This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

Designation: E1476 − 04 (Reapproved 2014)

Standard Guide for

Metals Identification, Grade Verification, and Sorting1

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E1476; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope E977 Practice for Thermoelectric Sorting of Electrically

1.1 This guide is intended for tutorial purposes only. It Conductive Materials
describes the general requirements, methods, and procedures F355 Test Method for Impact Attenuation of Playing Surface
for the nondestructive identification and sorting of metals. Systems and Materials
F1156 Terminology Relating to Product Counterfeit Protec-
1.2 It provides guidelines for the selection and use of tion Systems (Withdrawn 2001)3
methods suited to the requirements of particular metals sorting
or identification problems. 3. Terminology
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the 3.1 Definitions—Terms used in this guide are defined in the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the standards cited in Section 2 and in current technical literature
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- or dictionaries; however, because a number of terms that are
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- used generally in nondestructive testing have meanings or
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific carry implications unique to metal sorting, they appear with
precautionary statements, see Section 10. explanation in Appendix X1.
2. Referenced Documents
4. Significance and Use
2.1 ASTM Standards:2
4.1 A major concern of metals producers, warehouses, and
E158 Practice for Fundamental Calculations to Convert
users is to establish and maintain the identity of metals from
Intensities into Concentrations in Optical Emission Spec-
melting to their final application. This involves the use of
trochemical Analysis (Withdrawn 2004)3
standard quality assurance practices and procedures throughout
E305 Practice for Establishing and Controlling Atomic
the various stages of manufacturing and processing, at ware-
Emission Spectrochemical Analytical Curves
houses and materials receiving, and during fabrication and final
E322 Test Method for Analysis of Low-Alloy Steels and
installation of the product. These practices typically involve
Cast Irons by Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence
standard chemical analyses and physical tests to meet product
Spectrometry
acceptance standards, which are slow. Several pieces from a
E566 Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy Current) Sorting of
production run are usually destroyed or rendered unusable
Ferrous Metals
through mechanical and chemical testing, and the results are
E572 Test Method for Analysis of Stainless and Alloy Steels
used to assess the entire lot using statistical methods. Statistical
by Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrom-
quality assurance methods are usually effective; however,
etry
mixed grades, off-chemistry, and nonstandard physical proper-
E703 Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy Current) Sorting of
ties remain the primary causes for claims in the metals
Nonferrous Metals
industry. A more comprehensive verification of product prop-
erties is necessary. Nondestructive means are available to
supplement conventional metals grade verification techniques,
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc- and to monitor chemical and physical properties at selected
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.10 on Specialized
NDT Methods.
production stages, in order to assist in maintaining the identi-
Current edition approved June 1, 2014. Published July 2014. Originally approved ties of metals and their consistency in mechanical properties.
in 1992. Last previous edition approved in 2010 as E1476 - 04(2010). DOI:
10.1520/E1476-04R14. 4.2 Nondestructive methods have the potential for monitor-
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or ing grade during production on a continuous or statistical basis,
contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM for monitoring properties such as hardness and case depth, and
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
for verifying the effectiveness of heat treatment, cold-working,
the ASTM website.
3
The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on and the like. They are quite often used in the field for solving
www.astm.org. problems involving off-grade and mixed-grade materials.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
4.3 The nondestructive methods covered in this guide pro- means of alerting production personnel of a problem. Thus
vide both direct and indirect responses to the sample being alerted, the mill can determine the cause for the alarm and take
evaluated. Spectrometric analysis instruments respond to the corrective action. Portable optical emission spectrometry units
presence and percents of alloying constituents. The electro- may be used to determine the concentrations of critical
magnetic (eddy current) and thermoelectric methods, on the elements without having to resort to slow physical and chemi-
other hand, are among those that respond to properties in the cal analyses. A quality assurance program combining conven-

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
sample that are affected by chemistry and processing, and they tional measurements with suitable nondestructive methods can
yield indirect information on composition and mechanical provide effective and timely information on product composi-
properties. In this guide, the spectrometric methods are classi- tion and physical properties. This will result in improved
fied as quantitative, whereas the methods that yield indirect quality and yield; savings in time, labor, and material; and
readings are termed qualitative. reduced field failures and claims. This guide provides specific
4.4 This guide describes a variety of qualitative and quan- information regarding nondestructive metals identification,
titative methods. It summarizes the operating principles of each grade verification, and sorting methods to assist in selecting the
method, provides guidance on where and how each may be optimum approach to solving specific needs.
applied, gives (when applicable) the precision and bias that 5.3 Spectrometric methods are capable of directly indicating
may be expected, and assists the investigator in selecting the the presence and percent of many of the elements that
best candidates for specific grade verification or sorting prob- characterize a metal grade. The spectrometric and thermoelec-
lems. tric techniques examine only the outermost surfaces of the
4.5 For the purposes of this guide, the term “nondestruc- sample or material. As a result, for grade verification purposes,
tive” includes techniques that may require the removal of small it may be necessary to grind sufficiently deep to ensure access
amounts of metal during the examination, without affecting the to the base metal for accurate readings. However, grinding may
serviceability of the product. affect the thermoelectric response. The spectrometric methods
require physical contact and often some surface preparation.
4.6 The nondestructive methods covered in this guide pro- The electromagnetic method, however, does not require con-
vide quantitative and qualitative information on metals prop- tact and very often is suited for on-line, automatic operation.
erties; they are listed as follows: The thermoelectric method, although requiring contact, re-
4.6.1 Quantitative: sponds to many of the same parameters that influence the
4.6.1.1 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, and electromagnetic responses. Both respond to chemical
4.6.1.2 Optical emission spectrometry. composition, processing, and treatments that affect the physical
4.6.2 Qualitative: and mechanical properties of the product. Nondestructive
4.6.2.1 Electromagnetic (eddy current), methods for indicating the mechanical properties of a metal are
4.6.2.2 Conductivity/resistivity, beyond the scope of this guide.
4.6.2.3 Thermoelectric,
4.6.2.4 Chemical spot tests, 5.4 Each method has particular advantages and disadvan-
4.6.2.5 Triboelectric, and tages. The selection of suitable candidates for a specific grade
4.6.2.6 Spark testing (special case). verification or sorting application requires an understanding of
the technical operating features of each method. These include
5. Background the precision and bias necessary for the application and
practical considerations such as product configuration, surface
5.1 The standard quality assurance procedures for verifying condition, product and ambient temperatures, environmental
the composition and physical properties of a metal at a constraints, etc.
producing facility are through chemical analysis and mechani-
cal testing. These required tests result in the sacrifice of a 6. General Procedures
certain amount of production for the preparation of samples, 6.1 Standardization/Calibration:
are costly and time-consuming, and may not provide timely 6.1.1 Of primary concern in any materials identification or
information regarding changes in product quality. In a market sorting program is delineation of the pertinent product charac-
in which a single failure can result in heavy litigation and teristics (such as chemical composition, processing,
damage costs, the manufacturer requires assurance that his configuration, and physical properties) and the assignment of
production will meet the customer’s acceptance standards. acceptance limits to each. Often prescribed by materials
Nondestructive grade verification provides one means of moni- specifications, they also may result from quality assurance
toring production to ensure that the product will meet accep- procedures or by agreement between the producer and the user.
tance requirements. 6.1.2 Of equal importance is the selection of reference
5.2 Nondestructive methods may be used in conjunction standards. Quantitative methods employ coupon standards that
with the accepted standard product quality tests to provide are representative of the metals or alloy compositions to be
continuous verification that current production lies within the verified, and the analytical instrumentation is standardized
agreed upon acceptance limits specified. In-line electromag- against them. The indirect methods, particularly those that
netic examinations may be used to indicate the consistency of respond to physical properties as well as composition, require
production. Any deviation from the norms set for the accep- reference standards that will represent the material specified in
tance band will result in automatic alarms, kick-out, or other composition, mechanical and physical properties, and

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
processing, as well as cover the means and extremes of the 6.2.2 The means for performing the examination must be
acceptance band. Coupon reference standards or product ref- controlled. If some surface metal removal is necessary (as it is
erence standards, or both, may be selected as required. for spectrometric examinations), the amount of removal, means
6.1.2.1 Coupon Reference Standards—These are small, eas- of removal, and removal location on the piece must be
ily handled metal panels made to specified chemical composi- specified and monitored closely. For electromagnetic
examinations, the piece should be positioned in the same

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
tions. They are available commercially in sets, singly, or to
specification. They are useful for instrument standardization, manner relative to the coil as is the product standard sample.
determining separability among metals, and field use with Failure to control variables can result in the misidentification of
portable equipment. They are not intended to reflect the effects samples.
of processing or heat treatment on the acceptability of a 6.3 Display and Accept/Reject Criteria:
product. 6.3.1 Most systems employ some form of visual display or
6.1.2.2 Product Reference Standards—These must represent readout to indicate the response to piece variables. Meter
the product specified in composition and mechanical and readings, oscilloscope patterns, digital signals, and colored
physical properties. Ideally, three or more product reference spots (from a reagent in chemical spot testing) are typical
standards covering the mean, plus two or more covering the examples. On instruments with digital or cathode ray tube
extremes, should be obtained, suitably catalogued, and marked displays, it is common practice to show the position and extent
for proper identification. of adjustable gates for the setting of automatic alarm circuits.
6.1.3 Standardization or calibration procedures, or both, for 6.3.2 Automatic alarm gates may be positioned and adjusted
each method must be followed as specified by the instrument to be triggered by the presence or absence of a signal of a given
manufacturer. Coupon reference standards are used to stan- amplitude and location. Both of these are adjustable. They are
dardize and set up quantitative (spectrometric) or qualitative designed for use in automatic or operator-assisted systems to
(thermoelectric and chemical spot test, etc.) verifications, as indicate when a product falls outside the acceptance limits, as
well as for metals sorting checks on electromagnetic, electrical well as to indicate whether it falls on the high or the low side.
conductivity, and similar instruments. Rod, bar, wire, and Similarly, instruments may be equipped with a computer buss
tubular product reference standards are used almost exclusively interface for electronic data processing.
for the qualitative methods, such as the electromagnetic, 6.3.3 As described in the standardization and setup
electrical conductivity, triboelectric, and spark tests. These are procedure, acceptance and rejection criteria should be estab-
fabricated from the product being manufactured, from samples lished on the basis of specified product parameters. These may
with compositions and physical properties verified through be a simple go/no-go selection or a more complex classification
analytical examinations. based on special requirements. The decision as to how refined
a sorting is possible is based on a number of product and
6.1.4 The known product reference standards used for the
measurement variables that are peculiar to the product, exami-
qualitative methods must be representative of the chemistry,
nation method(s), and service requirements. Such decisions
processing, surface, and other physical and mechanical param-
should be handled on an individual basis.
eters that might affect readings. Product standard parameters
must be verifiable. 7. Survey of Nondestructive Metals Sorting/Grade
6.1.5 Coupon reference standards are useful for initial Verification Methods
instrument adjustments, but final adjustments should be made
7.1 X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry Method (Fig. 1):
on standard samples verified as representative of good produc-
7.1.1 Summary of Method—X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spec-
tion pieces.
trometry is a comparative analytical method that employs
6.1.6 Product standard samples will disclose potential errors low-energy (1 to approximately 30 keV) X-rays or gamma rays
that might result from surface alloy depletion, heavy oxide
layers, or hardness variations resulting from processing anoma-
lies. Such known variables must be used to determine final
acceptance limits for any examination, and they will aid
materially in both selecting a method and optimizing the
examination conditions.
6.2 Test Piece Requirements:
6.2.1 The relationship between the standard product
samples and pieces being evaluated must be understood
clearly. This is of particular importance when using the
electromagnetic method. Composition, size, processing, sur-
face condition, finish, straightness, and temperature must be
nominally the same as that represented by the standard
samples. To a lesser degree, this is also true for the thermo-
electric method. For the other methods, size, configuration, and
mechanical processing usually do not affect composition read-
ings to any significant degree. FIG. 1 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry

3
 E1476 − 04 (2014)
to excite characteristic X-rays in the subject material. These 7.1.6 Accuracy—Statements of precision and bias vary from
X-rays emanate from the individual elements in the subject and manufacturer to manufacturer and from element to element.
may be analyzed by either of the following means: qualitative Users of the XRF method should refer to the instrument
(recognition of the elements by unique X-ray patterns) or reference manuals and to Method E322 and Test Method E572.
quantitative (identification of characteristic X-rays and mea- 7.1.7 Advantages:
surement of their intensities). Sensitive and sophisticated

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
7.1.7.1 May be used in quantitative or qualitative mode;
laboratory XRF systems have been in use for many years. 7.1.7.2 Provides reasonably accurate alloy identification;
More recently, the advent of improved detectors and
7.1.7.3 Portable and easy to use;
microelectronics, coupled with advanced computer technology,
have resulted in portable XRF systems capable of yielding 7.1.7.4 Direct reading; and
accurate readings on the shop floor and in the field. 7.1.7.5 Digital numeric readout/printout available.
7.1.2 Displays—X-ray fluorescence analyzers are typically 7.1.8 Disadvantages:
programmed to respond to a specific set of alloys selected as 7.1.8.1 Careful sample surface preparation often necessary;
representative of the composition of the materials examined. 7.1.8.2 Elements with atomic numbers of 22 or below (for
The displays are numeric and show the percent concentration example, aluminum, carbon, silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus)
of each designated element. Hard-copy printouts of these show poor responses on portable/transportable units;
readings are available. From 1 to 18 elements may be 7.1.8.3 Potential radiation safety hazard; and
displayed, depending on the equipment design and manufac- 7.1.8.4 Alloying constituents with similar characteristic
turer. Eight to ten elements are considered sufficient for precise wavelengths may produce uncertain or false results.
identification of a wide variety of metals. (Carbon and low-
alloy steels are an exception. The XRF method currently does 7.2 Optical Emission Spectrometry Method (Fig. 2):
not respond well to elements with an atomic number below 22, 7.2.1 Summary of Method—Emission spectrometry is a
and carbon content cannot be determined accurately.) comparative analytical method in which a small amount of
7.1.3 Sample Preparation and Operating Precautions—The surface material is removed from the specimen. Early spec-
piece must be ground to remove surface oxide layers and the trometers were generally limited to use at fixed locations
alloy-depleted zone. Exceptions are 300-series stainless steels because of their bulk and complexity. Recent developments in
and other noncorroding superalloys. The XRF source and sensors and microelectronics have produced transportable
detector must rest on the sample or be positioned with respect systems that can be used on or adjacent to production lines. In
to the sample in a precisely repeatable manner. Sample some systems, light from the spark discharge is carried by fiber
temperature limits are from 13 to 140°F (−11 to 60°C). optics to the sensors, where the wavelengths and intensities of
7.1.4 Calibration—Calibration information may be part of the several spectrum constituents are detected and measured. In
the instrumentation program supplied by the manufacturer for other systems, the fine particles dislodged by the spark dis-
each unit, and may be verified by using standard test blocks of charge are carried by capillary tube to a chamber in which they
known composition. are burned under controlled conditions and the spectrum of the
7.1.5 Speed—Qualitative sorting may be accomplished in as flame is analyzed. Photomultipliers are used with diffraction
few as 5 s per sample (exclusive of handling and surface gratings to measure the intensities of preselected analytical
preparation time). Quantitative readings may require from 10 lines in the spectrum. The numerical results are displayed in
to 200 s. Some sources report that readings may be made in 1 digital form on readouts or printed out in hard copy, or both. In
s. the semiquantitative mode, the information may be displayed

FIG. 2 Optical Emission Spectrometry

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
on a cathode-ray tube (CRT), and red and green lights at the versatile and useful for metals characterization. A coil is placed
remote sensor indicate whether the piece lies within the grade in proximity to the piece, and when an alternating current is
acceptance limits. passed through the coil, an alternating electromagnetic field is
7.2.2 Displays—Percent concentrations of preselected ele- induced in the metal under examination. The coil may be a
ments are presented in digital form on a CRT, LCD, or similar probe placed on or near the surface of the piece, or it may be
display, and they may be printed out on hard copy. a solenoid that encircles the piece (around a rod, bar, or pipe).

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
7.2.3 Sample Preparation and Environment The alternating field induced into the piece produces reaction
Considerations—The sample must be free of water, oil, and currents and fields that are unique to the electromagnetic
dirt. Heavy oxide and alloy-depleted layers must be removed characteristics of the product. Electromagnetic signal
by grinding. The grinding must remove paint, coatings, and amplitude, phase relationships, and harmonic content combine
rust to present an area for placing the spark-discharge gun that to characterize the piece. These are sensed by the coil and
has no cracks or porosity. Sample temperature limits are 13 to associated instrumentation and analyzed to indicate significant
140°F (−11 to 60°C). changes in structure, mass, chemistry, and mechanical
7.2.4 Standardization—Certified reference standards should properties, as compared to a product reference standard. For
be run two or three times and the readings averaged. The purposes of grade verification and sorting, the total signal is
concentration-ratio or intensity-ratio methods described in compared to that from the standard and analyzed. For specific
Practice E158, and the calibration procedure described in cases, in which a particular variable in the metal is of interest
Practice E305, should be followed. (for example, hardness), perhaps only one of the electromag-
7.2.5 Speed—Analysis time ranges from 10 s to 1 min, netic signal variables may yield useful results.
exclusive of sample preparation time. This time may be 7.3.2 Displays—The electromagnetic method is indirect in
reduced somewhat with faster data acquisition. (The spark that its effectiveness relies on the correlation of changes in the
generator must be held in position for 18 s, limiting the properties of metals being examined with measurable electro-
maximum speed for samples with good surfaces.) magnetic responses. These responses are vector quantities
7.2.6 Accuracy—Statements of precision and bias vary containing frequency, amplitude, and phase information, and
among manufacturers and from element to element. Users of they are often displayed on a CRT, on which the signals from
the emission spectrometry method should refer to the instru- specific grades result in groupings that are unique in phase
ment reference manuals. Repeatability is very good on stan- (angle) and amplitude with respect to other metals. Such
dard reference samples. Results on actual pieces may vary groupings on a CRT may be interpreted by an operator who
because of poor homogeneity, inadequate surface preparation, rejects all pieces falling out of the acceptance limits set for a
moisture, and other factors affecting measurement. given product. Electronic threshold (box) gates may be gener-
7.2.7 Advantages: ated and adjusted to encompass the acceptance limits, so that
7.2.7.1 May be operated in a qualitative, comparative, or any signal falling outside of these limits will cause automatic
quantitative mode; rejection of the sample. Similarly, the signal from the piece
7.2.7.2 Provides reasonably accurate chemical analysis in may be analyzed in a comparator arrangement, in which the
less than 1 min, exclusive of sample preparation and handling voltage from the standard sample is compared in phase and
time; amplitude with a standard voltage that is representative of the
7.2.7.3 Spectrometer may be mobile and operated at or near grade of the product specified. The reference standard voltage
a production line or in the field; represents the grade, heat treatment, hardness, or other signifi-
7.2.7.4 Direct reading; and cant parameter of the product, and acceptance limits are
7.2.7.5 Hard-copy records available. adjusted accordingly. The differences between the reference
7.2.8 Disadvantages: standard and the piece voltages produce an error signal an
7.2.8.1 Careful surface preparation necessary; exact match resulting in a zero reading. Limits bracketing zero
7.2.8.2 Operator fatigue may affect techniques and accuracy may be established to include acceptable variations in product
of readings; parameters, exclude out-of-tolerance material, and thus permit
7.2.8.3 Alloys and trace elements with wavelengths close to automatic three-way sorting for acceptable, off-grade low, and
those of the unknown elements may produce erroneous off-grade high product. Guidance for the selection of samples,
determinations, although corrections may be made by analyz- standardization, and establishing acceptance limits are given in
ing standard samples of the same grade or similar composi- Practice E566 for sorting of nonferrous metals and in Practice
tions; and E703 for sorting of ferrous metals. Electromagnetic signal
7.2.8.4 Unproven when separation is based on carbon, amplitude, harmonic content, and phase shifts combine to
sulfur, or phosphorus. characterize the piece and relate to material structure, size,
7.3 Electromagnetic Method: chemistry, and mechanical properties. For most grade verifi-
7.3.1 Summary of Method—The electromagnetic (Eddy cation problems, the total signal or the fundamental frequency
Current) method is a primary means for high-speed, non- signal is analyzed. For specific cases, perhaps only one or two
contact, and automatic sorting of ferrous and nonferrous components of the total signal are selected as responsive to the
metals. The chemical composition, metallurgical structure, and variable (for example, hardness) of interest.
mechanical properties of metals affect the electromagnetic NOTE 1—The electromagnetic method has the potential for on-line
properties of metals to varying degrees, making this method grade verification or process monitoring of metals at elevated processing

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
temperatures. Water-cooled encircling coils suitable for use on wire, rod, 7.4 Electrical Resistivity Method:
bar, and tubular products are available for use at a temperature of 2000°F 7.4.1 Summary of Method—Electrical resistivity is a prop-
(1100°C) and are used with suitable instrumentation for these purposes.
erty of metals that is affected by, among other factors, chemical
7.3.3 Standardization—Certification of a sorting system re- composition and grain structure, and it can be considered as a
lies on standardization based on standard reference samples of means for sorting electrically conductive materials. The resis-
the product that are representative of the size, nominal chemi-

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
tivity method utilizes a probe with four in-line, equally spaced
cal composition, and processing specified for the product. Two pins (electrodes) placed in contact with a metal. A constant
or three samples each, of product representing the means and current is passed through the material from the outer two
extremes of the acceptance range, should be used, and system electrodes, and a potential drop is measured across the inner
adjustments should be made accordingly. Practices E566 and two electrodes. The potential drop is usually converted to
E703 list steps for the selection of reference samples, setting of resistivity and displayed on a conventional meter or digital
acceptance limits and standardization procedures, and precau- readout. The readout may refer to the absolute resistivity of the
tions and interferences that should be observed. New material, or it may be a relative resistivity value. This mea-
microprocessor-based instrumentation provides a different ap- surement requires direct, uniform contact with the material
proach to standardization. Data for a large number of test surface using the four-point probe. The examination is con-
specimens may be stored, permitting an accurate assessment of ducted by placing the probe on the object whose electrical
the normal distribution of product variables and a highly resistivity is to be determined, applying the current, and
accurate standardization of grade verification results. reading the meter.
7.3.4 Speed—The electromagnetic method is capable of 7.4.2 Displays—The display reads out either resistivity or
high-speed operation. Speed is dependent on the geometry of conductivity on an analog or digital display.
the part, excitation frequency, time necessary to make a grade
7.4.3 Sample Preparation and Environmental
determination, and product handling considerations. The rela-
Considerations—Epoxies, paints, and other nonconductive sur-
tionship of the coil to the part must be such that the electro-
face coatings, as well as surface oxides, dirt, oil, and grease
magnetic signals obtained from piece to piece are consistent, so
must be removed, or they will prevent the current from
that the signal is not affected by part geometry or position.
entering the material. In order to avoid errors, the surface must
Edge effect and end effect interferences must be avoided. The
be free of moisture and at a uniform, known temperature.
details of size and frequency limitations on test speed are
beyond the scope of this guide, but in most cases sorting speed 7.4.4 Standardization—Reference standard samples with
is limited by product handling and mechanical considerations known compositions, physical properties, and processing are
rather than by limitations imposed by the method. necessary. Also, they must be of the same thickness and
7.3.5 Accuracy—Verification of sorting accuracy must rely geometry as the materials being investigated. Edges, corners,
on other (analytical) methods to establish product properties and other geometric discontinuities can affect readings and
and acceptance limits. Highly reliable sorting and grade therefore must be avoided. Readings should be taken at
verification is possible when suitably stabilized excitation and selected locations in order to characterize the test samples
measuring instrumentation is used, along with mechanical while avoiding geometry that can cause errors. Several read-
handling that maintains reasonably precise relationships be- ings should be taken and averaged for each selected location to
tween the coil and the product. provide base references. During instrument standardization, the
7.3.6 Advantages: precautions regarding surface preparation, edge effects, and
7.3.6.1 Contact not necessary in most cases; sample geometry must be observed.
7.3.6.2 Portable/transportable as well as fixed installation; 7.4.5 Speed—Readings may be taken in approximately 1 s,
7.3.6.3 No surface preparation normally necessary; exclusive of surface preparation time.
7.3.6.4 High-speed, depending on part size and frequency; 7.4.6 Advantages:
7.3.6.5 Automatic operation readily achieved; 7.4.6.1 Simple to use and read;
7.3.6.6 Responsive to mechanical and physical properties 7.4.6.2 Rapid;
not measurable by other methods, such as those resulting from 7.4.6.3 Adaptable to automatic operation;
heat treating or mechanical working; and 7.4.6.4 Portable, that is, usable in situ and on stacked
7.3.6.7 Adaptable to in-line, hot product use. product; and
7.3.7 Disadvantages: 7.4.6.5 Usable on a wide range of ferrous and nonferrous
7.3.7.1 Not quantitative, that is, requires supporting quanti- metals.
tative measurements to establish operating parameters;
7.4.7 Disadvantages:
7.3.7.2 Sensitivity to a wide range of variables can confuse
the results, and dissimilar materials may exhibit similar elec- 7.4.7.1 Requires uniform electrical contact;
tromagnetic characteristics, requiring supplemental examina- 7.4.7.2 Thickness and geometry variations affect readings;
tion using other methods; 7.4.7.3 Discontinuities such as porosity, voids, cracks, and
7.3.7.3 Coil and part temperatures can cause drift; and inclusions may cause errors;
7.3.7.4 Where sorting is to be conducted on the basis of 7.4.7.4 Variations in probe contact pressure and minor
composition alone, the response to heat treatment, mechanical variations in surface condition may result in errors; and
working, and other processing variables can result in the 7.4.7.5 Electrical conductivity changes resulting from heat
misidentification of metals with the same composition. treatment and mechanical working can result in different

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
materials appearing to be similar or materials with the same 7.5.6 Accuracy—Sorting by the go/no-go method is affected
composition appearing to be different. by the similarity between the standards used and the accep-
7.5 Thermoelectric Method (Fig. 3): tance band for the samples being examined. Users of this
7.5.1 Summary of Method—The thermoelectric method method should refer to the manufacturer’s specifications re-
makes use of the thermocouple principle, in which a heated garding repeatability.
7.5.7 Advantages:

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
junction of dissimilar metals creates a voltage (formally
referred to as the Seebeck Effect). Employing a heated metal- 7.5.7.1 Nondestructive;
tipped probe and an ambient temperature probe (or two probes 7.5.7.2 Probe pressure, sample size, and geometry not
heated or cooled to two different temperatures), voltage read- variables;
ings are established for known reference standards. The read- 7.5.7.3 Portable, that is, may be used on stacked or bundled
ings displayed are representative of the known standards and product or in situ; and
must be within the range of the instrument display. They are 7.5.7.4 Rapid.
compared with those obtained from the pieces. In operation, 7.5.8 Disadvantages:
the heated (300 to 390°F or 150 to 200°C) probes are placed in 7.5.8.1 Requires an electrically conductive surface;
contact with the surface of the part under examination, and 7.5.8.2 Some surface preparation may be necessary;
readings are taken. Sorting is based on the acceptance limits 7.5.8.3 Least effective for aluminum alloys and austenitic
and on known tolerances above and below the established stainless steels; and
means. 7.5.8.4 Thermoelectric changes resulting from heat treat-
7.5.2 Displays—Currently available devices employ digital ment and mechanical working can result in metals that are
voltmeters or analog null meters, or both. Light bar, chart similar in composition appearing to be different and dissimilar
recorder, direct computer, or microprocessor entry may be metals appearing to be similar.
used. 7.6 Chemical Spot Test Method (Fig. 4):
7.5.3 Sample Preparation and Environmental Conditions— 7.6.1 Summary of Method—The chemical spot test method
The thermoelectric effect requires electrical contact with the uses the reactions between certain chemicals and metals that
piece. The surface must therefore be free of nonconductive produce colors and permit one alloy to be distinguished from
paint and protective coatings, as well as oxide layers. Since the another. A typical unit electrically removes a minute amount of
probe covers a small area, only a small area need be prepared. metal onto moistened filter paper. One or two drops of reagent
No shock or environmental hazards are involved. are placed on the paper to develop a distinct color reaction.
7.5.4 Standardization—Standardization should be per- Normal color perception is required because operators are
formed after the instrument has been turned on and warmed up, evaluating color changes. Sets of reagents are available to
as well as periodically throughout the examination process. cover different metals groups such as aluminum, carbon and
Refer to Practice E977 for the selection of reference standards alloy steels, and brass and bronze.
and precautions associated with standardization. Standardiza- 7.6.2 Interpretation—Color charts are available for many
tion coupons with known compositions should be used as a different metals groups and reagents, but not for all. Using the
reference base. As with other qualitative means in which proper chart for the metals group being investigated, the
sorting is made by the comparison of reference standard and operator makes the identification based on the color match
actual product sample readings, all parameters affecting the between the filter paper spot and the chart. It is advisable to
acceptance range should be known and measurable. perform examinations with known standards and reagent kits in
7.5.5 Speed—Individual readings may require less than 1 s, order to establish a catalog of responses for the metals being
exclusive of surface preparation time. examined.

FIG. 3 Typical Circuit used in Thermoelectric Sorting Instruments

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
files: one to break the oxide layer and provide a reference
connection, and the other to generate the triboelectric voltage.
7.7.2 Display—Triboelectric voltage may be read directly
from an analog or digital meter, or it may be used in the
comparator mode, in which the voltage is balanced against a
reference voltage that is internally generated and thus responds

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
to a difference or change in the triboelectric signal. Both types
are simple to use. The “gun” with the reciprocating rod is held
against the piece to provide electrical contact, and the instru-
ment amplifies and processes the resultant voltage. The file-
type instrument is operated by making one stroke to break
through the oxide, and repeated strokes by the second file
produces the triboelectric voltage. A clip with sharp jaws is
used in some cases to replace the first file. Go/no-go signal
lamps may be used to identify out-of-specification materials.
7.7.3 Sample Preparation and Environmental
Considerations—As with all surface contact methods, heavy
oxide and alloy-depleted layers must be removed for repeatable
FIG. 4 Apparatus Associated with Chemical Spot Testing results. Special environment hazards are not involved.
7.7.4 Standardization—Test blocks of known composition
should be used to establish reference bases and determine
satisfactory operation. For most sorting applications, however,
7.6.3 Sample Preparation and Environmental
it is important that the final instrument setup be made on
Considerations—The amount of metal removed by this proce-
samples of the product in which the variables of interest are
dure is 0.00004 in. (0.0001 mm), maximum. For reliable alloy
represented and have been measured by other means.
identification, it is necessary to remove oxide and alloy-
depleted layers prior to the spot test. Furthermore, all paint, 7.7.5 Speed—Response time is on the order of 1 s.
protective coatings, oil, dirt, and grease must be removed. 7.7.6 Accuracy—Because of the limited use of this method,
7.6.4 Calibration—Performance should be verified little data on accuracy are available. The method has been
routinely, using standard coupons. found to be mostly ineffective on carbon and alloy steels.
7.6.5 Speed—Approximately 60 s is necessary to perform a 7.7.7 Advantages:
determination for a single alloying element. It may be neces- 7.7.7.1 Simple to use;
sary to perform two or more examinations to separate one alloy 7.7.7.2 Fast;
from another. 7.7.7.3 May be used on a wide variety of material sizes;
7.6.6 Advantages: 7.7.7.4 Geometry independent;
7.6.6.1 Relatively simple to use; 7.7.7.5 Highly portable, that is, used in situ and on bundled
7.6.6.2 Portable, that is, may be used at almost any location and stacked material; and
and on nearly any size component; 7.7.7.6 Rugged and not adversely affected by environment.
7.6.6.3 Reagent kits are available for a wide range of ferrous 7.7.8 Disadvantages:
and nonferrous alloys; 7.7.8.1 Leaves permanent marking on specimen surface;
7.6.6.4 Essentially nondestructive; and 7.7.8.2 Not well-suited to mechanized operation;
7.6.6.5 May be used to identify platings and metallic coat- 7.7.8.3 Normally used only when other methods are inef-
ings. fective;
7.6.7 Disadvantages: 7.7.8.4 Readings affected by oxide and alloy-depleted lay-
7.6.7.1 Slow; ers;
7.6.7.2 Careful surface preparation necessary; 7.7.8.5 Oscillator rod pressure affects readings; and
7.6.7.3 Chemicals have a finite shelf life; 7.7.8.6 Not suited for carbon and alloy steels.
7.6.7.4 Readout is subjective and based on color perception; 7.8 Spark Testing Method (Fig. 5):
and 7.8.1 Summary of Method—The basis of this method is that
7.6.7.5 Temperature of the piece may affect results. certain alloys oxidize rapidly at high temperatures. When a
7.7 Triboelectric Method: high-speed abrasive wheel is held against a metal, the fine
7.7.1 Summary of Method—Triboelectricity results when- particles that are torn loose are heated to incandescence (spark)
ever two dissimilar metals rub against one another. Although by the friction and consequently oxidized. Material identifica-
these voltages are in the microvolt to millivolt range, they are tion is based on the visible characteristics of the sparks
distinctive enough in certain cases to permit sorting. Basic produced such as colors, bursts, shapes, sizes, and distributions
equipment consists of a “gun” holding an oscillating cylindri- of the spark stream. Spark testing is commonly used for the
cal rod that provides the rubbing motion when held against the identification or separation of carbon and alloy steel grades. It
metal being examined. The triboelectric voltage thus generated may also be used to sort metals on the basis of gross surface
is processed and displayed. An alternative application uses two (chemistry) segregation, carburization, and decarburization. It

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
his perception of spark patterns during an operating turn, and
his superior should subject him to evaluation using unknown
samples at regular intervals.
7.8.5 Speed—A skilled operator can make a determination
on the acceptability of a material in a few seconds.
7.8.6 Accuracy—Skilled operators have records of correct

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
calls well into the 90 % range; however, fatigue, distractions,
and physiological factors can affect performance materially. In
many metals-producing plants, spark testing is conducted at
several locations in the production line in order to reduce the
effects of operator error.
7.8.7 Advantages:
7.8.7.1 Rapid and economical;
7.8.7.2 Can be applied at nearly any stage of production;
7.8.7.3 Little or no surface preparation required;
7.8.7.4 Sample cutting unnecessary;
7.8.7.5 Suitable for most ferrous and nonferrous alloys;
7.8.7.6 Size independent, that is, may be used on stacked or
bundled pieces; and
7.8.7.7 Simple, portable, and may be used almost anywhere
there is a suitable power source.
FIG. 5 Typical Spark Test
7.8.8 Disadvantages:
7.8.8.1 Considerable operator training, skill, and experience
is a highly subjective method, requiring considerable operator required;
training, experience, and skill. The distinction between the 7.8.8.2 Results are mainly qualitative and are highly depen-
spark characteristics of one piece and those of another is dent on operator skill, emotional, and physical condition;
primarily a function of chemistry. The operator compares the 7.8.8.3 Not applicable to mechanized or automatic opera-
spark characteristics of the piece with those from samples on tion;
hand or from memory. Because of elemental interactions, it is 7.8.8.4 Destructive by nature, that is, can result in excessive
generally not possible to examine a spark and arrive at an metal removal because of heavy wheel pressure or prolonged
elemental analysis. However, experienced operators can esti- grinding, or both;
mate certain elements, such as carbon content, within a few 7.8.8.5 When used outdoors or in other bright light, shading
percent. In practice, the operator must learn the spark pattern is necessary; and
for each material likely to be encountered. 7.8.8.6 Will not detect copper or lead.
7.8.2 Interpretation—There is no instrumentation involved
in the spark testing method. Rather, the operator is trained to 8. Selection of Method
recognize the patterns listed in 7.8.1 and to make judgements
8.1 General—Selection of the appropriate metals identifica-
as to the presence and degree of alloying elements.
tion method is a somewhat complex process, and it is not
7.8.3 Sample Preparation and Environmental
limited simply to the sensitivity and accuracy of the technique
Considerations—No sample preparation is necessary, keeping
employed. The following paragraphs outline some of the
in mind that the presence of heavy oxide and alloy-depleted
material and operational parameters that should be considered
layers will affect the generated spark. As stated earlier, it may
when planning a metals identification, grade verification, or
be desirable to investigate these zones. The operator must
sorting installation. Failure to do so may negate the effective-
otherwise grind through them to arrive at a level at which the
ness of the examination.
spark pattern is representative of the composition of the
material. Spark testing may be conducted at nearly any stage of 8.2 Metals Grade Verification Parameters:
metals production. Areas with strong breezes from fans or open 8.2.1 Material to Be Examined:
doors must be avoided because the breeze might distort the 8.2.1.1 Grade (composition).
spark stream, causing misinterpretation. Lighting is important, 8.2.1.2 Size(s), shape, and weight.
and low to moderate white light provides the proper illumina- 8.2.1.3 Examination on-line or off-line?
tion for spark testing. Other lighting conditions are permissible, 8.2.1.4 Are the specified mechanical properties acquired
although they may affect the perception of the operator. Bright through heat-treatment, quench and temper, warm work, cold
light should be avoided. work, etc.?
7.8.4 Standardization—Reference samples or coupons of 8.2.1.5 How much product is to be examined? Pieces per
product that are representative of the composition and process- turn? Conveyor speeds?
ing of the material being examined must be available. The 8.2.1.6 Statistical or 100 % sampling?
grinding wheel must be within the stated limits for diameter, 8.2.2 Information Required:
width, and prescribed grit. Because of the highly subjective 8.2.2.1 Quantitative (direct readout/printout).
nature of this method, the operator should on occasion check 8.2.2.2 Qualitative (go/no-go).

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
8.2.2.3 Qualitative with quantitative backup. that separates it from all other materials in the plant with which
8.2.3 Eliminate methods not suitable for the identification or the subject material might become mixed, and to supply
sorting task. evidence that the procedure will do so.
8.2.4 Rank remaining methods by technical merit and cost. 9. Characteristics, Applications, and Limitations of
8.2.5 Select two or more candidates for evaluation under Metals Grade Identification, Verification, and Sorting

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
real or simulated operating conditions. Methods
8.3 Further Considerations—The selection of method(s) for 9.1 Capabilities of Metals Grade Identification Methods
a particular application must take into account the population (Table 1):
from which the identification is to be made. If a particular 9.1.1 Table 1 lists the capabilities of the several nondestruc-
material or condition is to be identified, it is necessary to tive methods covered in this guide.
ensure that the examination(s) selected can discriminate the 9.1.2 It is intended for ready reference and the identification
differences in grade or condition from all other specimens in of primary candidates for specific grade-mix problems.
the population. If the number and sources of samples are 9.1.3 The extreme left-hand column lists metals and metals
limited, a simple procedure using one method may suffice. properties that may define a specific grade.
When the number of samples is large and the sources are 9.1.4 The columns to the right of the metals properties
varied, the chances for errors increase, and a more complex column list the various nondestructive methods covered in this
program involving reevaluation and the use of more than one guide, with coded indications concerning their applicability, as
method may become necessary. It is sound practice to require well as general and specific notes to aid in the selection
the material supplier to identify the required material in a way process.

TABLE 1 Metals Grade Identification Methods Capabilities

NOTE 1—E = excellent; G = good; F = fair; P = poor; N = not applicable; A = direct-reading quantitative; and B = indirect-reading qualitative.
Electro-
Thermo-
X-Ray Emission magnetic Conductivity Chemical Tribo- Spark
Metals Properties electric Notes
Spectrometry Spectrometry (Eddy Resistivity Spot Test Electric Testing
(Seebeck)
Current)
A. Chemical composition E, AA E, A G, B F, B G, B G, AB F, BC G, B Spectrometry is the best
method.
Identification/response E, A E, A G, BD F G, BE E F G Spectrometry and chemical
to specific alloy spot test are widely
used.
Response to surface E, A E, A F–G, B F, B E, B E N N
chemistry
F G
B. Physical properties: N N F–G, B N G, B N N N Electromagnetic, thermo-
electric, and conductivity
responses are all relative
Hardness (surface, N N F, BF N G, BG N N N and based on known re-
through thickness) sponses to measured
variables.
Tensile strength N N F–G, BF N G, BG N N N
Yield strength
F
C. Monitoring process N N F–G, B F, B F, B N N N Electromagnetic, thermo-
variables: electric, and conductivity
Cold work N N F–G, B F, B F–G, B N N N responses are all relative
Warm work N N F–G, B F, B F–G, B N N N and based on known
Anneal N N F–G, B F, B F–G, B N N N responses to measured
Case/through N N F–G, B F, B F–G, B N N N variables.
hardening
Temper N N F–G, B F, B F–G, B N N N
A
Not suitable for low atomic number alloys such as carbon, silicon, and phosphorous.
B
Single element per spot test.
C
Not suitable for steels.
D
Responds well to manganese reversions in steel.
E
Responds well to electrically or thermally active elements, or both.
F
Requires controlled processing, composition, etc.
G
Thermoelectric properties influenced by metallurgical exchange in ferrous materials.

9.2 Application Characteristics of Metals Grade Identifica- 9.2.3 The extreme left-hand column of Table 2 lists major
tion Methods (Table 2): operational and environmental parameters to be addressed
9.2.1 Table 2 relates candidate methods to operational and when planning a grade verification operation.
environmental conditions that influence the selection process. 9.2.4 The columns to the right of the applications variables
9.2.2 It is designed as a ready reference guide for the column list the several nondestructive grade verification meth-
identification of operational and environmental factors that ods in this guide, along with coded indications concerning their
may influence the choice of a specific method over several applicability, as well as general and specific notes to aid in the
candidate systems. selection process.

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
TABLE 2 Application Characteristics of Metals Grade Verification Methods
NOTE 1—E = excellent; G = good; F = fair; P = poor; N = not applicable; A = direct-reading quantitative; and B = indirect-reading qualitative.
Electro-
Application X-Ray Emission magnetic Conductivity Thermoelectric Chemical Tribo- Spark
Notes
Characteristic Spectrometry Spectrometry (Eddy Resistivity (Seebeck) Spot Test Electric Testing
Current)

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
A. Direct-read/response: E, A E, A G, B G, B G, B BA G, B N, B
1. Composition EB E GC GC GC E F–G N
2. Physical properties N N G G G N N N
B. Automatic operation E E E G E N N N
C. Permanent record yes yes yes yes yes possible yes no
D. Portable yes mobile yes yes yes yes yes yes
E. Environment:
1. Heat/cold 13–140°F 13–140°F GD F EE N N G
2. Vibration N N G P G N N G
3. Moisture N N G P G P N G
4. Dirt, oil, mill scale N N GF N GF GF FF G
5. Illumination N N G G G GG G GG
F. Relative speed moderate moderate high medium high high slow medium high medium high
A
Requires color determination by perception: single element per test.
B
Not responsive to elements with atomic numbers of 22 or less.
C
Responses to composition and processing. Variables must be determined and analyzed.
D
Variations ±20° not troublesome; can operate at any of a wide range of temperatures if variations are limited.
E
If known standards and piece are at same temperature, results are accurate up to 500°F.
F
Heavy mill scale must be removed.
G
Moderate lighting necessary.

10. Precautions and Disclaimers 10.3 A combination of methods (including the very simple
10.1 This guide neither endorses nor recommends the use of and safe use of a magnet) may be required for any complex,
any of the methods covered. There is no one nondestructive total examination.
method capable of identifying and sorting every possible metal 11. Keywords
or alloy combination. Since there are more than 10 000 metals,
11.1 chemical spot test; curie temperature; eddy current;
and each has a lower and upper specification limit, the number
electrical conductivity; electromagnetic; metals grade; metals
of possible variables is nearly limitless.
grade identification; metals grade verification/sorting; nonde-
10.2 Each method must be examined based on its effective- structive; optical emission spectrometry; Seebeck Effect; spark
ness for the specific application and any hazards associated testing; thermoelectric; triboelectric; X-ray fluorescence spec-
with its use. trometry

APPENDIX

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THIS GUIDE

alarm gate—an adjustable electronic means for selecting coupon—see standard known.
indications (signals) whose amplitude, timing, frequency display—in instrumentation, the form in which results are
components, and other identifiable characteristics may be viewed by the performer of the examination such as (but not
unique for a given material, permitting adjustment of the gate limited to) digital or analog meter, printer, chart recorder, light
to accept or reject such signals for automatic sorting. emitting diode, liquid crystal, oscilloscope pattern, computer
calibration, instrument—the comparison of an instrument monitor.
with, or the adjustment of an instrument to a known refer-
ence(s) often traceable to the National Institute of Standards eddy current—an electrical current caused to flow in a
and Technology (NIST). closed path, in a conductor by electromagnetic induction.
calibration, internal—the adjustment of internal instrument electromagnetic testing—in metal sorting, a method em-
circuitry to conform to manufacturers specification; usually ploying electromagnetic energy for examining materials; pri-
performed only by the manufacturer or authorized representa- marily ferrous and non-ferrous metals, for composition, me-
tive. chanical and physical properties.

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 E1476 − 04 (2014)
grade—a designation, assigned by the manufacturer, usually of sparks generated by a device such as a grinding wheel being
in numeric or alphanumeric form, used to identify materials applied to a metal surface are indicative of that metal’s
having specified chemical compositions, processing, and me- chemistry.
chanical properties. spectrometer, optical emission—an instrument that mea-
grade identification, metals—determination of a grade of sures percent concentrations of elements in samples of metals
and other materials.

ASTM E1476:04(2014) provided by Standard Online AS for DNV Group Companies 2021-04-28
metal to assure compliance with those properties specified and
thus establish its identity. D ISCUSSION—When a small spot on the surface of the sample
grade sorting, metals—distinguishing a specific grade is vaporized by an electric spark, arc, laser or other means the
among mixed grades. characteristic near ultraviolet, visible or near infrared wave-
grade verification, metals—confirmation that the material lengths of light emitted by each element are measured with a
under evaluation conforms to stated grade specifications. diffraction grating and photographic plates or with an array of
magnetic permeability—the ease with which a magnetic photo-detectors.
field or flux can be set up in a magnetic circuit. spectrometer, x-ray florescence—an instrumented analyti-
cal method in which the wavelengths of characteristic emis-
DISCUSSION—It is not a constant value for a given material
sions (spectra) generated at the surface of a specimen are
but is a ratio. At any given value of magnetizing force,
analyzed to indicate the presence and amount of chemical
permeability is B/H, the ratio of flux density, B, to magnetizing
constituents in that material.
force, H. It is characteristic of the material being magnetized
spectrometric analysis—the use of optical emission or
and is dependent upon alloy, heat treatment, and geometric
x-ray emission spectrum analysis techniques for the determi-
configuration. Whereas the relative permeability of free space
nation of the chemical composition of a specimen.
is 1.0, relative permeability for metals range from less than one
spot test, chemical—an examination that determines the
for diamagnetic metals to several thousand for high-
presence or absence of certain metallic elements in a test
permeability ferromagnetic metals.
specimen, by color variation, through the use of reagents.
nondestructive testing—the general term applied to mate- standard, product—a sample of a finished product that is
rials evaluation methods used to assess the suitability of known to be within specifications, and against which another
materials for specified applications without damaging the sample may be compared.
specimen or impairing its usefulness in any way; however, in standard, known—a reference material (sometimes called a
metal sorting, methods that affect the surface are sometimes coupon) in which relevant chemical and physical characteris-
considered nondestructive. tics are known and measurable, and which is used as a
reagent —a chemical used to react with another chemical comparison reference for examining unknowns.
often to confirm or deny the presence of a second chemical (see standardization—the procedure used to verify or adjust
Terminology F1156); in metal sorting; the second chemical is instrument response to conform to the data established from
a metallic element. reference standards.
Seebeck effect—generation of an electromotive force (emf) thermoelectric effect—an electromotive force (emf) gener-
as a result of a circuit containing two dissimilar metallic ated by a temperature difference (Seebeck Effect); the principal
electrically conductive materials having two junctions between of operation used in a metal sorting technique.
the materials at different temperatures, and is the basis for triboelectric effect—phenomenon of producing an electro-
thermocouples. static voltage differential between dissimilar metals by fric-
DISCUSSION—In standard thermocouples, temperature is de- tional contact (see Test Method F355); in metal sorting the
termined from the emf produced. In metal sorting, temperature measurement of the voltage differential can be used as a means
differences are held constant and the emf changes with the of distinguishing between dissimilar metals.
introduction of specific pieces as one of the dissimilar metals. wavelength—the distance in the direction of propagation
spark testing—an examination in which the optical emis- between two successive points where the phase (amplitude and
sion characteristics (this is, color, intensity, shape, distribution) direction) is the same.

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