Challenging Glass 5 – Conference on Architectural and Structural Applications of Glass

Belis, Bos & Louter (Eds.), Ghent University, June 2016.

Copyright © with the authors. All rights reserved.
ISBN 978-90-825-2680-6

Influence of Temperature on Laminated Glass

Performances Assembled with Various Interlayers
M. Novotný & B. Poot
AGC Glass Europe, Technovation Centre, Belgium, marek.novotny@eu.agc.com

Laminated glass is widely used for its safety properties (accident prevention, mechanical resistance), security
properties (hard impact, explosion, burglar and bullet resistance), acoustic performances, for its decorative purposes or
encapsulation of other materials. The increasing demand for laminated glass use in building facades is the driving force
of new interlayers testing and implementation. In some instances it can be difficult to choose an interlayer that would
perfectly fit to all architects’ and engineers’ requirements. The behaviour of the different interlayers is well known at
ambient temperature, but can vary significantly at different temperatures or exposure. The aim of the research is to
investigate temperature influence on laminated glass performances. The behaviour of several interlayers of different
chemical composition (PVB based, EVA based, ionomer based) were evaluated at several temperatures ranging
between -20°C and 80 °C. Resistance to hard impact was determined by use of ball drop test according to R43 standard.
Regarding acoustic performances of laminated samples, mechanical impedance method (MIM) was used to
characterize the interlayers sound transmission loss (STL) and weighted sound reduction index (Rw). Strong influence
of temperature on final interlayers performances was observed and commented. Based on these observations, it is
obvious that one unique type of interlayer cannot be used to meet all needs at any temperature. Several interlayers with
complimentary performances at a wide range of temperatures are therefore required to meet the requirements.

Keywords: Glass, Laminated, PVB, EVA, Ionomer, Temperature, Resistance, Acoustics

1. Introduction
The increasing demand for use of laminated glass in building facades is the driving force for new interlayers testing
and their implementation. Architects’ and engineers’ requests require searching for new solutions and processes of
lamination. Intelligent facades, electrochromic windows, integrated photovoltaics, integrated lighting, enhanced
solar control, acoustic pollution reduction, wires incorporation, use of special sealants and glues are some of the
design drivers of new laminated structures.

Laminated safety glass is composed of two or more glass panes bonded by one or more interlayers. The interlayers
are typically soft polymers like polyvinyl butyral (PVB), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), polyurethane (PU) or
ionomer. Today, there are many interlayers on the market with a large variation in their properties. For some
projects, it is a challenging task to choose the optimal interlayer.

In some cases, mainly due to exposure of façade to higher temperature, use of EVA instead of PVB is necessary
since EVA shows lower sensitivity to delamination, yellowing or bubbles appearance at higher temperature. As it
will be shown later, high temperature resistance doesn’t necessarily mean high performance at higher temperature.

Thick patterned glass panes of special yellow colour laminated with EVA were used for instance on the Canopée
project in Paris (parisleshalles.fr, Fig. 1, Fig. 2). Les Halles is a former food fresh market renovated to a modern
shopping mall and directly connected to metro.

Fig. 1 Canopée Paris – Global view

 Challenging Glass 5

Fig. 2 Canopée Paris – Glazing detail

An example of encapsulation of photovoltaic cells in laminated glass is the Hikari building in Lyon, France (Fig. 3).
Hikari is the first positive-energy mixed-use city block in Europe thanks to its photovoltaic glazing that generates
slightly more energy than it consumes (yourglass.com 2016).

Fig. 3 Hikari Lyon – Global views

Laminated glass is widely used for its safety properties (accident prevention, mechanical resistance), security
properties (hard impact, explosion, burglar and bullet resistance), acoustic performances, for its decorative purposes
or for encapsulation of other materials. Glass assemblies with properly selected glass and interlayer combinations
are capable of meeting various safety glazing standards such as EN 12600, EN 356, ISO 140-3, ISO 16940, ANSI
Z97.1, JIS 3205 and R43. Most of the testing methods are defined at about 20°C, with exceptions like impact with a
small ball (227g) included in the mentioned R43 regulation used for automotive glazing. The penetration resistance
in this test is performed at -20, +20 and + 40 °C.

Nevertheless, the question rises what are the performances of laminated glass exposed to higher or lower
temperature. Changes in interlayer performances could lead for instance to unexpected failure of the glazing
elements.

2. Interlayers

2.1. PVB
Thanks to its optical and mechanical performances, ease of lamination and capacity to be adapted to meet a variety
of requirements such as acoustic, solar, rigidity, this thermoplastic polymer (Fig. 4) is the most used and cheapest
interlayer for laminated glass fabrication in the architectural and automotive business. PVB sheets are produced by
an extrusion process where PVB resin is blended with a plasticizer and other additives such as antioxidants, UV
blockers, adhesion agents or colorants to incorporate additional performances. There are many kinds of special PVB
available on the market - acoustic, solar, coloured, structural and others (Schimmelpenningh 2012; Keller 1999;
Speelman 2013).

The combination of residual polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) groups and plasticizer forms the basis for the mechanical
and rheological properties of the PVB. In particular, the glass transition temperature (Tg) depends on the percentage
and type of plasticizer and the residual PVOH present in the PVB (Schimmelpenningh 2012; Keller 1999; Speelman
2013).
 Influence of Temperature on Laminated Glass Performances Assembled with Various Interlayers

Fig. 4 Chemical composition of PVB

Acoustic PVB (tri-layer) combines a very thin and soft “core” layer with two layers of normal “skin” PVB (Fig. 5).
The soft layer contains more plasticisers and due to its softness dampens better the transmitted sound. Skin layers
are of the same composition as a standard PVB that guarantees the same processability (Yoshioka 2003, D’Haene
2003; Schimmelpenningh 2012).

Fig. 5 Structure of an acoustic PVB

Structural PVB has the highest Tg of all PVBs for architectural use, resulting in a high stiffness at room
temperature. Its stiffness is given by the lower plasticiser content compared to the standard PVB. The lower
plasticizer content also changes the performances of the interlayer, making it more resistant to delamination
(Schimmelpenningh 2012; Keller 1999; Speelman 2013, Zhang 2015).

2.2. EVA
The development of EVA copolymers (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate, Fig. 6) started in the middle of 20th century. EVA
resin is based on copolymerization of ethylene (C2H4) with acetic acid (CH3COOH) to form vinyl acetate and its
subsequent reaction with ethylene to form Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (Bridgestone.com 2016, Hanson 2014).

Fig. 6 Chemical composition of EVA.

EVA sheets are mainly used for the manufacturing of laminated glass for buildings, solar cell encapsulation and
decorative laminates. EVA is well suited for small production units, it can be processed only by use of vacuum and
temperature; no autoclave is required (Bridgestone.com 2016, Hanson 2014).

The final and irreversible three-dimensional cross-linking of the thermoset material occurs during lamination
process by use of organic peroxide as catalyst (Fig. 7). Time and temperature are thus crucial parameters
determining final film performances (haze, impact resistance, ageing resistance, wind and snow load resistance
among others). If well processed, EVA has good durability, high adhesion and good resistance to heat, moisture and
UV(Bridgestone.com 2016, Hanson 2014).

Fig. 7 Cross-linking mechanism

 Challenging Glass 5
2.3. Ionomer
Ionomer based interlayers were introduced first for security and “anti-hurricane” markets in the second half of the
20th century. Due to its stiffness, other fields such as blast resistance and structural applications were identified
afterwards. Ionomers are produced by a copolymerisation of ethylene and methacrylic acid in the presence of a
small amount of metal salts which bind permanently to the polymer (Fig. 8). Thanks to the elastic-plastic polymer
chain and rigid metal-oxygen ionic bond, ionomers show higher stiffness compared to other interlayers. They are
usually extruded in rigid sheets, except for thickness of 0.89 mm (Stelzer 2010).

Fig. 8 Ionomer structure

3. Samples Preparation
For the purpose of this paper, only 4 mm glass panes were used for lamination and testing. The use of thicker glass
would lead to mechanical resistance increase and could hide the interlayers performance contribution. Five common
interlayers available on the market were selected for laminated glass fabrication and testing.

 Standard PVB (Stand PVB)

 Acoustic PVB (Ac PVB)
 Structural PVB (Rigid PVB)
 EVA
 Ionomer

These materials have diverse physical and chemical properties; therefore, different temperature dependent
performance profiles were expected.

Regarding the interlayer thickness, the target was to be as close as possible to 0.8 mm, which means use of 0.76 mm
foil of PVB, 0.8 mm foil of EVA and 0.89 mm of ionomer. Samples were prepared by use of vacuum bags and a
middle-size industrial autoclave according to producers requirements; either by use of lamination under vacuum
(EVA) or by use of vacuum + autoclave process (PVB, ionomer). Annealed glasses taken the same float production
batch were washed according to internal standard procedure.

4. Testing Procedure

4.1. Ball Drop Test

Resistance to hard impact is described in this paper. Other types of impact (e.g. punching ball according to
EN12600, hard impact according to EN356, static loads and others) are not part of this study; they will lead to
different interlayers behaviour and thus to different results.

European Automotive R43 regulation with minor modifications was used for testing. The modification consists in
impacting by a 2.26kg steel ball at different temperatures instead of at ambient one. Since the study required
assembly of large amount of samples and their manipulation at very low and very high temperatures, R43 is easier to
be applied (samples of 300x300mm) compared to EN356 (samples of 900x1100 mm) and EN12600 (1938 x 876
mm).

Laminated glasses were placed in a horizontal position within a metallic frame and impacted at different
temperatures and heights. Penetration resistance of such glass laminates can be characterised by use of Mean Break
Height (MBH). MBH is generally defined as the ball drop height at which 50% of samples would hold the ball and
50% would allow penetration. Iterative method was used for the MBH determination - starting from higher impact
heights and approaching the final MBH value. About fifteen samples per interlayer were impacted to set the MBH at
defined temperature, see the exact amount in the annex.
 Influence of Temperature on Laminated Glass Performances Assembled with Various Interlayers
4.2. Acoustics
The effectiveness of glass as a material that acts as sound barrier is well known. Nevertheless, monolithic glass has
specific critical or coincident frequency at which the wavelength of bending waves in the glass surface equals the
wavelength of sound in air. This critical frequency changes with the glass thickness, moving towards lower
frequencies as the glass gets thicker. Unfortunately the critical frequencies are located in the zone of highest human
hearing ability (D’Haene 2003, Lilly 2004).

Efficient technique for improving the acoustic performance of glass is to use a laminated glass. The inner layer
provides a significant amount of internal structural damping to the glass. This damping effect has a major impact on
the sound transmission properties of glass at high frequencies, especially near its critical frequency and decreases
the sound transmission loss dip (Schimmelpenningh 2012; Lilly 2004).

The MIM method described in the ISO 16940 was used for evaluation of acoustic performances at different
temperatures. Three laminated samples composed by the interlayer and two 4mm glasses of 25x300 mm dimension
were used for loss factor measurement and subsequent Sound Transmission Loss (STL) and Weighted Sound
Reduction Index (Rw) calculation.

Fig. 9 Principle of the MIM method

Laminated samples of defined dimensions were glued in the centre with a steel made impact button by use of
cyanoacrylate glue and fixed to an impedance head. White noise of 0-5000 Hz was generated to introduce the
vibration into the specimen. First three resonance frequencies were recorded and used for following STL and Rw
calculation.

Weighted sound reduction index, Rw, is defined as ten times the common logarithm of the ratio of the sound power
W1 which is incident on a partition under test to the sound power W2 transmitted through the specimen. This
quantity is denoted by Rw and is expressed in decibels.

W1
Rw  10 * log (1)
W2

This standard, as well as the ISO 140-3, which is used for acoustic performance measurement of large scale
specimens, are designed for about 20°C. Nevertheless, the question rises same again what are the acoustic
performances of a laminated glass at different temperatures.

5. Results

5.1. Hard Impact Resistance

Samples made of different interlayers were impacted with 2.26 kg steel ball according to R43 regulation. As seen in
the graph below, MBH was identified for every interlayer at -20, 0, +20, 40 and 80 °C.
 Challenging Glass 5
10
Stand PVB
Ac PVB
9
Rigid PVB
8 EVA
Ionomer
7

6
Mean Break Height [m]

0
‐40 ‐20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature [°C]

Fig. 10 Mean Break Height (MBH) of laminated interlayers at different temperatures

At ambient temperature, all laminated interlayers, except the EVA, showed similar MBH of about 7 meters. The
specimens laminated with an EVA had a lower penetration resistance characterised by MBH of 3.5 meters. This
EVA’s drawback is well known and described.

Having a look at lower temperatures, the situation dramatically changes. At -20°C, the rigid interlayers (ionomer
and rigid PVB) don’t have enough elasticity to resist to the impact leading to very low MBH, while the EVA is more
resistant than at ambient temperature. Its resistance at -20°C is the highest among all tested interlayers. Acoustic
PVB resists more to impact than a standard one due to its slightly higher plasticizer content that increases its
softness.

At 0°C, we still see very low impact resistance of the rigid PVB, while EVA, ionomer and standard PVB resist
approximately to the same impact height (7m). At this temperature, the acoustic PVB is the most resistant interlayer.

Going up to 40°C, we see a decrease of performances for EVA, acoustic PVB and standard PVB compared to 20°C.
Ionomer resits to about the same height while rigid PVB softens and shows high MBH of 9 m. At 80°C, all
interlayers performances decreased. Except the ionomer, they were not able to resist to more than 2 m.

Correlation between maximum MBH and glass transition temperature (Tg) was tried to be put in evidence (Table 1).
The Tg is the temperature region where the polymer transitions from a hard, glassy material to a soft, rubbery
material. Tg is not a discrete thermodynamic value, but a temperature range over which the mobility of the polymer
chains increases significantly. Its determination is very dependent on the used method, see the indicative values
found in the literature (Dhaliwal 2002; DuPont 2016; Lilly 2004; Monserez 2013, Decourcelle 2009).

Table 1: Temperature of maximal Mean Break Height and Glass transition temperature of tested interlayers

Specimen T of MBH max [°C] Tg [°C]

Standard PVB 20 12-25 1,2,3,4
Acoustic PVB 0 10-15 2
Rigid PVB 40 45 2
EVA -20 -28 5
Ionomer 40 55 6
1 2 3
Dhaliwal 2002, Decourcelle 2009, Monserez 2013, Weller 2005, Hanson 2014, 5 DuPont 2016
4 5

As seen in Table 1, the Tg and temperature of maximal MBH lie very close one to the other. Unfortunately, there are
some limitations in this study; the Tg of EVA was not reached since the minimal temperature of the impact
resistance was -20°C while the Tg of the EVA is about -30°C. A second limitation is the big gap between tested
temperatures, especially between 40 and 80°C, which is an important interval for rigid PVB as well as for ionomer.
Complementary study with finer temperature intervals close to the interlayers’ Tg would be required.
 Influence of Temperature on Laminated Glass Performances Assembled with Various Interlayers
5.2. Acoustic Performance
As in case of impact resistance testing, only 4 mm glasses were used for lamination, as it is defined in the ISO
16940 standard. Weighted sound reduction index (Rw) was calculated to assess laminated glass acoustic
performances. The Rw is a single-number quantity which characterises the airborne sound insulation of a material or
building element over a range of frequencies; for results, see the graph below.

38
Rw at Different Temperatures

37

36
St PVB

Ac PVB
35
Rigid PVB
Rw [dB]

EVA
34
Ionomer

8 mm glass
33

32

31

30
‐20 ‐10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Temperature [°C]

Fig. 11 Weighted Sound Reduction Index (Rw) at different temperatures

As a general trend, laminated composites show better acoustic performance compared to a single 8mm glass sheet.
Acoustic PVB is designed to be most performant at ambient temperature. Standard PVB is most efficient at 40°C
and stiff materials (rigid PVB and ionomer) even at higher temperatures. EVA shows similar performance all over
the measured temperature range with a slightly better Rw value at 40°C. Since the ear sensitivity is 2dB, most of the
Rw differences would not be perceived by a human ear.

Moreover, Rw value is just a single number that indicates “global” material performance. To understand the
behaviour of the laminates within the whole frequency range, especially at critical frequency, Sound Transmission
Loss curves need to be analysed. These curves were calculated for each material according to ISO 16940 standard,
see Fig. 12 - Fig. 18.

Sound Transmission Losses at 20 °C

50

45
Sound Transmission Loss [dB]

40

35

30

25

Stand PVB
20 Ac PVB
Rigid PVB
EVA
15
Ionomer
8 mm glass @20°C
10
100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000

Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 12 Sound Transmission Loss Curves of laminated glass at 20°C

 Challenging Glass 5
Several phenomena can be deduced from the STL curves. Since the specimens are not mounted or fixed to a frame
but have free edges, there is no STL increase in the very low frequencies. In the frequency range of 100 to 800 Hz,
acoustic performance is driven by the weight of the glass and since the glass stiffness is very similar at -20 and at
80°C, the curves are almost identical.

Above 800 Hz, the interlayers start to contribute to the STL profile. Acoustic PVB shows best performance with
very shallow dip at 2500 Hz while ionomer and rigid PVB have a drop comparable with a clear 8 mm glass shifted
to higher frequencies. If you compare STL value of the acoustic PVB and the ionomer at 200 Hz, there is almost 20
dB difference. If you would compare only the Rw values, you would find about 3.5 dB difference.

Regarding EVA, it shows better performances than other interlayers (except acoustic PVB) between 1000 and 2000
Hz following by a coincidence dip at about 2500 Hz.

Standard PVB
50

45
Sound Transmission Loss [dB]

40

35

30

25

T = -20°C
20 T = 0°C
T = 20°C
T = 40°C
15
T = 80°C
8 mm glass @20°C
10
100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000

Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 13 Sound Transmission Loss Curves of glasses laminated with standard PVB at different temperatures

Standard PVB (Fig. 13) shows a performance dip at 2000 Hz at ambient temperature. Because the interlayer
stiffness is temperature dependant (Délincé 2014), there are differences in the STL profile for each type of
interlayer. As see above, sample laminated with the standard PVB has improved acoustic dampening at 40 °C
resulting in a low STL decrease.

Acoustic PVB (Fig. 14) was designed for its maximal acoustic performances according to the standards that are
defined at ambient temperature. Below and above this temperature, the interlayer loses its dampening properties
resulting in an important coincidence dips.

Rigid PVB (Fig. 15) shows poor dampening at temperatures up to 40°C due to its stiffness. At 80°C, the interlayer is
soft enough to be able to dampen the sound and behave similarly to the acoustic PVB.
 Influence of Temperature on Laminated Glass Performances Assembled with Various Interlayers

Acoustic PVB
50

45

Sound Transmission Loss [dB]

40

35

30

25

T = -20°C
20 T = 0°C
T = 20°C
T = 40°C
15
T = 80°C
8 mm glass @20°C

10
100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000

Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 14 Sound Transmission Loss Curves of glasses laminated with acoustic PVB at different temperatures

Rigid PVB
50

45
Sound Transmission Loss [dB]

40

35

30

25 T = -20°C
T = 0°C
T = 20°C
20 T = 40°C
T = 80°C
8 mm glass @20°C
15

10
100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000

Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 15 Sound Transmission Loss Curves of glasses laminated with rigid PVB at different temperatures

Fig. 16 shows the comparison between the STL of standard, acoustic and rigid PVB at different temperatures. Rigid
PVB at 80°C and standard PVB at 40°C behave similarly to the acoustic PVB at ambient temperature. Standard
PVB as well as rigid PVB soften at higher temperatures that results in a better dampening. EVA at room temperature
and ionomer at 80 °C were also included for comparison; their dip is more significant than in case of PVBs.
 Challenging Glass 5

Sound Transmission Loss

50

45

Sound Transmission Loss [dB]

40

35

30
Acoustic PVB @ 20°C
Standard PVB @ 40°C
25
Rigid PVB @ 80°C
20
EVA @ 20°C
Ionomer @ 80°C
15

10
100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000

Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 16 Sound Transmission Loss comparison of different PVBs at different temperatures

Regarding EVA (Fig. 17), this interlayer is typically not being used for its acoustic performances. Even if it shows
better transmission loss between 1000 and 2000 Hz, there are important dips in the coincidence frequencies at all
measured temperatures.

EVA
50

45
Sound Transmission Loss [dB]

40

35

30

25

T = -20°C
20 T = 0°C
T = 20°C
T = 40°C
15 T = 80°C
8 mm glass at 20°C

10
100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000

Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 17 Sound Transmission Loss Curves of glasses laminated with EVA at different temperatures

Same trends as for the rigid PVB can be stated for the ionomer interlayer (see Fig. 18). Nevertheless, the dampening
effect is not as significant as for the rigid PVB. It’s possible that additional temperature increase would lead to STL
improvement.
 Influence of Temperature on Laminated Glass Performances Assembled with Various Interlayers

Ionomer
50

45

Sound Transmission Loss [dB]

40

35

30

25
T = -20°C
T = 0°C
20 T = 20°C
T = 40°C
T = 80°C
15
8 mm glass @20°C

10
100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000

Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 18 Sound Transmission Loss Curves of glasses laminated with Ionomer at different temperatures

6. Conclusions
Impact resistance as well as acoustic performance of laminated glasses at standardized conditions are well known
and described. Laminated glass behaviour and its temperature dependence is deeply studied and theoretically well
described. However, limited information is available about laminated glass performances at low and high
temperatures when tested according to industrial norms and standards.

Therefore, a study was launched to investigate the influence of temperature the impact resistance and acoustic
performance of laminated glass. PVB, EVA and ionomer based interlayers were laminated with 4 mm glasses and
tested. Resistance to hard impact at different temperatures (-20°C up to 80 °C) was determined by use of modified
ball drop test according to the automotive R43 standard. Mechanical impedance method (MIM) was used for
acoustic performance determination within the same temperature range. The general trend amongst all samples is
that mechanical as well as acoustic performances of an interlayer are strongly temperature dependent. Unfortunately,
current normative standards are defined at ambient temperature. The research showed that a different approach
might be needed for some special applications. As it is the case e.g. for EVA, better temperature resistance
(yellowing, delamination) doesn’t mean better performance (mechanical, acoustic) at higher temperature. Based on
this evidence, it is clear that one unique type of interlayer cannot fulfil all design requirements throughout the whole
temperature range. It is worthy to remember that laminated glass is usually placed on the internal side of the façade
glazing, therefore in standard conditions it will have a surface temperature close to the temperature of the internal
air. However, in order to achieve specific aesthetics, facades become more complex and glazing can be in some
cases exposed to relatively warm environment. In addition, the trend of glazed facades has also been spread to cold
regions. For both cases, safe solutions are required by the client.

Since the hard impact resistance is only a piece of the complete laminated glass characterisation, other studies need
to be undertaken (loading resistance, soft impact, use of thicker glass…) to gain a global understanding of the
behaviour of these common commercial interlayers.

7. Annex

Table 2: Amount of impacted samples per temperature for MBH determination

Specimen -20 °C 0 °C 20 °C 40 °C 80 °C
Stand PVB 15 15 15 12 7
Ac PVB 15 15 15 12 8
Rigid PVB 7 7 15 15 15
EVA 15 15 15 10 7
Ionomer 15 15 15 15 15
 Challenging Glass 5
References
Decourcelle, R., Nugue J.C., Levasseur, F.: Mechanical participation of interlayer on laminated glass for building applications, Glass
Performance Days, 718-721 (2009)
Delincé, D.: Experimental approaches for assessing time and temperature dependent performances of fractured laminated safety glass. Ghent
University. Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent, Belgium (2014)
D’Haene , P.: The Effect of an Acoustical Windscreen on the Sound Quality in a Car, Glass Processing Days, 506-509 (2003)
Dhaliwal, A.K., Hay, J.N.: The characterization of polyvinyl butyral by thermal analysis, Thermochimica Acta 391, 245–255 (2002)
Hanson, J. C.: Densely Cross – linking interlayers for laminated glass, Glass Performance Days, 9-12 (2014)
http://www.bridgestone.com/products/diversified/evasafe/. Accessed 7 January 2016
http://www.parisleshalles.fr/00371. Accessed 7 January 2016
http://www.romaconventiongroup.it/section/it/nuovo_centro_congressi#. Accessed 7 January 2016
http://www.yourglass.com/agc-glass-europe/be/en/positive_energy/hikari/project.html Accessed 7 January 2016
http://www2.dupont.com/Building_Innovations/zh_CN/assets/downloads/SGPintro_E.pdf . Accessed 7 January 2016
Keller, U., Mortelmans, H.: Adhesion in Laminated Safety Glass – What makes it work?, Glass Processing Days, 353-356 (1999)
Lilly J.G.: Recent Advances in Acoustical Glazing. Sound and Vibration, 8-11 (2004)
Monserez, S: Impact behavior of laminated glass for use in large glass facades, Ghent University. Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent,
Belgium (2013)
Schimmelpenningh, J.: Acoustic Interlayers for Laminated Glass – What makes them different and how to estimate performance, Glass
Performance Days, 2-8 (2012)
Schimmelpenningh, J.C.; Saflex® Technical Binders, Kingsport (2012)
Speelman, R., Savineau G.: Laminated Glass and interlayers – Breaking the Myths, Glass Processing Days, 235-237 (2013)
Stelzer, I.: High Performance Laminated Glass, Challenging Glass 2, 467-474 (2010)
Weller, B., Wünsch J., Härth, K.: Experimental Study on Different Interlayer Materials for Laminated Glass, Glass Processing Days, 124-127
(2005)
Yoshioka, T.: Future Possibility of High Performance PVB Interlayer - Multi-Layer Technology for Noise Reduction and More - Glass
Processing Days, 525-527 (2003)
Zhang, P., Stevels, W., Haldeman, S.V. - Shear Modulus Measurement of Structural PVB Interlayer and prEN 16613, Glass Performance Days,
148-152 (2015)
Influence of Temperature on Laminated Glass Performances Assembled with Various Interlayers
Challenging Glass 5