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Hybrid electric vehicles

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 Report Title: Hybrid electric vehicles
M2 Propulsion and energetics
Ecole Centrale of Nantes
Compiler: ERFAN DANESHPAJOOH
Supervising professor: Dr. Rémi Dubouil

2020-2021

1
Contents

Introduction 3
Types of HEV power source 3
Limitations 4
Working principle of hybrid vehicles 5
Architectures 6
HEVs components and construction 14
References 18

2
Introduction

In response to the environmental issues, an increasing demand of more efficient,

sustainable and less polluting vehicles, has been evident in the recent years.
Limited supply of fossil fuels and their destructive impacts on the environment has
led us to search for an alternative transportation propulsion system, which emits less
pollutants and consumes less fossil fuel.
The most popular solution appears to be electric hybrid vehicle. By definition, an
electric vehicle does not merely rely on an internal combustion engine as the
propulsion system, moreover it uses an electric drive system as a replacement or
improves the ICE performance.
Electric Hybrid vehicle is one of the existing hybrid vehicles in the world which
profits from electrical machines and electrical storages beside the internal
combustion engine. The other hybrid vehicles can include a compressed air energy
or flywheels in automotive powertrains.
In this article the fundamental concept, types, pros and cons of electric hybrid
vehicles will be discussed.

Types of power source

In general, 3 types of electric vehicles (EV), in terms of the power source can be
distinguished as below.
Full electric vehicle (FEV) is propelled solely by electric drive system. It
benefits from a large battery which can be recharged in charging stations or at home.
Since these vehicles produce no pollutants, they are suitable for population areas,
like big cities, regarding that the whole emission for electricity generation occurs in
the countries, out of population dense. Therefore, the FEVs are not zero-emission
vehicles, despite of what the manufacturers’ marketing claims.

3
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) combines an ICE and electric motors within the
drivetrain. In brief, the electric motor and the electric storage, contribute to higher
fuel efficiency and better performance of the engine. The vehicle can be driven by
one of these or both at the same time.
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is equipped with a lager battery than
HVEs, which allows the vehicle to be charged by charging stations.
In most cases the cars can be propelled by either a combustion engine or an electric
motor. However, there are some vehicles in which the ICE is only used for charging
the batteries. (fig1.1 free book)
Despite all the recent tremendous developments of hybrid and electric vehicles, still
they have not gain deserved popularity at a global scale. Some of the reasons are as
follows.

Limitations

Despite the enormous advantages of hybrid electric vehicles, there are many
problems to be tackled. In the following chapters, some limitations will be
outlined.
1- Price: The major reason why EVs are much more expensive than the
conventional vehicles is the cost of batteries. Most EVs utilize lithium-ion
batteries, which have high power to weight rate, high energy efficiency, high
temperature performance and low self-discharge. Most components of
lithium-ion batteries can be recycled, but the cost of material recovery has
remained a challenge for industries. Research and development are going to
reduce their relative cost and some safety concerns regarding to overheating,
in the few subsequent years.
2- Vehicle size: EVs are usually small to reduce energy consumption and to
accommodate batteries. So, this would be a challenge for some users who
would like to transport heavy loads using their vehicles.
3- Charging duration: Charging time for plug-in EVs are usually long. However,
there are some average fast charged vehicles for which charging time is about
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 30 minutes that can be acceptable. Given that there are queues in charging
stations, charging time may take several hours.
Thus, fast charging and infrastructures in all points of the cities, will be a
feasible solution to this issue.
4- Limited range: in flat roads, the favorable range of distance driven by an EV
could be 300 km and this could be even lower when heating or air-
conditioning is switched on.
The speed of EVs in an electric mode is limited, as well. Most manufacturers
limit the top speed of EVs to preserve battery health.
5- Electromagnetic emissions: while there is no concrete evidence showing
electromagnetic radiation from EVs is dangerous, this issue has concerned
manufacturers and authorities. It is still under more investigation by many
researchers.

Working principle of hybrid vehicles

Since there are two energy sources in HEVs, they can be combined in several
ways and these working phases can be found.

1- Fully electric mode: Batteries in this mode feed the electric motor through the
power electronics (inverter) which controls the electric current and turn direct
current into an alternative current. The motor is completely detached from the
ICE when it is electrically driven.
The power produced by motor is finally transmitted by a transmission system
to the wheels. The latter mechanism is quite similar to that of the conventional
cars, except that the transmission ratio remains constant. This is rooted in the
fact that electric cars do not require multi-speed transmission, because the
electric motor produces a consistent amount of torque at any given RPM while
the internal combustion engine requires multiple gears with definite ratios for
power output. It is noteworthy that ICEs only generate efficient power at
certain RPM ranges. However, EV manufacturers calculate gear ratios to
maximize effectively for the electric motor without having to switch through
gears.
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This is regarded as a limitation of ICEs, in which the rotational velocity is
maximumly 6000-7000 RPM, while an electric motor can produce a
consistent torque across beyond 10000 RPM with ease. (Consequently, we
only add complexity, inefficiency, weight and extra production costs in ICE
vehicles.)
2-Hybrid/electric assist: in the case of a closed clutch, the power is transmitted
to the motor by both ICE and batteries. This is often possible by planetary
gears in parallel-series hybrid systems.
3-Battery charging: the ICE can drive a car by itself as well as charge the
batteries, using the power electronics and motors, in a reversed way (working
as a generator) while the car is coasting.
4- Regenerative braking: To enhance the fuel efficiency, one way is to recover
the energy dissipated while braking. The kinetic energy that was initially used
to propel the vehicle, makes the wheels rotate the electric motors, turning into
a type of generator. This energy is stored in the batteries.
The regenerative braking system is usually accompanied by a hydraulic
braking system. When the car is traveling at high speed or the battery is fully
charged, too hot or too cold, the electric motor cannot provide sufficient
braking torque to stop the car. Thus, it will need the support of the hydraulic
braking system.

Architectures:

The main HEV powertrain configurations are parallel and series and their
combination and branches which are to be discussed in this section.
Parallel hybrid powertrain: In this type of HVEs, both ICE and electric
motor can transmit power to the wheels.
Parallel hybrid powertrain with two clutches: In a rear-wheel-drive vehicle,
the structure of hybridization is shown in figure1.

6
 Figure 1.

There are two clutches, before and after the electric machine. The first one,
between the engine and motor, can connect or disconnect the powertrain of
ICE. While it is open, the vehicle runs with pure EV mode.
In addition, during the deceleration, in order to have the maximum
recuperation of kinetic energy, the ICE is disconnected from the motor to
remove its braking effect.
The second clutch is used to disconnect the motor from the transmission and
wheels. As a matter of fact, this clutch is a component of the transmission,
thus it is obviously open while the car is coasting or decelerating.

7
 Table 1. The states the clutches in a parallel HEV with two clutches

Parallel hybrid powertrain with double- clutch transmission: this type of

mechanism is mostly used in the vehicles with front engine front wheel due
to lack of space. The architecture is shown in fig2.

Figure 2

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In this case, the electric motor is a subdivision of the transmission. The torque
transmitted to the wheels can directly come from the ICE or with assist of the
motor thanks to the double-clutch system. The torques are summed up at the
shaft driving the transmission.
The states of the clutches during the phase of powertrain are shown in the
table 2.

Table 2 The states of clutches in double clutch transmission

Axle-split parallel hybrid powertrain: In this type of HEVs, the ICE drives an
axle (usually front axle) and second axle is driven by the electric machine. It
must be pointed out again that the former mechanism is done with contribution
of a multi-speed gearbox, although the latter needs only fixed ratio gears.
The iconic advantage of this structure is that the vehicle has all-wheel drive
mode as long as the battery has enough charge. The drawback differentiating
this type is the lack of possibility of charging the battery while the car is in
stationary. To overcome this issue, another electric machine can be
permanently connected with the ICE, generating the power and store it in
batteries while the vehicle is at rest.

9
 Series hybrid powertrain: Obviously the powertrain path is comprised of the
components in a series way. (Fig3)

Figure 3

In other words, the ICE is no longer able to drive the wheels independently
and directly, but it is connected to an electric motor which in turn can transmit
the torque needed for the propulsion.
Series hybrid vehicles: This kind of vehicles benefit from electric machines.
- An electric generator connected to the engine.
- An electric motor connected to a single ratio gearbox which in turn runs the
wheels through the differential.

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The most significant characteristic of series hybridization is that there is no
need for a gearbox, apart from the fact that ICE can operate almost in the most
efficient area of torque-speed map.
Also, there is no clutch between the motor and the wheels, therefor the vehicle
is impossible to coast, since the drive wheels are always connected to the
electric motor.
Another deficiency of series hybrid is double energy conversion. In the case
of running the motor by the ICE, the mechanical energy is converted to the
electrical energy, and then again it is turned into the mechanical motion. This
definitely reduces the overall efficiency of engine powertrain.
Series-parallel hybrid vehicle: It can transform to a series parallel one by
adding a shaft and clutch between two electric machines. Hence, the
powertrain can behave as a series hybrid when the clutch is open and acts like
a parallel hybrid when the clutch is closed. The strength of series mode, is
that the engine can operate with high efficiency in low speeds.
Besides, in high speeds the engine transmits power to the wheels directly in
parallel mode, and it takes advantage of the motor assist, when the vehicle
needs more power to accelerate or in the rising slopes.

Figure 4

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This type is the combination of characteristics of both series and parallel
hybrid. The advantage is that the energy produced by the ICE is partly
converted to the electric energy to actuate the electric motor and charge the
battery. The excessive energy, drives wheels mechanically.
This type has a better function in all driving states except coasting because a
mechanical connection exists between the drive wheels and the electrical
motor.

The features, pros and cons of all the types above are summarized in the
table3.
Table 3-1

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 Table 3-2

The most significant point encouraging manufacturers to produce and develop

HEVs is that it can be constructed in smaller size and lower cost. This fact
stems from sharing the workload of ICE with the electric motor. Downsizing
can lead to weight reduction, which in turn contributes to greater fuel
economy.
Moreover, HEV engines are optimized to operate in a better efficiency and
reduce most of the pollutant emissions.
This is the superiority of HEV vehicles in comparison with conventional ICE
vehicles to eliminate the high emissions and poor fuel efficiency.

13
HEVs components and construction
Firstly, all hybrid electric vehicles require a hybrid power unit (HPU), which
are employed to produce the main power of the whole hybrid powertrain.
Combustion engines are the most common HPUs, such as compression
ignition/direct injection engines, spark ignition/direct injection engines, the
Stirling engine and gas turbine engines.
Secondly, two most commonly used electric motors in HEV propulsion are
permanent magnet motor (PM) and induction motor (IM).
The most components of HEVs can be summarized in 3 groups.
1- Drivetrains: The ICE power source and electric drive integration.
2- Battery/Energy storage system (ESS): emphasizes energy storage and
power capabilities.
3- Control system: Instructs electric system and ICE performance and
manages the hybrid energy storage system (HESS).
4- Regenerative braking system.
In series HEVs, the generator actuated by the ICE, provides electrical energy
in DC, which is then converted to traction power by an electric motor.
In parallel HEVs, traction power can only be supplied by either an ICE or an
EM, or by both simultaneously. The EM is used to charge HESS by
regenerative braking system.
The parallel Mild HEV can facilitate reaching to an ideal balance between the
cost of the vehicle and its performance, because it utilizes a smaller battery
and the EM can only assist the torque transmitted by the ICE.
The control system pointed out above, consists of an ECU, DC/AC
convertors, Inventor, Start/Stop, etc.
Regenerative braking system is a method for replacing the brake unwanted
heat by electrical energy. The principle is lied in electromagnetics induction.
Briefly, when the torque produced by the DC electric machine is in the same
direction as the vehicle’s speed, the machine works as a motor to thrust the
vehicle. On the contrary, if the torque and speed are in different directions, it
means that the car is decelerating and the machine works as an alternator, thus
the energy used to stop the car can be stored as the electric energy in batteries

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and recovered later. On the other hand, the heat produced in conventional
braking systems is fully dissipated in atmosphere.
In practice, to decelerate the car, instead of mechanical braking, an on-vehicle
DC-DC converter is activated which takes electrical energy from the vehicle’s
alternator to the batteries.
Having mentioned that, obviously the regenerative braking system operates
on drive axles, either it is front, rare or both.

Figure 5 Regenerative braking system

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Advantages of regenerative braking system are presented below.
• Improves Fuel Economy
• Emissions Reduction
• Improves performance of vehicle
• Reduce engine wear
• Reduce brake wear
• Accessories required are small
• Operational range is better than conventional braking
• The possible disadvantages of Regenerative Braking System:
• Extra weight added in vehicle
• Complex Arrangement of the system
• Available at reasonable cost if this has mass production
• Noise production depends on the system
• It adds extra maintenance requirement

Moreover, numerous new devices and mechanisms are overwhelmingly

developed and applied giving the HEVs a better performance and also high-
tech features. Some of these new technologies used in HVEs in the recent
years will be mentioned here.

E-CVT: Electronic continuous variable transmission is more efficient than the

mechanical one (CVT) and mostly applicable in HEVs. It selects the optimal
speed ratio, among infinite of ratios it has at its disposal, by using a
combination of planetary gears, real-time analyzing of vehicle’s speed, road
condition and drive power input. Needless to say, belts and chains are no
longer in this structure.
Advanced motors: As the electric motors play an key role in HEVs, they are
more and more becoming advanced in terms of the efficiency, power density
and cost of the corresponding drivetrain, easy controlled, torque-speed
characteristics, compactness, thermal behavior, etc.
Some of the advanced motors tend to be installed particularly in HEVs,
namely; Switched reluctance motor, Brushless DC motor, permanent magnet
synchronous motor. The elaboration of each is out of the scope of this study.

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VVT/VVL: Variable valve timing and variable valve lift are two relatively
new technologies, mounted on ICEs, to change the thermodynamic cycle it
goes through, by altering the amount and rate of air taking in the cylinders to
ameliorate the combustion condition. This could result in the optimization of
engine efficiency in both high-load and low-load periods. Theoretically,
Atkinson and Otto cycles are used for low-load and high-load states,
respectively. It is usually performed by overhead double camshaft system.
In addition, recently, electro-hydraulic and camless systems have emerged
and taken into the consideration as feasible alternative approaches.
PV technology: With the growing demand for switching over to renewable
energy resources, photovoltaic technology outstands other alternatives.
The various advantages like being noiseless, pollution-free, immunity to
direct contamination, simplicity in operation and its compatibility with hybrid
vehicles have attracted the attention of engineering community.
The concept is assisting the hybrid electric vehicle by solar panels mounted
on top of it. Although the cost of solar panels is slightly dropping in recent
years, still a trivial number of manufacturers are willing to produce hybrid
solar vehicles and it apparently needs more research and investment.

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 References:

1- CRC Hybrid Vehicles Freebook, CRC PRESS

2- IA-HEV annual report- International energy agency
3- Hybrid solar vehicles by Gianfranco Rizzo, Ivan Arsie, Marco
Sorrentino
4- A comprehensive review on hybrid electric vehicles: architectures
and components by Krishna Veer Singh, Hari Om Bansal,
Dheerendra Singh
5- Hybrid Vehicles with DCT by Antonio Della Gatta – 2019
6- Hybrid vehicle by Karan C. Prajapati, Rachit Sagar, Ravi Patel –
Pandit Deendayal petroleum university
7- Regenerative braking system, by Mr. Shivam Sharma, Ashish
Narayan Singh, Rahul Yadav, Abhinav Jha, Kumar Vanshaj, Md.
Fahim2

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