Germanic languages

When we say Germanic languages, we are referring to all of the languages that were once part
of the language ancestor Proto Germanic. The Indo-European family of languages, which are
spoken in most of Europe and the areas of Europe and in southwestern and southern Asia. It
was spoken more than 5,000 years ago in the steppe regions north of the Black Sea and split
into a number of dialects by 3000 BC.
Germanic languages contain the Northern, Eastern and Western Germanic languages. The
Northern Germanic languages include: Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic and Faroese. The
Western Germanic languages comprise: German, English, Frisian, Dutch, Pennsylvania Dutch,
Luxembourgish, Yiddish and Afrikaans. There are at least 47 living Germanic languages.
Germanic languages developed from the dialects of the Germanic or Teutonic tribes, which
occupied a vast territory in Central Europe in the first century BC. Germanic tribes were divided
into three groups: East Germanic tribes, Vandals, comprising Goths, Vandals, Burgunds. West
Germanic tribes: Ingaevons, Istaevons, Herminons and North Germanic tribes.

Name and characterise types of Grammar

Language is a means of forming ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the
process of human intercourse. Language consists of three parts: the phonological system, the
lexical system and the grammatical system. The lexical system is the whole set of naming means
of language, that is, words and stable word groups. Each of the three parts of Language is
studied by a particular linguistic discipline: lexicology, phonology and Grammar.

 Prescriptive or traditional grammar Its purpose is to give strict rules of writing and
speaking correctly.
 Historical grammar studies the development of grammatical units.
 Communicative grammar states grammar structures, that are used to express a
linguistic meaning.
 theoretical Grammar of a Language defines grammatical categories and studies the
mechanisms of grammatical.
 Descriptive grammar is a system of technique to language units at the present stage of
progress.
 Historical – comparative grammar studies the weirdness of similar structures of
different languages within the shell of historical development.
Grammatically a language may be characterized by how the relationships of words are
noticeable in a sentence, English is considered to be an analytic language because of the lack of
grammatical affixes and a relatively large number of analytic grammatical forms. The
predominant means of marking the grammatical relationship of words in an English sentence
are form words and word order.
What does Grammar study?
Grammar is the system and structure of a language. The rules of grammar help us decide the
order we put words in and which form of a word to use. It refers to syntax, or sentence
structure–the way words, phrases, and clauses come together to make meaning.
As long as there have been rules of grammar, there have been theories about what makes it
work and how to classify it. The study of grammar was introduced by Noam Chomsky in 1957 in
his work, "Syntactic Structures." In American linguist Noam Chomsky’s view, humans have a
natural knowledge of language that informs those rules. That, he reasoned, is why children can
pick up on complex grammar without obvious knowledge of the rules.
Prescriptive grammar is the set of rules people should follow when using the English language.
Descriptive grammar is how we describe the way people are using language. Both kinds of
grammar are concerned with rules, but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar
study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, sentences and phrases.
Grammar is the structural faundaition of our ability to show ourselves.

English as a Germanic language

English language, West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family that is closely
related to the Frisian, Dutch, and German languages. Linguists use many aspects, such as
grammar, phonology, and vocabulary, to define the historical ancestry of modern languages.
The general composition of English reveals strong Germanic roots. When you look at the words
in use, however, Germanic dominates. English is also grammatically entirely Germanic. Its
verbal system, with strong and weak verbs and modals is Germanic; its pronoun system is
entirely Germanic in structure as well as vocabulary; its adjectival system is heavily
standardizing but Germanic.
Perhaps the most obvious marker that English is a Germanic language is how it is pronounced.
English is articulated further back in the mouth, and is in most dialects a “stress-timed”
language like all West Germanic languages, meaning rhythm is designed to give equal length
between stressed syllables.
The English language is spoken by 300 million people and it has become the important language
of International associations of science.

Stylistics
 Stylistics is a branch of general linguistics that studies the styles used in literary and verbal
language and the effect the writer or speaker wishes to communicate to the reader. In order to
establish the borders of stylistics it is needed to go at some length into the question of what is
style. Style may refer to: Design, the process of creating something, Fashion, a prevailing mode
of expressing, e.g. clothing; Human physical appearance. In visual arts style can bring up either
to the aesthetic values followed in choosing what to paint or to the physical techniques
employed. Style of music genre that shares a certain basic musical language. Style in fiction is
an aspect of literary structure. If we succeed in separating and examining the choices which the
writer prefers, we can define what are the essentials that make up his style and make it
recognizable. The individuality of a writer is shown not only in the choice of lexical, syntactical
and stylistic means but also in their treatment. The expressive means of a language are those
phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactical forms which exist in language system for the
purpose of logical and emotional growth of the utterance. Literary stylistics leads attention to
the larger-scale significance of what is represented in verbal art.

What does lexicology study

Lexicology studies various lexical units: words, orphemes, word- groups and phraseological
units. Lexicology is the study of lexis or stock of words in a language. We will also use the word
vocabulary interchangeably with lexis. Lexicology is the part of linguistics which deals with the
vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word-groups.
The branches of lexicology are: the study of the history and meaning of words and the
analytical study of lexicography. Historical lexicology can study the growth of the vocabulary,
the origin of words and word-groups, their semantic relations and the development of their
sound form and meaning. Aalytical lexicography studies the vocabulary at a definite stage of its
development.
Through lexicology, we are able to increase knowledge on language on a macro level approach.
This involves conventional semantics and structural patters that we often use. This is due to the
fact that lexical items are thought to be the foundations of logical, and meaningful sentences
and phrases.

Briefly characterize the middle english period

Traditionally, the history of the English language is divided into three periods: Old English,
Middle English, Modern English period.
From 1066 to 1500 the language is known as middle english. Three features of middle english
distinguished with old english a greatly reduced system of grammatical inflections; greatly
increased lexical borrowing from other languages, in specific Latin and French; a highly varied
orthography. The four great dialect boundaries of old english developed into middle englishas
follows: The vast Mercian area divided into East Midland and West Midland. Kentish became
part of a wider South-Eastern dialect to the south of the River Thames, West Saxon, latterly the
most significant old english dialect, especially for literature, shrank westward to become the
South-Western dialect. Northumbrian divided into the Northern dialects of England and the
Lowlands of Scotland. Although the city of London was close to the South-Eastern dialect, the
individual usage of the capital towards the end of the middle english period was influenced
from north of the Thames, by East Midland. It was the high form of this eclectic selection that in
due course became the main source of modern standard English. The history of Standard
English is almost a history of London English.

Charactarize the old english period

Traditionally, the history of the English language is divided into three periods: Old English,
Middle English, Modern English period.
Old English is the name given to the closely related dialects spoken in England from the fifth
century, when attackers from north Germany began their settlements, until the eleventh
century, when the effects of the Norman Conquest began to appear in the language. The
Germanic settlers came from three tribes, the Jutes, Angles and Saxons. The Jutes became well-
known in the extreme south-east of the country, the Saxons in the south-west, and the Angles
in the part north of the Thames.
Old English was not a completely uniform language. There were four main dialects: Kentish,
Mercian, Northumbrian and West Saxon. Kentish is not well characterized, but Mercian is. Our
knowledge of Northumbrian is limited to the linguistic forms common to a few writings, some
glosses and poems. The first written form of the language was runic, later switched during the
conversion to Christianity of the Anglo Saxons after 597 by the Latin alphabet, which was
modified to serve Old English, making use of some runic letters.

Briefly charactarize the history of the Georgian

Translation theory
 Translation theory is an interdisciplinary theory which means that it, borrows methods and
tactics from the various fields of knowledge that also study translation. Georgia has a strong
tradition of tranlsations which were conducted both in Georgia Phasisi, Gelati, Iqalto
andoutside of the country.
Old Georgian translations were mainly examination of foreign texts. The texts translated were
mostly religious: the bible, biblical commentaries, liturgical texts, hagiographical texts, poetry,
canonical texts. According to the translated texts Georgia had cultural connections mainly with
the Eastern Christian and Muslim countries like Byzantine, Palestine, Arabia, Iran, Armenia,
Syria, later with Russia.
Georgian translation of religious texts was unique as the pagan blessed forms in the
translation of the first Bible gave it a national coloring. The translations of the second half of the
19th century were made from more available Russian versions. Nevertheless, they still played a
significant role in the development of Georgian translation.

Priorities of Georgian traslators

In the book of “Kurtkhevani “Georgian translators have made so many editions that Greeks
even mistrusted their orthodox nature. Georgian translators of the period paid extensive
attention to the works that they found crucial for the country.
Kekelidze argues that translation is indivisible from literature and links the origin of the
translation to the historical processes. The Old Georgians translated texts because, “they were
looked for and ruled to find answers to the most important questions which worried them.’’ –
This can have viewed to be their main priority.
Georgian translators used a number of Georgian poetic forms. Kekelidze argues that the Greek
verse was changed by Georgian verses. Later, Georgian translators tried the method of word to
word translation and closely compared the source and aim texts of the Gospel.
Ilia Chavchavadze considered translation as an independent artistic work contributing to the
development of the national literature. Chavchavadze believed that translators should think
about the source text as a reality of a certain kind that had to be portrayed not naturalistically
but realistically.

What does phonetics study

Speech is a complicated process, and to study it needs a whole scientific subject – the science
of phonetics. Phonetics is another branch of Linguistics known as Phonology. Phonetics
expresses the rules of pronunciation for single sounds and sound combinations. The rules of
reading are based on the relation of sounds to orthography and present difficulties in learning
the English language, especially on the initial stage of studying.
Much of the attention of phonetics is taken up with considering the way in which speech
sounds are made, and how phoneticians can categorize them in a scientific way. This is based
on the difference between vowels and consonants. In English there is no face-to-face relation
between the system of writing and the system of pronunciation. The number of speech sounds
in English varies from dialect to dialect, and depends on the interpretation of the examiner
doing the counting. Another fundamental aspect of the subject is the use of symbols. In
phonetics, we must be able to use a particular symbol to characterize a particular sound.
Through the system of rules of reading phonetics is linked with grammar and helps to
pronounce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns, the past tense forms and past
participles of English verbs. One of the most important phonetic phenomena – sound
interchange – is another sign of the connection of phonetics with grammar.

Theoretical grammar
Theoretical grammar is concerned with language in general rather than with an individual
language, as is the study of essential components of any human language. Transformational
grammar is one variety of theoretical grammar. The main purpose of theoretical Grammar of a
Language is to present a picture of its grammatical system i.e. to scientifically examine and
define its grammatical categories and study the mechanisms of grammatical development of
utterances out of words in the process of speech making.
The Corpus Linguistics Antoinette Renouf and Andrew Kehoe says- "Theoretical grammar or
syntax is concerned with making completely explicit the formalisms of grammar, and in
providing scientific arguments or explanations in favour of one account of grammar rather than
another, in terms of a general theory of human language."
The main aim of theoretical grammar is to present a theoretical description of the grammatical
system of the English language. The leading notions of theoretical grammar are grammatical
form, grammatical meaning and grammatical categories. Grammar studies the relations
between elements of the language system.

Translation theory
 Translation theory studies the theory, description and application of translation and
interpreting. Translation theory is an associative theory which means that it ‘’borrows’’methods
and tactics from the several fields of knowledge that also study translation. Among other fields,
these include comparative linguistics, philology, philosophy, literary studies, computer science,
semiotics, and others. Word for word translation or literal translation renders the text precisely
from one language to another. In translation studies, literal translation is often related with
scientific, technological, technical or legal texts. Nevertheless, this type of translation is not
usually employed in non-technical texts. This is because of the mistranslation of idioms or
proverbs that affects the meaning of the text, and distorts it. Free translation gives the
translator and interpreter more freedom and is used when translating literature and essays.
Simultaneous translsation means synchronous, verbal translation of one spoken language into
another while the presenter is also speaking. On the other hand, while using the method of
consecutive translation, the presenter makes a speech whilst the commentator takes notes and
then, reproduces what the speaker has just said.

What does the term “style” denote?

In order to find out the borders of stylistics it is required to go at some length into the question
of what is style. The word style is obtained from the Latin word ‘stilus’ which meant a short
stick sharp at one end and flat at the other used by the Romans for writing on wax tablets. Now
the word style is used in so many ways that it has become a reproduction ground for
uncertainty. Style may denote to: Fashion, a popular mode of expressing, e.g. clothing, in visual
arts style can state either to the aesthetic values followed in choosing what to paint, Human
physical appearance, Style of music genre that shares a certain musical language, Style guide in
writing.
The word style is also used to expose the correspondence between thought and expression. It
sometimes refers to more general, abstract notions thus naturally becoming vague and
unclear, for example “Style is choice”, “Style is depth” and etc. In every individual style we can
find both the general and the certain.