terminal velocity (VT): it is the maximum constant velocity attained by a body falling through
a fluid with zero resultant force on it
6. Tensional force (T)
It is a force that acts on a rope when stretched or on a spring when stretched or compressed.
III. RESOLUTION OF FORCES
A resultant force is that single force which has the same effect as two or more forces put
together.
1. Resultant of parallel forces

DJATSA IDRISS 42
2. Resultant of two perpendicular forces
Applying Pythagoras theorem, we have:
 The resultant force is 𝑹 = √𝑭𝟐𝒙 + 𝑭𝟐𝒚

𝐹𝑦
 The direction of the resultant force from the horizontal is 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝐹 )
𝑥
3. Resolution of forces on a body placed on a inclined plane
The forces that act on a body sliding down or up an inclined plane are: weight, normal
reaction, applied force and friction if the plane is rough.
𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 = 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 + 𝒘 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
{
𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 = 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑭𝒓 )
DJATSA IDRISS 43
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 + 𝒘 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝑭𝒓 )

At equilibrium, {
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑹) = 𝒘 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
IV. TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES
1. Moment of a force
Moment of a force about a point (or axis) is the product of the applied force and the
perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force. It is a vector quantity.
Its SI unit is N m.
The measure of the turning effect of a force about a point is called the moment of the force.
Principle of moments:
It states that for a body in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about any point or
axis is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that same point.
Consider a uniform bar of length AB, having negligible weight as shown below:
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹2 𝑑2

{
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹1 𝑑1
Therefore from the principle of moments
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡
⟹ 𝑭𝟏 𝒅𝟏 = 𝑭𝟐 𝒅𝟐
Conditions of a body to be in equilibrium
 The sum of the clockwise moments about any point must be equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments about the same point.
 The sum of the forces in any one direction must be equal to the sum of the forces in the
opposite direction.
The moment of a force increases with;
DJATSA IDRISS 44
o The magnitude of the force.

o The perpendicular distance from the point in question.
Applications of moment of force
 It is easier to undo a nut using a longer spanner than with a shorter one because the
distance from the turning point will be longer and so effort applied produces a larger
turning effect.
 Windows and doors shutters can easily be opened when the applied force is at a
reasonable distance from the pivot or hinge for the same reason as above.
2. Couple and moment of a couple or torque
A couple is a pair of equal, parallel and opposite forces acting on a body with different lines of
action. A couple acting on a body produces turning effect.
The moment of a couple also called torque of a couple which is the product of the magnitude
of one force and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces. Its SI unit
is N m.
Examples:
i) An object of mass 50 kg rests on an inclined plane at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.

The frictional force between the mass and the plane is 100 N.
a) Draw a free body diagram to show all the forces acting on the mass.
b) Determine whether or not the object remains at equilibrium.
ii) A uniform solid beam 1 m long is pivoted at a 20 cm mark from one end of the beam.
The beam is balanced horizontally by a weight of 10 N hanging from the end close
to the pivot.
a) Draw a diagram showing the beam balanced by the forces
b) Determine the weight of the beam.
DJATSA IDRISS 45
CHAPTER II: MOTION
The motion of a body is the change in the position of the body with respect to another.
I. IMPORTANT TERMS IN MOTION
Distance (d): it is the actual length of the path moved by a body. It is a scalar quantity. It is
measured in metre.
Displacement (s): it is the distance moved by a body in a specific direction. It is a vector

quantity. It is measured in metre.
Speed: it is the distance moved by a body per unit time.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 (𝒅)

𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 (𝒗) =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒕)
It is measured in metre per second (ms-1). It is a scalar quantity.
Instantaneous speed of a body is the speed at a particular time. The speedometer of a vehicle
measures its instantaneous speed.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 (𝒅)

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 (𝒗) =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒕)
Velocity: it is the displacement of a body per unit time.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝒔)
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒗) =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕)
It is a vector quantity. It is measured in m/s.
Acceleration: it is the change in the velocity of a body per unit time.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝚫𝒗)

𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒂) =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕)
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝚫𝒗) = 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒗) − 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒖)
𝒗−𝒖
𝒂= ⟹ 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝒕
DJATSA IDRISS 46
It is a vector quantity. It is measured in 𝒎 𝒔−𝟐 .
Uniform or constant acceleration if the velocity changes by equal amounts in equal time
intervals.
A body is said to be decelerating (deceleration or retardation) if its velocity is decreasing

with time. Deceleration is also known as negative acceleration.
II. EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
Suppose a body travelling with initial velocity (u), attains a final velocity (v) in a time interval
t. Then:
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 (1)
𝒗+𝒖
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝒔 = ( )𝒕 (2)
𝟐
𝟏
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂 𝒕𝟐 (3)
𝟐
{ 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒂 𝒔 (4)
III. GRAPHS OF LINEAR MOTION
1. Displacement time graphs
The gradient of a displacement time graph gives the velocity of the body.
 If the displacement time graph of a body is a straight line, then its velocity is uniform.
 If the displacement time graph of a body is curve, then its velocity is non-uniform.
2. Velocity time graphs
The gradient of the velocity time graph gives the acceleration of the body. The area under the
graph line and time axis displacement.
DJATSA IDRISS 47
 If the velocity time graph of a body is a straight line, then its acceleration is uniform.
 If the velocity time graph of a body is curve, then its acceleration is non-uniform.
3. Acceleration time graph
The area under the graph line and time axis gives velocity
Examples
1) A car accelerates from rest to a speed of 30 m/s in the first half second of its motion.
Calculate the distance moved in 4s if its acceleration is constant.
2) A bullet travelling at a speed of 120 m/s hits a large piece of wood and penetrate it to a
depth of 60 cm. Calculate
a) The time taken to bring the bullet to rest.
b) The acceleration of the wood as it travels into the wood.
IV. MEASUREMENT OF SPEED AND ACCELERATON OF A MOVING

BODY
DJATSA IDRISS 48
Using the ticker-tape timer method
Procedure:
 A ticker-tape timer consists of a small electrical vibrator which moves a metal pin up
and down 50 times every second.
 Each time, the pin moves downwards, it presses on a carbon paper disc and makes a dot
on the paper tape.
 A trolley is attached to the paper tape and allowed to move down an inclined plane. As
it moves, dots are produced on the paper.
 The distance between the dots is measured using a ruler.
Calculations:
 Period (T) = 1/ frequency (f) = 1/50 = 0.02 s.

𝑑1
 Initial velocity between A and B is 𝑢 = 𝑇
𝑑2
 Final velocity between D and E is 𝑣 = 𝑇
𝑣−𝑢
 Acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑡
Precaution: The runway is tilted to compensate friction
V. FREE FALL
Free fall is the downward motion in a gravitational field unaffected by air resistance and
Upthrust.
A freely falling body has a uniform acceleration called acceleration due to gravity (g).
Equations of motion for motion under gravity

DJATSA IDRISS 49
Downward motion Upward motion
Acceleration a = g Acceleration a = - g
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡
1 1
𝑠 = ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔 𝑡 2 𝑠 = ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡 2
2 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2 𝑔 ℎ 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2 𝑔ℎ
Experiment to determine the acceleration due to gravity
Procedure:
 A ball bearing is held by an electromagnet when the power supply is connected (position
1)
 The height h of the ball above the magnetic contact is measured using a metre rule.
 The switch is now turned in position 2, breaking the circuit to the electromagnet. The
ball begins to fall and at the same instant the electronic clock (timer) starts timing.
 When the ball strikes the magnetic contact, the timer circuit brakes and the time t of fall
is noted
 The height h is varied and corresponding values of time t are obtained.
𝟏
Calculations: 𝒉 = 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐
A graph of h against 𝒕𝟐 plotted and the slope = g/2 then g = 2 x Slope
VI. LINEAR MOMENTUM, IMPULSE AND COLLISIONS
1. Linear momentum
DJATSA IDRISS 50
The momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity.
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 (𝑷) = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒎) 𝒙 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒗)
Momentum is a vector quantity. It is measured in 𝒌𝒈 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
If a body in motion changes velocity from u to v, then
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 (𝚫𝑷) = 𝒎𝚫𝐯 = 𝐦(𝐯 − 𝐮)
2. Law of conservation of linear momentum
It states that when bodies in a system interact, the total momentum remains constant
provided no external force acts on the system.
Suppose a body A of mass m1 and velocity u1 collides with another body B of mass m2 and
velocity u2 in the same direction as shown below:
o Total momentum before collision 𝑷𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐

o Total momentum after collision 𝑷𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
o From the law of conservation of linear momentum
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
Therefore, 𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
Applications of the law of conservation of momentum
 Rocket propulsion: the initial momentum of the rocket on its launching pad is zero.
When it is fired, the exhaust gases rush downward at a high velocity. To conserve
momentum, the gases give an equal but opposite momentum to the rocket due to
which it moves upwards at a high velocity.
DJATSA IDRISS 51
 Recoiling of a gun: the initial momentum of the gun and bullet is zero. When a bullet
is fired from the gun, it imparts an equal but opposite momentum to the gun due to
which the gun jerks or recoils backwards.
3. Impulse
It is the product of the force and time of impact of a body:
Impulse (I) = Force (F) x Time (t)
Impulse is a vector quantity. It is measured in 𝒌𝒈 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
Impulse momentum-theorem
It states that, the impulse of a body is equal to the change in its momentum.
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 (𝑰) = 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 (𝚫𝑷) = 𝒎𝚫𝐯
4. Collisions
 Elastic collision: it is a collision in which the total kinetic energy and linear momentum
of the system is conserved.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑲𝑬 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑲𝑬 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ 𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟐𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
 Inelastic collision: it is a collision in which the total kinetic energy is not conserved but
the total linear momentum of is conserved.
 A perfectly inelastic collision: it is an inelastic collision where the two objects stick
together and move with the same velocity after collision.
Examples
1) A car of mass 2500 kg and moving with a speed of 30 m/s collides with another car of
mass 1500 kg. After collision, both cars stick together and move with a common
velocity of 15 m/s in the direction of the car of mass 2500 kg.
i) Calculate the initial speed of the car of mass 1500 kg
After collision, the new composite car moves for 4 s in a straight line before coming
to rest. Assume a uniform retardation.
ii) Calculate the distance it moved during this time
iii) Calculate the magnitude of the breaking force which brought the car to rest.
2) A stationary gun of mass 500 kg fires a shell of mass 1 kg with a velocity of 600 m/s
and recoils as a result. Calculate the recoil velocity.
DJATSA IDRISS 52
VII. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION AND APPLICATIONS
1. Newton’s first law
It states that “an object will remain at rest or continue to move with a uniform velocity
unless acted upon by an external force”
This law is known as the law of inertia because it states that in the absence of a net force, a
body will preserve its state of rest or of uniform motion.
Inertia of a body is its reluctance (resistance) to change its state of rest or of uniform motion
due to its mass under the influence of a resultant force.
Daily experience of Newton’s first law
o A passenger in a bus falls backward when the bus suddenly starts moving. This is due
to the reluctance of the passenger to move from rest.
o A passenger seated in a moving cal falls forward when the car suddenly stops. He
continues moving until brought to rest by friction or collision. The use of seat belt
reduces the shock.
2. Newton’s second law
It states that “the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
resultant force applied on it and takes place in the direction of the resultant force”
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 (𝚫𝑷)

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑭) ∞
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒕)
𝒎(𝒗 − 𝒖)
𝑭= ⟹𝑭= 𝒎𝒂
𝒕
Daily experience of Newton’s second law
o Packaging of eggs in boxes: eggs are usually packed in soft shock absorbing boxes
during transportation. This is because the boxes increase the time of contact of the eggs
with them; therefore a smaller a resultant force acts on the eggs keeping them safe.
o Seat belts and air bags: during collision, seat belts stretch gradually and air bags
deflate gradually. This increases the time taken for a passenger to come to rest if the car
suddenly stops and hence a small resultant force acts on him keeping him safe.
3. Newton’s third law
It states that “if a body A exerts a force on a body B, then the body B exerts an equal but
opposite force on body A”
DJATSA IDRISS 53
Daily experience of Newton’s third law
o Recoiling of a gun: when a bullet is fired from a gun, the action force on bullet imparts
an equal but opposite force (reaction) on the gun which recoils in the backward
direction.
o A swimmer in a river: a swimmer pushes water in the backward direction with an
action force and the water pushes the swimmer in the forward direction with an equal
but opposite force.
Experiment to demonstrate that 𝑭 ∞ 𝒂 using a ticker timer:
Procedure
 A paper tape from a ticker timer of frequency 50 Hz is connected to the trolley.

 The elastic cord attached on the trolley is stretched to a fixed length to maintain a
constant force and then released.
 The trolley then moves down the run way producing dots on the tape.
 The force is varied by applying different identical elastic cords each stretched by the
same length
 For each force, the corresponding acceleration is obtained from the dots produced on
the paper tape.
Calculations
 Period (T) = 1/ frequency (f) = 1/50 = 0.02 s. The time interval of 10 dots is t = n T =
0.2 s
 The paper tape is removed and the distances x1 and x2 of the consecutive portions with
10 dots spaces are measured using a metre rule
𝑥
Initial velocity is 𝑢 = 𝑡1
𝑥2
Final velocity between is 𝑣 = 𝑡
𝑣−𝑢
Acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑡
 A graph of F against a is plotted and it is a straight line from the origin. Therefore 𝑭 ∞ 𝒂
DJATSA IDRISS 54
Precaution The runway is tilted to compensate friction
𝟏
Experiment to demonstrate that 𝒂 ∞ 𝒎 using a ticker timer:
Procedure
 The mass m of the trolley is measured using a scale balance.

 A paper tape from a ticker timer of frequency 50 Hz is connected to the trolley.
 The force is kept constant by using only one elastic cord.
 The trolley then moves down the run way producing dots on the tape.
 The mass is varied by stacking more identical trolleys on the first and for each mass, the
corresponding acceleration is obtained.
Calculations
 Period (T) = 1/ frequency (f) = 1/50 = 0.02 s. The time interval of 10 dots is t = n T =
0.2 s
 The paper tape is removed and the distances x1 and x2 of the consecutive portions with
10 dots spaces are measured using a metre rule
𝑥
Initial velocity is 𝑢 = 𝑡1
𝑥2
Final velocity between is 𝑣 = 𝑡
𝑣−𝑢
Acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑡
 A graph of 𝑎 against 1/m is plotted and it is a straight line from the origin. Therefore
𝟏
𝒂∞𝒎
Precaution The runway is tilted to compensate friction
DJATSA IDRISS 55

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PHYSICS FORM FIVE GBHD DEIDO

MODULE I: FIELDS: MAGNETIC FIELDS AND THEIR EFFECTS

At the end of this module, leaners should be able to:

 Understand how a simple magnet can be made

CHAPTER I: MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS

 Magnets attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt.

II. MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Ferromagnetic materials or magnetic materials are material that can be attracted by a

Magnetic materials are classified into two categories namely:

Uses of permanent magnets:

o They are used as a magnetic compass needle.

Uses of soft magnetic materials:

o They are used to produce powerful temporary magnets

III. MAGNETISATION AND DEMAGNETISATION

(a) Single touch (b) Double touch

IV. MAGNETIC POLES

Test for the polarity of a magnet

VI. MAGNETIC FIELDS

Properties of magnetic field lines

Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet

Plotting magnetic field lines

 Using Iron filings

Using a plotting compass to map out a magnetic field

Magnetic flux patterns

Fig. Examples of flux patterns

CHAPTER II: MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF A STEADY CURRENT

I. MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERNS OF CONDUCTORS CARRYING

2. Magnetic field pattern due to two current carrying conductors

3. Magnetic flux pattern due to current in a flat coil

4. Magnetic flux due to current in a solenoid

This magnetic field is stronger inside the solenoid than outside.

Factors affecting the magnetic field strength of a solenoid

2. Number of turns of the wire of the solenoid

3. The core material

III. FORCES ACTING ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A

A conductor carrying current will experience a zero or minimum force on it when it is

Field due to permanent Field due to current Combined field of the

IV. APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTOR EFFECT

1. Electric Motor: Direct Current Motor

Stage 1: first half rotation

Cutting field lines at 90°

Stage 2: vertical position

Cutting field lines at 0°

Stage 3: Second half rotation

Stage 4: Vertical position

The contact between the carbon brushes and the

Cutting field lines at 270°

Factors which affect the speed of rotation of the motor

2. Moving Coil Galvanometer

Figure: Pivoted moving coil meter

CHAPTER III: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an induced current or emf in a

I. DEMONSTRATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 Experiment 1: Using a straight conductor

 Experiment 2:Using a solenoid and a bar magnet

The following effects are observed

Factors that affect the induced e.m.f/induced current

II. LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Lenz’s law and conservation of energy