Diploma

Ronald Fabrice P. Kamdem

M.Eng – Civil Engineering
PhD Candidate
Pr Eng ECSA Candidate
Kamdem.fabrice@mut.ac.za
 UNIT II

EFFECTIVE STRESS, TOTAL STRESS AND PORE

WATER PRESSURE
 CONTENT

▪ Introduction

▪ Unloaded State

▪ Loaded State

▪ Flooded State

.
 INTRODUCTION
Soils are particulate media made of an assemblage of soil grains with
different sizes and shapes. They also contain void partially or fully filled
with water and air. In a particulate medium where the voids are filled
with water and air, the normal stresses σ are shared by the soil grains,
water and air. In this chapter, we will learn how to compute normal
stresses σ acting separately on soil grains and water in a saturated
soils. Context of partially saturated soils where some of the normal
stresses are carried by air within the void are complexed and will also
analyzed in this course.

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 EFFECTIVE STRESS
✓ The total normal stress or total stress (σ) acting at any point and in any
direction in a saturated soil is shared by the soil grains and the water within the
voids (known as pore water), and it is expressed as follow:
▪ Total Stress (σ) = Effective Stress (σ’) + Pore Water Pressure (u)

✓ The component of total normal stress acting on the soil grains is known as the
effective stress or intergranular stress (σ’) .

✓ The remainder of the normal stress carried by the water within the voids is
known as pore water pressure or neutral stress (u).

✓ The horizontal normal stress and the vertical normal stress denoted 𝜎ℎ and 𝜎𝑉
respectively are expressed as:

▪ 𝜎ℎ = 𝜎ℎ, + 𝑢
▪ 𝜎𝑉 = 𝜎𝑉, + 𝑢
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 EFFECTIVE STRESS
✓ Note:
• The pore water pressure, being hydrostatic, is the same in any direction
hence it is denotation remains unchanged.
• Only the vertical stress will be dealt with in this course.

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 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO
OVERBURDEN - UNLOADED STATE
✓ In a dry soil mass having unit weight of 𝛾 (see Fig 2.1), the vertical normal
stress 𝜎𝑉 at point X, depth ℎ below the ground level is simply given by:

▪ 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾ℎ, this is also referred as overburden pressure.

Fig 2.1

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 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO
OVERBURDEN – UNLOADED STATE
✓ If the soil structure is composed of different layers as shown in Fig 2.2, the vertical
normal pressure at point X is given by:

▪ 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾1 ℎ1 + 𝛾2 ℎ2 + 𝛾3 ℎ3

Fig 2.2

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 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO
OVERBURDEN – FLOODED STATE
✓ If water is present within the soil and it is at the ground level as shown in Fig 2.3,
the vertical normal pressure at point X is given by:

▪ 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
✓ The pores are all interconnected,
𝛾𝑊
and hence the hydrostatic pore water 𝛾,
pressure at this point X is:

▪ u = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ
✓ Where 𝛾𝑤 is the unit weight of water.
Therefore, the effective normal vertical Fig 2.3
stress becomes:

▪ 𝜎𝑉, = 𝜎𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ = 𝛾 , ℎ

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 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO
OVERBURDEN – FLOODED STATE
✓ Let now consider the scenario (see fig 2.4) where the flood has risen to a certain
depth 𝑦 above ground level:

▪ 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑦 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ
▪ 𝑢 = (𝑦 + ℎ)𝛾𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑦 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ
▪ 𝜎 , = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑦 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ − 𝛾𝑤 𝑦 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ
▪ ∴ 𝜎 , = ℎ 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 = ℎ𝑦 ,

Fig 2.4
 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO
OVERBURDEN – FLOODED STATE
✓ When the water table is at some depth below the ground level as shown in Fig 2.5

𝜎𝑉, , 𝜎𝑉 and 𝑈 can be written as:

𝛾𝑚
𝜎𝑉 = 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ2
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ2 𝛾𝑊
𝜎𝑉, = 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝛾 , ℎ2

Fig 2.5
 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO
OVERBURDEN - PARTIALLY SATURATED SOIL
✓ In the context where the soil is partially saturated, the situation is more complex. In
this instance, the normal stresses on the soil elements are shared by the soil grains,
pore water, and the pore air. Thus, the following equation:

▪ 𝜎 = 𝜎 , + 𝑥𝑢𝑤 + (1 − 𝑥)𝑢𝑎
Where:
▪ 𝑢𝑤 is the pore water pressure
▪ 𝑢𝑎 is the air water pressure
▪ 𝑥 is the constant between 0 and 1 and it is usually determined from a
triaxial test. In dry soil, 𝑥=0. In saturated soil, 𝑥=1.
 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO
OVERBURDEN – LOADED AND FLOODED STATE
✓ When a uniform pressure 𝑞 is placed at the ground level of saturated soil (see Fig
2.6), a process known as consolidation occurs within the saturated soil. During
consolidation.

▪ 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ + q
▪ 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ + 𝑞

Fig 2.6

✓ Terzaghi conducted a conducted laboratory experiment which demonstrates the

process of consolidation within a saturated soil.
 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO OVERBURDEN –
LOADED AND FLOODED STATE (CON’D)
TERZAGHI’S SPRING ANALOGY

✓Apparatus:
▪ Cylindrical container of cross-sectional area A (mm²) fitted with a watertight piston
of negligible mass and filled with water.
▪ A drainage valve connected to a bore outlet tube
▪ A spring placed between the base of the container and the piston

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 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO OVERBURDEN –
LOADED AND FLOODED STATE (CON’D)

Fig 2.7

✓ Stage 1: The system is in equilibrium with the valve closed and no load is
placed on the piston.

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 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO
OVERBURDEN – LOADED AND FLOODED STATE
✓ Stage 2: A load of 200N is now applied to the piston and the valve still remains
close. Water is not allowed to escape, so the piston cannot move down, and the spring
is not compressed (Ps = 0 or σ’ = 0.0) because it does not carry the load. The load is
entirely supported by the water pressure (Pw=200N or u = σ). This pressure is called
the excess pore water pressure (u = σ).

✓ Stage 3: The drainage valve is opened. Water escapes from the container and half
of the load is transferred to the spring (Ps = 100N).

✓ Stage 4: The piston sinks slowly resulting in progressively more load being carried
by spring and less by the water.

✓ Stage 5 : Finally, the spring is fully compressed by the applied load and carries the
entire load (σ’ = 200 N). No load is carried by the water (Pw=0.0). There is no excess
pore water pressure the equilibrium is restored and the downward movement has
ceased.

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 VERTICAL NORMAL STRESS DUE TO OVERBURDEN –
LOADED AND FLOODED STATE (END)

✓ Solid particles – analogous to spring

✓ Water in voids - analogous to water in cylindrical container
✓ Permeability of soil – analogous to valve in piston
✓ Pore water pressure – analogous to pressure carried by water in cylindrical
container
✓ Effective stress in soil – analogous to stress carried by spring.

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 TERZAGHI’S CONSOLIDATION THEORY
✓ To determine the rate of consolidation of saturated soil subjected to sustained static
load:
1. The layer of soil being consolidated is horizontal, homogenous, of uniform thickness
and is laterally confined.
2. The soil is fully saturated, the voids are completely filled with water
3. Soil particles and water is incompressible.
4. Darcy’s Law for the flow of water through a soil is valid. (laminar flow)
5. The coefficient of permeability and other soil particles remain constant for one
increment of applied stress.(Does the permeability increase or decrease during
consolidation or remain the same in practice?)
6. The applied pressure is uniform along a horizontal plane.
7. Flow of water takes place only in a vertical direction (drainage and compression are
one dimensional.
8. A change in effective stress in the soil causes a change in the void ratio and their
relationship is linear (straight line ) during any one load increment .
9. The initial excess pore water pressure due to the load increment is uniform throughout
the depth of the layer.
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 EFFECTIVE STRESS (CONT’D)
✓ Example:
The figure below represents the cross section of soil. Determine the total vertical
stress, effective stress and the pore water pressure at soil layer C.and D in
(𝑁/𝑚2 ), and draw the stress distribution diagram.

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 EFFECTIVE STRESS (CONT’D)
✓ Solution:

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 EFFECTIVE STRESS (END)
✓ Solution:

✓ At D, work out soil pressure and pore water pressure and deduce
effective pressure. Do calculations below and put values on the chart
above.

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 TERMINOLOGIES
✓ Compaction:
Removal of air trapped between the soil particles to
achieve higher densification.
✓ Consolidation:
Removal of water trapped between the soil particles to
achieve higher densification.
✓ Compressibility:
The properties of soil mass susceptible to decrease in
volume under the applied pressure.
✓ Swelling:
The process in increase in water content due to
increase in volume of voids.
 CONSOLIDATION Vs COMPACTION
Compaction Consolidation
Expulsion of pore air Expulsion of pore water
Soil involved is partially saturated Fully saturated
Applies to cohesive and non-cohesive Applies to cohesive soils only
soil
Achieved by artificial or human agency Achieved by application of loads or
natural agencies
Dynamic is commonly applied Static loading is commonly applied
Relatively complex activity involving Relatively simple phenomenon
expulsion, compression and
dissolution of pore air in water
Useful primarily in embankments and Useful as means of improving the
earth dams properties of foundation soil
IMPORTANCE OF CONSOLIDATION

✓ The study of consolidation provides answers for:

▪ Total settlement (volume change)
▪ Time required for the settlement of compressible layer to be achieved.
 TYPE OF SETTLEMENT
✓ Elastic Settlement or Immediate Settlement
This type of settlement occurs immediate after the load is applied. This is due to the
change to:
▪ Expulsion and compression of air in voids
▪ Compression of solid particles
✓ Primary Consolidation Settlement
It is the most important component in consolidation settlement of a clay soil.
It occurs due to expulsion of pore water from the voids of saturated soil. In case of
fine grain saturated soil, the deformation is due to squeezing of water from the
pores leading to arrangement of soil particles. The movement of pores water
depend on the permeability and dissipation of pore pressure.
✓ Secondary Consolidation Settlement
Reduction in volume continues even after primary consolidation is complete at slow
rate due to plastic readjustment of solid particles and the adsorbed water to the new
stress system.
ANY QUESTIONS??