Chapter Two: Culture and other Factors that Influence Project

Communication
 Perception and Reality
 Personality
 Culture
 In-Group/Out-Group
 Dimensions of culture
 Power Distance
 Individualism/Collectivism
 Masculinity/Femininity
 Uncertainty Avoidance
 Long-term/Short-term Orientation
 Indulgent/Restrained
 Generational Culture
 Professional Culture
 Gender
 The Social Context of Gender
 Gender Stereotypes

2.1. Perception and Reality

Perception: A way of understanding or interpreting things. Reality: The state of things as

they actually exist, rather than as they may be perceived or might be imagined. Perception
acts as a lens through which we view reality. Our perceptions influence how we focus on,
process, remember, interpret, understand, synthesize, decide about, and act on reality. In
doing so, our tendency is to assume that how we perceive reality is an accurate representation
of what reality truly is. While reality is a fixed factor in the equation of life, perception of
reality is a variable. When it comes to your company's costs, perception is reality.

Each individual has his or her own perception of reality. The implication is that because each
of us perceives the world through our own eyes, reality itself changes from person to person.
While it’s true that everyone perceives reality differently, reality could care less about our
perceptions. Reality does not change to adapt to our viewpoints; reality is what it is:

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 • Reality is fact.
• Reality is truth.

Reality, however, is not always a known, which is where perception of reality comes in.
While reality is a fixed factor in the equation of life, perception of reality is a variable.

2.2. Personality
Personality refers to the enduring characteristics and behavior that comprise a person's unique
adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and
emotional patterns.

Personality, a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality embraces

moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other people.
It includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that distinguish one person
from another and that can be observed in people’s relations to the environment and to the
social group.

The term personality has been defined in many ways, but as a psychological concept two
main meanings have evolved. The first pertains to the consistent differences that exist
between people: in this sense, the study of personality focuses on classifying and explaining
relatively stable human psychological characteristics. The second meaning emphasizes those
qualities that make all people alike and that distinguish psychological man from other
species; it directs the personality theorist to search for those regularities among all people that
define the nature of man as well as the factors that influence the course of lives. This duality
may help explain the two directions that personality studies have taken: on the one hand, the
study of ever more specific qualities in people, and, on the other, the search for the organized
totality of psychological functions that emphasizes the interplay between organic and
psychological events within people and those social and biological events that surround them.
The dual definition of personality is interwoven in most of the topics discussed below. It
should be emphasized, however, that no definition of personality has found universal
acceptance within the field.

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2.3. Culture

Culture and other Factors that Influence Project Communication: Different cultural factors
affect communication during a crisis. Those are:

• Languages spoken.
• Risk perception.
• Trusted sources of information.
• Traditional family roles and relationships.
• Rituals for grieving and death.
• Acceptable forms of communication.

2.4. In-Group/Out-Group
An in-group is a group to whom you, as a person, belong, and anyone else who is perceived
as belonging to that group. In- group members have positive views of each other, and give
each member preferential treatment. An out-group consists of anyone who does not belong to
your group.

In sociology and social psychology, an in-group is a social group to which a person

psychologically identifies as being a member. By contrast, an out-group is a social group with
which an individual does not identify. People may for example identify with their peer group,
family, community, sports team, political party, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or
nation. It has been found that the psychological membership of social groups and categories
is associated with a wide variety of phenomena.

2.5. Dimensions of culture

In addition to the organisational cultures described in the previous step, we can also consider
cultures on a national level.

This approach is commonly associated with Geert Hofstede (1984, 1988 & 2001), as
described in Schermerhorn and Bachrach (2017). He explored national cultures through the
identification of five different dimensions, which are:

1. Power distance
2. Uncertainty avoidance
3. Individualism-collectivism

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 4. Masculinity-femininity
5. Time orientation

The five dimensions are explained below:

1. Power Distance

Power distance is the degree a society accepts or rejects the unequal distribution of power in
organisations and society. In high power distance cultures such as Japan, we expect to find
great respect for age, status and titles. This could create problems for an American visitor
used to the informality of a more moderate power distance culture, and accustomed to using
first names and casual dress in the office.

2. Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance is the degree a society tolerates or is uncomfortable with risk, change,
and situational uncertainty. In high uncertainty avoidance cultures, such as France or Japan,
one would expect to find a preference for structure, order and predictability.

3. Individualism-Collectivism

Individualism-collectivism is the degree to which a society emphasises an individual’s

accomplishments and self-interest, versus the accomplishments and interests of groups. In
Hofstede’s data, the United States had the highest individualism score of any country.

4. Masculinity-Femininity

Masculinity-femininity is the a degree society values assertiveness and materialism versus

feelings, relationships, and quality of life. You might think of it as a tendency to emphasise
stereotypical masculine or feminine traits and attitudes towards gender roles. Visitors to
Japan, with the highest masculinity score in Hofstede’s research, will probably notice how
restricted career opportunities can be for women.

5. Time Orientation

This is the degree to which a society emphasises short-term or long-term goals. Americans
are notorious for being impatient and wanting quick, even instant gratification. Accordingly,
American companies are expected to achieve short-term results. Many Asian cultures are the
opposite, valuing persistence, being patient, and are willing to work for long-term success.

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However, Schermerhorn and Bachrach (2017) add that Hofstede warned against acting with
the mistaken assumption that a generalised cultural value applies always and equally to all
members of a specific culture.

2.6. Individualism/Collectivism
Collectivism stresses the importance of the community, while individualism is focused on the
rights and concerns of each person. Collectivist cultures emphasize the needs and goals of the
group as a whole over the needs and desires of each individual. In such cultures, relationships
with other members of the group and the interconnectedness between people play a central
role in each person's identity.

Collectivism contrasts with individualism, in which personal needs take precedence.

Traits of Collectivist Cultures

In collectivistic cultures, people are considered "good" if they are generous, helpful,
dependable, and attentive to the needs of others. This contrasts with individualistic cultures,
which often place a greater emphasis on characteristics such as assertiveness and
independence.

Common traits of collectivist cultures include:

• Individuals define themselves in relation to others (example, “I am a member of…”).

• Communication is often more indirect to avoid potential conflict or embarrassment.
• Group loyalty is encouraged.
• Decisions are based on what is best for the group.
• Compromise is favoured when a decision needs to be made to achieve greater levels of
peace.
• Working as a group and supporting others is essential.
• Greater emphasis is placed on common goals than on individual pursuits.
• The rights of families and communities come before those of the individual.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Collectivist cultures are usually contrasted with individualistic cultures. Collectivism stresses
the importance of the community, while individualism is focused on the rights and concerns

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of each person. Where unity and selflessness or altruism are valued traits in collectivist
cultures, independence and personal identity are promoted in individualistic cultures.

These cultural differences are pervasive and can influence many aspects of how society
functions. How people shop, dress, learn, and conduct business can all be influenced by
whether they are from a collectivist or individualist culture.

For example, workers who live in a collectivist culture might strive to sacrifice their own
happiness for the greater good of the group. Those from individualistic cultures, on the other
hand, may feel that their own well-being and goals carry greater weight.

2.7. Masculinity/Femininity
Masculinity and femininity refer to an individual’s gender in terms of maleness and
femaleness, respectively. Gender roles are those socially ascribed normative behaviors with
respect to a given gender. Biological sex refers to an individual’s reproductive organs as
being male or female.

Men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success; women are
supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life." In masculine
cultures, men hold more positions of power, get paid more, and are expected to act in a
masculine manner. Women get the short end of the stick.

The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement,
heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Society at large is more
competitive. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring
for the weak and quality of life.

2.8. Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance or the degree to which people in a country prefer structured over
unstructured situations and their tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and diversity of
approach (from relatively flexible to extremely rigid).

Uncertainty avoidance describes how cultural differences dictate members of a society’s risk-
taking preferences and comfort in unknown situations. Learn about the intercultural
measurement of uncertainty.

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Uncertainty avoidance describes a culture or society’s tolerance of unpredictable and
unstructured situations, which informs social norms, business practices, and human behavior.
The Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) measures how different nations interpret the future,
the unknown, and unpredictability. The UAI forms part of social scientist Geert Hofstede’s
cultural dimensions model, which also analyses nations’ individualism/collectivism,
masculinity/femininity, power distance, and long-term orientation.

2.9. Long-term/Short-term Orientation

A long-term orientation fosters virtues directed toward the future—in particular, perseverance
and thrift and ordering relationships by status. A short-term orientation fosters virtues related
to the past and present—in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of "face," and
personal steadiness and stability.

Short-term orientation is when you are focused on the present or past and consider them more
important than the future. If you have a short-term orientation, you value tradition, the current
social hierarchy and fulfilling your social obligations. You care more about immediate
gratification than long-term fulfilment.

Long-term orientation is a cultural orientation that deals with time—past, present, and future
—to foster virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular perseverance and thrift.

2.10. Indulgent/Restrained

Indulgence cultures allow relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires
related to enjoying life and having fun while restraint cultures control gratification of needs
and regulate people's gratification of human needs by means of strict social norms.

"Indulgent cultures will tend to focus more on individual happiness and well-being, leisure
time is more important, and there is greater freedom and personal control. This is in contrast
with restrained cultures where positive emotions are less freely expressed and happiness,
freedom, and leisure are not given the same importance” (Maclachlan, 2013).

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Important Differences of Indulgent Society vs Restrained Society

Indulgent Society Restrained Society

(United States) (Russia)
Higher percentage of happy people Lower percentage of happy people
A perception of personal life control A perception of helplessness; what
happens to me is not my own business
High importance of leisure Low importance of leisure
High importance of having friends Low importance of leisure
Less moral discipline Moral discipline
Loosely prescribed gender roles Strictly prescribed gender roles
Smiling as a norm Smiling as suspect
Freedom of speech is important Freedom of speech is not a primary
concern
(Source: Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010, p. 297)

2.11. Generational Culture

Defined by age, but more so by common experiences and key events that each group
experiences. We can look at different generations almost as different cultures. Their
upbringing, worldview, traditions and perspectives differ in many ways. And, as with
different cultures, if we don't understand these differences and acknowledge them, we might
end up in conflict.

2.12. Professional culture

Professional culture in a narrow context is a combination of specific theoretical knowledge

and practical skills associated with a particular type of activity. One of the indicators of
having a professional culture is the level of qualification.

2.13. Gender

Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially
constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man,
girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. The male sex or the female sex,
especially when considered with reference to social and cultural differences rather than

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biological ones, or one of a range of other identities that do not correspond to established
ideas of male and female.

The Social Context of Gender

Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially
constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man,
girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from
society to society and can change over time.

Gender Stereotypes

A stereotype is a widely held, simplified, and essentialist belief about a specific group.
Groups are often stereotyped on the basis of sex, gender identity, race and ethnicity,
nationality, age, socioeconomic status, language, and so forth. Stereotypes are deeply
embedded within social institutions and wider culture.

A gender stereotype is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or characteristics,

or the roles that are or ought to be possessed by people. Gender stereotypes are broad
generalizations about the characteristics and/or roles that women and men have or should
have. The act of applying gender stereotypes is known as gender stereotyping, gender
stereotyping meaning the act of attributing certain characteristics and/or roles to an individual
solely on the basis of the individual's gender.

Some examples of gender stereotypes are:

• Men are better suited to leadership positions.

• Women are better caregivers.
• Subjects such as math and science are more appropriate for men than for women.
• Women are weak and need the help of a man to do physical tasks, such as opening
jars.
• Men are aggressive by nature.