BSW III Sem-V Social Work Theories

Credits- 2 Marks -30

Unit –I
Introduction to Theory
• Theory explains how some aspect of human behaviour or performance is organized. It
thus enables us to make predictions about that behaviour.
• The components of theory are concepts (ideally well defined) and principles.
• A concept is a symbolic representation of an actual thing - tree, chair, table, computer,
distance, etc.
• Construct is the word for concepts with no physical referent - democracy, learning,
freedom, etc. Language enables conceptualization.
• A principle expresses the relationship between two or more concepts or constructs.
In the process of theory development, one derives principles based on one examining
/questioning how things/concepts are related.

Concepts and principles serve two important functions:

1) They help us to understand or explain what is going on around us.
2) They help us predict future events (Can be causal or correlational)

That what theory is: the summary and synthesis of what is known about a field. It is the
reduction of our knowledge to the basic ideas, presented in a way that shows their
underlying patterns and relationships’ (Moore, 1991:2)

A theory is a related set of concepts and principles

- About a phenomenon
- the purpose of which is to explain or predict the phenomenon

Why theory is important

1. Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships

between concepts. Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how
to bring about change. Theory is a tool that enables us to identify a problem and to
plan a means for altering the situation.
2. Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and support - need to explain what
is being done and demonstrate that it works - theory and research
3. Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of
knowledge with theories from both within and without the area of distance learning.
That body of knowledge grows with theory and research. Theory guides research.
4. The theory also helps us understand what we don’t know and, therefore, is the only
guide to research. Relating to theory, it increases its ability to solve other problems
in different times and different places. (Moore, 1991: 2)

Development of theories

Theory is constantly revised as new knowledge is discovered through research. Three

stages of theory development in any new science
 1) Speculative - attempts to explain what is happening.
2) Descriptive - gathers descriptive data to describe what is really happening.
3) Constructive - revises old theories and develops new ones based on
continuing research.

Theory development process

1) Theory-practice-theory take existing theory in education, apply to distance

learning, develop new theory
2) Practice-research-theory see what is happening in distance learning,
submit to research, develop theory from results
3) Theory-theory-research/practice build on an initial theory to develop a
second theory, then apply and test it

The characteristics of the theory are as follows-

• One of the essential characteristics of a theory is to explain the answer to the question
of why to offer a better understanding of the concept or idea
• A good theory is accurate within its domain, and the result should be a consequence of
experiments, observations, and descriptions
• The theory comes into existence when several ideas are integrated and are accepted by
a wider community. It should be consistent with other accepted theories of the same
nature
• The theory is not factually based at all the times
• A theory is a confirmed and verified hypothesis
• An essential characteristic of a theory is that finding facts is more important to it than
reaching goals
• If you are looking for an essential characteristic of the theory, then it must have a broad
scope
• It must also have authenticity
• Another important characteristic of a theory is that it should be simple to avoid any
confusion
• A theory evaluates and explains current events in a correct manner
• An important characteristic of a theory is that it can analyse even past events
• It must be able to forecast future events

What are the Functions & Characteristics of Social Theory?

What are Characteristics of Social Theory?

Following are the main characteristics of sociological theory.

1. Sociological theory is a set of well-defined concepts.

2. These concepts are inter-related and have a link with each other.
3. The propositions contains at least two interrelated concepts.
4. There would be logical explanation in these propositions.
5. A theory leads to a reliable prediction.
 6. A sociological theory is subjected to versification through well-organized methods and
techniques.
7. A theory is a scientific and systematic symbolic construction.
8. A theory is a form work to collect, systematize and interrelated facts.
9. Sociological theory is provisional in character.
10. Theory is formulated in systematize way.
11. The propositions in a theory must make distinction between independent and dependent
variables.
12. Theory is subjected to verification in initial stages.
13. A sociological theory must be valid and reasonable.
14. A theory must be precise in nature.
15. A theory should be comprehensive and would be a curiosity (wonderful) or unique
thing.

In short we can say that, a sociological theory is a scientific discipline contains a set of well-
defined concepts and interrelated propositions. The construction of sociological theory would
be through a systematic and organized way which is verifiable. It should be valid, precise;
adequate and scientific in nature.

Functions of Sociological Theory

Following are the major functions of sociological theory.

1. Theory play a vital role in the digging and solution of various social problems.
2. Theory is responsible to produce rich and meaningful hypothesis.
3. Theory is a source and method for sociological inquiry.
4. Theory establishes a link between specific empirical findings and general sociological
orientation.
5. Theory guides a researcher and narrows down the range of facts.
6. More and more investigation is due to sociological theory.
7. Theory formulates research design and is a tool of inquiry.
8. Theory fills the gaps in our knowledge.
9. Theory supports the laws to establish.
10. Theory predicts facts and a theoretical system provides a secure ground for prediction.

BSW III Sem-V Social Work Theories

Credits- 2 Marks -30

Unit –2

A. Behavioural / Pschodynamic theories

Psychodynamic theories -
1.Freud,
2. Carl Jung,
3. Anna Freud,
4. Erik Erikson

B. System Theories
1. Social system theory
2. Family system theory
3. Ecological theory
4. Person in environment theory

A. Psychodynamic theories

1. Freud

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating
mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior.

Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping
our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences in a person's past
is hidden from consciousness, and may cause problems during adulthood (in the form of
neuroses).

The Unconscious Mind

Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he described the
features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe
the three levels of the mind.

On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the focus of our
attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. The preconscious consists of all which
can be retrieved from memory.

The third and most significant region is the unconscious. Here lie the processes that are the real
cause of most behavior. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you
cannot see.

The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and impulse kept
at bay and mediated by the preconscious area.
For example, Freud (1915) found that some events and desires were often too frightening or
painful for his patients to acknowledge, and believed such information was locked away in the
unconscious mind. This can happen through the process of repression.

Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary assumption
of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than
people suspect. Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious.

The Psyche

Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id,
ego, and superego (what Freud called “the psychic apparatus”). These are not physical areas
within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions.

The id, ego, and superego have most commonly been conceptualized as three essential parts of
the human personality.

Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle
(gratification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of biological instincts
(or drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos.

Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as
respiration, eating, and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life instincts is known as
libido.

In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all
human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed
as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling
people to survive rather than self-destruct.

The ego develops from the id during infancy. The ego's goal is to satisfy the demands of the id
in a safe a socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id, the ego follows the reality principle as
it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.

The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same sex
parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The superego operates on
the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable
manner.

The basic dilemma of all human existence is that each element of the psychic apparatus makes
demands upon us that are incompatible with the other two. Inner conflict is inevitable.

For example, the superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not followed. When there
is a conflict between the goals of the id and superego, the ego must act as a referee and mediate
this conflict. The ego can deploy various defense mechanisms (Freud, 1894, 1896) to prevent
it from becoming overwhelmed by anxiety.

2. Jung’s personality theory- 4 functions and 8 type

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology.
Jung’s work was influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature,
philosophy, and religious studies.

Jung also worked as a research scientist at the famous Burghölzli hospital, under Eugen
Bleuler.

Carl Jung was initially influenced by Freud, but later he choose a different route. It led to the
development of the Myers-Briggs personality test.

Jung’s personality theory was actually invented to demonstrate the complexity personality of
human and its consequences. It was actually developed to label people based on their
personality types.

It was more focused on the complexity of human mind.

Jung’s personality theory was built on the basis of two attitude of personality i.e. Introversion
and Extroversion.

Introversion

It refers to the personality theory of persons whose psyche energy only limits their own
thoughts and feelings. They thinks always about themselves.

Introverts are considered a shy person. They always focus on their own thoughts. They do not
want opinions from other persons in the world.

There are some traits which signify that you are an introvert person:
 1. You need quiet to concentrate.
2. So, You are reflective
3. You are self-aware.
4. Also, you generally take time for decisions.
5. You feel more comfortable being alone.
6. So, you don’t like to work in a group or want to work alone.
7. You prefer to write more than talk.
8. You feel tired after being in a crowd.

If you have any of the above traits, then you can consider yourself as an introvert person.

Introverts know what they like and don’t like. They are deeply connected with their values and
know what they want to get out of life. Such strong self-confidence makes one more attractive,
sophisticated, and desirable.

Facts about Introverts

Researchers have found that introverts have a higher blood flow to their frontal lobe. This part
of the brain helps you remember things, solve problems, and plan ahead.

Extroverts

Extroverts is a personality theory type of people. It is the opposite of introversion. The psyche
energy flows towards the outer world and other people. These types of persons are very social
able and very open-minded.

Extroverts are often described as the life of the party. Their outgoing, vibrant nature draws
people to them, and they have a hard time turning away the attention. They thrive off the
interaction.

There are some traits which signify that you are a Extrovert person:

• You enjoy social settings.

• So, you don’t want to live alone for a long time.
• You thrive around people.
• Also, you are a friend of many people.
• You prefer to talk out about problems and solutions.
• For Instance, You are outgoing and optimistic.
• You are not afraid of risk.
• You are flexible.

Above symbols shows that a person have an extroverted personality.

A person who is an extrovert, take pleasure in activities that involve large social gatherings,
such as parties, community activities, public demonstrations, and business or political
groups.They also tend to work well in groups.

An extrovert person is likely to enjoy time spent with people and find less reward in time spent
alone. They tend to be energized when around other people, and they are more prone to
boredom when they are by themselves.
Carl Jung also told that all people in this world consists both personality attitudes.

For example, if a person has more traits of extroversion than introversion, then he will be
called an extroverted person. The rest personality attitude is transferred to the unconscious
mind.

Functional Variations Are Also Known As Types of Personality Which Are Following:

A. Extroverted thinking

These are person who are generally very strict in their life. They follow all the rules and
regulations very strictly. They are very punctual which means they are always on time.Mainly,
they work on every task for their own objective. They always think first for themselves and
afterwards for others. At last, we can say that they are like foolish people.

B. Introverted thinking:
They are the people who are mostly interested in their own thoughts and feeling. They don’t
like to work in groups.
Also, they feel tired after being in a crowd. They feels more comfortable by living alone most
of the time.
They are very creative persons but only exert their creativity when they are alone.

C. Extroverted sensation:
These people are considering as the extremely happy people. They always finds happiness in
society.Extroverts do not think about any matter, but only lives for happiness. They also want
to see other people and mostly attract positive energy. They always seeks for happiness and
pleasure.

D. Introverted sensation:

These are people who do not expect anything from the other people. They want to create things
by themselves as much as possible.In other words, we can say that these folks do not depend
on society. Also, they do not care about what is happening in the society.

E. Extroverted feeling:

These people are very emotional and sensitive. They judge and reacts every single moment
happens in their life and takes seriously when something hearts them.

Extrovert’s are also very sociable which is completely reverse of introverted thinking. They
likes group engagements, parties etc. And they show their creativity in public. They always
prefer to work in a group rather than working alone.They like exchanging thoughts with other
people.

F. Introverted feeling:

These types of persons always doubt themselves. They always focus on finding reasons or
backend history of anything they do. They are very deep thinkers.Also, they do not share their
feeling with someone. They resolve most of the issues of their life alone.
Introverted Feeling deals with morals and what the person truly believes. Introverted Feeling
is more in depth and complex. It is also known as the ‘judging function’ because these type of
people often judge other people very easily.

G. Extroverted intuition:

Extroverted intuition is perceiving (gathering information) function. Their minds are very
creative. They always try finding new things for experiment. Also, they gather lots of
information of anything they absorb in their life.

They are very motivated persons in nature. They stays always motivated in any situation and
also motivate other persons.

Some people ask, how can they develop extroverted intuition? The answer is simple:
· Learn more and question more.
· Be persistent. Don’t give up to easily on the things you are learning.
· Be quiet. You must give some time yourself to sit in silence.
· Write or talk about your ideas.

H. Introverted intuition:

Introverted Intuition is focused inwards, on the internal world of thoughts, ideas, and concepts.
These types of people are more focused in their unconscious mind rather than their daily life.
They do not enjoy their routine.Generally, they make a dream life in their mind and always
think about that life and enjoys. They does not focus on the reality. They focus on the internal
world of the unconscious mind.

3. A new direction for psychoanalysis- Anna Freud

Sigmund Freud worked mostly with adults, helping them to reconstruct their early years
through the traces that remained after repression had taken effect.

By contrast, Anna Freud was mainly interested in working with children.

Several psychoanalysts had experimented with child analysis prior to Anna Freud. The first
practicing child psychoanalyst was Hermine von Hug-Hellmuth, who published an article on
“Play Therapy” in 1913. Carl Jung, Lou Andreas-Salomé and Sándor Ferenczi had all worked
with children.

But it was Anna Freud who first systematised and refined child psychoanalysis into a distinct
form of therapy.

Anna Freud’s method of child analysis

Anna Freud thought child analysis should stick to the basic theories of psychoanalysis, but
should be distinct as a mode of therapy.

She argued that children should only be analysed when they reached the latency period, which
begins around the age of six. Before that, she thought it best to focus on the child’s environment
so as to support their psychosexual and emotional development, and prevent neurosis from
taking root.

Anna Freud emphasised the importance of establishing a strong therapeutic alliance with
child patients. She was sensitive to the fact that that unlike adults, who usually seek analysis
voluntarily, this is rarely the case with children. This preliminary stage was intended to gain
children’s attention and trust before conducting any therapy with them.

A fundamental principle of Anna Freud’s work is that every child should be recognised as a
person in his or her own right. She was interested in creating a therapeutic alliance in
accordance with each child’s specific needs. In one case, she helped a boy to write down his
stories. In another, she knitted clothes for a girl’s doll.

Anna Freud hardly ever used a psychoanalytic couch when working with children.

She recognised that children struggle to keep still and focused, and that they could only be
expected to engage in free association to a very limited extent. Instead, she allowed her child
patients to move about completely freely in the treatment room: if a child romped around on
the carpet, she would do the same! She also made drawing materials readily available, and
encouraged children to use them. These drawings were regarded as important means of
expression, every bit as significant as the spoken word.

Anna Freud didn’t just want to use psychoanalysis as a therapy.

She also wanted to apply its principles to create environments in which children could
emotionally and creatively thrive.

Institutions and projects

Hietzing school pupils in the schoolyard. Collection of Michael J. Burlingham.

While still an apprentice teacher she had worked in a day-care centre for deprived children,
and during her psychoanalytic training she worked at the Baumgarten Children’s Home, a
project for children who had been made homeless by the First World War, run by the
psychoanalyst Siegfried Bernfeld. Over the course of her life, she worked in numerous
institutions and projects dedicated to children’s wellbeing, often ones that she herself founded.
These included the Matchbox School in 1923, the Jackson Nursery in 1937, and the Hampstead
Clinic in 1941.

These organisations were very different from one another. Some were more concerned with
teaching, others with helping children to cope with separation, loss and trauma.But they all
shared the common aim of applying psychoanalytic insight to provide the best possible
environment for children to learn, develop, overcome deprivation and adversity, and flourish
as individuals.

Landmark contributions

The organisations that Anna Freud founded or co-founded gave rise to new understandings of
childhood development, and how methods of childcare and teaching might best support it.
Anna Freud was committed to bringing psychoanalytic insights into teaching and parenting.
She gave lectures on child psychoanalysis for parents and teachers, and taught a regular seminar
for nursery school teachers. At the same time, she was also able to make landmark contributions
to mainstream psychoanalysis.

In 1936, she published The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence, which became her best-known
and most important book.

The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence took ideas that were scattered throughout Sigmund
Freud’s writings and systematised them into a catalogue of ‘defence mechanisms’, which Anna
Freud saw as an important function of the ego. It continues to be taught in some psychoanalytic
training organisations today.

4. Erik Erikson- Stages of Psycho social development

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual
development.

The stages that make up his theory are as follows:1

• Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

• Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
• Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
• Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
• Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

Let's take a closer look at the background and different stages that make up Erikson's
psychosocial theory.

Overview

So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much like Sigmund
Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages.

Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described the impact
of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction
and relationships played a role in the development and growth of human beings.

Conflict During Each Stage

Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following
periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that
serves as a turning point in development.2
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or
failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but
so is the potential for failure.

If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological
strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives.3 If they fail to deal effectively
with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self.

Mastery Leads to Ego Strength

Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage
in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.

If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred
to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart

Age Conflict Important Events Outcome
Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope
Autonomy vs. Shame and
Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Toilet Training Will
Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence
Social
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity
Relationships
Young Adulthood (19 to 40
Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
years)
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 Work and
Generativity vs. Stagnation Care
years) Parenthood
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom

B. Introduction to Systems Theory in Social Work

When applied to social work, systems theory is a practice that enables professionals to look
holistically at a client’s conditions and environmental factors to gain a better understanding of
why they face issues or hardships.

Evaluating an individual’s behavior as it relates to these many factors within their life can be a
complicated process, but social workers can apply systems theory to put together the puzzle
pieces that have influenced the greater picture of their clients’ behavior and choices.

Let’s take a deeper look at what systems theory is, how it can be applied to many fields, and
how its application to social work is beneficial to both social workers and their clients.

What is Systems Theory?

Systems theory is an interdisciplinary study of systems External link:open_in_new as they
relate to one another within a larger, more complex system. The key concept of systems theory,
regardless of which discipline it’s being applied to, is that the whole is greater than the sum of
its parts.

What this means is that when holistically examining how smaller systems come together to
affect the greater complex system, certain characteristics of the whole—the complex system—
can not be easily explained or rationalized when looking singularly at any one of its systems—
its parts.

Systems theory seeks to explain and develop hypotheses around characteristics that arise within
complex systems that seemingly could not arise in any single system within the whole. This is
referred to as emergent behavior. If a complex system expresses emergent behavior, that means
it has characteristics its properties do not display on their own.

A simple systems theory example is baking. Consider all the ingredients that make up a cake.
If you were to lay them out on your counter and weren’t familiar with baked goods, it would
be difficult to envision how the eggs, flour, sugar, etc., could be combined and heated to create
a cake. That’s because no single ingredient or environmental factor—in this case, heat—would
produce a baked good such as cake on its own. From the perspective of systems theory, the
whole—our dessert in this example—is greater than the sum of its parts.

Now imagine you have just the baked good, and you’re unsure of its ingredients. You taste it
and it’s sweet, so you can reasonably hypothesize it includes sugar. But what gives it its other
qualities? To find out, you’d need to learn the rest of the ingredients and how they were
combined to make the final product.

Now, consider the other factors about these baked goods. Perhaps they are being produced for
a celebration, and two people strike up a conversation and further a bond or relationship while
enjoying the dessert together. We’ve started with a scheduled celebration, flour, sugar, eggs,
etc., and ended with two individuals strengthening their relationship—the result of the unique
interaction between all these moving parts.

Within any discipline, the application of systems theory involves looking at how all the
ingredients (systems) came together to make the cake (complex system/whole) and how this
ultimately gave us the end result that none of these properties could produce on their own
without a change to their environment (emergent characteristic).

Some fields are extremely diverse in their applications, like social work. Experts in broad fields
must apply systems theory to take a holistic approach to their work and gain a better
understanding of all the factors that come into play within their disciplines.

Some of the concepts of systems theory as they apply to psychology, sociology and social
work:

• System: An entity that’s made up of interrelated/interdependent parts.

• Complex system: The greater, whole system made up of individual, smaller systems.
Generally used in social sciences.
• Ecological systems: The various systems in an individual’s life that influence their
behavior.
 • Homeostasis: The state of steady conditions within a system. A system is always
moving toward homeostasis.
• Adaptation: A system’s tendency to make changes that will protect itself when
presented with new environmental factors.
• Feedback loop: When the outputs of a system ultimately affect its inputs, causing the
system to feed back into itself circularly.

History of Systems Theory

The idea of the whole being greater than the sum of its parts is not new, but the progress of
systems theory comes in where and how it’s applied—social work being a perfect example of
this expansion of the theory’s application.

Today, systems theory is often applied in various psychological/sociological settings and in the
physical sciences, such as chemistry and physics.

Modern use of systems theory came about following WWII and the technological
advancements of that time . As humans interacted more and more with new technology,
researchers needed a more in-depth understanding of human behavior as it relates to the
mechanisms around them—machine or otherwise. This is where signal detection theory came
from: out of a need to create more effective radar and sonar systems that would ensure military
personnel could distinguish between various signals.

The first call for a general systems theory came from Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s research in the
1940s-50s. In 1968, he published “General System Theory: Foundations, Development,
Applications.” The goal of this book was to outline certain basic laws that can be applied to
virtually every scientific field. From his perspective, the way individual components within a
complex system cyclically are both affected by and causing an effect on the system can be
applied and reveal crucial information in multiple settings. Following this thought process,
Bertalanffy reasoned there ought to be universal guidelines or principles that are applied across
the sciences and within educational settings to further unify certain fields—specifically the
natural and social sciences—and relate them to one another, rather than looking at them
individually.

Bertalanffy is considered one of the founders of systems theory as it’s known and applied
today. Bertalanffy briefly described systems theory as follows:

“General system theory, therefore, is a general science of wholeness. … The meaning of the
somewhat mystical expression, ‘The whole is more than the sum of its parts’ is simply that
constitutive characteristics are not explainable from the characteristics of the isolated parts.
The characteristics of the complex, therefore, appear as new or emergent.”

— Ludwig von Bertalanffy

Assumptions of Systems Theory

The main assumption of systems theory is that a complex system is made up of multiple smaller
systems, and it is the interactions between these smaller systems that create a complex system
as it’s known.
Systems theory assumes certain underlying concepts and principles can be applied universally
in different fields, even if these fields evolved separately. This assumption is a crucial factor in
systems theory because it is this reasoning that enables people like social workers and
psychologists to employ systems theory in a way that benefits those they’re assisting.

Following that assumption, a general systems theory that provides universal guidelines for
scientific research and education will enable further integration and unification of the natural
and social sciences. This will yield a better understanding of how these sciences are interrelated
and affect our daily lives.

How Does Systems Theory Apply to Social Work?

A holistic approach to an individual’s personality, choices and hardships is important when it

comes to successful social work. Like the other fields mentioned, a social worker must look at
all factors that come together in a unique way to shape their experiences and who they are.

Social workers may employ systems theory to understand problems like child abuse, family
issues and community dysfunction as they relate to individuals’ personal issues, such as
anxiety, low self-esteem, self-harm or relationship issues. Based on systems theory, multiple
practices have been created that are specific to social work. Below are several prominent
examples.

1.Family Systems Theory

Developed by Dr. Murray Bowen in 1946,views the family unit as a complex system,
containing its own systems and feedback loops. He created eight interlocking concepts of
family systems for practitioners to examine and improve family functioning.

2.The Socio-Ecological Model

The Life Model

The life model of social practice work was developed in 1980 by Carel E. Germain and Alex
Gitterman and was influenced strongly by systems theory. The life model was ground breaking
in that it introduced the idea of bringing the ecological perspective to social work—looking at
how singular and complex systems interact with each other as these concepts relate to
practicing social work.

The socio-ecological model was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner in 1979External

link:open_in_new. This model looks at the individual as being conditioned by the five systems
that create their environment—individual, micro, meso, exo and macro. These five systems
make up an individual’s current state of affairs from their sex and age at the individual level,
to the culture they were raised in at the macro level.

Weaknesses of Systems Theory

One flaw of social systems theory is that this approach to an individual’s issues is not always
adequate to explain their present circumstances. In these cases, a more traditional psychological
approach might be used. Examples of this include people who have a severe mental illness that
requires unique care or medication.
Another problem with social systems theory is the difficulty of drawing actionable conclusions
based on what is found. Identifying problems is important, but finding solutions to these
problems may create difficulty, especially at the cultural and policy level. Additionally, it may
be difficult for social workers to truly understand their clients’ social and cultural upbringing
and environment, which can impede progress.

Despite these weaknesses, social systems theory is important to social work and helps
practitioners reach a better understanding of those they work with.

Summary

Systems theory plays a key role in the advancement of society. Only by looking at all the
moving parts can we have a greater understanding of the whole and how it works—a principle
that holds true in physical sciences and social sciences alike. By applying these broad truths
across disciplines, we can further integrate our understanding of separate phenomena.

As it applies to social science, systems theory is crucial because it looks holistically at the
individual to draw insights and use them to take steps forward.

1. Family Systems Theory

The family systems theory is a theory introduced by Dr. Murray Bowen that suggests that
individuals cannot be understood in isolation from one another, but rather as a part of their
family, as the family is an emotional unit. Families are systems of interconnected and
interdependent individuals, none of whom can be understood in isolation from the system.

The family system

According to Bowen, a family is a system in which each member had a role to play and rules
to respect. Members of the system are expected to respond to each other in a certain way
according to their role, which is determined by relationship agreements. Within the boundaries
of the system, patterns develop as certain family member's behavior is caused by and causes
other family member's behaviors in predictable ways. Maintaining the same pattern of
behaviors within a system may lead to balance in the family system, but also to dysfunction.
For example, if a husband is depressive and cannot pull himself together, the wife may need to
take up more responsibilities to pick up the slack. The change in roles may maintain the stability
in the relationship, but it may also push the family towards a different equilibrium. This new
equilibrium may lead to dysfunction as the wife may not be able to maintain this overachieving
role over a long period of time.

There are eight interlocking concepts in Dr. Bowen's theory:

• Triangles: The smallest stable relationship system. Triangles usually have one side in
conflict and two sides in harmony, contributing to the development of clinical
problems.
• Differentiation of self: The variance in individuals in their susceptibility to depend on
others for acceptance and approval.
 • Nuclear family emotional system: The four relationship patterns that define where
problems may develop in a family.
- Marital conflict
- Dysfunction in one spouse
- Impairment of one or more children
- Emotional distance
• Family projection process: The transmission of emotional problems from a parent to a
child.
• Multigenerational transmission process: The transmission of small differences in the
levels of differentiation between parents and their children.
• Emotional cutoff: The act of reducing or cutting off emotional contact with family as a
way managing unresolved emotional issues.
• Sibling position: The impact of sibling position on development and behavior.
• Societal emotional process: The emotional system governs behavior on a societal level,
promoting both progressive and regressive periods in a society.

Many of these concepts are discussed in the context of genograms in the book Genograms:
Assessment and Intervention by Monica McGoldrick, Randy Gerson and Sylvia Shellenberger.

Family systems therapy

One of the best ways to begin therapy and to gain understanding of how the emotional system
operates in your family system is to put together your family genogram. Studying your own
patterns of behavior, and how they relate to those of your multigenerational family, reveals
new and more effective options for solving problems and for changing your response to the
automatic role you are expected to play.

Introduction to the Genogram

A genogram (pronounced: jen-uh-gram) is a graphic representation of a family tree that

displays detailed data on relationships among individuals. It goes beyond a traditional family
tree by allowing the user to analyze hereditary patterns and psychological factors that punctuate
relationships. Genograms allow a therapist and his patient to quickly identify and understand
various patterns in the patient's family history which may have had an influence on the patient's
current state of mind. The genogram maps out relationships and traits that may otherwise be
missed on a pedigree chart.

Genograms were first developed and popularized in clinical settings by Monica McGoldrick
and Randy Gerson through the publication of a book in 1985. Genograms are now used by
various groups of people in a variety of fields such as medicine, psychology, social work,
genealogy, genetic research, and education. There are many books and websites on the topic
of genograms.

Genograms contain a wealth of information on the families represented. First, they contain
basic data found in family trees such as the name, gender, date of birth, and date of death of
each individual. Additional data may include education, occupation, major life events, chronic
illnesses, social behaviors, nature of family relationships, emotional relationships, and social
relationships. Some genograms also include information on disorders running in the family
such as alcoholism, depression, diseases, alliances, and living situations. Genograms can vary
significantly because there is no limitation as to what type of data can be included.
Symbols used in Genogram

A genogram is a graphic representation of a family tree that displays the interaction of

generations within a family. It goes beyond a traditional family tree by allowing the user to
analyze family, emotional and social relationships within a group. It is used to identify
repetitive patterns of behavior and to recognize hereditary tendencies. Here are some of the
basic components of a genogram.

Genogram Symbols

In a genogram, males are represented by a square and females by a circle. If you are unsure of
the how to place individuals in complex family situations, such as reconstituted families, please
visit the rules to build a genogram. GenoPro also has two other gender symbols, the diamond
for a pet and the question mark for unknown gender.

Standard Gender Symbols for a Genogram

In a standard genogram, there are three different types of children: biological/natural child,
adopted child and foster child. A triangle is used to represent a pregnancy, a miscarriage or an
abortion. In the case of a miscarriage, there is a diagonal cross drawn on top of the triangle to
indicate death. Abortions have a similar display to miscarriages, only they have an additional
horizontal line. A still birth is displayed by the gender symbol;
the diagonal cross remains the same size, but the gender symbol is twice as small.

Genogram Symbols for Children's Links and Pregnancy Terminations

In the case of multiple births such as twins, triplets, quadruplets, quintuplets, sextuplets,
septuplets, octuplets, or more, the child links are joined together. GenoPro uses the term twin
to describe any type of multiple birth. With GenoPro, creating twins is as simple as a single
click on the toolbar button "New Twins". GenoPro take cares of all the drawing, including
joining the lines together. Identical twins (or triplets ...) are displayed by an horizontal line
between the siblings. In the example below, the mother gave birth to fraternal twin brothers,
identical twin sisters and triplets, one of whom died at birth.

Child links are joined for multiple births such as twins and triplets

Family Systems Theory

This theory emerged from General Systems Theory by scholars who found it had many
applications to families and other social systems. Any system is defined as a bounded set
of interrelated elements exhibiting coherent behavior as a trait. (Constantine, 1986).

Another definition is an assemblage of objects related to each other by some regular

interaction or interdependence (Webster). Families are considered systems because they
are made up of interrelated elements or objectives, they exhibit coherent behaviors, they
have regular interactions, and they are interdependent on one another.

The Components of Family Systems Theory are as follows:

Family Systems…
• They have interrelated elements and structure. The elements of a system are the
members of the family. Each element has characteristics; there are relationships
between the elements; the relationships function in an interdependent manner. All
of these create a structure, or the sum total of the interrelationships among the
elements, including membership in a system and the boundary between the system and
its environment.
• They interact in patterns. There are predictable patterns of interaction that emerge
in a family system. These repetitive cycles help maintain the family’s equilibrium and
provide clues to the elements about how they should function.

• They have boundaries and can be viewed on a continuum from open to closed.
Every system has ways of including and excluding elements so that the line between
those within the system and those outside of the system is clear to all. If a family
is permeable and vague boundaries it is considered “open.” Open boundary systems
allows elements and situations outside the family to influence it. It may even welcome
external influences. Closed boundary systems isolate its members from the
environment and seems isolated and self-contained. No family system is completely
closed or completely open.
• They function by the Composition Law: the Whole is More than the Sum of Its Parts.
Every family system, even though it is made up of individual elements, results in
an organic whole. Overall family images and themes are reflected in this holistic
quality. Unique behaviors may be ascribed to the entire system that do not appropriately
describe individual elements.
• They use messages and rules to shape members. Messages and rules are relationships
agreements which prescribe and limit a family members’ behavior over time. They are
repetitive and redundant. They are rarely, if ever, explicit or written down. They give
power; they induce guilt; they control or limit behaviors; and they perpetuate
themselves and reproduce. Most messages and rules can be stated in one or a few words.
For example, More is good, Be responsible, and Be Perfect are all examples of
messages/rules.
• They have subsystems. Every family systems contains a number of small groups
usually made up of 2-3 people. The relationships between these people are known as
subsystems, coalitions, or alliances. Each subsystem has its own rules,boundaries, and
unique characteristics. Membership in subsystems can change over time

2. Ecological system theory

Key Takeaways

• Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory views child development as a complex

system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment,
from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values, laws, and
customs.
• To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her
immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as
well.
• Bronfenbrenner divided the person's environment into five different systems: the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the
chronosystemm.
• The microsystem is the most influential level of the ecological systems theory. This
is the most immediate environmental settings containing the developing child, such
as family and school.
• Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory has implications for educational
practice.

Background and History

American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner was critical of previous theories of child

development. He argued that studies of children in unfamiliar laboratory environments
with one other person, usually a stranger, were ecologically invalid (See Mary
Ainsworth’s 1970 experiment of the ‘Strange Situation’).

Bronfenbrenner (1974) claimed most earlier studies were ‘unidirectional’, meaning that
the laboratory studies observed the influence of A on B (e.g. a stranger/mother with a
child), rather than looking at the possible influence of the child on the stranger/mother,
or any other third party’s influence.

Bronfenbrenner maintained that these laboratory features of research are not

characteristic of environments that children actually live and develop in.

Bronfenbrenner recognized there are multiple aspects of a developing child’s life that
interacts with and affects the child. His work looked beyond individual development,
 taking into account wider influencing factors and the context (or ecology) of
development. He proposed the ‘Ecological Systems Theory’ based on these dynamic
interactions that the environments have on the developing child.

Bronfenbrenner’s (1974) perspective has some resemblance to the works of Albert

Bandura’s social learning theory and Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory in which the
environment is explicitly or implicitly considered as a crucial mechanism in
development.

The Five Ecological Systems

Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that the environment of the child is a nested

arrangement of structures, each contained within the next. He organized them in order
of how much of an impact they have on a child.He named these structures the
microsystem, meso system, exo system, macro system and the chrono system.Because
the five systems are interrelated, the influence of one system on a child’s development
depends on its relationship with the others.

The Micro system

The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things that have direct
contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers and
school peers.Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child can be
influenced by other people in their environment and is also capable of changing the beliefs and
actions of other people too.
Furthermore, the reactions of the child to individuals in their microsystem can influence how
they treat them in return.The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and are
crucial for fostering and supporting the child’s development.

If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive
effect on the child. Whereas, distant and unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on
the child.

The Meso system

The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems, such as the
interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between school peers and siblings.
The mesosystem is where a person's individual microsystems do not function independently,
but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.For instance, if a child’s parents
communicate with the child’s teachers, this interaction may influence the child’s development.
Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems.According to the ecological systems
theory, if the child’s parents and teachers get along and have a good relationship, this should
have positive effects on the child’s development, compared to negative effects on development
if the teachers and parents do not get along.

The Exo system

The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by Urie

Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which
do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of the
microsystems.

Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parent’s workplaces, parent’s friends and
the mass media. These are environments in which the child is not involved, and are external to
their experience, but nonetheless affects them anyway.The parent may come home and have a
short temper with the child as a result of something which happened in the workplace, resulting
in a negative effect on development.

The Macro system

The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory that focuses

on how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as socioeconomic status, wealth,
poverty, and ethnicity.Thus, culture that individuals are immersed within may influence their
beliefs and perceptions about events that transpire in life.The macrosystem differs from the
previous ecosystems as is does not refer to the specific environments of one developing child,
but the already established society and culture which the child is developing in.This can also
include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic location and ideologies of the culture.

For example, a child living in a third world country would experience a different development
than a child living in a wealthier country.

The Chronosystem

The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is known as the
chronosystem.This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the
lifetime which influence development, including major life transitions, and historical
events.These can include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also include
non-normative life transitions such as parents getting a divorce or having to move to a new
house.

3. Person-in-Environment Theory

Person-in-environment refers to the way that a person interacts and is influenced by their
environment. The person-in-environment theory (PIE) is the idea that a person's environment
has an impact on the way that they live and the decisions that they make. It attempts to
understand a person and their behavior through their environment. An example would be a
student who has behavioral problems at school and gets sent to the office. When they get to the
office they explain that they are going through a lot at home, and this causes the principal to
have compassion for the student and give them some time to settle down instead of suspending
them because their behavior is likely a result of their environment. Educational, familial,
religious, occupational, and socioeconomic environmental aspects are considered in the PIE
theory.

History of the Person-in-Environment Perspective

In the early 20th century Mary Richmond became an influential voice, sharing her belief that
a person's behavior was a product of their environment. In 1917 she published Social
Diagnosis, a book that explained the person-in-environment perspective. She thought that it
was important to look at the individual's background and all of the aspects that play a part in
shaping who they are. She understood that this was an important concept that needed to be
spread outside of person-to-person social work where it could be embedded in society in law,
government, and politics so that social workers could make a change. She encouraged social
workers to branch out into these social institutions so that they could help more people.

PIE Theory

The person-in-environment theory functions to aid in understanding someone and their

behavior through the lens of their environment. This can help reveal why they do the things
they do and make the decisions they make. Applying the theory involves the following steps:

• Social workers first make assessments of an individual's environment to determine their

influences. For example, they would look at their home life, school or work,
neighborhood, socioeconomic status, and religious beliefs.
• Next, social workers identify the ways in which these influences factor into an
individual's behavior. They determine which environmental factors they think are
causing the issues and seek to find solutions for the person.

The person-in-environment perspective is a central and guiding framework for social work
practice. It is based on the belief that an individual can only be understood in the context of
their environment (e.g. physical, familial, spiritual, social, political, societal, etc.). Thus
practitioners must consider both the person and the various aspects of their environment in their
assessment, planning, and intervention processes. This dual focus on the person and
environment has been a distinguishing feature of social work, setting it apart from many other
disciplines (Kondrat, 2008).
Although the person-in-environment perspective has guided social work for almost a century
(Mattaini & Meyer, 2002), there has been a historical tension between micro/clinical practice
with individuals and macro/community practise with the environment (Austin, Coombs, &
Barr, 2005). Social workers did not always attend to both areas, often paying more attention to
individual interventions, modelling their practice after psychiatrists and psychotherapists for
professional status (Mattaini & Meyer, 2002). This focus on the individual may have also been
due to a limited knowledge base about the environment compared to more extensive knowledge
about human behaviour and development (Mattaini & Meyer, 2002) and because the
environment is generally considered to be more difficult to change (Kemp, Whittaker, & Tracy,
1997).

Over time, the person-in-environment perspective evolved from a hyphenated structure

(Mattaini & Meyer, 2002) into a more transactional one known today as the ecological-systems
approach, considered to be "the most significant and most commonly accepted cohering
perspective for social work" (Green & McDermott, 2010, p. 2418). Originating from ecology
(DuBos, 1972) and general systems theory (Von Bertalanffy, 1967), the ecosystem's
perspective views individuals and environments as constantly interacting with and adapting to
one other in a series of "interconnected transactional networks" (Mattaini & Meyer, 2002, p.
16). Thus, instead of viewing the person and the environment separately, social workers "pay
attention to the multiple interacting elements that are always present" (Mattaini & Meyer, 2002,
p. 33)

Utilizing the Ecological Theory and the General Systems Theory, Germain (1991) developed
the Person-in-Environment (PiE) Model. He strongly advocated looking at the bio-
psychosocial development of individuals and families within cultural, historical, communal,
and societal contexts. This perspective requires us to look at all the events in the person’s life.
She characterized the nature of relationships between systems as “reciprocal exchanges
between entities, or between their elements, in which each change or otherwise influences the
other over time” (ibid., p. 16). Germain (1991) rightly identifies adaptation, life stress, coping,
power, and human relatedness as important concepts for understanding the nature of the
interactions of person-in-environment. Adaptation is the act/ process of changing oneself to
meet environmental opportunities or demands in response to human needs, rights, goals, and
capacities.

Person-in-environment interaction leads to normal tension, also referred to as life stress.

Whenever different entities interact, the ebb and flow between them create some friction. In
other words, two people in precisely the same environmental situation may have different
experiences owing to their differing perceptions of that situation. The next concept is coping.

The ability to cope requires both problem-solving skills and regulating negative feelings. These
factors lead to increased self-esteem, which helps diminish the negative emotions caused by a
particular stressor. Power has its derivation from a source extrinsic to the individual. Dominant
groups in society can influence subordinate groups through transactions in which resources are
either provided or withheld. The abuse of power by a dominant group can also be a source of
tension in person-environment interactions. These tensions affect whole segments of the
population, not just one individual. How the individual experiences this tension and adapt to
the tension-producing situation determines that individual’s capacity to negotiate power
inequities and imbalances. Paramount in the person-in-environment concept is the individual’s
ability to develop purposeful and meaningful relationships and attachments with oneself and
others.