Ohm’s Law and Electric Circuits

MODULE #5
 Ohm’s Law

4/11/2023 PHY 108 2

Content

• Electric Current

• Current Density

• Ohm’s Law

• Power in Electric Circuits

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Electric Current
An electric current is the flow of electric charge in a circuit.

𝑑𝑞
Electric Current 𝑖=
𝑑𝑡

𝑖
Current Density 𝐽=
𝐴
( Current per unit area)

A current arrow is drawn in the direction in which positive charge carriers would move, even if the actual
charge carriers are negative and move in the opposite direction.

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Drift Current
• When a conductor does not have a current through it, its conduction electrons move randomly with no net motion
in any direction (~ 106 m/sec)

• When a conductor does have a current through it, these electrons still move randomly, but now they tend to drift
with a drift speed in the direction opposite to the electric field. (~ 10-4 m/sec)

• This drift speed is tiny compared to the speeds in random motion.

𝐽
Drift speed: 𝑣𝑑 =
𝑛𝑒

𝐽 = (𝑛𝑒)𝑣𝑑 (vector form)

• For positive carriers , 𝒏𝒆 is positive. It means 𝐽 and 𝑣𝑑 are in the same direction.
• For negative carriers , 𝒏𝒆 is negative. It means 𝐽 and 𝑣𝑑 are in the opposite direction.

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NEWTON’S CRADLE

Like the Newton’s cradle, electrons in a

metal quickly transfers energy nearly at the
velocity of light

Courtesy: Dominique Toussaint

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Drift Current
Exercise # 1

The current density in a cylindrical wire of radius 2.0 𝑚𝑚 is uniform across a cross-section of
the wire. If the current density is 2.0 × 105 𝐴/𝑚2 , what is the current through the outer
portion of the wire between radial distances 𝑅/2 and 𝑅.

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Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current. It is measured in ohm.

A conductor whose function in a circuit is to provide specific resistance is called a resistor. In a

circuit, it is represented by a symbol

Resistors come in different sizes and shapes. The value of a resistor is indicated on the body of a
resistor in the form of color codes.

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Resistivity
Resistivity is a property of a material. It is measured in  - m (ohm-meter).
Resistivity at 20C
𝐸 Material Resistivity (-m)
Resistivity 𝜌=
𝐽 Silver 1.62×10-8

Copper 1.69×10-8

𝜌𝐿 𝑉 𝑖 Aluminum 2.75×10-8
𝑅= (Since 𝐸 = and 𝐽 = )
𝐴 𝐿 𝐴 Iron 9.68×10-8

Glass 1010 - 1014

Conductivity is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity. Its unit is mhos per meter, (-m)-1
1
Conductivity 𝜎=
𝜌

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Resistance and Resistivity
Exercise # 2

Calculate the resistance of an aluminum cylinder that is 10.0 𝑐𝑚 long and has a cross section area of 2 × 10−4 𝑚2.
Repeat the calculation for a cylinder of the same dimensions and made of glass having a resistivity of 3 × 1010  − 𝑚.

Exercise # 3

Calculate the resistance per unit length of a 22 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 copper wire, which has a radius of 0.321𝑚𝑚.

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Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current (i) through a device is always directly proportional to the potential
difference (V) applied to the device.

𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 (R is resistance)

REQUIREMENTS:

A conducting device obeys Ohm’s law when

1. The resistance of the device is independent of the magnitude and polarity of the applied potential
difference.

2. The resistivity of the material is independent of the magnitude and direction of the applied electric
field.

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Power in Electric Circuits
Change in electric potential energy 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑉𝑑𝑞 = (𝑖 𝑑𝑡) 𝑉

Power 𝑃 = 𝑖𝑉

Power can be defined as the rate at which energy transferred from the battery. The unit of power
is watt (W).
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅

𝑃 = 𝑖 2𝑅

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Power in Electric Circuits
Exercise # 4

An electric heater is constructed by applying a potential difference of 120 𝑉 to a nichrome

wire that has a resistance of 8.0 . Find the current carried by the wire and the power rating
of the heater.

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 Electric Circuits

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Work, Energy, and EMF
EMF: Electromotive force

EMF devices are also called charge pumps. They can supply current by maintaining a potential
difference between two plates. For example, battery, generator, solar cell, fuel cell etc.

The emf of an emf device is the work done per unit charge that the device does in moving
charge from its low-potential terminal to its high-potential terminal.
𝑑𝑊 [J/C or V]
ℰ=
𝑑𝑞

An ideal emf device is one that lacks any internal resistance to the internal movement of charge
from terminal to terminal.

A real emf device has internal resistance to the internal movement of charge.

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Current Calculation: Single Loop
ENERGY METHOD: POTENTIAL METHOD:

𝑑𝑊 = ℰ 𝑑𝑞 = ℰ(𝑖𝑑𝑡) 𝑉𝑎 + ℰ − 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉𝑎

ℰ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 ℰ − 𝑖𝑅 = 0

ℰ = 𝑖𝑅 ℰ = 𝑖𝑅

Resistance Rule: For a move through a resistance in the direction of the current, the change in potential is
− 𝑖𝑅; in the opposite direction it is + 𝑖𝑅.

EMF Rule: For a move through an ideal emf device in the direction of the emf arrow; the change in
potential is +ℰ; in the opposite direction it is − ℰ.

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Internal Resistance
The internal resistance of a battery is the electrical resistance of the conducting materials of the battery
and thus is an irremovable feature of the battery.

ℰ − 𝑖𝑟 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0

ℰ Current decreases
𝑖=
𝑅+𝑟 due to internal resistance

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Potential Difference Between Two Points
ℰ
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = ×𝑅
𝑅+𝑟

GROUNDING A CIRCUIT :

Grounding a circuit means connecting the circuit to

a conducting path to Earth’s surface. Such a
connection only means that the potential is defined
to zero at the grounding point.

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Terminal Voltage of a Battery
Exercise #1

A battery has an emf of 12 𝑉 and internal resistance of 0.05 . Its terminal is connected to a
load resistance of 3.0 .
(a) Find the current in the circuit and terminal voltage of the battery.

(b) Calculate the power delivered by the battery.

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Resistance in Series
• When a potential difference V is applied across resistance s connected in series, the resistances have
identical currents i. The sum of the potential difference across the resistances is equal to the applied
potential difference V.

• Resistances connected in series can be replaced with an equivalent resistance Req that has the same
current i and the same total potential difference V as the actual resistance.

ℰ = 𝑖𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑅2 + 𝑖𝑅3

ℰ ℰ
𝑖= =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝑅𝑒𝑞

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

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Resistance in Series
• When a potential difference V is applied across resistances connected in series, the resistances have identical
currents i. The sum of the potential difference across the resistances is equal to the applied potential difference V.

• Resistances connected in series can be replaced with an equivalent resistance Req that has the same current i and
the same total potential difference V as the actual resistance.

ℰ = 𝑖𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑅2 + 𝑖𝑅3

ℰ ℰ
𝑖= =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝑅𝑒𝑞

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

The equivalent resistance of a series connection of resistors is always greater than any individual resistance.

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Resistances in Parallel
The sum of the currents entering any junction must be equal to the sum of the currents
entering the junction.

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖3 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

For a parallel circuit, the equivalent resistance is smaller than the smallest resistance in the network.

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Resistances in Parallel
Exercise #2

Three resistors (3.0 𝑘, 6.0 𝑘 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 9.0 𝑘 ) are connected in parallel. Find the equivalent
resistance of the circuit.

If a potential difference of 12 𝑉 is maintained across the terminals (connected in parallel),

determine the current through each resistor.

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RC Circuits

At equilibrium:
𝑞
ℰ − 𝑖𝑅 − =0 𝑑𝑞 ℰ −𝑡
𝐶 𝑡
𝑖= = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑉𝑐 = ℰ 1 − 𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑅 + =ℰ
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
𝑞 = 𝐶ℰ (1 − 𝑒 )

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RC Circuits : Charging
The product RC is called the time constant of the circuit.

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 [sec]

At t = 𝜏; 𝑉𝑐 = 0.632 ℰ

At t = 2𝜏; 𝑉𝑐 = 0.864 ℰ 𝑡
𝑉𝑐 = ℰ 1 − 𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶

At t = 𝟓𝝉; 𝑽𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟑 𝓔

• After 1𝜏 (in seconds) the capacitor charges to 63.2% of the supplied voltage.
• It takes 5𝜏 to charge the capacitor above 99.3% of the supplied voltage (effectively a full charge)

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 RC Circuits : Discharging
A charged capacitor is allowed to discharge through a resistor.

𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝑅 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑡
𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑞 𝑞0 −𝑡
𝑖= =− 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
𝑞 𝑡
−𝑅𝐶
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑖= − 𝑅𝐶0 𝑖= 𝐼0 𝑒

𝑡
𝑉𝑐 = ℰ𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶

• After 1𝜏 (in seconds) the capacitor discharges to 36.8% of the supplied voltage.
• It takes 5𝜏 to almost discharge a capacitor completely.

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