POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (1ST SEM MIDTERMS)

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO POSITIVE I. Definition of Positive Psychology

PSYCHOLOGY
Positive Psychology
“Psychology is not just the study of weakness and ● It is a scientific study of ordinary human
damage; it is also the study of strength and strengths and virtues (King & Sheldon, 2001)
virtue.” Treatment is not just fixing what is ● It includes what they do to themselves, for
broken; it is nurturing what is best within us”. - their families, and for their communities.
Martin Seligman ● It helps people develop those qualities that
lead to greater fulfillments for themselves
● The statement clearly points to the focus and for others.
of this new field of Psychology. ● It is a scientific study of optimal human
functioning which aims to discover and
promote factors that allow individuals,
communities, and societies to thrive and
flourish. Sheldon, Frederickson, Rathunde,
Csikszentmihalyi, and Haidt (2000)

● Images adopted from the lecture of Niel Flourishing

Steve M. Kintanar, MA, RPsy; Teaching ● is defined as ‘a state of positive mental
Positive Psychology health; to thrive, to prosper and to fare well
● The pictures are telling us that Psychology in endeavors free of mental illness, filled
now focuses on the prevention of illnesses with emotional vitality and function
and promotion of the well-being of ALL positively in private and social realms’
people. There is a paradigm shift in the (Michalec et al., 2009: 391)
focus of Psychology.

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (1ST SEM MIDTERMS)

II. Dimensions of Positive Psychology honesty, or wisdom. Also includes study of

the personal qualities that are necessary
Positive psychology concentrates on positive for being a ‘good person’, such as human
experiences at three time points: strengths and virtues,
1. The past, centering on wellbeing,
contentment and satisfaction 3. Group or community level
2. The present, which focuses on concepts ● focuses on the development, creation, and
such as happiness and flow experiences maintenance of positive institutions.
3. The future, with concepts including Addresses the development of civic virtues,
optimism and hope the creation of heathy families and the
study of healthy work environments, and
positive communities.
III. The Three Nodes/Dimensions ppf Of Positive
Psychology The Focus of Positive Psychology is the scientific
- Not only does positive psychology study of positive human functioning and
distinguish between wellbeing across time flourishing at a number of levels, such as the
points but it also separates the subject biological, personal, relational, institutional,
area into three nodes/dimensions cultural, and global (Seligman &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000)
1. Subjective Level
● Looks at positive subjective states or V. Scope of Positive Psychology
positive emotions/ experiences such as A. The following are some of the topics that
happiness, joy, satisfaction with life, may be studied by a positive psychologist.
relaxation, love, intimacy, contentment, 1. Altruism and empathy
and constructive thoughts (optimism and 2. Building enriching communities
hope). 3. Creativity
4. Forgiveness and compassion
2. Individual level 5. The role of positive emotions in job
● Focuses on the study of positive individual satisfaction
traits such as courage, persistence,

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (1ST SEM MIDTERMS)

6. The enhancement of immune system

functioning Positive psychology
7. Lifespan models of positive personality ● represents another direction for
development psychology by focusing investigations of
8. Styles of psychotherapy that emphasize who we are as human beings in more
accomplishments and positive traits positive directions.
9. Savoring each fleeting moment of life Positive psychology
10. Strengthening the virtues as way to ● is an attitude that people can take to
increase authentic happiness research, to other people, and to
11. Psychological benefits of Zen meditation themselves.

VI. Why Positive Psychology Is Needed Today VII. 5 Basic Themes and Assumptions of Positive
Psychology
Positive emotions are important to our mental
and physical health. A. Positive Psychology assumes that all are
capable of attaining a good life.
1. Positive emotions and adaptive behaviors 1. Good life
can help us live a satisfying and ● refers to the factors that contribute most
productive life. to a well-lived and fulfilling life, includes
2. Positive emotions can help us to fight qualities that enrich our lives, make life
terrible social and personal costs of worth living, and foster strong character.
pressing social problems like the anxiety ● By using your signature strengths every
and fear we are all experiencing due to the day to produce authentic happiness and
pandemic, criminal behavior, drug abuse, abundant gratification (Seligman, 2002a, p.
or the treatment of serious psychological 13).
disorders like depression. a. Good life has three elements:
3. Positive emotions contribute to positive 1. positive connections to others,
outcomes in life (physically healthier, more 2. positive individual traits
resistant to illness, and even live longer 3. life regulation qualities.
than others.

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (1ST SEM MIDTERMS)

B. Positive Psychology believes that people are C. Fixations on pathology

highly adaptive and desire positive ● led psychologists to become victimologists
social relationships. and pathologizers which means that they
C. It also contends that people can thrive and forgot that people make choices and have
flourish. responsibility.
D. We all have strengths and virtues that are ● Instead of viewing humans as proactive,
central to wellbeing creative, self-determined beings,
E. Persons exist in social context psychologists viewed humans as passive
individuals subjected to external forces
VII. History of Positive Psychology (pre-1998) (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
A. Three Tasks of Psychology prior to World ● Hence, the main di erence between
War Two: post-World War Two psychology and
1. Cure mental illness today’s positive psychology is in the
2. Enhance the lives of the normal population question asked: ‘Why do these individuals
3. Study geniuses fail?’ versus ‘What makes some individuals
succeed?’
B. The Disease Model
● It is mentioned that for many years, 1. From 1972 to 2006, the ratio of depression
Psychology used the Disease Model. research publications to wellbeing
● This is due to the fact that psychologists publications was 5:1.
focused more on treating psychologically 2. Depression was ten times higher in 2009
impaired soldiers who were victims of two than it was in 1960, with the mean age for
world wars. depression today being 14.5 (compared to
● In addition, research funding was focused 29.5 in 1960)
on the first agenda with the other two 3. About 2 per cent of the population is
nearly forgotten (Linley, 2009). su ering from depression and 14 per cent
● With the aid of the funding though, at least of us will experience depression by the age
14 disorders can now be cured or can be of 35 (compared to 2 per cent in the 1950s)
relieved. (Keyes and Michalec, 2009).

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (1ST SEM MIDTERMS)

4. Depression was found to be among the top the beginning of the movement of positive
five illnesses contributing to disability in psychology.
life adjusted years (the total number of ● The story says that he has a five-year- old
years a person lives with disabilities). daughter who had been trying to get his
Indeed, mental disorder came only second attention.
to cardiovascular disease. (Global Burden ● One time, Seligman responded to her by
of Disease Study, 1996) snapping at her.
5. Mental illness costs the USA over $40 ● Unhappy with his response, his daughter
billion per annum and this figure asked him whether or not he remembered
continues to rise (Keyes and Michelac, how she used to whine when she was 3 and
2009). 4.
6. The Philippines has one of the highest ● His daughter told him that when she
cases of depression in Southeast Asia, turned 5 she decided to stop – and if she
a ecting more than three million Filipinos was able to stop whining, then he would
(by Rep. Rida Robes of San Jose del Monte, stop being a grouch.
Bulacan) ● His encounter with his daughter brought
7. Depression is becoming as prevalent as him important realization hence, Seligman
the common cold in the country, a ecting resolved to change.
around 3.3 million Filipinos. ● He decided to develop what was right,
8. World Health Organization report that rather than fixate on what was wrong and
eight in every 100,000 Filipinos commit maintained that we should teach our
suicide. Of this figure, six are males, while children and ourselves to look at our
two are females aged 15 to 29 years old. strengths rather than our weaknesses
(Seligman M & Csikszentmihalyi M, 2000).
VIII. The Origin of Modern-day Positive ● He realized that his purpose in life was not
Psychology to correct his daughter’s shortcomings
instead, raise her to nurture the strength
A. Inspiration in a Bed of Roses she displayed (social intelligence).
● According to literature, the story of ● His mission when he became the APA
Seligman’s epiphany in his rose garden set president in 1998 was to direct the path of

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (1ST SEM MIDTERMS)

psychology into identifying and nurturing virtuous, it is not the sole aim of humanity
strengths. (Mason and Tiberius, 2009).

On the other hand, one of the criticisms of 2. Utilitarianism

positive psychology is that the ideas are not new. ● Is created by Jeremy Bentham and carried
on by John Stuart Mill
Even the term ‘positive psychology’ was used by ● It argued that the right act or policy from
Abraham Maslow, many decades before government is that which will cause ‘the
Seligman (Maslow, 1954: 201). greatest good for the greatest number of
However, Seligman has done a phenomenal job people’, also known as the ‘greatest
of bringing the thoughts and ideas of past happiness principle’, or the principle of
researchers, philosophers and scientists back to utility.
our consciousness. ● It was the first sector that attempted to
measure happiness, creating a tool
In relation to this, four groups of individuals who composed of seven categories, assessing
are said to be looking at ‘the good life’ before the quantity of experienced happiness
the discipline of positive psychology even existed (Pawelski and Gupta, 2009).
were identified, which are as follows: ● Utilitarianism influences some areas of
positive psychology today, such as
1. Greeks subjective wellbeing and the pleasurable
● Aristotle’s (384–322 BCE) greatest life (Pawelski and Gupta, 2009).
contribution to philosophy is arguably his ● Positive psychology accepts that while
work on morality, virtue and what it means pleasure is a component of overall
to live a good life wellbeing, it is not enough, and the
● He concluded that highest good for all inclusion of eudaimonic pursuits is
humanity was indeed eudaimonia (or necessary as a complement to utilitarian
happiness). philosophy.
● He argued that although pleasure may
arise from engaging with activities that are

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (1ST SEM MIDTERMS)

3. William James contentment, ecstasy, kindness, caring,

● The Principles of Psychology (James, 1890). sharing and generosity.
● originally trained as a medical doctor at ● Humanists felt that humans had choice
Harvard University, Boston, USA, before and responsibility for their own destiny.
becoming interested in religion, mysticism ● Views life as a process, with all humans
and epistemology (Pawelski, 2009). beholding an innate drive for growth and
● His chapter, ‘The Emotions’, is most fulfilment of potentials.
relevant for positive psychology to ● The humanists even went as far as to
acknowledge. include spiritual proprieties of the self, the
● He suggests there that emotions come world and wellbeing; an area that is
after we have physically acted out. controversial even in today’s scientific
● He established the connection between societies.
emotions and expressions. IX. Where is Positive Psychology Today?
A. Akumal, Mexico, from 1999 to 2002, discuss
4. Humanistic Psychology development of the new area of positive
● Emerged in the late 1950s and early 1960s psychology. At the same time, researchers
as a backlash to the predominant were holding national and international
psychological theories of psychoanalysis, summits from Lincoln, Nebraska to
behaviorism and conditioning. Washington DC, which continued to thrive
● Introduced and solidified qualitative (Linley, 2009).
inquiry as an imperative paradigm to B. There are currently hundreds of
research human thought, behavior and undergraduate classes in positive
experience, adding a holistic dimension to psychology across the world
psychology. C. There are two Masters programs in applied
● Is the psychological perspective that positive psychology, (founded in 2005and
emphasizes the study of the whole person. 2007) in University of Pennsylvania and
● The main drive of humanistic psychology University of East London, UK.5 Italy,
was to focus on mental health, specifically Portugal.
positive attributes such as happiness,

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POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (1ST SEM MIDTERMS)

D. Mexico are currently creating Masters

courses in positive psychology in their own
languages.
E. At present, there are several conferences
o ered by the European Positive
F. The First World Congress of Positive
Psychology was held on 18–21 June 2009 in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Founded
in 2006 is the academic, peer-reviewed
journal, Journal of Positive Psychology. In
the UK, several positive psychology
resources contribute to the positive
psychology research base. We work within
the
London Partnership for Positive Psychology in
Practice (LP4), which provides access to leaders
in the field of positive psychology as well as
opportunities for collaboration of research and
consultancy. Furthermore, the Centre for Applied
Positive Psychology at Warwick, UK, runs online
short courses on positive psychology as well as
consultancy projects.

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Module 2: Understanding Emotions - From the two definitions, you can notice that
emotion has several factors that include physical,
Being aware of how you feel at the start of the day is mental, and behavioral
very important. This will help you manage your emotion
and how you will respond to different situations you will B. Moods
encounter throughout the day. You will be in control of - compared to emotion are ‘free floating or
your responses and by doing so, you will save yourself objectless, more long-lasting and occupy the
from getting into trouble even if you are faced with background consciousness’ (Fredrickson and
frustrating conditions. Losada, 2005: 121).
- Moods, unlike emotions, tend to be unfocused
I. What is an Emotion? and enduring.

A. Emotion
- a ‘psychological state defined by subjective II. Factors of Emotion
feelings but also characteristic patterns of ● Expression of emotion may be influenced by a
physiological arousal, thought, and behaviors number of factors. Below are the 4 factors of
Peterson (2006: 73). emotions:
- It focuses on a specific event or circumstance
during the past, present or future.
- It is short lived and we are aware of them at the
time of occurrence.
- While Oatley et al. summarize the essential
features of an emotion as follows: a conscious
mental state with recognizable quality of feeling A. physical or biological factor
and directed towards some object, a bodily - Every time we experience an emotion we can
perturbation of some kind, recognizable observe changes in our body.
- -

expressions of the face, tone of voice, and - Examples of these changes are increased heart
gesture, and a readiness for certain kinds of rate and fast breathing when you are afraid or
action. angry.
awarness+reflects to the body brought by the release of neurotransmitters and
hormones
 III. What is Affectivity ?
B. mental or cognitive factor A. Affectivity
- The way we interpret or appraise an event affect - Regardless of how we express our emotions and
how we feel, like feeling afraid because you think what kind of emotions, they are important to
that the stranger following you is a snatcher. psychologists.
- In fact, psychologists’ focus now is in affectivity,
which is defined as the extent to which an
C. behavioral factor individual experiences positive/negative moods
- What we do in response to an event, like running (Peterson, 2006: 62).
out of fear when you see a stranger and frowning
when you are worried. Positive affect
- is the extent to which someone experiences joy,
contentment
D. cultural factor
- Expression of basic emotions like anger, disgust, Negative affect
fear, joy, and sadness is said to be universal. - is the extent to which someone experiences
- However, there are differences in the way other feelings such as sadness or fear.
emotions may be expressed depending on a
person’s cultural background. Affective style
- Example is the different Filipino practices during - Is defined as ‘a broad range of individual
the burial of a loved one. In the Philippines, the differences in different parameters of emotional
burial period lasts for a week or until the ninth day reactivity which include: threshold to respond, the
(before pandemic) at least in rural areas, there is magnitude of the response, the rise time to the
“pa-tong its”, even singing in videoke, and peak in the response, recovery function of the
overflowing food. We join the bereaved loved ones response, and the duration of the response
during the entire period of the burial as a way of (Davidson, 2003: 657–8).
“pakikiramay sa namatayan”. Do we observe this
in other country? No! It is only in the Philippines.
understanding the situation
 - Thus structures that considered part of the reward
To develop positive affectivity and practice it so that system are found along the major dopamine
we can achieve wellbeing is one of the aims of pathways of the brain.
Positive Psychology. How do we develop it and what B. Mesolimbic Dopamine Pathway
does our brain have to do with it? These are questions - The pathways that is associated with reward,
that we will try to answer in the succeeding sections of which starts in an area of the brainstem called the
this module. Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA).

IV. Looking to our Brain C. Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)

A. Computed Tomography Scan (CT-scan) and - One of the principal dopamine producing areas in
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) the brain and the mesolimbic dopamine pathway
- Two medical procedures can help us access the connects it nucleus accumbens .
activities of our brain when we are experiencing
positive or negative affect. D. Nucleus Accumbens
- The procedures allow us to see the pathway of - A nucleus found in a part of the brain that that is
actions in the brain when we are engaged in strongly associated with motivation and reward
activities that produce both positive and negative called Ventral Striatum.
affect.
When we use an addictive drug/experience something
++2- Minute Neuroscience Video++ rewarding, dopamine neurons in the VTA are activated.
A. The Reward System These neurons project to the nucleus accumbens via
- Group of structures that are activated whenever mesolimbic dopamine pathway and their activation
we experience something rewarding (like using causes dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens to
addictive drugs). rise.
- When exposed to a rewarding stimulus, the
brain responds by increasing the release of the
neurotransmitter dopamine.
 be considered the main structure of the reward system.
Regardless, the actual network of brain structures
involved in mediating reward is so much larger and more
complex they just this dopamine pathway, involving many
other brain regions and neurotransmitters

E. Mesocortical Dopamine Pathway

- Another major dopamine pathway; also originates
in the VTA but travels to the cerebral cortex ,
specifically in the frontal lobes. Khan Academy Video: Reward pathway in the brain
- Also activated during the rewarding experiences
and is considered part of the reward system.

Because dopamine is released whenever we use an

addictive drug, research thought that dopamine must be
the neurotransmitter that causes pleasure. More research Ventral Tegemenntal
mental Area
however suggests that dopamine activity doesn’t -the area where dopamine is produced.
correlate exactly with pleasure. EX; dopamine neurons - located at the mid-brain.
are activated before a reward is actually received, thus - when it releases dopamine in the reward circuit it goes
before the pleasure is experienced. For this and other to a lot of different parts of the brain
reasons, dopamine has roles other than causing - the VTA sends dopamine to the amygdala (deals with
pleasure, such as assigning importance to environmental emotions), nucleus accumbens (controls the body’s
stimuli associated with rewards and increasing motor functions), prefrontal cortex (attention & planning).
reward-seeking. Whatever the precise role of dopamine Hippocampus (formation of memories).
in the reward is, the mesolimbic pathway is consistently - when you experience stimulus and the dopamine in the
activated during the rewarding experiences, leading it to VTA is released and travels along the pathways it tells
your body that thiis is good lets do it again. This is a - this recognizes what the person is doing, seeing or
natural response to some pleasurable stimulus like food, listening to is good.
sex, social interactions, drugs (cocaine & amphetamine)

Mesolimblic Pathway
- The nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus C. Dopamine
are part of this pathway. - this is the key neurotransmitter involved in the
- Big part of the reward circuit in the brain. pleasure centre.
- VTA releases dopamine, then goes to the different - Limited levels of dopamine can subdue levels of
parts of the brain which have dopamine receptors motivation whereas high levels of dopamine can
so they uptake the dopamine and the result is lead to mania (Ackerman, 2009).
happiness/euphoria (the reward you get) D. Ventral tegmental area (VTA)
- The continuation activation of the reward circuit, - in collaboration with the substantia nigra, the VTA
dopamine goes up and serotonin goes down ( is the key area of the dopamine system.
feeling of satiation/content) E. Nucleus accumbens
- A very biological driven process - this component of the brain is a very important
player in the reward system of the brain.
Addiction has physiological components as well. - Part of the limbic system, it is thought to be ‘the
Biological basis of drug dependence can be found from pleasure centre as it holds the highest
animal models concentration of dopamine neurotransmitters’.
- Addictive drugs (for example, cocaine) target this
V. What are the specific parts of the brain which are area.
responsible for the regulation of happiness?
A. The reward system
- this is responsible for inducing feelings of
pleasure.
B. The pleasure system
 3. It is said that individuals who have low activation in
the left PFC are not able to initiate goal-directed
behavior or regulate impulses.
4. People who have increased activation in their right
PFC report difficulties in regulating emotions.
5. Researchers discovered that when we experience
positive affect, PFC is activated, and vice versa
F. Orbital frontal cortex
when we feel anxiety or depression (Wheeler et
- this is the area of the brain where decisions are
al., 1993; Davidson et al., 2000).
made. (Ratey, 2001).
- Research indicates that the other two key
Our brain is divided into two systems:
components in the brain in relation to the
1. the approach system (positive affect)
experience of positive emotions appear to be the
2. The avoidance system (negative affect) (Davidson
prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the amygdala. The
and Irwin, 1999).
prefrontal cortex is home to emotions and
- These systems are directly related to goal
emotional regulation whereas increased activity in
attainment.
the amygdala can predict higher levels of negative
The behavioral activation system (BAS)
affect (Davidson, 2001). It is also the storehouse
- is more sensitive and responsive to incentives,
of emotional memories.
making people more extraverted and impulsive
The behavioral inhibition system (BIS)
Prefrontal cortex (PFC)
- is more sensitive and responsive to threats –
- is also responsible for working memory.
arousing anxiety and neurosis
1. PFC is said to enable the generation of goals and
pathways to achieve them (Davidson, 2003).
2. It monitors daily experiences in relation to
long-term goals, sometimes initiating delayed
gratification. VI. What helps the brain to develop a certain affective
style?
 1. Scientists found that nurturing environment have we are as human beings in more positive
significant changes to the circuitry of the PFC and directions.
amygdala (emotion and emotion regulation areas). + Positive psychology is an attitude that people can
2. Changes in PFC and amygdala do not have to take to research, to other people, and to
happen from birth. themselves.
3. Enriching environments later on in life can also
have a significant impact on the circuitry of the VIII.The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive
emotion and regulation areas of the brain Emotions
(Davidson et al., 2003). A. What happens when we feel positive
emotions?
VII. Theories of Emotions 1. Broadening Effect
- Our minds tend to open up – or broaden – and we
Positive emotions are important to our mental and are able to think ‘outside the box’.
physical health for several reasons. - We get a bird’s-eye view of our situation, which
can help generate alternative solutions to the
1. Positive emotions and adaptive behaviors can tasks at hand.
help us live a satisfying and productive life. - We also become more creative, with positive
2. Positive emotions can help us to fight terrible emotions being found to enhance verbal creativity
social and personal costs of pressing social tasks
problems like the anxiety and fear we are all 2. Building Effect
experiencing due to the pandemic, criminal - We build personal resources, which we are able to
behavior, drug abuse, or the treatment of serious dip into when needed.
psychological disorders like depression. - These include:
3. Positive emotions contribute to positive outcomes a. Intellectual resources (problem solving, being
in life (physically healthier, more resistant to open to learning)
illness, and even live longer than others. b. Physical resources (cardiovascular health,
coordination)
+ Positive psychology represents another direction c. Social resources (we can maintain relationships
for psychology by focusing investigations of who and create new ones)
 d. Psychological resources (resilience, optimism, behavior in hopes of getting closer to the
sense of identity and goal orientation) reference value.
3. Undoing Effect - There are outside influences or impediments that
- The theory states that ‘positivity can quell or undo stand in the way of us attaining our goals. Hence,
cardiovascular after-effects of negativity’ we need to make adjustments to override these
(Fredrickson, 2009: 105). impediments.
- It is noted that when we feel anxiety or stress or - The rate of progress, rather than the progress per
any other negative emotions, experiencing positive se determines whether we experience positive or
emotions can help our bodies return to normal negative emotions: ‘negative emotion comes from
physiological functioning significantly faster than inadequate progress towards a goal, whereas
any other types of emotion (Fredrickson and positive affect comes from progress towards future
Levenson, 1998). success’ (Carver and Scheier, 1990: 27).

X. The Power of Positivity Ratio

- It is said that people who experience positive
emotions and have resilient tendencies are still
able to feel sadness and anxiety, just as much as
anyone else. However, they are able to draw on
resources to help them out much faster than those
IX. Emotions, goals and discrepancy theory who do not experience these positive emotions
A. Why are goals so important to human beings? (Fredrickson, 2009).
- When we set a goal (large or small, physical or - Positive attenuation is essential in protecting
mental) this becomes our ‘reference value’. We against depressive symptoms.
then engage in what is known as a discrepancy - Resilient individuals have a unique ability to
loop, trying to minimize the distance between maintain and regulate positive emotions.
where we are and where we want to be (Carver - Dysphoric and non-dysphoric individuals react just
and Scheier, 1990). the same to emotions; however, it appears that
- If there is discrepancy between where we are and there is a difference in the ability to maintain and
we want to be (reference value), we will adjust our
 regulate these emotions rather than in the ability to - Low scorers tend to be more tranquil, steady, and
react in the first place (McMakin et al., 2009). composed.
- The optimal ratio is three positive emotions to one C. Openness to experience
negative emotion (3:1) - individuals who score high on openness to
- Individuals who score higher on levels of positive experience tend to be original and artistic.
affect tend to report better marriages and job - Low scorers tend to be more conformist and
satisfaction, more engagement with physical uncreative.
activity and better sleep patterns. However, it was D. Extraversion
said that we must be wary of such cross-sectional - individuals who score high on extraversion tend to
work since we are still not able to determine which be sociable, talkative and join in when there is
comes first-– is it that people sleep better and something collective going on.
therefore experience more positive affect or vice - Low scorers tend to be classically considered as
versa? more reserved, quiet, shy and prefer to be alone.
E. Agreeableness
- individuals who score high on agreeableness tend
X. Personality and Positive Emotions to be pleasant, compassionate and sympathetic to
Certain personality traits have corresponding ways of others’ needs.
expressing emotions, let’s look at some of them. - Low scorers tend to be untrusting, suspicious,
A. Conscientiousness critical and slightly hard nosed.
- individuals who score high on conscientiousness
tend to have high levels of grit, meaning they are XI. Smiling and Positive Emotions
industrious, diligent, efficient and reliable. A. Does smiling have anything to do with our ability to
- Low scorers tend to be inattentive, idle, experience positive emotions?
unsystematic and sometimes unreliable. - Researchers noted that the presence of a
B. Neuroticism Duchene smile has been regarded as an objective
- individuals who score high on neuroticism tend to measure of genuine happiness/positive emotions.
experience high levels of anxiety, insecurity and - Studies have found positive correlations between
can be emotionally volatile. Duchene smiling and duration of grief after
bereavement, less negativity, greater competence,
 more positive ratings from others and greater - According to their Ability Model, EI is a set of
wellbeing in later life (Harker and Keltner, 2001). competencies or mental skills that include four
- Also, Johnson et al. (2010) found experimental stages (Bracket et al., 2009).
evidence that when people smile genuinely (as
detected through facial muscular tracking), their XIII. Four Stages of EI
thought patterns are immediately broadened. 1. Perceiving Emotions - refers to the ability to
XII. Emotional Intelligence (EI) recognize emotions either in yourself or in
A. EI others.
- is the ‘ability to monitor one’s own and others’
feelings and emotions, to discriminate among Questions to ask yourself include: How do you feel?
them, and to use this information to guide one’s How do others feel? By recognizing these subtle
thinking and action. (Salovey and Mayer,1990: emotional cues, individuals are better equipped to deal
189) with social
- Researchers believe that emotions have use circumstances.
(Davidson, 2003) and are not present for idle
purpose.
- Emotions are good at sending us messages to let
us know how we feel about people and situations. 2. Using Emotions -refers to the ability to use
- Emotional suppression can be detrimental to our emotions to facilitate your mood.
wellbeing, thus attempts to become more aware of
emotions are important (Mayer and Salovey, 1993; Questions to help develop this include: How does your
Mayer et al., 2001, 2004). mood influence thinking? How
- John Mayer and Peter Salovey who, in is it affecting your decision-making?
collaboration with their colleague David Caruso,
developed the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso EQ
Model,5 a 141-item, task-based emotional
intelligence test (MSCEIT) (Mayer et al., 2003). 3. Understanding Emotions – emotions are highly
complex – one may experience mixed
emotions at the same time and it can also change over XIV. Mixed Model Of EI
time. - Daniel Goleman defined EI as ‘the ability to
adaptively perceive, understand, regulate, and
Example - When you are angry you don’t always stay harness emotions in the self and others’
angry. That anger can change into (Goleman, 1996; Schutte et al., 2002)
another emotion such as shame or regret. - EI mixed models view EI as a combination of
perceived emotional skills and personality
When trying to develop this area, ask yourself: Why are - . EI matters because of its ability to predict
you feeling this? What do these academic, occupational and relationship success
emotions mean? What has caused that for you? Where is better than traditional IQ (Goleman, 1996).
that going to go?’ According to Goleman’s theory of intelligence
there are five main areas within the concept
4. Managing Emotions – refers to the ability to including:
manage, or self-regulate, your emotions. 1. managing emotions, where one engages in
reframing anxiety and attempting to dismiss
Tip: Identify when and where it is inappropriate to feelings of distress.
express certain emotions and wait until the appropriate 2. using emotion for self-motivation, where one
time. becomes proficient in delaying gratification for
future success.
Example - If someone tries to be annoying during class 3. recognizing emotions in others, where one has the
and this angers us, it would be ability to exhibit empathy, which is important for
highly inappropriate to turn round and scream at the social relationships.
student. 4. managing emotions in others, where one is able to
help others with their distress or encourage
Highly emotionally intelligent individuals would recognize motivation.
that there is a 5. emotional self-awareness, where one is able to
time and place for certain emotions and manage them understand and identify one’s own emotions.
accordingly.
Module 3: Happiness and subjective Well-being Across
Nations II. Happiness acc. to Diener
A. Happiness
I. What is Happiness? - Diener on the other hand argues that happiness
A. Happiness refers to discrepancy between the present
- here will be described according to the hedonic situation and what is thought to be the ideal or
concept (pleasure -seeking). deserved standard.
- Happiness refers to the attainment of subjective - He further mentioned that one is satisfied when
wellbeing (SWB). there is little or no discrepancy between the
present and what is thought to be an ideal or
B. Subjective Wellbeing deserved situation.
- encompasses how people evaluate their own lives
in terms of both affective (how we feel) and - On the other hand, dissatisfaction is a result of
cognitive components (what we think) of a substantial discrepancy between present
well-being (Diener et al., 1999) conditions and the ideal standard. Dissatisfaction
SWB can be represented in the following way: can also be a result of comparing oneself with
- SWB = satisfaction with life + high positive affect + others (Boniwell & Tunariu, 2019).
low negative affect
B. Affect
C. life satisfaction - refers to the emotional side of wellbeing, including
- encompasses the cognitive component of moods and emotions associated with experiencing
happiness which is how individuals rate the way momentary events (Diener et al., 1999a).
their life turned out to be.
 C. People with higher levels of SWB measures, reports of family and friends and
- tend to demonstrate higher levels of creativity, smiling (Diener et al., 2002).
I

2
3 Y
increased task persistence, multitasking, being Other methods of research into SWL and SWB include:
C

systematic, optimism, attending to relevant 1. comparing in-person interviews with

J

7 8

negative information; longevity, less vulnerability to

10
anonymous questionnaires in order to contain
& I 12

illness, sociability, trust, helpfulness, and less impression management (Diener, 2000). OBJECTIVE
,3

hostility and less self-centeredness (Boniwell & 2. Experience Sampling Methods (ESM) has been MEASUREMENT
Tunariu, 2019). employed in order to reduce memory biases.
D. One of the criticisms of SWB IV. Major Global and National Studies
- is that it fixates too heavily on the experience of Several studies about happiness and wellbeing have
pleasure and positive affect, rather than what is been conducted across nations. Let us explore them…..
meaningful. A. Gallup World Poll
III. Measuring Subjective Well-being - The most widely known global wellbeing poll,
A. Subjective wellbeing which boasts data from over 98 per cent of the
- encompasses how people evaluate their own world’s population, by using Wellbeing Finder
lives in terms of affective and cognitive instrument concluded that five elements were
components (Diener, 2000) essential for overall wellbeing:
SWB can be measured using the following scales: 1. Career wellbeing
5Q's1-7
1. Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener et al.,
Ratings
- this represents where you spend most of your time
1985) and Positive and Negative Activation during the day
Schedule (PANAS) TWO 10-ITEM ; RATED ON
SCALLE A5 POINT SCALE
2. Social wellbeing
4 item 2. Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky and - this represents your relationships and
17 rating
scale of Lepper, 1999; Lyubomirsky, 2008).3 experiences of love
- The scales are claimed to have very high levels 3. Financial wellbeing
of validity and reliability (good internal - represents how well you can manage your
consistency) and are sensitive to change in life financial situation
circumstances. 4. Physical wellbeing
- Furthermore, the tools are said to converge with - represents your ability to have good health and
mood reports, expert ratings, experience sampling energy
 5. Community wellbeing - The NEF found that activity is an important part of
- represents your role and participation within the enhancing wellbeing.
community you live in. - Simply moving the body can have a massive effect
a. Daily experience tracker on your mood and cognitive functioning.
- Their research concluded that a good day 3. Take notice
includes ten circumstances, which are to be - Following from the exciting research on
ranked on a scale of 1–10: Try to ask yourself, savouring, this element refers to research that
what is your rank for each? Do you oftentimes demonstrates that ‘stopping to smell the roses’
experience a good day? actually can enhance our wellbeing.
- feeling well rested; - physical pain 4. Keep learning
- being treated with respect - worry - By engaging the brain and challenging yourself to
- smiling or laughing - sadness keep learning, you can enhance levels of
- learning or interested - distress wellbeing.
- enjoyment - anger 5. Give
B. Foresight Report - As seen in results from random acts of kindness
- It indicates that there are five ways to wellbeing, research, people experience high levels of
such as: wellbeing when they give something or their time
1. Connect to others.
- When we build connections with people around C. In relation to which country has the highest and
us, we experience higher levels of wellbeing as lowest wellbeing
well as stronger resilience in the face of adversity. - research indicates that the majority of the
- The report suggests identifying the influential and happiest countries are situated in the northern
important people in your life and investing time part of the hemisphere where there is not a lot of
and energy into building those relationships. sun and there is limited light.
2. Be active - This is interesting as research has shown that,
- As discussed in more detail within Chapter 9, an when comparisons are made, people who live in
important part of wellbeing is taking care of the colder climates also tend to have a higher suicide
body as well as the mind. rate than those in warmer climates.
- They offered several explanations regarding the
data, as an example, they noted that people in
colder climates may be more diligent and open
in reporting suicides.
- Another explanation they gave is that of the “sun
bonus”.
- They mentioned that the lack of sunshine can
result in lower levels of vitamin D, which is directly V. WHAT MAKES US HAPPY
related to serotonin. Let us review more studies about correlates and causes
- When people do not see light or sun for long of happiness from the recent work polls
periods of time they can experience seasonal (Gallup-Healthways Well-being Index and World Values
affective disorder (SAD) or depression from the Survey).
lack of sunlight. A. Income and SWB
- This may explain the correlation with suicide, as - More research by Gallup World Poll reveals that in
well as the findings that people who experience 1301 nations, which was a representative sample
higher levels of sunshine and daylight hours of 96 per cent of the globe’s population, there were
experience a boost of happiness through their striking disparities in health and consequences of
proximity to the equator. income (Kesebir and Diener, 2008).
- Income may influence wellbeing because
wealthier nations appear to have…equality, human
rights, democracy, literacy, and people live a
longer life.
- On the contrary, countries with higher income
tend to have more competitiveness, more
materialism and less time for socializing and
leisure. (Kesebir and Diener, 2008).
- A review of the GDP of 132 countries indicates
that individuals who live in countries with high
GDP such as Norway and the USA on average
 score higher on wellbeing measures than those Bhutan
living in countries with low GDP such as Togo and - a tiny country in Asia, has rejected the concept of
Bulgaria (Deaton, 2008). gross national product (GNP) as the
- More research revealed that income is correlated measurement of its country’s success
with happiness in men, not in women (Adelmann, - introduced gross national happiness (GNH).
1987), and low personal income is related to C. Marriage and SWB
depression for husbands, not for wives (Ross and - Longitudinal research has recently shown, that
Huber, 1985). after the initial one year ‘honeymoon phase’,
- Low income is related to depression for single but individuals return to their previous levels of SWB.
not married women (Keith and Schafer, 1982) and - One caveat is that couples who cohabit tend to
people with high income are perceived as more report less satisfaction than couples who are
intelligent and successful but also as more married.
unfriendly and cold (see Diener and Biswas– - The relationship between children and marital
Diener, 2008). satisfaction appears to be curvilinear, with high
B. Relationships and SWB levels of life satisfaction at the marriage ceremony,
- Gallup-Healthways Wellbeing Index poll recently dropping significantly at the birth of the first child,
found that people need to spend six to seven followed by a continued drop throughout childhood
hours per day in social settings, and up to nine and adolescence, where it hits bottom, and then
if your job is stressful, to enhance or maintain returning to higher levels after the children have
wellbeing left.
- Happiness is contagious, people who interact on D. Work/employment and SWB
a daily basis with happy people, in small, large, - The Gallup International Labor Organization (ILO)
direct or indirect networks, are happier (Fowler Report: Towards a Better Future for Women and Work
and Christakis, 2008). (Ray et al., 2017) shows that in 2016:
- It was concluded that social relationships are A. 58 per cent of women who were not in
greatest predictors and facilitators of SWB. employment would like to hold jobs that involved
paid work
B. 41 per cent would like to be able to both hold a
paid job and care for their families.
 - Moreover, while a top challenge for both men and E. Health and SWB
women employees is striking a good balance There are three health categories:
between work and rest, and work and family time, a) the likelihood a person will contract a specific illness
women are more likely to also encounter b) how long a person lives after contracting a life
challenges related to opportunities for fair pay and/ threatening illness
or access to ‘decent work’. c) how long a person’s lifespan is.’
- The findings point to the fact that work can have a
tremendous effect on our overall well-being. - Within the first category, longitudinal research has
- Research by Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2008 in shown that people who experience higher levels of
Boniwell & Tunariu (2019) has shown that how we positive emotions are protected from various
perceive our job and our career orientation can illnesses including heart disease.
further influence our happiness levels. - When someone has balanced levels of positive
- It was found that people who have a job emotions and optimism, their health can be
orientation view their job in terms of a means to positively influenced. Research shows, quite
an end. simply, that happier people live longer
- The job equals money and is not important to their (Rasmussen and Pressman, 2009)
overall life.
career orientation F. Religion and SWB
- While perceiving the job they are in as a way to - People who report themselves as being spiritual or
progress forward, and they are focused on the religious tend to report slightly higher levels of
extrinsic rewards that can come with progressing well-being, in addition to higher scores on hope
in their career. and optimism (Ciarrocchi et al., 2008).
calling orientation - But questions are, “Do all religions make us
- is when a worker is immersed healthily in what equally happy, and what elements of religion?
they do. They do the job not for the money or the - There may be a lot of factors to consider but
fame, but because they believe it is worthy in its researchers proposed that for a religion to
own right. enhance wellbeing, there are elements needed
(Diener & Biswas-Diener,2008) such as:
 1. Comforting beliefs in what awaits us on the According to Sonja Lyubomirsky the determining factors
‘other side’. of happiness is in these proportions :
2. Social support from a community. - 10% caused by environment
3. Connecting to something permanent and - 40 % caused by things that you do
important that can give comfort, meaning and a - 50 % caused by genetics.
sense of identity. Epigenetics
4. Growing up religiously, which may influence a - is the area of biological research that looks at the
solid upbringing with a clear set of values and causal interactions between genes and the
morals to abide by. environment (Curley and Keverne, 2009: 347).
5. Experience of rituals that excite, amaze and Environment
involve the congregation and its followers - can have an influence on gene expression and
VI. Theories of Well-being behavior, especially in the mother–infant
A. Dynamic Equilibrium Theory relationship during key developmental phases,
- There appears to be a strong genetic influence thereby influencing ‘brain development, behavior
on an individual’s well-being. as well as risk and resilience to health and
- Furthermore, there is evidence indicating disease.’
predictive variability in life satisfaction according to 2. Adaptation theory
personality traits (Magnus et al., 1993). - Researchers have suggested that humans tend to
- The theory states that personality determines have a natural happiness ‘set point’, which,
baseline levels of emotional responses; events following good and/or bad news/events, we tend to
may affect us in the short term, however over time revert back to after approximately 3 months.
we eventually revert to our genetic set point - This evolutionary adaptation process, hedonic
(Headey and Wearing, 1989). adaptation theory (otherwise known as the
- Furthermore, people who are happy in their home ‘hedonic treadmill’) is linked to ‘zero-sum
life tend to be happy at work, thus displaying theory’, which posits that happy periods in our life
consistency across situations (work/leisure) are inevitably followed by negative periods, which
(Diener and Larsen, 1984). cancel each other out, and thus any attempt to
increase happiness will be unsuccessful (Lykken
and Tellegen, 1996)
 - Have you encountered people telling you when Social comparison
you were so happy, “Huwag kang magpakasaya - we can compare our situation, attractiveness and
ngayon, baka mamaya may mangyayari na wealth to others either in an upward or downward
malulungkot ka”. spiral
- The proposed antidote to this adaptation however, - Social comparison is only detrimental if you use it
is variety (engage in different things that can make to negatively evaluate yourself (downward) with
you feel satisfied, don’t just stick to one) hence others.
individuals must continually change their approach Status anxiety and materialism
and happiness interventions in order to counteract - have been linked to increased instances of
any adaptation mechanisms (Tkach and depression and lowered SWB.
Lyubomirsky, 2006). - Diener and Oishi (2000) found that placing high
- Furthermore, it is mentioned that humans importance on money correlates inversely with
synthesize happiness. Natural happiness is what life satisfaction (20.53) whereas placing high
we feel when we get what we want; however, value on love correlates positively with life
synthetic happiness is what we make when we satisfaction.
don’t get what we want. Anyway, it is just as real - However, an argument against the detrimental
and beneficial as the other type of happiness. effects of materialism is that materialism
- The reason we developed this evolutionary ability - is only bad if you can’t afford it. Thus, those who
to synthesize happiness is argued to be due to the report being higher on materialism with higher
belief that we need to keep going and get what we incomes report higher wellbeing (Crawford et al.,
want, otherwise we’d give up if we knew we would 2002).
be just as happy as if we didn’t. (Gilbert 2007) - As long as one lives within her means and can
3. Discrepancy Theories afford what she likes without the financial strain,
A. Relative Standards Model materialism isn’t as detrimental as previously
- This model tells us that subjective wellbeing is believed.
primarily a function of comparison processes Linked to discrepancy theory is the paradox of
(social comparison, with past self, with internalized choice (Schwartz and Ward, 2004).
standards). - It is cited that as nations become richer and
consumers become more demanding, our world is
 packed with choice, alternatives and variations to - on are individuals who fixate on searching for all
most everything for sale. the possible options and look for the best possible
Freedom of choice choice.
- has now been replaced with the ‘tyranny of There are pitfalls associated with being a maximizer
freedom’, where more choice isn’t necessarily a including:
good thing (Schwartz, 2000; Schwartz et al., a. Regret at not getting the best choice or
2002). anticipating regret in the future;
- An abundance of choice has led to three leading
problems for consumers and citizens of Western b. Opportunity costs since when we choose one
societies. thing, we automatically reject the other. Each
These include: choice has a cost in itself;
1. information problems c. Escalation of expectations. Which means that as
- since we cannot possibly gather all we need to the choices available to us rise, so do our
know in order to make an educated choice expectations;
2. error problems d. Self-blame since we have so much choice
- we are likely to make more errors of judgement available to us, we believe it is our own fault if
due a lot of choices available things go wrong
3. psychological problems e. Time the hours that we spend sifting through the
- like feeling stress and anxious caused by excess multitude of choice takes away from the time spent
choice. on more worthwhile pursuits.
When it comes to decision-making, Schwartz has 4. Goal theories
separated individuals into two categories: satisficers - The theory explains that when we are committed
versus maximizers. to a set of goals, it provides us a sense of
1. Satisficers personal agency and a sense of structure and
- are individuals who are able to choose items that meaning to daily life’ (Diener et al., 1999: 284).
meet their minimum criteria and go for ‘what’s - Moreover, it is noted that we experience
good enough’ happiness as a direct result of attaining valued
2. Maximizers and self-congruent goals and the quality of the
 goals that we choose to pursue influences our 4. Perfectionism
wellbeing. - Individuals who use this tend to fixate on the
In achieving our goal we tend to use the AIM Approach minute details and only accept excellence.
where: 5. Negative self-fulfilling expectancies
A. A- ttention - The phenomenon of eliciting negative
- Refers to our ability to look at the entire picture - responses from others via a person’s previous
when going through daily life – both the good and communications with others.
the bad. 6. Rejection goggles.
- It is said that people who attend to only the - This is when people identify and fixate on
negative will shut out the positives in life and live rejection, even when it may not exist in the
in what Diener and Biswas-Diener (2008: 188) situation. (Adapted from Diener and
term ‘an ugly world’. Biswas-Diener, 2008)
B. I- nterpretation
- Refers to our tendency to put together a story C. M- emory
when all the facts are not yet presented. - Relates to the large body of research showing that
There are six main destructive thinking patterns that we recalling and savouring past positive events and
tend to default to when interpreting events: experiences leads to enhanced wellbeing.
1. Awfulizing - When we attend to positive things around us using
- Exaggerating a negative event or person beyond clear rather than negatively biased interpretations
what is objectively true. of events and interactions, as well as engaging in
2. Distress intolerance positive reminiscence, we can set ourselves up to
- A perception that individuals adopt that tells them create a more positive attitude and happier
that they will not be able to recover or withstand existence.
potentially traumatic events.
3. Learned helplessness
- this is when people adopt a mentality that they
have no control over their negative situations and
give up.
-
Module 3 Part 2: Eudaimonic Wellbeing flourishing, personal growth, self-actualization or
self- transcendence by means of engagement in
I. The concept of subjective well-being (SWB) an activity which utilizes one’s resources and is
- which is a person’s satisfaction with their life and subjectively meaningful.
the experience of positive affect and low negative
affect. IV. What is Eudaimonia?
A. Eudaimonism
II. Criticisms of SWB - is fulfilling or realizing one’s daimon or true
- However, there are criticisms as far as definition nature.
of SWB is concerned. According to Ryan and Deci B. Researchers mentioned that eudaimonia
, 2000 in Boniwell & Tunariu (2019) SWB is simply occurs when people’s life activities are:
a definition of hedonism and that the types of 1. most congruent with their deep values (Waterman,
activities and goals theorized to promote 1993)
well-being may be misleading 2. handled by a fully functioning person (Ryff and
- While Ryff, 1989 argued that there was a failure to Singer, 2008)
answer the question of what it actually means to 3. self-determined (Ryan and Deci, 2000);
be well psychologically. He further stated that what 4. authentic (Seligman, 2002a)
appears to be very important for a balanced sense 5. challenging and complex (Vittersø, 2004; Vittersø
of well-being, the concepts of meaning and et al., 2009a)
purpose are ignored (King and Napa, 1998; 6. reflecting broad goals and purpose (Steger et al.,
McGregor and Little, 1998). 2013)
7. congruent with one’s true self (Huta and Ryan,
III. ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO SWB 2010)
A. eudaimonic paradigm 8. flow like (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002; Delle Fave et al.,
- In relation to the above criticisms of SWB, an 2011a; Fullagar and Delle Fave, 2017).
alternative approach was offered which is the C. Eudaimonic wellbeing
eudaimonic paradigm - proposes that true happiness is found in the
- where well-being is construed as an ongoing, expression of virtue and doing what is worth doing.
dynamic process (rather than a fixed state) of
 - Realization of human potential is an ultimate
goal (Aristotle). - Researchers believe that there is some empirical
- Individuals must therefore seek and pursue support for the six-factor model with moderate
happiness through prudence (John Locke) and associations between two subscales of PWB such
self- discipline (Epicurus). as self-acceptance and environmental mastery
- Researchers within the eudaimonic framework and SWB (the other dimensions correlated
argue that happiness and ‘the good life’ are not weakly or inconsistently with these indicators).
simply the experiences of feeling good. - Vittersø (2004) notes several findings suggesting
- There has to be more to life than just pleasure that Ryff’s six dimensions can be accounted for by
and satisfaction. Do you agree with this? two factors corresponding to hedonic and
eudaimonic wellbeing.
V. Psychological Wellbeing (PWB) - Factor analysis of data from over 3000
- A related concept yet empirically distinct to SWB is respondents confirmed that SWB and PWB are
PWB. two correlated but distinct factors and that they
- According to Ryff and Keyes (1995) and Ryff show a different pattern of relationships to
and Singer (2006) the concept of PWB consists demographic and personality variables (Keyes et
of six components: al., 2002)
1. Self-acceptance (positive evaluation of oneself
and one’s life) VI. What is Authentic Happiness?
2. Personal growth - According to Seligman (2002) there are three
3. Purpose in life routes to happiness:
4. Positive relations with others 1. The pleasant life
5. Environmental mastery (the capacity to effectively - which enables high levels of positive emotion and
manage one’s life and environment) gratification.
6. Autonomy 2. The good life
- which enables constant absorption, engagement
and ‘flow’.
3. Meaningful life
 - where one uses one’s strengths in the service of - It manifests in early motor play, manipulation of
something greater than oneself. objects, and exploration of surroundings. It is a
tendency to experience satisfaction from learning
VII. Self-determination Theory for its own sake – and the tendency to explore and
A. Self-determination theory seek challenges. It is also the ability to affect the
- argues, like Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, that environment and attain desired outcomes.
there is an evolutionary adaptive function of three 3. Relatedness
basic psychological needs which must be met to - It is the tendency to feel connection and caring
attain psychological wellbeing. with group members (it promotes group cohesion
These are: and mutual protection).
1. Autonomy - It is similar to Baumeister and Leary’s ‘need to
- It is the tendency to self-regulate one’s behavior belong’ and overlaps with Bowlby’s attachment
in accordance with personal volition (rather than need. It can at times get in conflict with need for
external control). autonomy but normally it is complementary.
- It is also the tendency to resist coercion, pressure,
and control; to regulate one’s behavior in B. Three more candidate basic needs that must be
accordance with one’s own needs (and situational met for psychological well-being
affordances), which promotes better survival than - Besides the above-mentioned needs (autonomy,
organizing behavior to meet external demands. competence and relatedness) Ryan and Deci
- Thus, autonomy is the volition and the desire to (2017) put forward three more candidate basic
freely choose actions consistent with one’s needs that must be met for psychological
integrated sense of self; feeling that one is well-being although they argue that there is not yet
voluntarily engaging in a behavior, regardless of sufficient evidence for their inclusion.
whether the behaviour is dependent on others or - These three needs are :
not. 1. Meaning (or making sense of one’s life)
2. Competence - is the basic psychological need seen as the
- It is the tendency to be interested and open, to central concept in the SDT, yet not a need
seek learning/ mastery opportunities (promote because it is noted that meaning is viewed as an
acquisition of new skills).
 outcome of the basic needs satisfaction, rather
than a basic need in its own right.

2. Safety/ security Martin Seligman 'Flourishing - a new understanding of

- appears as a basic need already in Maslow’s wellbeing'.
hierarchy of needs yet not recognized as one of
the basic psychological needs because this need VIII. Flow Theory
only appears when a person is threatened or - Have you experienced being engaged in an
made to feel insecure in any other way. activity wherein you get so absorbed that you
3. Self-esteem almost forget about the time that has passed?
- it’s a safety need of the self, a need to feel worth - If you did, that means that you already
while. It surfaces only when the sense of self is experienced FLOW.
thwarted. A. Flow
- is ‘the intense experiential involvement in
The latter two fall under the umbrella of eudaimonia. moment-to-moment activity, which can be either
physical or mental. It is said that person’s attention
Eudaimonia is fully invested in the task at hand and he/she
- again is defined as identifying one’s unique functions at her or his fullest capacity’
virtues and strengths of character, developing (Csikszentmihalyi, 2009: 394) when he is in flow.
them, and then using them in the service of the - Flow has direct ties with consciousness and
greater good, particularly the welfare of psychic energy where it is posited that when
humankind. people feel psychic entropy (chaos and anxious
thoughts) they will experience depression and
- The important thing to note from this area of stress.
research is that people who engage in hedonic, - However, the attainment of psychic negentropy or
pleasant activities experience higher levels of flow (exclusion of any negative thought) is ideal for
positive affect in the short term however enhancing the experience’s positive effect
Eudaimonic pursuits may give meaning and value (Csikszentmihalyi, 2009).
in the long term.
 F. Activity for the sake of activity (and a wish to
IX. Conditions to facilitate the flow experience repeat).
A. Structured activity with clear goals and - This component refers to the activity’s ability to
immediate feedback make you want to do it all over again.
- This means that the activity must have rules and a G. Personality
clear outline in order to help orient the person - You enjoy life and appear to be intrinsically led in
doing it. your daily endeavors.
B. Balance of challenges versus skills
- This means that if the challenge is too far above X. What are the activities that we can do to
our current skill level, then this will produce experience flow?
anxiety. If it is too low, it will produce boredom. A. The activities in which we are most likely to
C. Complete concentration (merging of action experience flow are:
and awareness) - sports and activity, dance participation, creative
- The activity must initiate a complete merger of the arts, sex, socializing, studying, listening to music,
activity and all consciousness. reading and paradoxically working.
- All attention is within the activity and there is no - However, many other activities can produce the
room for consciousness. experience of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002; Delle
D. Sense of control Fave and Massimini, 2004).
- This stems from the activity’s ability to allow us to B. Activities that tend to inhibit flow (and induce
lose self- consciousness, thereby gaining a sense apathy and boredom)
of control over what we are doing. - include housework, watching TV and being idle
E. Transformation of time
- This element is the unique experience of where XI. Benefits of Flow
time speeds up, and before you know it, you’ve 1. Those who experience flow in play and leisure
been engaging in the activity for hours when it felt report increased positive emotions (after the
like minutes. fact).
2. While education systems that are arranged in
order to induce flow can bring about higher
 grades, levels of commitment and achievement in meaning are), elaboration (how people
education within their students. construct their own links and connections
3. In occupational settings, flow helps workers to between events to give life purpose) and
experience greater engagement and leadership coherence (how well do all the features fit
development. together) measures’ (Pöhlmann et al., 2006:
111).
XII. Dangers of Flow C. These measures enhance mental and physical
A. Is flow a morally good phenomenon? health/wellbeing and predict life satisfaction
- The answer is that flow can be found in activities (Pöhlmann et al., 2006).

wa
that are both morally good and bad (for example, D. Viktor Frankl’s concept of ‘will to meaning’
gambling). - proposed three benefits of living a meaningful life,
- Research has also demonstrated a potential to including: creative, experiential and attitudinal
become addicted to flow-inducting activities (for value. Since
instance, rock climbing, video game playing), - Frankl’s contribution, researchers have identified
where the activity becomes necessary for daily seven major sources of meaning, found
functioning (Csikszentmihalyi, 1992). cross-culturally, including:
- Overall, engaging in flow-inducing activities that 1. Achievement ~
source
of meaning
challenge and stretch you as a person, within 2. Acceptance
reason, can have a tremendous positive affect on 3. Relationship
your overall wellbeing. 4. Intimacy
5. Religion
XIV. Importance of Meaning and Purpose in Life 6. Self-transcendence 7 .

A. Researchers argue that the search for meaning 7. fairness. : SWB-meaning

and purpose is more relevant than the search for E. King and Napa (1998) formuda
happiness (Wong, 2009).
B. They also maintain that not only should we be
(
- argued that overall wellbeing was a combination
of both happiness (SWB = SWL, PA, NA) and
measuring meaning in life but the structural meaning (such as connectedness, purpose and
properties of personal meaning systems, such as growth similar to eudaimonia)
‘differentiation (how diverse the sources of F. McGregor and Little (1998)

drivewellbeingbedin
a
we
ble
 - concluded that the concept of wellbeing should be freedom, isolation, meaninglessness, identity and
regarded as consisting of two elements happiness).
1. happiness (satisfaction with life, positive affect, - Existential psychology denotes that there are
negative affect) three types of mature happiness:
2. meaning (connectedness, purpose and growth). 1. Authentic happiness
G. Developing a purpose in life and identifying reasons to - comes from being an authentic individual
live help mediate between stress, coping and suicidal 2. Eudaimonic happiness
behavior (Mei-Chuan et al., 2007). - comes from doing virtuous deeds
H. Itdividuals who report enhanced levels of depression, 3. Chaironic happiness
hopelessness and suicidal thoughts are much more likely - a spiritual gift of happiness that is bestowed; it is
to use emotion-oriented coping strategies. independent of our abilities and circumstances
I. Avoidance coping strategies, when used in a especially within suffering exp as
connect
you
ul pre
eng
healthy way, can be a positive approach to C. Happiness
wellbeing, as they can channel negative thoughts - is a process….. not an end result, ongoing, and
ric into other area of life, thereby potentially creating the result of forgoing self-interest and serving
Existen
By do unl
reason for living (Mei-Chuan et al., 2007). something higher than the self.
where meaning
[
derive
XV. Existential Psychology and Positive Psychology D. Existential psychologists
A. Existential psychology - also accept that contentment can actually be a

e - focuses on ‘human existence and the human

drama of survival and flourishing’ (Wong, 2009:
negative thing, leaving a void in a person’s life with
no goals or achievements left to strive for.

victor 361).
- Both existential and positive psychology focus on
the same fundamental questions – what is a good
E. Discontent
- has the potential for personal growth.
F. Pursuing happiness
life and what makes life worth living? (Wong, 2009: - may not be the aim of life; however, existential
361) psychologists deem that by pursuing meaning and
- A new wave of existential positive psychology authenticity one will eventually achieve happiness.
aims to merge the two areas while endeavoring to
find the answers to life’s difficult questions (death,
 2. Approach acceptance
- when one accepts that there is a an afterlife that
will be pleasurable.
G. Wong’s duality hypothesis
- states that ‘positives cannot exist apart from 3. Escape acceptance
negatives and that authentic happiness grows - which perceives death as the preferable option to
from pain and suffering’ (Wong, 2009: 364). a miserable life.
XVII. Terror Management Theory (TMT)
XVI. Death and Positive Psychology A. Terror Management Theory (TMT)
A. Death - This theory suggests there is an innate, biological
- The most feared concept in human existence, yet need to survive and deals with the management
is a potential avenue for growth and development. of the evolutionary cognitive realization of
B. ‘Positive death’ or ‘good dying’ is proposed to inevitable death (Pyszczynski et al., 2002).
have a link with the good life (Wong, 2009). B. The mortality salience hypothesis
C. Meaning management theory - suggests that when people are reminded of the
- posits that death can have either a negative or inevitability of death, their world view defense
positive effect on us, depending on how we view it. strengthens and they seek to conform to the
E. By embracing death, we can live more authentically, accepted beliefs and behaviors of their culture
thereby enhancing the likelihood of self-actualization. (Harmon-Jones et al., 1997).
F. Transforming death anxiety into a productive energy C. A traumatic and life-threatening event, paired with
force is a positive viewpoint on a traditionally ‘negative’ the lifelong reminder of a person’s close encounter
component of the life process. with death (physical scars, deformity) creates a
mortality salient environment.
G. Three distinct attitudes towards death (our death D. People will have a conscious reminder of the
attitude profile): inevitability of their own death and utilize proximal
1. Neutral death acceptance defenses and distraction to defend themselves
- when one accepts that death is a part of life and from death-related reminders (Pyszczynski et
attempts to live life to the fullest. al.,2002).
2. Approach acceptance
XVIII. Integrating Hedonic and Eudaimonic Wellbeing
 A. What constitutes a good life: hedonic or R esponsible actions and reactions consistent with your
eudaimonic wellbeing? purpose and understanding
- Those who follow their eudaimonic pursuits score
highly on satisfaction with life tools (Huta et al., E valuation of your life in order to ensure authenticity and
2003). efficacy
- Increased scores on positive affect were strongly
correlated with hedonic measures as were drive (PURE Model, adapted from Wong, 2009: 366)
fulfilment and being relaxed and away from
problems.
B. Eudaimonic measures
- tend to correlate much better with growth,
development, challenges and efforts (Waterman,
1993).

TIPS
Meaning

You don’t need a therapist or counsellor to help you find

meaning in your life. Try and align
your behaviors with your values and regulate the
following throughout your daily life:

P urpose and life goals

U nderstanding the demands of each situation and life as

a whole
 - Since then, researchers have conducted
Module 4: Optimism & Hope numerous studies about optimism.
- Interestingly, they found mounting evidence to
suggest that optimism isn’t just a form of denial but
a necessary component for resilient and happy
individuals.
B. Martin Seligman’s definition of optimism
1. Optimism
- Martin Seligman in one of his video, define
optimism as, “It’s not a simple glasses half full
I. History and Definition of Optimism
Perspective
versus glasses half empty, rather the way that you
A. Optimism -
matter of
think about setbacks and the way that you think
~ - According to Peterson (2006: 119) optimism is a
about victory.”
‘Velcro construct’ which means that there are
cognitive other construct that are related to it including
- He further explains the difference between how
optimists and pessimists think
happiness, health and achievement (Carver and
- He elaborated saying that an opposite way of
Scheier, 1998). This definition may still be vague
thinking occurs “when a victory occurs, when you
to you as you may ask, “what exactly is optimism?’
win, when a good thing occurs, the optimist
- In the early days of philosophy and psychology, it S

believes it’s going to lasts forever, I did it, and it’s

is said that optimism was thought of as naïvety
going to help me in every circumstance:
or a superficial denial of suffering.
Optimistic persons
- Health practitioners regarded positive mental
- when they have a setback believe that it is
health as the absence of naïve optimistic illusions
temporary, I can change it, and it’s just one
(optimism).
situation.
- Based in part of this logic, mental health experts,
- the optimist believes it’s going to lasts forever, I did
from the 1930s to the 1960s, often defined mental
it, and it’s going to help me in every circumstance.
health as intact ‘reality testing’ such that the
person holds only modest expectations about the A
The pessimistic person
future and has a more accurate or balanced view
of the world (as reviewed in Peterson,2000).
 The pessimistic person
- when there’s a setback believes that it’s going to - It is in regulating their behavior that optimists differ
last forever, it’s going to undermine everything I from the pessimists.
do.” - Researchers further explain that people who are
- While the pessimistic person shuts victory off and optimists will continue and push through in order
says, I didn’t do it, it’s just one situation and it’s to reach
going to help me in this one domain that I am in.” their goal, despite the difficulty that they are experiencing
II. Dispositional Optimism & Explanatory Style while trying to reach these goals while, pessimistic
- Researchers also agreed that there are two main people will be more likely to give up (Carver and Scheier,
schools of thought surrounding the definition and 1998)
conceptualization of optimism such as: This may have something to do with the main elements
1. Dispositional optimism of dispositional optimism which are likely to influence a
- it is a personality trait1 relating to generalized person’s attitude towards achieving his goal. These are:
outcome expectancies. a. Expectancy
- Characterized by their broad expectancy, optimists - is the most crucial element as it has a direct link
think that outcomes are likely to be positive while with expectancy value theories of motivation,
pessimists are characterized by the future which posit that all behavior is a result of a
anticipation of negative outcomes. person’s desire to obtain their values or goals.
- Carver and colleagues have defined optimism - Thus, in order to achieve a goal, it must have
from a dispositional standpoint, as “an individual value and spark motivation to continue (Scheier
difference variable that reflects the extent to which and Carver, 2009).
people hold generalized favorable expectancies b. Confidence
for their future” (2010: 879). - is the second component, which is highly
- Researchers like Scheier and Carver (2009) posit influential on optimism.
that optimism is attached into their self- regulatory - It is noted that if confidence is high, that the goal
model, which states that all human activity is can be achieved, then the person is more likely to
based on goals and that in order to reach our act. If there is doubt, then the person will
goals, we need to regulate our actions and disengage, which is what is most likely to happen
behaviors. with pessimistic individual.
 - This is maybe the reason behind the definition of - while optimists adopt unstable, external (leaving
optimism and pessimism as ‘simply broader one’s self-esteem intact) and specific (depending
versions of confidence or doubt, operating to most on circumstances) explanations for bad events (it’s
situations in life rather than one or two’ (Scheier temporary, I can change it, and it’s just one
and Carver, 2009: 657). situation).

- Seligman expounds that when we attribute failure

Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) to internal, fixed, personal factors, we see them as
- Psychologists are interested in measuring the uncontrollable.
difference between optimists from pessimists. - A failed relationship, for one, becomes “I’m not
- This is why they came up with a measure of lovable,” a pessimistic outlook. While when we
dispositional optimism thru the LOT-R, a short attribute them to external, localized, and transient
ten-item questionnaire circumstances, we can feel hopeful for better
results next time – “I didn’t beat my personal best
2. Attribution Style AKA Explanatory style because I have the flu – but I’ll swim faster when
- It refers to the way in which one explains the I’m well.” This is distinctly optimistic.
causes and influences of previous positive and - Refer to the picture. You would notice the
negative events in order to create expectancies difference between optimistic and pessimistic
about the future ((Seligman, 1998) thinking. To know more about how optimists differ
from pessimists in the manner they perceive
- Dr. Seligman’s previous description about the situations, watch the video, “Learned Optimism by
difference in the way optimistic and pessimistic Martin Seligman- animation”.
person think clearly illustrates the explanatory
style.
- It shows that pessimists explain negative events
by inferring internal , stable or global causes (it’s
going to last forever, it’s going to undermine Internal)
everything I do)
the external factoryWhen they fail
Optimists- blane that failure
a
↑
would
not be
& pl them
a
e
but think
M n
sufrealism
S
·

Optimistic
explanatory
balanced of pression style

Pessimists -> Internal

factors/they blame themselves
Attributional styles Cognitive reframing also known as cognitive
- also apply to positive outcomes – but the other restructuring
way around. - is the process by which situations or thoughts are
- Viewing good results as due to global, stable challenged and then changed.
factors inside ourselves is optimistic “I aced that
because I’m a great student,” and attributing them
to temporary and uncontrollable causes is
pessimistic “Wow that was a one-off, downhill from
here” (Abramson et al., 1978).
To do the reframing, you simply have to follow the steps
below:
Learning optimism . . . learning your ABC’s
Attributional style
- recognizes optimism as a learned skill and not a The first step in learning your ABC’s is to negotiate the
stable personality trait (Abramson et al., 1978). acronym:
- In connection with this, Seligman recommends Adversity Belief Consequence
that we learn optimism by monitoring our
automatic thoughts and attitudes and disputing 1. Adversity
pessimistic explanations, which is similar to - is the straight, non-judgemental facts of the
techniques used in cognitive behavior therapy. situation.
- Involves asking questions that start with who,
The key to learned optimism what, when, where.
- is said to be through reframing. In order to - WH questions identified here:
achieve this, we must learn how to identify our A. Who are the people involved as you think about
beliefs about certain situations and recognize how the situation or the event?
these beliefs can have a detrimental effect on our B. What exactly happened or the events that
emotions and subsequent behaviors. contributed to your thoughts?
C. When did the event happen?
D. Where did the event happen?
 In my example statements…… Getting stuck in the reframe this negative belief and I will not do
house due to this pandemic is worst. I will never be able to enjoy anything to change my thoughts, then I might
life, not even in the next two years…I feel stressed. I was thinking of
develop depression in the long run.
my loved ones (who) I don’t get to see for a long time now and I
know I won’t be able to be with for the longest time (what) because - This is the importance of reframing your thoughts,
of the threat of COVID 19/pandemic. I started to have this thought which is a way to learn optimism. Later, you will
after 3 months of ECQ (when) and just staying at home the entire apply this when you proceed to the cultivating
time of ECQ (where). optimism exercise.

2. Belief
- is your immediate patterned belief (why things
happened; what will happen next). My reframing would most likely be……
- Next is to identify your negative thoughts.
In my example, “Getting stuck in the house due to this There are a lot of things that I can do now. Yes, I got
pandemic is worst….I will never be able to enjoy life, not stuck in the house but because of this, I
even in the next two years…my belief is that I will never have more time bonding with my family, and doing things
enjoy life again because things will never get better even I enjoy most, like planting and
after a long time. doing gardening, drawing, painting, cooking..etc…

3. Consequence There are ways I can get connected with my loved ones,
- are your feelings and behaviors related to these through chat, FB, call, Zoom
beliefs. meeting etc……
- After identifying your negative thoughts, assess
what is happening to you as a consequence of Things will get better. The medical scientists are doing
your negative thoughts regarding what is their best to discover the vaccine
happening. against COVID 19. Some people are taking initiatives to
- In my example, because of my negative belief that help improve the condition. Hence,
things will never get better, It makes me feel there is hope.
stressed, which is the consequence. If I will not
Ultimately, when we identify our beliefs and recognize - In addition, people who score higher on optimistic
their effects on emotions and traits during early stage breast cancer diagnosis
behaviors (beliefs cause consequences) we can report higher levels of wellbeing and it is
challenge and change them to more associated with living longer.
productive thought patterns (Seligman, 1998).

Other research findings regarding the benefits of

III. Benefits of Optimism optimism are enumerated here as follows:
- Several researches looked into the influence of 1. Improved health
optimism and pessimism to people who are - In a study of head and neck cancer patients,
experiencing depression, stress, and health optimistic patients reported a higher quality of life
concerns. both before and after treatment, suggesting that
- For instance, Carver and Scheier (2009) found their positive outlook buffered the effects of
that optimists tend to experience less distress health-related distress (Allison et al., 2000).
during adversity than pessimists. - Similar findings of lower distress have been
- Optimism predicts active coping with stress (for reported in individuals undergoing treatment for
example, planning, social support seeking), while breast cancer (Carver et al., 1999).
pessimism predicts avoidant coping (for example, Optimistic individuals
distraction, denial). - also tend to be more aware of their health status
and how to stay that way.
optimistic trait - Specifically, Radcliffe and Klein’s (2002) research
- might help lead to the engagement of active, studied 146 middle-age adults and found that
constructive coping, such as acceptance, positive those with high optimism were more informed
reframing and use of humor, while pessimism has about heart attack risk factors, as well as the role
been linked with disengagement and denial of other risk factors on their health: stress, alcohol
among breast cancer patients.
 consumption, nutrition, smoking, fat consumption, happiness in the workplace, task-orientation,
and exercise. solution-focused approaches, perseverance, and
Optimists decision-making efficacy (Strutton & Lumpkin,
- may also take a more approach-focused method 1992; Normal et al., 1995; Podsakoff &
of dealing with health stressors. MacKenzie, 1997; Choik Foong Loke, 2001;
- Rather than trying to avoid, ignore, or withdraw Harter et al., 2003; Gavin & Mason, 2004).
from a health concern, optimistic people are more - This higher motivation was also shown in studies
inclined to seek practical support, cognitively of college students (Solberg Nes et al., 2009).
restructure, or reinterpret the situation positively, - In academic contexts, higher optimism was also
among other coping methods (Nes & Segerstrom, coupled with better grade point
2006). averages, a finding which may be because optimistic
- Studies have also shown that optimistic people tendencies have been linked with higher persistence
were less likely to need rehospitalization after a (Segerstrom & Nes, 2006).
coronary bypass or repeat cardiac operations 3. Career Success
(Scheier et al., 1999; Helgeson, 2003; Cauley et - Seligman himself researched the optimism levels
al., 2017). of Metropolitan Life Insurance agents in 1985 – a
- They were also less likely to develop high blood study that he describes in his Learned Optimism
pressure than pessimists, suffer from book.
stress-induced changes in immunity, and even - At the time, Met Life was struggling with poor staff
develop heart disease in the first instance retention rates despite investing vast amounts in
(Everson et al., 2000; Kubzansky et al., 2001; training, so Seligman introduced an optimism test
Brydon et al., 2009) to their screening process.
2. Motivation and Performance - Because the company was short on employees,
- At work, optimism has been linked to intrinsic they hired a few who scored below the cut-off point
motivation to work harder, endure during stressful – two years after hiring, the optimistic employees
circumstances, and show more goal-focused had sold 31% more than the pessimists (Seligman
behavior (Luthans, 2003). & Schulman, 1986; Seligman, 2011).
- As an important contributor to employees’ - Not only this – those candidates who had failed
well-being, it has been linked to improved overall the company’s aptitude test and scored well on the
 optimism test did 57% better than the pessimists being biased in their perception they benefit from
in the second year, suggesting that optimism it.
played a more significant role than selling
proficiency. Unrealistic optimism
- Elsewhere, career optimism specifically has also - a person who does not see the clear picture of his
been linked positively with subjective career situation.
success, job satisfaction, and the external - This is what unrealistic optimism or wishful
marketability of female academics (Spurk et al., thinking as others may call it, is all about.
2015). - Though the latter may help ill people to look at the
- It has even been linked with higher career brighter side of their life, it may have a negative
adaptability (Tolentino et al., 2014) – “a set of impact later.
attitudes, competencies, and behaviors that - This is because when they perceive risk in their
individuals use in fitting themselves to work that health as lower than average, for such
suits them” (Savickas, 2013: 45). occurrences as cancer, heart disease, failure and
heartbreak, (Peterson and Deavila, 1995;
These many encouraging findings seem to prove Peterson and Vaidya, 2001).
that optimism can really be learned. - Tendency is, they become less cautious and may
no longer take the necessary actions – or
IV. Unrealistic Optimism treatment which can help to prevent their condition
- Researchers also noted that an unfounded sense from getting worst, because they perceive that
of optimism termed as positive illusions (unrealistic their condition is not really bad.
optimism) although viewed as biased can actually - Furthermore, in the case of serious traumatic
help people to find meaning even amidst extreme events (such as death, fire, flood or violent rape)
adversity (Taylor, 2009). optimists may not be well prepared (although
- People with unrealistic optimism tend to perceive optimists might be better equipped to rebuild than
that the future will be better than the facts suggest. pessimists).
- They see their past behavior, personal attributes - Thus, engaging in blind optimism may be
and themselves in an enhanced light, Despite unhealthy for long-term physical and psychological
wellbeing. Introducing positive realism or flexible
 Positive realism or flexible optimism
optimism into your thinking will allow you to avoid 2. Internals are better at tolerating anxiety, but are
‘wishful thinking’, while realistically assessing the also more guilt prone.
likelihood of positive and negative outcomes in 3. Internals benefit more from social support and are
any given situation. more likely to prefer games based on skill, while
V. Optimism and Locus of Control externals prefer games based on chance or luck
A. locus of control C. external locus of control
- Hecht (2013) identify a potential cognitive - In contrast, Hecht claims that those with an
mechanism – the locus of control – that helps a external locus of control tend to feel helpless
person to become optimistic. about changing their relationships, lives, and so
- He refers to the term as confidence that we can forth.
change or control elements of our lives. - This he contends, is pessimistic.
B. internal locus of control D. Externals
- He linked the internal locus of control with - on the other hand, believe that the reinforcers in
optimism; this is the belief that you can take an life are controlled by luck, chance, or powerful
active role in controlling things like exam results, others. Therefore, they see little impact of their
work performance, and your environment in own efforts on the amount of reinforcement they
general. receive.
- Others suggest that people with a strong internal
locus of control believe that the responsibility for
whether or not they succeed ultimately lies with There are three main strategies of maintaining
themselves. control:
- Furthermore, internals believe that success or 1. changing to the goals that are reachable in the
failure is due to their own efforts. current situation;
Benefits of adopting an internal LOC 2. creating new avenues for control; or
1. Internals are more likely to work for achievements, 3. accepting current circumstances (Thompson,
to tolerate delays in rewards and to plan for 2002).
long-term goals whereas externals are more likely VI. Defensive Pessimism
to lower their goals. A. Pessimism
 VI. Defensive Pessimism
A. Pessimism
- has been defined as: “[the] anticipation of good or who are more anxious if they are ‘made to think
bad things to happen in the future” (Carver et al., about’ possible failure.
2010). 2. However, defensive pessimists have also been
- It is the exact opposite of optimism. found to show significant increases in self-esteem
B. Defensive pessimism and satisfaction over time, perform better
- This is considered as another thinking style that academically, form more supportive friendship
people adopt to adjust to possible negative impact networks and make more progress on their
of an event. personal goals than equally anxious students who
- This is based on the ability to think of, and plan, do not use defensive pessimism (Norem and
for the worst-case scenario of a situation; hence Chang, 2002)
defensive pessimists like to be prepared and cover
all angles. VII. Three Selves in Optimism
- It is a cognitive strategy to set low expectations for
upcoming performance, 1. Self-Confidence
- despite having performed well in previous similar - can be thought of as: ‘being certain in your own
situations (Norem and Cantor, 1986). abilities . . . and about having trust in people, plans
- This thinking style has been found to cushion the or the future’ (Craig, 2007: 2).
potential blow of failure, motivate reflection and - Confidence in the self and the situation is
rehearsal, and used as a strategy to ‘harness’ important for perseverance towards goals.
anxiety for motivation.
- Moreso, defensive pessimists set their sights
unrealistically low and think about how to solve 2. Self-efficacy
potential problems in advance of a daunting task - is ‘the belief a person has that they can reach
(Held, 2004). their goals or a desired outcome’ (Bandura, 1997).
C. Is there a benefit for being a defensive pessimist? - It is ‘the power of I can’.
1. Researchers said that defensive pessimists tend - It is the expectation that one can master a
to be more anxious and deliver poorer situation, and produce a positive outcome based
performance if they are ‘not allowed’ to engage in on beliefs about our personal competence or
pessimistic rehearsal. This is opposite to optimists effectiveness in a given area.
 - It is a person’s belief about his or her chances of - It is mentioned that individuals with high levels of
successfully accomplishing a specific task self- esteem tend to report greater perseverance
(Maddux, 2009a). in situations where they consider themselves likely
a. Self-reflection to succeed.
- is one of the core features of agency and is - They also tend to self-report higher levels of
expressed in the concept of self-efficacy. intelligence and happiness.
- While low levels of self-esteem have been linked
- Self-efficacy beliefs provide the foundation for to several negative outcomes such as depression
human motivation, wellbeing, and personal in times of low stress, smoking in young women
accomplishment. and increased bulimia risk, body dissatisfaction
- This is because unless people believe that their and perfectionism, and a tendency to experiment
actions can produce the outcomes they desire, with drugs/alcohol (also sexual initiative) and
they have little incentive to act or to persevere in aggression.
the face of difficulties.
- Self-efficacy is what individuals believe they can - On the contrary, other researchers claim that high
do with their skills under certain conditions. levels of self-esteem aren’t always a good thing
- Self-efficacy is a belief that I can perform the because people who score high but have unstable
behavior that produces the outcome. self-esteem tend to be particularly prone to anger
and aggression.
- Furthermore, they appear confident and secure
but in reality are highly sensitive to evaluative
3. Self-esteem feedback. To protect themselves from ego
- is a ‘totality of the individual’s thoughts and challenges they become angry and deny the
feelings with reference to himself as an object.’ legitimacy of the perceived injustice.
(Rosenberg, 1965). VIII. Two Models of Self-esteem
- For Hewitt (2009) it is ‘the disposition to Self-esteem may be explained through the following
experience oneself as competent to cope with the models:
basic challenges of life and as worthy of 1. The sociometer model of self-esteem
happiness’
VIII. Two Models of Self-esteem
Self-esteem may be explained through the following models:
1. The sociometer model of self-esteem
- generally correlates strongly with whether one - It is defined as the determination to achieve goals
believes that one is included or excluded by other (agency) plus the belief that many pathways can
people (Leary et al., 1995). be generated.
- Snyder, Irving & Anderson,1991 as cited in Snyder
2. The terror management model of self-esteem (2000, p.8) on one hand, define hope as “a
- perceives self-esteem as a function to shelter positive motivational state that is based on an
people from deeply rooted anxiety inherent in the interactively derived sense of successful (a)
human condition (Goldenberg and Shackelford, agency (goal-directed energy) and (b) pathways
2005; Pyszczynski et al., 2004). (planning to meet goals)”
- This means that Self-esteem is a protective shield
designed to control the potential for terror that 1. Agency
results from awareness of the horrifying possibility - is the belief that one can begin and sustain
that we humans are merely transient animals movement along the envisioned pathway towards
groping to survive in a meaningless universe, a given goal.
destined only to die and decay. - Agency thoughts serve to motivate the person.
- However, Deci and Ryan (2000) argue against Pathways thinking reflects an individual’s
this, claiming that people typically engage with life; perceived ability to formulate plausible goal routes
that is, they seek challenges, connections, (Snyder, 2002).
authentic meaning, and significance, not because
they are trying to avoid the scent of death but Hope theory can be subdivided into four categories
because they are healthy and alive. 1. Goals
- that are valuable and uncertain are described by
Snyder (1994, as cited in Snyder, 2000, p.9) as
IX. Hope Theory the anchors of hope theory as they provide
A. Hope direction and an endpoint for hopeful thinking.
- Another concept that is always connected to
optimism is Hope. 2. Pathway thoughts
- refer to the routes we take to achieve our desired
goals and the individual’s perceived ability to
 produce these routes (Snyder, 2000).Example of - Moreover, hope is thought to energize
pathway thinking questions are: What is going goal-directed striving, particularly when the
on?’ and ‘Where do I want to go?’ and ‘What is attainability of goals is at least somewhat in doubt
stopping me? and when the goal is viewed as very important
3. Agency thoughts (similar to all expectancy-value theories).
- refer to the motivation we have to undertake the - It is noted that people with high levels of hope
routes towards our goals. Example of agency often set more difficult goals, but are more likely to
thinking questions are: Which strengths can I use achieve them. They probably break the goals
to achieve my goal?’, ‘Which aspects of my down into smaller subgoals.
current situation work to my advantage?’, and - This is used in CBT where therapists facilitate both
‘When was I successful in similar situations in the agency thoughts (efficacy thoughts) and pathways
past and why? thoughts (breaking down complex goals into
4. Barriers achievable steps). Remoralization, the facilitation
- block the attainment of our goals and in the event of hope, is the common pathway in therapy.
of a barrier we can either give up or we can use - In addition, high scores on hope is said to
our pathway thoughts to create new routes. correlate with self-esteem, positive emotions,
effective coping, academic achievement, and
Goal attainment physical health (reviewed in Peterson, 2000;
- has been found to be associated with positive Snyder, 2002).
emotions (Snyder et al, 1996),
goal blockages Hope
- are related to negative emotions (Diener, 1984); - also buffers against interfering, self-deprecatory
however this is not always the case. thoughts and negative emotions and is critical for
- High hope individuals do not react in the same psychological health.
way to barriers as low hope individuals, instead - Moreover, people who are hopeful focus more on
they view barriers as challenges to overcome and the prevention of diseases (for example, through
use their pathway thoughts to plan an alternative route to exercising); they have higher levels of success in
their goals (Snyder, 1994 as cited in Snyder, 2000 p. 10). their performance and academic achievement.