Definition – Functions as per the dictionary, is defined as a relation between a set of

input values also know the ‘domain’ (X-values) having exactly one output for each input
value. No cheating X’s! . A function is also generally denoted by f(x) where x is the
input. The outputs in functions are also known as the ‘range’ and the output can be
traced back to its input. There are obviously several types of functions such as inverse
functions, polynomial functions, cubic functions, algebraic functions etc. Functions also
come in many different forms. They can be defined as Piece-wise functions or simply as
formulas. However, a function should not be confused with a relation. A relation is a set
of ordered pairs. While functions do have ordered pairs, a relation can have repeated x-
values whereas a function cannot! Each element in the domain is paired with exactly
one element in the range.

Notation for functions - To simplify an expression and equations, a simplified notation

is usually used. For example, instead of writing time is a function of speed, we can use ‘t’
to represent time and ‘s’ to represent speed. If we write out the simplified expression, it
would be, t = f(s). Therefore, the notation of functions is defined as such, the notation
output = f(input) which defines a function named ‘f’.

Examples of functions – An example of function is the equation, f(x) = x2- 2x + 4, x = 3.

We would solve for f(x) by substituting ‘3’ in place of every ‘x’ term in the equation.
Therefore, the process of finding the answer should look like this,
f(x) = (3)2-2(3) +4
=7

1
There are many ways to solve for f(x) such as using the different operations with
functions. One can add, subtract, multiply, divide and even operate on radical functions.
1. Adding functions
Add f(x) = 3x – 5 and g(x) = 3x
The general form when adding a function is, h(x) = f(x) + g(x)
Therefore, the way to solving this would be,
h(x) = 3x – 5 + 3x
= 6x – 5

2. Subtracting functions
Using the same equation, we should use the general form for subtraction when solving
this problem.
h(x) = f(x) – g(x)
Therefore, the answer would be, h(x) = 3x – 5 – (3x)
= -5

3. Multiplying functions
The general form for this operation is h(x) = f(x) ∙ g(x).
Therefore, the answer would be, h(x) = (3x -5) (3x)
= 9x2- 15x

4. Dividing functions
𝑓(𝑥)
The general form for this function is h(x) = .
𝑔(𝑥)

Therefore, the answer would be, h(x) = 3x-5/3x

3𝑥−5
=
3𝑥

2
Non- examples of functions – To identify a function we need to identify the
domain (set of objects that change), a process that carries out how to change the
object, set that holds the outcome of the change, valid inputs that produce an
outcome, any single valid input that produces only one outcome.
For examples, f: ℤ → ℤ
This is not a function as we have not specified what is the process and there are a
lot of ways where we can change one integer to another integer. Therefore, for it
to be a function, it needs to have the domain and range as well as the process
which specifies it.

Even if you do have the domain, it doesn’t necessarily mean that it is a function.
𝑥 2 −4
For example, g: ℝ → ℝ, g(x) = .
𝑥−2

The domain and the range have been specified as well as the process, but this is
not a function as not every point in the domain has an output. If f(x) = 2, the
output would not be defined. If the function so not defined at every single point in
the domain, then it is not a real function.

Representations of functions - Functions can be represented in various ways,

and these different representations help us understand and work with them in
different contexts. Here are some common representations of functions:

1. Function Machines:
- Function machines are a visual or conceptual representation of a function's
input-output relationship. They are often depicted as boxes with an input on one
side and an output on the other. When you input a value into the machine, it
processes the value according to the function's rule and produces an output. To
solve equations or rearrange formulae we need to use inverse operations and
work backwards. Function machines can be used to help produce tables of values
for graphs such as quadratic or cubic graphs.

3
2. Ordered Pairs:
- One of the most common and basic ways to represent a function is through
ordered pairs. A function is often represented as a set of ordered pairs (x, y),
where "x" is the input value, and "y" is the corresponding output value. For
example, the function f(x) = 2x can be represented as the set of ordered pairs {(1,
2), (2, 4), (3, 6), ...}.

3. Algebraic Expressions:
- Functions can also be represented using algebraic expressions or formulas. In
this representation, a function is defined as an equation that expresses the
relationship between the input (usually denoted as "x") and the output (usually
denoted as "f(x)" or "y"). For example, the function f(x) = 2x is represented as an
algebraic expression.

4. Graphs:
- Graphs are a visual representation of functions that show how the output
varies with the input. In a Cartesian-coordinate system, functions can be graphed
by plotting points (x, y) on a coordinate plane. The graph illustrates the behavior
of the function over a specific domain and range. For example, the graph of the
function f(x) = 2x is a straight line with a slope of 2.

5. Tables:
- Functions can be represented using tables, where you list the input values in
one column and the corresponding output values in another. This representation
is particularly useful when you want to see the relationship between input and
output values briefly.

4
6. Words or Descriptions:
- Functions can also be described in words or written language. For example, a
function might be described as "the square of a number" or "twice the input
value." These descriptions help convey the nature of the function without using
mathematical notation.

7. Function Notation: Function notation, such as f(x), g(x), or h(x), is a symbolic

way to represent functions. It indicates the name of the function (e.g., f) and the
input variable (x). Using function notation, you can express the function's rule and
apply it to specific values of x.

How to tell if a graph of a relation is a function: To determine if the graph of

a relation is a function, you can use the vertical line test, which is a graphical
method for checking if there is exactly one output (y-value) for each input (x-
value).

1. Vertical Line Test:

- Draw vertical lines through the points on the graph. If any vertical line
intersects the graph at more than one point, the relation is NOT a function. If
every vertical line intersects the graph at most once, it is a function.

Example 1: Consider a graph of points (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), and (4, 4). If you draw
vertical lines through the points, you will see that one line intersects the graph at
two points (x = 3), indicating that the relation is not a function because the input 3
is associated with two different outputs.

Example 2: If you have a graph of a straight line, such as y = 2x, and you use the
vertical line test, you will see that every vertical line intersects the graph at most
once, confirming that it represents a function.

5
2. Analyzing Domain and Range:
- Examine the domain (set of all possible x-values) and range (set of all possible
y-values) of the relation. If each x-value in the domain maps to only one y-value in
the range, then the relation is a function.

Example 3: For the relation defined by the points (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), and (4, 2),
the domain consists of {1, 2, 3, 4}, and the range is {2, 3, 4}. Since each x-value
corresponds to a unique y-value, this relation is a function.

Example 4: If you have a graph where the same x-value maps to multiple y-
values (i.e., one-to-many or many-to-many relationships), then the relation is not
a function.

3. Using Function Notation:

- If the graph is labeled with a function notation like "y = f(x)," it implies that the
relation is a function. Each input "x" produces a unique output "f(x)."

Example 5: If you have a graph with the equation y = 3x2, the function notation
confirms that it represents a function.

4. Recognizing Basic Function Shapes:

- Certain basic functions, such as linear, quadratic, cubic, and square root
functions, are known to be functions because of their shapes. Linear functions are
straight lines, quadratic functions are parabolas, and so on.

Example 6: The graph of a quadratic function, y = x2, is a parabola. It is always a

function because each x-value corresponds to a unique y-value.

6
Constant Function
The constant function is used to represent a
quantity that stays constant and is considered
the simplest of all types of real functions.
Constant functions are LINEAR functions whose
graphs are horizontal lines in the plane. A
constant function has the same output with
different input values and has the same range
for different values in the domain. Any function
that is of the form y = c where c is a constant
and any real number is considered a constant
function. It is commonly defined by the
equation, f(x) = c

Domain [∞, -∞]

Range {c}

Odd/Even Even

Increasing/Decreasing Neither. It is a constant

output.
Zeros (X-intercepts) c = 0 (0,0)

Max/Min Does not have any max or

mins
End Behavior [∞, -∞]

7
Linear Function
A linear function is a function that represents a straight
line on the plane. It is in the form.

y = mx + b where ‘m’ and ‘b’ are real numbers. Y is

the dependent variable while ‘m’ is the slope which
determines the steepness of the line also known as the
gradient. ‘b’ is the y-intercept which is the point where
the line crosses the y-axis. The parent linear function is
y = x.

Domain [∞, -∞], ℝ

Range ℝ

Odd/Even Odd

Increasing/Decreasing Increasing throughout.

Zeros (X-intercepts) (-b/m, 0)

Max/Min [∞, -∞]
End Behavior Down on the left, down on the right

8
Quadratic Function
The quadratic function is a polynomial function which has the highest exponent of a variable which is 2.
The parent equation of a quadratic function is y = x2. Transformations can be applied on this function
which usually is in the from f(x) = a (x – h)2 + k which can be simplified into the form: f(x) = ax2 + bx +
c which is the standard form of the quadratic equation. The graph produced from a quadratic equation is
a PARABOLA. Additionally, a quadratic equation can be written in different forms.

1. Standard Form: f(x) = ax2 + bx + c

2. Vertex Form: a (x - h)2 + k, where a ≠ 0 and (h, k) is the vertex of the parabola representing the
quadratic function.
3. Intercept Form: a (x - p) (x - q), where a ≠ 0 and (p, 0) and (q, 0) are the x-intercepts of the
parabola.

Domain [∞, -∞], ℝ

Range [0, ∞)
Odd/Even Even

Increasing/Decreasing Increasing: (0, -∞)

Decreasing: (-∞,0)
Zeros (X-intercepts) X=0

Max/Min Max: None

Min: (0,0)

End Behavior x →- ∞ Up on left, up on right

y→∞

9
Cubic Function
A cubic function is a POLYNOMIAL function which has a degree of 3. Therefore, the graph of a
cubic function can have a maximum of 3 roots and can have a maximum of 3 zeros (x-
intercepts). The form of a cubic function is f(x) = ax3 + bx3 + cx + d, where a, b, c,
and d are real numbers and a ≠ 0. The basic equation of a cubic function is y = x3.
A cubic function is an odd degree polynomial which means it has either 1 or 3 zeros and it
cannot have 2 real zeros. Its graph looks like this.

Domain (-∞, ∞)
Range (-∞, ∞)
Odd/Even Odd

Increasing/Decreasing Increasing: (- ∞, ∞)

Decreasing: None
Zeros (X-intercepts) X = (0,0)
Max/Min Max: ∞
Min: -∞

End Behavior x →-∞, x → - ∞ Down on left, up on right

y → ∞, y →- ∞

Absolute Value Function

The absolute value function is an important function that consists of the variable in the absolute value
bars that look as such, ‘| x |’. The general form of the absolute value function is f(x) = a |x-h| + k,
where a=1, h, k=0. The most used form of the function is f(x) = |x|. In the general form of the function ‘a’
represents how far the graph stretches vertically, ‘h’ represents the horizontal shift while ‘k’ represents
the vertical shift from the graph f(x) = |x|. The graph opens downwards if the value of ‘a’ is negative and
upwards if ‘a’ is upwards. The absolute value function is defined as an algebraic expression and is mostly
used to find the distance between two points.

10
 Domain [0, ∞)

Range [0, ∞)
Odd/Even Neither

Increasing/Decreasing Increasing: Commented [RS1]: Describe the constant increase

instead of the increasing as it technically does not.
Decreasing: -∞
Zeros (X-intercepts) X = (0,0)

Max/Min Max: ∞
Min: -∞

End Behavior x →-∞ Up on left, up on right

y → ∞,

Square Root Function

The square root function is in the form, f(x) = . . The inverse of this function is y = x2. The square and the square
root and inverse of each other. As the square root increases, the values of x increase proportionally. When
transformations are applied to this function it looks like, f(x) = a√ (b (x - h)) + k where a, b, h, and k are real
numbers.

11
 Domain (-∞, ∞)

Range All integers

Odd/Even Neither

Increasing/Decreasing Increasing: (-∞, ∞)

Decreasing: None
Zeros (X-intercepts) X = (0,0)

Max/Min Max: ∞
Min: (0,0)

End Behavior x →-∞, x → ∞ Down on left, up on right

y → ∞, y → -∞

Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer function is also known as the step function. This rounds the integer to the nearest
integer ≤ to the given number. The graph is a step curve. This function is represented as f(x) = [[x]].
In this form, ‘x’ can be any real number and the function can be defined as [[x]] = n, n ≤ x < n + 1 and 'n'
is an integer. ‘n’ is always an integer and respectively the output will always be an integer as well. If x is a
negative number, the output will be a integer. The input variable can take on any real value, but the
output will always be an integer.

Domain (-∞, ∞)

Range [0, ∞)
Odd/Even Even

Increasing/Decreasing Increasing: (0, ∞)

Decreasing: (-∞,0)
Zeros (X-intercepts) X = (0,0)
Max/Min Max: ∞
Min: (0,0)

End Behavior x →-∞, x → ∞ Up on left, up on right

y → ∞, y → ∞

12
 Rational Function
A rational function is a ratio of polynomials. It is a function the which in this case
the denominator cannot be equal to 0. This function is represented as f(x) =
𝟏
.The equation of the rational function is 𝒚 = . In the general form of the
𝒙
function both p and q are polynomials, and the numerators can be constants. The
denominators of the rational function, however, cannot be constants. However,
when graphing rational functions, there are many concepts that we need to know!
But let us see how the parent graph looks like. Its graph is a HYPERBOLA which has
two separate branches.

Domain (-∞,0) U (0, ∞)

Range (-∞,0) U (0, ∞)
Odd/Even Odd

Increasing/Decreasing Increasing: None

Decreasing: (-∞, ∞)
Zeros (X-intercepts) X=0
Max/Min Max: None
Min: None

End Behavior x →-∞, x → ∞ N/A End behavior

y → 0, y → 0

13
 Graphing Rational Functions

Just like any other concept, there are many steps to graphing a rational function. Below I will
discuss the different steps needed to successfully make a rational function graph. However,
there are some things that we need to be aware of.

Rational functions can have 3 types of asymptotes: Horizontal, vertical and slant asymptotes.
There also can be holes in these as well.
1. Hole. A hole of a rational function are points that seems that they are present on the
graph of the function, but they are not present. They can be found by solving for x while
setting the linear factors that are shared by the function's denominator and numerator
to zero. Every rational function does not need to have holes. Holes only exist when a
numerator and denominator have common factors that can be cancelled out.

2. A vertical asymptote (VA) is an imaginary vertical line which comes close to the graph
but NEVER touches it. It is in the form x= “some number”. However, there cannot be a
vertical asymptote at x= “some number” if there is a hole there as well. A rational
function can have more than one VA. This is the way to find the VA’s .

14
3. A horizontal asymptote of a function is an imaginary horizontal line which appears to be very
close to the graph but never touches the graph. It is in form y= “number”.

4. A slant asymptote (Oblique) is also an imaginary line which appears to touch the graph
but does not.

15
Exponential Function
An exponential function is a function that in the form f(x) = ax where a is a constant and
x is a variable, and the base of the function should be greater than 0. The most used
base is the number ‘e’ like Pi which approximates to 2.71828. Exponential functions are
a type of mathematical function that models exponential growth or decay. They are
defined by the general form:

Exponential Growth:
- When b > 1, the exponential function represents exponential growth. As x increases,
the function's values increase rapidly. The larger the value of ‘b’, the faster the growth.
Exponential growth is common in scenarios such as compound interest, population
growth, and the spread of diseases.

Example of Exponential Growth: f(x) = 2x

Exponential Decay:
- When 0 < b < 1, the exponential function represents exponential decay. As (x)
increases, the function's values decrease rapidly. The smaller the value of (b), the slower
the decay. Exponential decay is often observed in contexts like radioactive decay, cooling
of objects, and the diminishing of resources.

Example of Exponential Decay: f(x) = 0.5x

16
Asymptotes:
- Exponential functions may have horizontal asymptotes. An asymptote is a straight line
that the graph of the function approaches but never crosses or touches. For exponential
functions, the horizontal asymptote depends on the value of (b):
- If 0 < b < 1 (exponential decay), the graph approaches the x-axis (y = 0) as ‘x’
approaches positive infinity. The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
- If b > 1 (exponential growth), there is no horizontal asymptote; the graph grows
without bound as ‘x’ increases.

Examples of Asymptotes:
- For the exponential decay function f(x) = 0.5x, the horizontal asymptote is the x-axis
(y = 0).

- For the exponential growth function f(x) = 2x, there is no horizontal asymptote; the
graph continues to rise as ‘x’ increases.

Exponential functions are essential in various fields, including finance, biology, physics,
and engineering, as they accurately describe processes involving rapid growth or decay
over time. Understanding the base (b) and the concept of asymptotes is crucial for
interpreting and working with exponential functions in real-world applications.

17
Domain (-∞,∞)

Range (-∞,0) U (0, ∞)

Odd/Even Neither

Increasing/Decreasing Increasing: None

Decreasing: (-∞, ∞)
Zeros (X-intercepts) X=0
Max/Min Max: ∞
Min: None

End Behavior x →-∞, x → ∞ N/A End behavior.

y → 0, y → ∞

18
Logarithm Function - A logarithm function, often denoted as "log," is the inverse
of an exponential function. Logarithms are used to solve equations involving
exponential growth or decay and have applications in various fields, including
mathematics, science, engineering, and computer science.

The basic form of a logarithm is: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 (𝑥)

Where:
- (x) is the number for which you want to find the logarithm.
- (b) is the base of the logarithm. It's a positive constant greater than 1 (usually) or
a positive constant greater than 0 (in some contexts).

Key properties and concepts related to logarithms:

1. Logarithmic Rules:

2. Change of Base Formula:

- If you want to calculate a logarithm with a base different from the one available
on your calculator (e.g., using a common logarithm with base 10 or a natural
logarithm with base (e), you can use the change of base formula:

3. Common Logarithm: (𝑙𝑜𝑔 10)

- The base 10 logarithm is commonly used and is written as (𝑙𝑜𝑔 10) or simply
(log(x)) when the base is 10. It is often used for practical calculations and is
available on most calculators.

19
4. Natural Logarithm (ln):
- The natural logarithm uses the base (e), which is an irrational number
approximately equal to 2.71828. It is written as (ln(x)) and is widely used in
calculus, mathematical analysis, and science.

Logarithmic functions have a wide range of applications, such as solving

exponential equations, calculating compound interest, modeling population
growth and decay, analyzing data with exponential trends, and more. They play a
crucial role in various branches of mathematics and the sciences.

Domain (0,∞)

Range (-∞, ∞)
Odd/Even Neither

Increasing/Decreasing Increasing: ∞

Decreasing: (-∞, ∞)
Zeros (X-intercepts) X=0
Max/Min Max: ∞
Min: None

End Behavior x →0+, x → ∞ N/A End behavior

y → ∞, y → - ∞

20
21
Real Life Application of a Quadratic Function: Imagine you
throw a ball into the air. It follows a parabolic path, starting at
the point of projection, reaching a peak height, and then
coming back down to the ground. If you throw a ball from a
height of 2 meters with an initial velocity of 10 m/s at an angle
of 45 degrees to the ground, you can use the quadratic function
to calculate the height of the ball at any given time. You can also
determine when the ball hits the ground (the time at which
h(t)=0) and its range (the horizontal distance it travels).

22
Real-Life application of Exponential Function: Compound
interest is a concept used in banking and investments where
the interest earned or paid on an account is added to the
principal amount, and future interest calculations are based on
this new total.
Scenario: Compound Interest in a Savings Account
→ I have a savings account, and I want to understand how your
money grows over time due to compound interest.

1. Initial Deposit: I start by depositing an initial amount of

money into the savings account. Let's say I deposit $1,000.

2. Interest Rate: The bank offers an annual interest rate for

my savings account. For this example, let's assume an
annual interest rate of 5%. This rate is often written as a
decimal (0.05).

3. Compounding Frequency: Compound interest can be

compounded at different intervals, such as annually, semi-
annually, quarterly, or even daily. The more frequently it
compounds, the faster my money grows. For this example,
we'll assume annual compounding.

23
 𝑟 𝑛𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑛

Where:
- (A) is the future amount of money, including interest.
- P is the initial principal amount (the amount you started with),
which is $1,000 in our case.
- r is the annual interest rate (in decimal form), which is 0.05.
- n is the number of times the interest is compounded per year
(annual compounding, so (n = 1).
- (t) is the number of years your money is invested.
→ After 5 years, I would have approximately $1,276.28 in my
savings account. This amount is greater than the simple interest
calculation, which would be $1,000 + (0.05 * $1,000 * 5) =
$1,250. Compound interest allows my money to grow faster
because it's applied to the new total each year.
→ The exponential function is used to model the growth of
your savings over time with compound interest. This concept is
essential for individuals, banks, and financial institutions to
calculate interest on loans, investments, and savings accounts.
It illustrates how money can multiply over time, making it a
practical and widespread real-life application of exponential
functions.

24
25
Real-life application for cubic function: Understanding the
motion of projectiles is vital in sports like baseball, basketball,
and golf. Coaches and athletes can use these models to analyze
and optimize their performances, such as determining the ideal
launch angle and velocity. The graph would look something like
this.

26
Real life application of a constant function: Fixed Interest Rate -
In finance, a constant function can represent a loan or
investment with a fixed interest rate. For example, a savings
account with an annual interest rate of 3% will provide a
constant interest rate, regardless of the account balance. The
graph would look like the parent! A straight line across.

27
Biblical Application: The story of Jacob's ladder is a biblical
narrative found in the Book of Genesis in the Old Testament. It
is specifically described in Genesis 28:10-19.
Jacob, the son of Isaac and Rebekah, is instructed by his parents
to go to the land of Paddan Aram to find a wife from his
mother's family. On his journey, he stops for the night in a
place, using a stone as a pillow. During his sleep, he has a
remarkable dream:
The Dream: In his dream, Jacob sees a ladder or staircase
reaching from the earth to heaven. Angels are ascending and
descending on the ladder, and at the top, he sees God.
God's Promise: God speaks to Jacob in the dream, reaffirming
the covenant made with his grandfather Abraham and his
father Isaac. God promises Jacob the land he is lying on, as well
as numerous descendants. The divine promise also assures
Jacob of God's protection and presence on his journey.
Jacob's Vow: When Jacob awakens from the dream, he is in awe
and reverence. He takes the stone he used as a pillow, anoints it
with oil, and renames the place Bethel, meaning "House of
God." He also makes a vow to serve and worship God faithfully.

The ladder/staircase reaching from earth to heaven resembles

the greatest integer function which goes up and down between
intervals.

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29