Map displays

1 Introduction
A particular application of head-down display technology is the production of a map
display to help orientate the pilot, particularly for low level combat roles. Early devices
used mechanical means to drive paper or plastic maps over rollers to indicate the
aircraft position. Although these maps are still found occasionally, the technology is
rather old and we will start our discussion with more recent Projected Map Displays.

2 Projected map displays

2.1 Until relatively recently, the preferred technique for displaying a moving map in a low-
level, high speed aircraft was the projected map display (PMD). This display is usually,
but not necessarily, driven by and integrated with, an IN and is common in strike/attack
aircraft. The map is reproduced on 35mm film and back-projected, using conventional
optics, to give a bright image on a translucent screen, which may be either a direct
viewing system or may incorporate a field lens system. The former method allows a
wide viewing angle, while the latter technique increases the display’s resistance to
strong ambient light by focusing the display so that its luminance is concentrated over a
limited viewing area matching the eye’s field of view. This is the most common
technique used, and a more recent example is the Tornado Repeater Projected Map
Display (PMD) in the front cockpit.

2.2 In the PMD the high luminance is enhanced by projecting the image onto a 3-layer
screen. The first (inner) layer is a Fresnel lens which converts the light-cone output
from the projection lens into a light cylinder in the plane of the operator’s eye datum.
The second layer consists of a scattering screen upon which a viewable image is
formed. The screen eliminates any hot spots towards the centre of the image and image
degradation towards the circumference of the display screen. The third (outer) layer
consists of a polarised filter, which eliminates image-obscuring reflections from both
inside and outside the PMD. This is a very effective way of minimising the effect of
ambient light to give the display a higher contrast ratio.

2.3 In a typical PMD the map is photographed in segments onto 35mm photographic film;
coverage of up to 4 million square miles at a scale of 1:500,000 can be obtained on a
typical strip of around 20 metres. In practice a strip will usually contain a selection of
scales covering a smaller area and will also often include extra frames with such things
as checklists and let down charts. In normal operation the change over from one frame
to the next is completely automatic and is usually accomplished in about 3 seconds. The
life of the film-strip in normal use has been found to be limited by the currency of the
map rather than by fading or wear and tear, and the resolution of the film is sufficient to
give an equivalent resolution at the screen of around 4 lines/mm.

2.4 The accuracy of a PMD is dependent upon several factors, including the accuracy of the
navigation sensor which feeds the display. Early systems suffered from inaccuracy due
to the map projections used (scale and convergency). In current systems the errors due
to the map are reduced to relatively insignificant levels by either applying a correction
automatically to the map drive system, or by applying a correcting distortion to the map

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Map displays

when it is photographed. A typical figure for the accuracy of current systems is ± lmm
(CEP), plus any error in the driving navigation sensor. This error is equivalent to a CEP
of 0.25nm when using a 1:500,000 map and 50 metres when using a l:50,000 map. The
internal construction of such systems will vary, but a simplified diagram is shown in
Figure 2.1. In this system the scale change is accomplished by increasing the
magnification rather than by changing the map. The coverage is 1200nm by 1500nm
and the quoted accuracy is better than 0.5nm (CEP).

Projecti on Condenser Map Projection Three layer

La mp Lens Fil m Lens Viewing Screen Cone to Cyl inder
Conve rsi on Lens

Anti
+ Reflective
Polarised
Filter

Eye
Datum
Sca tteri ng
+ Scree n
Neutral
F ilter

Figure 2-1; Projected Map Display Optics

2.5 The image produced by PMDs using film transparencies is excellent; it is bright, has a
good resolution and is reproduced in full colour. However, the use of this technique
does have disadvantages. The 2 main ones are the necessary use of an electro-
mechanical system and the fixed image format of the displayed image.

2.6 Electro-mechanical systems: Although PMDs have achieved a reasonable level of

reliability, the use of gears, drive belts, motors, and other moving parts pose problems
of mechanical wear and failure. For this reason attempts are being made to develop
purely electronic alternatives to these systems, with a view to saving weight and cost
and improving reliability and maintainability.

2.7 Image format: The image displayed on a PMD is obtained from film which is not
generally produced at squadron, or even station level, and cannot be easily amended by
these operators. Thus the facility of updating the map with the latest tactical
information, such as troop dispositions or enemy anti-aircraft defences, it not available
with a PMD in the same way as it is with a conventional paper map. Neither is the
system capable of displaying anything other than the fixed images stored on the film.
Information from such sensors as radar or IR must be presented on an additional
display, giving rise to space problems in the cockpit. The ability to use digital scan
conversion would greatly simplify this problem by making the display more multi-
functional.

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3 Combined displays
3.1 One method of overcoming the limited function of current PMDs is to combine the
projected image with one produced by an electronic display, usually a CRT. These
systems have been being introduced operationally using one of 2 techniques.

3.1.1 Ported CRT: The ported CRT is a conventional CRT with a transparent window in the
envelope and through which the film image can be optically back-projected on to the
phosphor surface. The phosphor must be chosen to that it can be used as a back
projection screen as well as possessing the characteristics required for writing the
electron beam. In addition to the problem of finding a suitable phosphor, there is the
difficulty that the light beam and the electron beam cannot both arrive at the common
screen perpendicular to the surface. The optical or the electron path must be distorted to
allow the 2 images to be correctly harmonised for simultaneous viewing.

3.1.2 Optically combined displays: An alternative to the ported system is to combine the
optical and electronic image using conventional optics and semi-reflecting surfaces.
This overcomes the distortion problem and makes the choice of phosphor independent
of the projection system. Although the system may appear more complex than the
ported CRT solution, excellent results have been obtained. The Ferranti Combined Map
and Electronic Display COMED for the F-18 is shown diagrammatically in Figure 3-1.

Deflection
Mirror
+
Transfer Anti
Lens Reflective
Polarised
Filter
+
Visor

CRT
Eye
Datum

Combiner Mirror Field Lens

Figure 3-1; Combined Projected Map Display

1 Combined displays, using either ported CRTs or an optical combining

technique, allow the combination of the excellent quality projected map and
the flexible electronic display obtained from a CRT. The former technique
has been used in several designs whilst the latter system is used by Ferranti
in their COMED. Both systems are capable of over-writing the
topographical map with cursive symbology or radar imagery. The

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COMED’s CRT relies on digital storage to write routes, danger areas etc, on
the map, thus allowing tactical updating of the map at unit level.

3.2 Another combined display is the Tornado Combined Radar/Projected Map Display
(CRPMD). Conventional 35mm film is optically combined with digital scan-converted
radar imagery. Low refresh rate analogue radar video is scan converted onto a 50Hz,
625-line raster format CRT. The film image is deflected after projection and passes
through a vibrating screen which improves the clarity of the picture by apparently
removing the graininess of the film. The film image is then combined with the scan-
converted radar image and projected through a set of transfer optics to a 150mm
viewing port with a narrow exit pupil.

4 Remote map generators

4.1 A compromise between the Combined Map/Electronic Display and the purely electronic
Map display, is one in which a film is electronically scanned to produce a raster video
signal which can be displayed on a conventional EHDD. This system has the virtues of
the high visual quality associated with film Maps, and also retains the flexibility of
panel area usage given by the EHDD, whilst avoiding some of the mechanical problems
of the Projected system and at the same time solving the difficulty of bulk storage of
electronic Map information. The general configuration is illustrated in Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1; Remote Map Generator

4.2 In operation, a CRT with a short-persistence white phosphor is electronically scanned

with a raster waveform. The CRT spot is focused by a lens onto the film surface. A spot
of light is thereby created which scans across the film surface. The light spot is
modulated by the Map image on the film emulsion and the resulting coloured, varying
light emission is detected by three photodiode assemblies. Each photodiode assembly
contains a coloured filter (red, green or blue) and a small lens to concentrate the light
from the film onto the photodiode itself. The electrical signal output from the
photodiode is a video waveform that is compatible with the Line Standard with which
the CRT is being scanned.

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4.3 One of the attractions of this simple arrangement is that a high-quality colour RGB
video signal is produced which does not rely on the resolution-limiting technology
normally employed by colour cameras. Further features of this approach are, that the
Line Standard of the video produced can be altered simply by changing the scan pattern
of the CRT, and that the scale of the Map image can be controlled electronically in a
continuous fashion, merely by altering the size of the scan waveforms supplied to the
CRT.

5 Electronic maps
5.1 Although combined systems do allow electronic and projected displays to be
superimposed, the problems inherent in the mechanical nature of the projection system
are still present, and probably increased. The preferred solution is to replace the
projection by an electronically derived map, and such systems are used on F-15E and
Harrier GR7 aircraft amongst others. The major problem with such systems is the high
level of storage required to hold and reproduce a topographical map of comparable
standard to those in current use.

5.2 The McDonnell Douglas’ Advanced Crew System was used to develop the colour
electronic map for the F-15E. The use of colour has become feasible due to the
availability of rugged, high resolution colour CRT’s and more powerful computing.
Thus a small, COMED-sized display is adequate. Other features of the McDonnell
Douglas system are that the map labels (names numbers etc) are always presented
horizontally, right side up, and that the amount of detail displayed is altitude dependent,
i.e. the closer to the ground the aircraft flies, the more terrain and cultural detail will be
presented. Such a system, which is software controlled, deletes extraneous information
and produces a comparatively clutter-free display of only relevant information.

5.3 The major drawback of such a system was that there had to be a trade-off between area
coverage and potential detail, both of which are limited by computer store and access
time. The equivalent of 10ft of 35mm map film (1:500,000) covering 600,000nm2
(about twice the area of the UK) requires about 18 Mega words of store (18 bits/word),
or about 1300 256K RAM chips. By accepting a 1:2 degradation of detail, the
requirement falls to about 550 chips, - still too many. However, if a further 1:2
degradation in detail is acceptable over a smaller area of coverage, the use of RAM
chips becomes feasible. In the early days of electronic maps this was a serious
limitation. Thankfully, technology has now progressed sufficiently to make this less so
and 256Mb chips are available together with CD ROM disks. However, the map detail
will continue to be limited by area coverage desired, available computer memory, CRT
characteristics, memory access times and the complexity of the controlling
software/display interface.

6 Electronic map databases

6.1 The continuing advances made in the micro-miniaturisation of electronic circuits (and
particularly in RAM chips) have made viable the storage of electronic maps in digital
electronic form. NATO has developed the Digital Geographic Information Exchange

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Standards (DIGEST) for exchange of data between producers and users. One of the
Standards defines Levels; where Level 0 equates to 1:1Million, Level 1 is 1:250k to
1:500k and Level 2 is 1:50,000 or larger. There are now three different types of
electronic digital databases in use:
2 Matrix: Data is stored as a grid of evenly spaced data points. A matrix
database is commonly used for storing height values.
3 Raster: Data is based on the rasterisation and digitisation of paper map
originals.
4 Vector: Vector data represents real world objects purely electronically.

6.2 Matrix data: A completely electronic map database is in course of preparation, with the
more important parts of the globe already well covered. This database is called the
'Digital Land Mass System' (or DLMS). In essence the DLMS is a database of elevation
values based on a 100 metre grid compiled by the DMA from satellite, reconnaissance
and survey data. After a re-organisation in 1997 DMA was re-named the National
Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) and a detailed product specification produced.
The DLMS has 3 components:
1 Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DTED): The terrain database provides
elevation information in metres above Mean Sea Level against a matrix
based on World Geodetic System (WGS 84). DTED is produced at two grid
sizes: Level 1, which uses a 100m matrix with almost world-wide cover and
Level 2, which is based on a 30m matrix spacing but with very limited
coverage. Since 1997 DTED Level 1(thinned) with matrix spacing of 1km
was made available for civilian use. The UK produces an offshoot of DTED
called DTM, Digital Terrain Matrix, based on the OSGB36 system. The
accuracy of DTED Level 1 is 50m horizontal and 30 m vertical, both at the
90% level.
2 Digital Feature Analysis Data (DFAD): A cultural database developed to
contain natural and man-made features. Level 1 is equivalent to 1:250,000
map scale and has specified accuracy of 130m horizontal and 10m vertical,
both at 90% level. DFAD has been declared obsolete and is being replaced
by Vector Map (VMap).
3 Digital Vertical Obstruction File (DVOF): A database of all known man-
made obstructions taller than 46m agl in the form of a file containing height
AMSL and AGL. Coverage and accuracy is similar to DFAD with accuracy
AGL specified as 9m. DVOF is also obsolete and scheduled for
replacement.

6.3 Raster data: Raster Electronic Maps are produced by digitally scanning a paper map
image, either the finished map itself or the stable colour bases used in the multi-colour
printing process. The resulting digital file can then be displayed in a navigation display
system where the aircraft’s position derived from fixing systems can be shown. Since
the data displayed are merely a digital photocopy of the original paper product, the
image has no intelligence and, other than visually, cannot be interrogated. Raster maps
are relatively easy to produce and to verify. Typical examples of raster data are:
1 ARC Standard Raster Product (ASRP): ASRP complies with DIGEST
for raster systems. It is derived from scanned raster data. Data density is

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100 pixels/cm, where 1 pixel at 1:50,000 represents a 5 x 5 metre square on

the ground. The accuracy depends upon the original mapping but the
maximum deviation allowed is 2 pixels.
2 Admiralty Raster Chart Service (ARCS): These are scanned images of
the Hydrographical Charts. In many cases the ARCS charts are more
accurate than the paper equivalent because the digitising process required
the precision of depiction of data to be improved to limits beyond the
capability of the human eye.
3 Compressed ARC Digitised Raster Graphic (CADRG): This is a US
standard Mil format dated 1995.

6.4 Vector data

6.4.1 Vector Electronic Maps are compiled by attributing to each and every object on the
original paper map, a set of values which are stored in a layered, object-oriented base.
When used in a suitable display system, the data can be reassembled to portray either
the complete map image or any combination can be selected to provide a user-
determined, filtered picture. The production process of a vector map is difficult, time
consuming and expensive, whilst verification poses a considerable challenge.

6.4.2 A typical example of vector data is Vmap, which is replacing DFAD. VMap data is
produced in 10 thematic layers, which include: boundaries, elevation, hydrography,
industry, transportation, utilities and vegetation plus a layer giving data quality. The
data conforms to DIGEST and is referenced to WGS 84. VMap Level 0 is a new name
for the earlier DMA produced Digital Map of the World; the initial source data is
primarily the ONC series so cover is effectively worldwide. Level 1 is based initially on
the JOG series and worldwide cover is expected in the near future. Level 2 is based on
1:50,000 mapping and will have restricted cover with accuracy limited by the source
material. Within Europe DVOF is to be replaced by Vector Vertical Obstruction Data
(VVOD) which will be compatible with VMap. At present accuracy is limited to 46m
agl, although there are plans to provide accuracy for lower obstructions within the
vicinity of airfields.

6.5 Digital map display systems

6.5.1 A Digital Map Display System often comprises a single Map Generator Unit, which
contains both the Database Store for the map data, and also a high-speed Image
Processor unit to turn the database data into a viewable image. The resulting video
image is displayed on one of the standard EHDDs in the cockpit. The construction of
the Map Generator Unit may permit the Database Store to be removed and replaced as a
separate sub-assembly at first-line level in order to achieve rapid updating of the
contents between missions. Modern electronic technology permits Database Store Units
to have upwards of 500 MBytes of memory available, giving coverage of perhaps 250
sq. metres of paper chart and/or 2,000,000 sq. miles of DLMS. Such is the pace of
technological advance that Map Generator Units are now becoming available as single
board units which are integrated into a Digital Map System, eg the CDC Single Board
Map (SBM). It is important to note that the video map display is raster generated, even
when vector data is being displayed. The accuracy of such a map system is basically the

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same as that of the IN system driving it. A typical database re-programming time might
be in the order of 30 minutes.

6.5.2 A Digital Map Display System has major advantages in flexibility and the ability to
present and overlay information which is not possible with the earlier electromechanical
map displays. Some of the advantages are:

1 Map text: When operating in Heading-Up (as opposed to North-Up) mode,

the map text can be always oriented the correct way up, to facilitate reading.
2 Scale flexibility: The map can be displayed at any selected scale. The time
taken to redraw the map at the new scale is typically 1 - 2 seconds.
3 Look ahead and zoom facility: The pilot can look at the map some
distance ahead of the aircraft’s present position and ‘zoom in’ at a large
scale to see terrain details, for example in the target area or at destination
airfield.
4 Terrain clearance display: The terrain which is above the pilot’s present
altitude can be distinctively coloured so that the pilot is aware of the
location of potentially dangerous terrain such as hills or obstructions
relative to the aircraft.
5 Terrain screening display: The areas below the line of sight of known
enemy radars can be displayed on the map so that advantage may be taken
of terrain screening to minimise probability of detection.
6 De-cluttering: Features and information (eg place names) which are not
required can be deleted from the display to de-clutter the map for a
particular phase of the mission. Conversely, specific features may also be
emphasised. The display can be restored fully whenever required.
7 Threat locations: Threat envelopes from particular radar or missiles sites
can be shown in a distinctive colour.
8 Known low-level obstructions: Pylons, cables and towers can be
emphasised on the map, for example by brightening them up, when flying at
low level.
9 Pilot’s eye views: A pilot's-eye-view of the surrounding terrain can be
synthetically generated, complete with ridge lines and obstructions, and
overlaid on to the real world in the HUD.

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