UNIT 6

Internal Developments and External Relations of

Ethiopia and the Horn, 1800-1941
6.2. THE MAKING OF MODERN ETHIOPIAN STATE
 State building remained an agenda of several powerful individuals and
groups, the difference was the level of their strength and ambition, and
their relations with foreign powers.
 The making of the modern Ethiopian state went through two distinct
phases.
 The first one involved unifying different regions and peoples in north
and north central parts of Ethiopia.
 The second phase involved territorial expansion into the southern parts
of the country.
A.The Process of Territorial Unification
❖ The territorial unification ushered in a revival of the imperial power
which had declined during the Zemene-Mesafint.
❖ A leading figure in the overall process was Kasa Hailu of Quara who
later became Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia, the man who ended the
Zemene Mesafint.
✓ Kasa’s mission to create a unified state goes back to his time when he
was a shifta.
✓ He started his career by assisting his half−brother, Dejjazmach Kinfu in
defeating the Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu (in present day eastern Sudan) in
1837. During this time, he acquired military and political experiences.
✓ In 1848, Kasa fought against the Egyptians at a place called Dabarki, but
Kasa’s forces lost the battle owing to the Egyptians’ superior military
organization, discipline and better arms.
✓ From his defeat, Kasa drew a lesson pertaining to the importance of
modern army. On the other hand, Kasa’s fame was spreading in the area
and became a major concern to the Warra-Sheh (Yejju)ruling house.
✓ Thus, they decided to pacify Kasa through marriage arrangement. Hence,
Kasa married Tewabech, the daughter of Ras Ali II and he was appointed
the governor of Quara.
✓ However, Kasa felt that he was not well treated by Ras Ali and his mother,
Etege Menen, and hence, he resumed his shiftnet resulting in a series of
battles. These were:
1. Kasa defeated Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27,
1852;
2. The four dejjazmachs sent by Ras Ali (Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew), at
Taqusa (Gorgora Bichign) on April 12, 1853;
 3. Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853 and
4. Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge Mariam on 8 Feb., 1855.
❖ After defeating the major regional lords one after another, he was
anointed by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop at Deresge Mariam on 9
February 1855, with the throne name of Tewodros II (1855-1868), King
of Kings of Ethiopia.
❖ Tewodros pursued his victory at Deresge by marching to the south,
marched first to Wollo and then to Shewa.
❖ He wanted to create a strong central government by appointing
individuals (hereditary and non-hereditary) who would be totally
accountable to him. After the inclusion of Shewa, rebellions broke out in
several regions such as in Gojjam, Simen, Wag and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo,
and Tigray.
❖ Externally, he was involved in a serious diplomatic crises following the
imprisonment of a handful of Britons and other Europeans.
❖ As a result, the British Parliament sent an expeditionary force to free
those prisoners and punish the emperor. In a battle that took place at
Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros committed suicide on April 13, 1868.
✓ Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the
throne emerged; namely, Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa Mircha of
✓ Gobeze took state power immediately after Tewodros as Emperor Tekle-
Giorgis II (1868−71). He was defeated by Kasa Mircha, at the battle at Assam
(near Adwa) in July 1871.
✓ Kasa, who became Emperor Yohannes IV in January 1872, sustained state
building project with an approach that differed from that of Tewodros.
❖ Yohannes IV (1872-1889):- attempted to introduce a decentralized
system of administration, permitting regional rulers to exercise a great
deal of autonomy. A good examples of this were:
✓ His recognition of Menilek as Negus of Shewa in 1878 by the Liche
agreement.
✓ Similarly, Yohannes designated Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as Negus Tekle-
Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.
✓ He succeeded in achieving the unity of the predominately Christian
provinces including Wag and Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam,
Wollo, Shewa, and including the Mereb Milash.
❖ Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious controversy within the
EOC as well as effect religious unity in the country. In this regard, he
presided over the Council of Boru Meda (1878):-
1. Where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC.
2. This was followed by the conversion of Muslims and adherents of other religions
into Orthodox Christianity.The reactions of Wollo Muslims were different:-
➢ Accordingly, the leading Wollo leaders such as Mohammed Ali and Amede
Liben converted into Christianity and changing their names to Ras Michael
and Dajjach Hayle-Mariam, respectively.
➢ Others accepted the Emperor's demand outwardly but remained Muslims,
becoming "Christians by day and Muslims by night".
➢ Others resisted and fled Wollo to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the Sudan.
➢ While others revolted under the leadership of Sheikh Tola (Talha) Jafar that
led to harsh measures of Emperor Yohannes IV.
❖ Externally, Emperor Yohannes faced challenges from Egyptians, Italians, and
the Mahdists at different times. He lost his life fighting the latter at
Metemma in 1889.
❖ Although the Emperor had designated Mengesha Yohannes as his
successor, the throne was assumed by Negus Menelik of Shewa who
became Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913).
❖ Ras Mengesha refused to submit to Emperor Menelik. The tension was
resolved after Menelik led a campaign to force Mengesha's submission in
1889.
❖ Ras Mengesha was appointed as governor of Tigray after a temporary
arrangement in which Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael ruled the area for
about a year.
❖ B.Territorial Expansion
➢ Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV made state building their
mission and struggled their ways. Yet, the most successful was Menilek of
Shewa.
➢ This was because Menilek had, among other factors, access to modern
firearms. The control of resource rich areas that enabled the emperor to
build military muscle as well as the determination of his generals
counted for his successes.
➢ The process of territorial expansion by Menilek can be discussed in
three phases i.e. when he was king of Shewa (1865-89), from 1889-96
and the aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).
I. First Phase (1865-1889):- before the 1870s, Menilek had already
incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo.
✓ Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis
Dinagde, DejjachBalchaSafo (Abba Nefso) and others worked towards
the formation of the modern Ethiopian state.
✓ In 1875-76, the northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted to
Menilek because of their religious affinity and geographical proximity to
the Kingdom of Shewa, and for fear of their local rivals notably the
surrounding Oromo.
✓ On the other hand, the western Gurage, led by Hasan Enjamo of
Qabena, which had elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition strongly
resisted Menilek's force until Ras Gobena broke their resistance in 1888.
✓ After the Battle of Embabo in 1882, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem and
Jimma Abba Jifar submitted to Menilek peacefully, who promised them to
recognize and maintain their autonomy.
✓ Nigus Menelik faced the most sustained bloody wars were those of against
the Arsi Oromo. It took six different campaigns from 1882-6 to control this
vast region.
✓ Ras Darge Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the Arsi Oromo at the battle of
Azule on 6 September 1886. That was followed by the Anole incident that
inflicted heavy damage to the Arsi Oromo in 1887.
 In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought against
Emir Abdullahi (r.1885-1887) of the Harari and Bakar Ware of the Itu-
Humbanna defeated in the final engagement at Chalanqo on 6 January
1887. Dejjach (later Ras) Makonnen Wolde Mikael appointed as governor
of the province by Emperor Menilek II.
II. Second Phase (1889-1896):- was partly in response to the Great
Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92. Accordingly, Menilek's army
occupied Dawuro-Konta and Kambata in 1889 and 1890, respectively.
❖ From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek's army controlled Bale, Sidama,
Gamo Gofa and Wolayta.
❖ In the campaign to Wolayta, Emperor Menilek and many notables such as
Ras Mikael of Wollo, Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu, Liqe Mekwas Abate
Buayalew, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and Abba Jifar II of
Jimma participated.
❖ Wolayta's resistance led by Kawo (King) Tona against Menilek's force was
defeated in 1894 in which large number of people lost their lives. This
was followed by the incorporation of Gedeo, Borana and Konso into the
imperial state.
❖ III. Third Phase(1896-1900):-Menilek's force incorporated Kafa, Beni-
Shangul, and Gambella after the battle of Adwa. The process of the
incorporation of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta experience.
✓ In 1897, the king of Kafa, Tato Gaki Sherocho, fought and lost to
Menilek's army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis.
✓ Beni-Shangul was incorporated after the Battle of Fadogno in 1897/98.
This was followed by the occupation of Maji in 1898/99. Tesema Nadew
also controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in Gambella around this time.
❖ The process of territorial expansion was consummated with the singing
of boundary agreements with the neighboring colonial powers that
❖ After Menelik, the process of centralization and establishing a unitary
state continued by abolishing regional autonomies in the early decades
of the 20th century.
❖ In the process, Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916 when Nigus
Mika’el was defeated), Begemedir (after the battle of Anchim at which
Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated in 1930), Gojjam in 1932 and Jimma in
1933 were reduced to mere provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile
Sillassie I).
 6.5. External Relations
❖ One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the end of the 'close
door policy’ that was introduced by Emperor Fasiladas (1632-1667).
❖ Thus, beginning from the early 1800s, regional rulers made
independent foreign contacts and signed treaties. The agents of these
external relations were mainly travelers.
❖ Travelers came to Ethiopia and the Horn, with the motives of
adventure and scientific research. They were also sometimes
involved in fostering friendship and trade relation on behalf of their
governments. Some of them, however, came with covert mission of
colonialism.
❖ Meanwhile, various rulers of Ethiopia and the Horn had also
dispatched their own delegations to various countries of the world.
✓ One of the earliest private travelers was Henry Salt who reached the
court of Ras Wolde-Selassie of Tigray on 28 August 1805.
✓ He came for scientific reasons, but he claimed that his mission was to
establish friendship between Great Britain and Ethiopia. He returned to
Ethiopia in 1809 and concluded agreement with the Ras.
✓ Several British travelers including Christian Kugler also arrived in the
1830s. Travelers from Germany like Eduard Ruppell (a scholar)
arrived in 1846; Captain W.C. Harris, leading an official British
mission visited Shewa. John Bell and Walter Plowden in the 1840s,
the Italian Geographic Society in 1869 and the like arrived for trade
relation and scientific purposes.
✓ The result of these contacts was the agreement between Negus
Sahle-Selassie of Shewa and British Captain W. Harris in 1841 as well
as with the French Rochet d’Hericourt, in 1843. In addition, Walter
Plowden also signed treaty with Ras Ali in 1849.
✓ Furthermore, other regional lords had contacts with religious
centers in the Middle East, particularly with Jerusalem. During the
period, Egyptians threatened the Ethiopian religious community
settlement at Deir Al-Sultan in Jerusalem.
✓ In the early 1850s, strong lords like Ras Ali and Dejjazmach Wube
sent letters to Queen Victoria of England to request support against
the Egyptians.
✓ External relations during the reign of Tewodros II seemed more
elaborate and oriented towards obtaining western technology and
military support to defend foreign aggression.
✓ As with his predecessors, Emperor Yohannes IV tried to create
strong relations with Europeans. The major concerns of Emperor
Yohannes IV were the restoration of the lost territories, the
delimitation of boundaries and the defense of the sovereignty of the
state against the threat and interference by foreign powers.
✓ When he confronted external challenge like Egypt, he tried to solve
through negotiation than war. War was his last choice as he fought
with Egypt in 1875/76 and Mahdist Sudan in 1889.
✓ One of the major diplomatic relations Yohannes concluded was
Hewett /Adwa Treaty. It was a treaty signed between the Emperor
and the British Rear Admiral William Hewett on behalf of Egypt on 3
June 1884 at Adwa.
✓ The purpose was to safely evacuate Egyptian troops through Ethiopia
who were trapped by the Mahdist troops along the Ethio-Sudanese
border.
✓ In return, Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia and the latter was to
freely use Massawa for the transit of goods and firearms. Based on the
agreement, Emperor Yohannes facilitated the safe evacuation of Egyptian
troops through his territory.
✓ Britain restored Bogos to Ethiopia. However, Britain secretly transferred
Massawa from Egypt to Italy in February 1885.
✓ One consequence of the treaty was Mahdist determination to avenge
Yohannes that led to the battle of Metemma on 9 March 1889 which
claimed his death.
❖ In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external threats,
Emperor Menilek II was more successful through maintaining the
balance among powerful forces of the period. While he was king of
Shewa, he established commercial relation with Italy that later
helped him to acquire military equipment.
✓ Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of
the Wuchale Treaty. It was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and
signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo between Emperor Menilek
II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of Italy.
✓ The treaty has 20 articles and was written both in Amharic and
Italian languages. The Italian version of Article III indicates the
“effective occupation” of Italy to legitimize its further expansion
towards the Mereb River.
✓ Article XVII has major difference in the two language versions.
✓ While the Amharic version states that Ethiopia could optionally
conduct its foreign affairs through Italy, the Italian version indicates
that Menilek’s foreign contacts must be through the agency of Italy.
✓ As a result, based on the Italian version of Article XVII, Italy
announced that all foreign powers had to deal with Ethiopia only
through Italy. European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim
except Russia.
✓ In January 1890, the Italian government formally declared Eritrea as
its colony.
✓ Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through tricky treaties; persuasion
and the subversive methods failed. This was because Menilek publicly
abrogated the Wuchale Treaty in February 1893 and Tigrian lords
including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi and Dajjach
Hagos Tafari, began to fight against the Italians collaborating with
Emperor Menilek.
✓ Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian resistance
against colonialism led to the battle. This finally led to the Battle of
Adwa, where the latter became victorious.
✓ After the victory of Adwa, different foreign countries opened their
legations at Addis Ababa to establish relations on official basis.
✓ Furthermore, Emperor Menilek made boundary agreements with the
then neighboring colonial powers like:
- French-Somaliland (the present day Djibouti) on 20 March 1897,
- British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June 1897,
- Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on 15 May 1902,
-Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July 1900 and
-British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907 and Italian-Somaliland in 1908.
These boundary agreements shaped modern Ethiopian boundary.
✓ International politics of the 20th century also shaped Ethiopia’s foreign
relations. For instance, during the First World War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu
showed a tendency to side with the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-
Hungary, Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire) believing that the defeat of the
Allied powers (France and Britain) would allow Ethiopia to push Italy
out of Eritrea and Somalia.
✓ He also befriended the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid Mohammed
Abdille Hassan, against Italy and Britain. Sayyid Mohammed Abdille
Hassan (1864-1920) led the Somali against the European occupation.
✓ He tried to attract support from the mass through his Pan-Somali
movement. In the history of the Somali, he is recognized as a forerunner
of modern Somali nationalism.
✓ One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the early 20th C
was her admission to the League of Nations in 1923. A year later,
Teferi made his grand European tour which shaped his ideas of
modernization.
✓ Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations, however, did not save
her from Italian invasion in 1935/36.
1. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and
Patriotism
✓ Ethiopian people fought several battles against foreign threats during
the period under discussion.
The Battle of Dabarki (1848): Dabarki was fought between Kasa
Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in 1848.
✓ Although the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle, the military
imbalance particularly, the modern artillery and discipline of Egyptian
troops gave him a lesson to modernize his military force, acquire
modern technologies.
✓ This later initiated him to widen his vision and mission when he became
emperor.
The Battle of Maqdela (1868): Tewodros II had early relation with
Britain through the two British citizens,Walter Plowden and John Bell.
✓ His main aim was to obtain help against foreign threats. In 1862, he sent
a letter to Queen Victoria requesting assistance through Consul
Cameron.
✓ Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without bringing any
response. Suspecting him as plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned
Captain Cameron and other Europeans.
✓ On learning the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria sent a
letter through Hormuzd Rassam which did not satisfy Tewodros.
✓ After some communications, the British parliament decided to take
military action. Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by Sir Robert Napier
were sent through Massawa. This force reached Maqdela guided by
Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of Tigray (later Emperor Yohannes) and
Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta.
✓ On April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers including his general
Gebriye were defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge.
✓ On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela. This was
followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of manuscripts,
religious and secular artifacts including his crown by the British troops.
The Battles of Gundet and Gura
✓ In the 19th century, Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy
Northeast Africa with the ambition of controlling the source of the Nile.
✓ Following their occupation of the Sudan in 1821, they moved to occupy
Ethiopia on several occasions. For instance, in 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha
sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions.
1. Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the
occupation of the Harar Emirate between 1875 and 1885.
2. Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s scheme for
invasion of Ethiopia, led about 500 Egyptian troops equipped with
cannons and rocket tubes through Tajura. But, Munzinger and his
troops were all killed by the Afars at the Battle of Odduma.
3. Finally, Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed
troops through Massawa. Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula
mobilized about 20,000 forces and encountered the Egyptians at the
Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) where the Egyptian troops
were severely defeated.
✓ Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent their army to invade
Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the
Battle of Gura (7–9 March, 1876).
The Battle of Dogali
✓ During the late 19th century, Europeans had interest to control the
Red Sea area. With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red
Sea region acquired great strategic and commercial importance.
✓ One of the colonial powers with interest in the Horn of Africa was
Italy.
1. The relations Italy had with the Horn began when an Italian private
shipping company (Rubatino) had bought the port of Assab from
the local chiefs in 1869.
2. In 1882, the port of Assab was transferred to Italian government.
3. In 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy.
✓ By using these bases as spring board, Italy began to penetrate into
northern Ethiopia. Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati,
Aylet and Wia in the then Mereb Milash region. However, they were
defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Engida,
Emperor Yohannes’s famous general and right hand man.
✓ Following this battle, Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek
in October 1887 in a bid to neutralize Menelik so as to isolate
Emperor Yohannes.
The Battle of Metemma
✓ Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist and Ethiopian forces
that lasted from 1885 to 1889.
1. The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in
September 1885. Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious. However,
when Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia to check the
Italian advance to Mereb Milash, he heard the Mahadist advance up to
Gondar. The Mahdists caused a lot of destruction on churches and
monasteries, including the killing of the clergy and the laity.
2. In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam to
repulse the Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja,
defeated Nigus Tekle Haymanot’s troops at Sar Wuha in Dembia.
✓ At this important juncture, Nigus Menelik and Nigus Teklehaimanot
conspired against the emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists.
✓ As a result, Emperor Yohannes faced what can be called the triangular
tension, namely the Italians in the north, the Mahdists in the west and
northwest, and his two vassals in the center.
✓ Later, in another direction, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli (in
Najjo-Wallagga) by Menilik’s commander Ras Gobana Dacci on 14
October 1888.
✓ Emperor Yohannes made a national call:
The country called Ethiopia is firstly your mother, secondly your crown, thirdly
your wife, fourthly your child, fifthly your grave. Accordingly, rise up understanding
the love of a mother, honor of a crown, the goodness of a wife, the delight of having
a child, and the shelter of a grave.
✓ Hence, on 9 March 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where he
died fighting the Mahdists. Evidently, it has to be noted here that internal
divisions and acrimonies among rulers would result in a huge cost to the
country and its peoples. Among others, Maqdela and Metemma are very
good testimonies.
The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath
✓ The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle
between Ethiopia and Italian forces. This was because Italians were
determined to colonize Ethiopia whereas Ethiopians were ready not to
give in.
✓ To meet their intention, the Italians crossed the Mereb River and arrived
at Adigrat and proceeded to Amba-Alage. Following Emperor Menelik’s
proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops from every
part of the country gathered at Wara-Illu (in today’s South Wollo).
✓ People marched to the front irrespective of gender, regional, and ethnic
differences to fight against the Italian aggression.
1. The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at
Amba Alage and forced them to retreat to Mekelle.
2. In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian
forces defeated Italians at Mekelle. At Mekelle, they came under siege
that prevented them access to a well which they used for drinking. The
strategy was commonly called the “siege of Mekelle” and was
considered to be designed by Empress Taytu. After some negotiations,
the besieged Italian troops were set free and joined their counterparts
at Adwa.
3. A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress
Taiytu and war generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras
Mangasha and Negus Takla- Haymanot and others encountered the
Italians at Adwa.
✓ The result of this battle was a decisive victory for Ethiopians but a huge
blow to the Italians which doomed their colonial ambition over Ethiopia.
✓ At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded
and 3,000 were captured. On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000
troops are said to have been killed.
✓ Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the
treaty of Addis Ababa that was signed on October 26, 1896.
✓ A number of powers of the time (including Italy, France, Britain,
Russia, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others) also
recognized the independence of Ethiopia and opened their legations
in Addis Ababa.
✓ Despite different interpretations on the results of the battle of
Adwa, the heroic national campaign, cooperation and common
successes of peoples of Ethiopia had a positive implication for
success and national integration.
✓ The victory has witnessed independence and national pride. It has
thus become a source of pride for Ethiopians, Africans and the black
race in general.
✓ Furthermore, the victory of Ethiopians at Adwa has had an enduring
legacy in the relations between freedom fighters and colonizing
powers. The victory of black people on white colonizers initiated
entire Africans fighting against colonialism.
✓ The well-known Pan-Africanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired his followers
in his “Back to Africa” movement with the success of Ethiopians. He
used phrases like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers” and
Ethiopianism became a symbol of anti-colonial movements.
Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance
A. Background
✓ Following their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians suspended their
expansionist colonial policy in Northeast Africa for a short time.
However, they were just waiting the right time to fulfill their interests in
any possible way.
✓ Italy eventually got its ideological strength in 1922, when Fascists led by
Benito Mussolini held power. The Fascists were determined to restore
the power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by avenging Italy’s
shameful scar at Adwa.
✓ Initially, Mussolini did not disclose his ambition against the sovereignty of
Ethiopia rather he was playing diplomatic ‘cards’ till the coming of the
‘right time.’
✓ To achieve their goal of occupation of Ethiopia, Italians followed two
policies as it was the case before the Battle of Adwa; ‘subversion’ and
‘rapprochement’.
✓ The policy of subversion aimed at affecting the unity of the empire via
sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray, Begemedir, Gojjam and Wollo. This
responsibility was entrusted to Corrado Zoli, the governor of Eritrea
(1928-1930).
✓ The Italian legation in Addis Ababa, headed by Guiliano Cora led the
policy of ‘rapprochement’, a pseudo reconciliation tactic which was
trying to persuade the Ethiopian government to establish cordial
relations between the two countries.
✓ For instance, the signing of the 1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace and
Friendship was the manifestation of the success of the Rapprochement
policy.
✓ Here, beside their legation in Addis Ababa, the Italians had also
consulates in provincial towns such as Dessie, Adwa, Debre Markos and
Gondar. These consulates played a significant role in propagating
dissatisfaction and gathering vital military and political intelligence.
✓ In addition to such preparations, the Fascists were also able to get
indirect diplomatic support from Britain and France for their colonial
project in Ethiopia.
✓ Here, although it is difficult to pinpoint one particular year when the
decision was made by Mussolini to launch the intended invasion, 1932
appears to have been a crucial year. Mussolini who made all necessary
preparations to launch an invasion against Ethiopia was only searching
for a pretext, and then fortunately he found it in the Walwal incident.
✓ The Walwal Incident (5 December 1934) was the result of the post-Awa
boundary agreement limitations: lack of demarcation on the ground and
lack of effective administrative control in the frontier regions.
✓ However, the Italians refused to give back Walwal and even attacked the
Ethiopian soldiers who were stationed nearby. Thus, this situation gave
birth to the so called Walwal Incident.
✓ Surprisingly, although the number of Ethiopians dead during this border
clash was three times as high as the Italians, it was Italy which demanded
totally unreasonable apology and reparation from Ethiopia.
✓ Then, Ethiopia which refused to accept Italy’s demand took the matter
to the League of Nations and a period of diplomatic wrangling followed
to resolve the dispute. However, in the meantime Mussolini, who already
got the desired excuse, was finalizing his preparations to launch a total
invasion.
B.The 1935 Invasion and After
✓ After they completed their preparations, the Italians waged their
aggression via two major fronts: the northern and the southern Front.
✓ The war was started in the northern Front when the Italians crossed
the Mereb River on 3 October 1935 and launched a three pronged
invasion and controlled Adigrat,Adwa and Mekelle.
✓ In January 1936, Ethiopian counter offensive marched north through
three fronts. Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western front, Ras
Kasa Hailu (also commander of the entire northern front) and Ras
Seyum Mengesha led the central front and Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War
Minister) led the eastern front.
✓ On 20 January 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major offensive
against the Italians intending to isolate Mekelle, but failed to realize
its objective due to lack of coordination among the above
mentioned commanders.
✓ On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost to the Italians at the first
Battle in Temben. This was followed by an attack on the Ethiopian
force which was stationed in what seemed to be an impregnable
natural fortress of Amba Aradom, to the south of Mekelle.
✓ The Italians scored yet another decisive victory in which the
commander of the Ethiopian army, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life.
✓ Besides modern weapons, the Italian force had superiority in the air.
Moreover, the forces of Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum were outnumbered
by the Italian troops. This resulted in another defeat at the Second
Battle of Temben (27-29 February 1936). Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum
narrowly escaped and joined the Emperor at Korem.
✓ On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru put strong
resistance against the advancing force of the Italians. Thanks to Ras
Emeru’s better leadership quality, the number of death of Ethiopian
soldiers was less than what it had been in the northern front.
✓ A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in the
northern Front culminated in Maychew on 31 March 1936. Although the
Ethiopian army (especially members of the Kebur Zebegna) under the
command of the Emperor put strong resistance against the Italians, they
were not able to conclude the battle with victory.
✓ Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from gunpowder and air
bombardment during the battle. Then the Italian forces controlled
Dessie and Addis Ababa on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively.
❖ The Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was better equipped and well
led by Ras Desta Damtew (in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu
Zamanuel (in the southeast) were leaders of the Ethiopian troops in this
Front.
✓ The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major battles in the
Southern Front: Qorahe (November 1935) and Genale Dorya (12-14
January 1936). In the ensuing battles, the Askaris (recruited from Eritrea)
deserted the Italians and joined the Ethiopian force which boosted the
moral of Ras Desta’s troops.
✓ Ras Desta continued to challenge the Italians until he was captured and
executed in early 1937. The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the
fighting in the Southern Front was larger than the North.
✓ On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three days later the
Italians entered Addis Ababa. Between Haile Selassie’s departure and the
Italian entry, Addis Ababa was beset by burning of buildings, looting and
random shooting.
✓ The major targets of the violence were the rich, foreigners and the imperial
palace. Many foreigners saved their lives by taking refuge in foreign legations.
❖ After their control of the capital, Marshal Badoglio immediately reported
the situation to Mussolini. Benito Mussolini announced to the people of Italy
and the world about their control of Ethiopia using the phrase “Ethiopia is
Italian!”
✓ The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian
Somaliland and Eritrea. Then, they named the combination of their colonies
Italian East Africa (IEA) or Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI).
✓ The newly formed Italian East Africa had six administrative regional divisions
that replaced former international boundaries.These were:
1. Eritrea (including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara;
2. Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo and Northern Shewa) with its
capital at Gondar;
3. Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and Southwestern provinces)
with its capital at Jimma;
4. Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar;
5. Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu;
6. Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa), the capital of the entire Italian
East Africa.
✓ During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, the following Italians served as
governors of Italian East Africa successively: Marshal Badoglio (till the
end of May 1936), Marshal Graziani (till February 1937), and finally
Amadeo Umberto d’Aosta (the Duke of Aosta).
✓ Generally, a top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption characterized the
Italian administration of IEA. For instance, the last governor of IEA, the
Duke of Aosta himself characterized 50% of his officials as inept and 25%
as thieves.
✓ Marshal Badoglio himself reportedly pocketed about 1,700,000 Maria
Theresa Thalers confiscated from the Bank of Ethiopia, in the immediate
aftermath of the conquest.
✓ In the economic respect, the Italians weakened and destroyed non-
Italian foreign firms and replaced them with governmental enterprises
that controlled the industry, trade and agriculture.
✓ The Italians were relatively successful in the sectors of trade and
industry as compared to the agricultural sector. For instance, they
planned to settle Italian farmers in selected Ethiopian areas such as
Wegera, Chercher and Jimma. However, their agricultural plan was failed
(they only accomplished 10%) due to their failure to secure the control
of the rural areas due to the patriotic movement.
✓ The Italian administrative control was largely confined to urban areas
due to the strong patriotic resistance. Thus; their legacy was also largely
reflected in the towns than the rural areas, which were actually out of
the Italian effective rule.
❖ Generally, the legacy of the Italian rule can be summarized in the
following brief points:
1. Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as Addis
Ababa, Jimma,Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar,Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
✓ Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and electricity;
✓ Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-
including eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian words);
✓ The consolidation of cash economy;
✓ Road construction and development of motor transport;
 C. The Patriotic Resistance Movement
✓ The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth experience.
Rather, the Ethiopian peoples opposed them in a number of ways.
Among others, the patriots gave them hard times largely in rural areas.
✓ Ethiopian patriots continued their resistance in almost all regions and by
all ethnic groups of the empire with varying degree of intensification.
✓ The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war itself.
Among the highlights of this phase was the resistance waged by three
commanders of the Southern Front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene
Merid and Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari.
✓ An extension of this phase was a five pronged assault on the capital in
the summer of 1936. The campaign had involved two sons of Ras Kasa
Hailu (Asfawesen and Aberra), the veteran of Adwa Dejjach Balcha Safo,
Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe Aregay, and Dejjach Fikremariam
Yinnnadu.
✓ However, it was failed because of lack of effective means of
transportation and radio communication. Abune Petros, the Bishop of
Wollo, who was the spirit behind the patriots was executed and became
a martyr of the resistance.
❖ The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian
occupation in 1941. On 19 February 1937, two young Ethiopian
patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled a bomb at
Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo,
wounding him seriously and killing some others.
❖ This was followed by a reign of terror waged by the Black Shirts;
who chopped off heads, burnt down houses with their inhabitants
and disemboweled thousands in Addis Ababa.
❖ According to Ethiopian official accounts, about 30,000 Ethiopians
of different ages, classes and sex were killed in three days’
campaign.
❖ Special targets of the Fascist terror were educated Ethiopians
(including many members of the Black Lion Organization). The
EOC also became a target. For instance, on 21 May 1937, in the
monastery of Debre Libanos alone, 297 monks were executed.
❖ The elimination of the intelligentsia was to create 'the missing
generation' in Ethiopia's intellectual and political history.
✓ This Fascist terror marked the transition from the conventional
patriotic resistance to guerrilla warfare that could eventually weaken
the enemy forces.
✓ As the Fascist regime became intolerable to Ethiopians, there were
women who led their own army in the guerrilla wars, like Woizero
Lekyelesh Beyan, whose career as a guerrilla fighter ended in January
1941, when she was captured after an Italian air bombardment.
✓ Woizero Kebedech Seyoum (a daughter of Ras Seyum Mengesha and
the wife of Dejazmach Abera Kasa), started her patriotic activity
before the fall of Addis Ababa to the Italians. Thus, when her husband
was fighting in the northern front, she maintained peace and order in
the province of Selalie representing her husband.
✓ Although it lacked coordination, patriotic resistance to Italian rule
took place in the country in numerous forms and tenacity. There was
no unified command structure.
✓ In most provinces of the country, similar acts of resistance were
observed. Eritreans too were joining the resistance in big numbers.
✓ The struggle continued but it suffered from serious internal weakness.
The resistance was handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators called
the Banda who exercised their corrosive activities in different areas.
✓ Another weakness of the resistance movement was that it was
divided and that there was no one national organization to
coordinate the activities of the many patriotic groups dispersed in
many parts of the country.
✓ Relations between guerrilla groups were characterized by
parochialism and jealousy. Some guerrilla groups spent more time
fighting one another than attacking the declared enemy.
✓ Despite these weaknesses, the patriots carried on a persistent
resistance against Italian fascism, until suddenly they got external
support from Britain in 1941.
✓ Ethiopian struggle for independence was associated with World War
II, when Italy declared war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940.
✓ Mussolini decided to enter the war on the side of Germany in the
hope of securing outside support; the internationalization of the
conflict was a good opportunity.
✓ For Haile Sellassie too, the situation was important. His requests for
assistance were finally answered by the British government that
decided to drive out Italians from East Africa.
✓ On 12 July 1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally.
✓ The British launched a three pronged attack on the Italians.
1. In the north, General William Platt led the forces that attacked
the Italians in Eritrea.
2. In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate
accompanied the Emperor from the Sudan into Gojjam at the
head of British and Ethiopian troops called the Gedeon force.
3. General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya. The advances
were rapid largely due to the demoralization that the patriots
had caused among the Italians.
✓ Emperor Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941,
exactly five years after Italian entry to the capital.