UNIT-II: The Relational Model, The Relational Model Integrity Constraints Over relations.

Relational Algebra and Calculus

The Relational Model

The relational Model was proposed by E.F. Codd.
The relational model represents how data is stored in Relational Databases.
In this model, the data is organized into a collection of two-dimensional inter-related tables, also known
as relations

ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE AGE

1 RAM DELHI 9455123451 18

2 RAMESH GURGAON 9652431543 18

3 SUJIT ROHTAK 9156253131 20

4 SURESH DELHI 18
Database consists of various components
1) Tables − In relational data model, relations are saved in the format of Tables. This format stores the
relation among entities. A table has rows and columns, where rows represents records and columns
represent the attributes.
2) Tuple − A single row of a table, which contains a single record for that relation is called a tuple.

1 RAM DELHI 9455123451 18

3) Relation instance − A finite set of tuples in the relational database system represents relation
instance. Relation instances do not have duplicate tuples.Table 1 shows the relation instance of
STUDENT at a particular time.
4) Relation schema − A relation schema describes the relation name (table name), attributes, and their
names.
5) Relation key − Each row has one or more attributes, known as relation key, which can identify the
row in the relation (table) uniquely.
6) Attribute - Each column in a Table. Attributes are the properties which define a relation. e.g.,
Student_Rollno, NAME,etc.
7) Column - The column represents the set of values for a specific attribute.
8) Degree - The total number of attributes which in the relation is called the degree of the
relation.The STUDENT relation defined above has degree 5.
9) Cardinality - Total number of rows present in the Table.The STUDENT relation defined above has
cardinality 4.
10) NULL Values: The value which is not known or unavailable is called a NULL value. It is
represented by blank space. e.g.; PHONE of STUDENT having ROLL_NO 4 is NULL.
Constraints in Relational Model
1. Domain constraints

o Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for an attribute.
o The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date, currency, etc. The value of
the attribute must be available in the corresponding domain.

Example:
 2. Entity integrity constraints

 Entity integrity constraint specifies that no attribute of primary key must contain a null value in any
relation.
 This is because the presence of null value in the primary key violates the uniqueness property.

Example:

3. Referential Integrity Constraints

o A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables.

o In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the Primary Key of Table
2, then every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1 must be null or be available in Table 2.

Example:
4). Key constraints

All the values of primary key must be unique.

The value of primary key must not be null.

An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the primary key. Example:Play
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5) Tuple uniqueness constraints:-

Tuple Uniqueness constraint specifies that all the tuples must be necessarily unique in any relation.
Example-01:
Consider the following Student table-

STU_ID Name Age

 S001 Akshay 20

S002 Abhishek 21

S003 Shashank 20

S004 Rahul 20

This relation satisfies the tuple uniqueness constraint since here all the tuples are unique.
Example-02:
Consider the following Student table-

STU_ID Name Age

S001 Akshay 20

S001 Akshay 20

S003 Shashank 20

S004 Rahul 20

This relation does not satisfy the tuple uniqueness constraint since here all the tuples are not unique.
 KEYS
KEYS in DBMS is an attribute or set of attributes which helps you to identify a row(tuple) in a
relation(table).
Key is also helpful for finding unique record or row from the table.
Types of Keys
1. Super Key
2. Candidate Key
3. Primary Key
4. Foreign Key
5. Composite Key
6. Alternate Key
7. Unique Key
1)Super Key
A super key refers to the set of all those keys that help us uniquely identify all the rows present in a table. It
means that all of these columns present in a table that can identify the columns of that table uniquely act as
the super keys.
Example-
Consider the following Student schema-
Student ( roll , name , sex , age , address , class , section )
Given below are the examples of super keys since each set can uniquely identify each student in the
Student table-
 ( roll , name , sex , age , address , class , section )
 ( class , section , roll )
 (class , section , roll , sex )
 ( name , address )
2)Candidate Key
The value of candidate key must always be unique.
The value of candidate key can never be NULL.
It is possible to have multiple candidate keys in a relation.
A set of minimal attribute(s) that can identify each tuple uniquely in the given relation is called as a
candidate key.
Example-
Consider the following Student schema-
Student ( roll , name , sex , age , address , class , section )
Given below are the examples of candidate keys since each set consists of minimal attributes required to
identify each student uniquely in the Student table-
 ( class , section , roll )
 ( name , address )
3) Primary key :-A primary key is a candidate key that the database designer selects while designing the
database.
The value of primary key can never be NULL.
The value of primary key must always be unique.
The values of primary key can never be changed i.e. no updation is possible.
The value of primary key must be assigned when inserting a record.
A relation is allowed to have only one primary key.

4)Alternate Key
 As we have stated above, any table can consist of multiple choices for the primary key. But, it can only
choose one. Thus, all those keys that did not become a primary key are known as alternate keys.

5) Foreign Key-
An attribute ‘X’ is called as a foreign key to some other attribute ‘Y’ when its values are dependent on the
values of attribute ‘Y’.
Example-
Consider the following two schemas-

Here, t_dept can take only those values which are present in dept_no in Department table since only those
departments actually exist.
Foreign key references the primary key of the table.
Foreign key can take only those values which are present in the primary key of the referenced relation.
Foreign key may have a name other than that of a primary key.
Foreign key can take the NULL value.
There is no restriction on a foreign key to be unique.
In fact, foreign key is not unique most of the time.
Referenced relation may also be called as the master table or primary table.
Referencing relation may also be called as the foreign table.
6) Composite Key
A composite Key is a set of two or more attributes that help identify each tuple in a table uniquely. The
attributes in the set may not be unique when considered separately. However, when taken all together, they
will ensure uniqueness. The ‘concatenated key’ is another name for a composite key.

7) Unique Key-
Unique key is a key with the following properties-
It is unique for all the records of the table.
Once assigned, its value can not be changed i.e. it is non-updatable.
It may have a NULL value.
Example-The best example of unique key is Adhaar Card Numbers.
The Adhaar Card Number is unique for all the citizens (tuples) of India (table).
If it gets lost and another duplicate copy is issued, then the duplicate copy always has the same number as
before.
Thus, it is non-updatable.
Few citizens may not have got their Adhaar cards, so for them its value is NULL.

RELATIONAL ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS

Sr. Key Relational Algebra Relational Calculus

No.
Language Relational Algebra is procedural Relational Calculus is a non-procedural
1 Type query language. or declarative query language.

Objective Relational Algebra targets how to Relational Calculus targets what result
2
obtain the result. to obtain.
Procedure Relational Algebra means how to Relational Calculus means what result
3
obtain the result. we have to obtain.
Order Relational Algebra specifies the order Relational Calculus specifies no such
4 in which operations are to be order of executions for its operations.
performed.
Dependency Relational Algebra is domain Relational Calculus can be domain
5 independent. dependent.

Programming Relational Algebra is close to Relational Calculus is not related to

6 Language programming language concepts. programming language concepts.

Database For accessing the database, relational For accessing the database, relational
access algebra provides a solution in terms calculus provides a solution in terms
7 of what is required and how to get as simple as what is required and lets
that information by following a step- the system find the solution for that.
by-step description.

RELATIONAL ALGEBRA
Relational Algebra is a procedural language. In Relational Algebra, The order is specified in which the
operations have to be performed. In Relational Algebra, frameworks are created to implement the queries.
The basic operation included in relational algebra is:

1. Select (σ)
2. Project (Π)
3. Union (U)
4. Set Difference (-)
5. Cartesian product (X)
6. Rename (ρ)
Additional operations
7)Join
8)Intersection
9)Divide
10)Assignment

1) SELECT (σ)
Select operation is done by Selection Operator which is represented by "sigma"(σ). It is used to retrieve
tuples (rows) from the table where the given condition is satisfied. It is a unary operator means it requires
only one operand.
It selects tuples from a relation that satisfy the provided predicate.
Notation : σ p(R)
Where σ is used to represent SELECTION
R is used to represent RELATION
p is the logic formula

Conditions can be composed through ∧ (and), ∨ (or), ¬ (not)

Example1:

Find the customer details who are living in Hyderabad city and whose customer_id is greater than
1000 in Customer relation.

city = ‘Hyderabad’ customer_id > 1000 ( customer )

• Example2: given the relation r

A B C D

α α 1 7

α β 5 7

β β 12 3
 β β 23 10

σA=B∧D>5(r)
A B C D
α α 1 7
β β 23 10
2) Project (∏)

Project operation is done by Projection Operator which is represented by "pi"(∏). It is used to retrieve
certain attributes(columns) from the table. It is also known as vertical partitioning as it separates the table
vertically. It is also a unary operator.

Notation : ∏ a(r)
Where ∏ is used to represent PROJECTION
r is used to represent RELATION
a is the attribute list

The projection operation extracts specified columns from a table.

• Example1: given the relations r

r πA,C(r)
A B C A C
α 10 2 α 2
α 20 2 β 2
β 30 2 β 4
β 40 4

Example2: Find the customer names (not all customer details) who are living in Hyderabad city
from customer relation.

customer_name ( city = ‘Hyderabad’ ( customer ) )

In the above example, the selection operation is performed first. Next, the projection of
the resulting relation on the customer name column is carried out. Thus, instead of all customer
 details of customers living in Hyderabad city, we can display only the customer names of
customers living in Hyderabad city.

The above example is also known as relational algebra expression because we are
combining two or more relational algebra operations (ie., selection and projection) into one at
the sometime.

Example3: Find the customer names (not all customer details) from customer relation.

customer_name ( customer )

The above stated query lists all customer names in the customer relation and this is not
called as relational algebra expression because it is performing only one relational
algebra operation.
Note:- The Selection operation eliminates unwanted rows whereas the projection operation
eliminates unwanted columns.

3) Rename (ρ)

Rename operation is denoted by "Rho"(ρ). As its name suggests it is used to rename the output relation.
Rename operator too is a binary operator.
Notation: ρ(R,S)
Where R is the new relation name
S is the old relation name

4) Cartesian product (X)

It helps in combining data and info of two differing relations into a single one.

Notation: R X S
Where R is the first relation
S is the second relation

r s
A B C D E
 α 1 α 10 +
β 2 β 10 +
β 20 −
γ 10
−

r ×s

A B C D E
α 1 α 10 +
α 1 β 10 +
α 1 β 20 −
α 1 γ 10 −
β 2 α 10 +
β 2 β 10 +
β
2
β
20 −
β
2
γ
10 −
 5) Union Operation (or ∪)

It includes all tuples that are in tables A or in B. It also eliminates duplicate tuples.

For a union operation to be valid, the following conditions must hold –

 R and S must be the same number of attributes.

 Attribute domains need to be compatible.
 Duplicate tuples should be automatically removed.

Example

Example
Consider two tables R1 and R2 −
Table R1 is as follows −

Regno Branch Section

1 CSE A

2 ECE B

3 MECH B

4 CIVIL A

5 CSE B
Table R2 is as follows −

Regno Branch Section

1 CIVIL A

2 CSE A

3 ECE B
To display all the regno of R1 and R2, use the following command −
∏regno(R1) ∪ ∏regno(R2)
Output
Regno

1
 Regno

5
To retrieve branch and section of student from table R1 and R2, use the below mentioned
command −
∏ branch, section (R1) ∪ ∏ branch, section (R2)
Output
Branch Section

CSE A

ECE B

MECH B

CIVIL A

CSE B
No repletion allowed for entry.
Union All − It is used for duplicate entries. The common entries will be shown if the common
intersection is used.

6) Set Different Operation (or −)

Tuples refers to the result of the set difference operation. These are present in just one of the
relations but not at all in the second one.

r s
A B A B
 α 1 α 2
α 2 β 3
β 1

r −s
A B
α 1
β 1

Union, Intersection, Difference

FN LN FName rLName
Susan Yao John Smith
Ramesh Shah Ricardo Brown
Barbara Jones Susan Yao
Amy Ford Francis Johnson
Jimmy Wan g Ramesh Shah
AUB
FN LN FN LN FN LN
Susan Yao Susan Yao Barbara Jones
Ramesh Shah Ramesh Shah Amy Ford
Barbara Jones Jimmy Wang
Amy Ford AnB A-B
Jimmy Wang
John Smith
Ricardo Brown
Francis Johnson

Additional Operations
 7) Intersection
An intersection is defined by the symbol ∩

A∩B

Defines a relation consisting of a set of all tuple that are in both A and B. However, A and B
must be union-compatible.

Visual
Example:

A∩B
Table A ∩ B

column 1 column 2

1 1

8)Division

The division operator is used for queries which involve the ‘all’.
R1 ÷ R2 = tuples of R1 associated with all tuples of R2.
Figure 1 explains that when the division operation is performed, it will retrieve only those lecturer
from relation R who has taken a subject “Prolog” from relation S.

 Interpretation of the division operation A/B:

o Divide the attributes of A into 2 sets: A1 and A2.
o Divide the attributes of B into 2 sets: B2 and B3.
o Where the sets A2 and B2 have the same attributes.
o For each set of values in B2:
 Search in A2 for the sets of rows (having the same A1 values) whose
A2 values (taken together) form a set which is the same as the set of
B2’s.
 For all the set of rows in A which satisfy the above search, pick out
their A1 values and put them in the answer.