PROBLEM SOLVING recheck the method and any calculations.

Perhaps there
is an alternate way to arrive at a correct
POLYA’S FOUR-STEPS IN PROBLEM
solution.
SOLVING

PROBLEM 1:
Step 1. Understand the problem.
By paying $100 cash up front and the balance
Read the problem several times. The first
at $20 a week, how long will it take to pay for
reading can serve as an overview. In the
a bicycle costing $680?
second reading, write down what information is
ANSWER: It will take 29 weeks to pay for the
given and determine exactly what it is that the
bicycle.
problem requires you to find.
Solution: Step 1: Understand the problem.
We are given:
Step 2. Devise a plan.
Cost of the bicycle: $680
The plan for solving the problem might involve
Amount paid in cash: $100
one or more of these suggested problem-
Weekly payments: $20
solving strategies:
-Use inductive reasoning to look for a pattern.
Step 2: Devise a plan. Subtract the amount
-Make a systematic list or a table.
paid in cash from the cost of the bicycle. This
-Use estimation to make an educated guess at
results in the balance, the amount still to be
the solution.
paid. Divide this result by the weekly payment
-Check the guess against the problem’s
of $20 to find the number of weeks required
conditions and work backward to eventually
to pay for the bicycle.
determine the solution.
Step 3: Carry out the plan and solve the
-Try expressing the problem more simply and
problem.
solve a similar simpler problem.
Begin by finding the balance: $680 – $100 =
-Use trial and error.
$580
-List the given information in a chart or table.
Now, divide the balance by $20,
-Try making a sketch or a diagram to illustrate
the weekly payment to find the number of
the problem.
weeks: $580/20 = 29 weeks
-Relate the problem to a similar problem that
Step 4: Look back and check the answer. We
you have seen before. Try applying the
can double check the arithmetic. We can also
procedures used to solve the similar problem
see if the answer satisfies the conditions of
to the new one.
the problem.
-Look for a “catch” if the answer seems too
$20 weekly payment
obvious. Perhaps the problem involves some
× 29 number of weeks
sort of trick question deliberately intended to
=$580 total of weekly payments
lead the problem solver in the wrong direction.
$580 total of weekly payments
-Use the given information to eliminate
+$100 amount paid in cash
possibilities.
=$680 cost of the bicycle
-Use common sense.
The answer of 29 weeks satisfies the
condition that the cost of the bicycle is $680

PROBLEM 2:
A jokester tells you that he has a group of
cows and chickens and that he counted 13
heads and 36 feet. How many cows and
chickens does he have?
ANSWER: The answer is 8 chickens and 5
Step 3. Carry out the plan and solve the
cows.
problem.
Step 4. Look back and check the answer.
PROBLEM 3:
Nick and Marsha are driving from Santa Rosa,
The answer should satisfy the conditions of
CA, to Los Angeles, a distance of 460 miles.
the problem. The answer should make sense
They leave at 11:00 A.M. and average 50 mph.
and be reasonable. If this is not the case,
On the other hand, Mary and Dan leave at 1:00
P.M in Dan’s sports car. Who is closer to Los
Angeles when they meet for dinner in San Luis -Such reasoning is called deductive reasoning
Obispo at 5:00 P.M.? and, if the conclusion follows from the
hypotheses, the reasoning is said to be valid.
ANSWER: They are all the same distance from -Logic is the study of reasoning; it is
Los Angeles. specifically concerned with whether reasoning
is correct.
-Logic focuses on the relationship among
statements as opposed to the content of any
particular statement.

STATEMENT
A statement (or proposition) is a sentence
that is either true or false, but not both.
The truth value of a statement is true,
A magic denoted by T, if it is a true statement, and
square is a square array of numbers arranged the truth value of a statement is false,
so that the numbers in all rows, all columns, denoted by F, if it is a false statement.
and the two diagonals have the same sum.
EXAMPLES OF STATEMENTS:
PROBLEM 4: 1. London is the capital of England.
Use the properties of a magic square to fill in 2. William Shakespeare wrote the television
the missing numbers. series Modern Family.

3. 2 + 3 = 7
4. 11 – 6 = 5

The following sentences are not statements:

1. Think before you speak. (This is an order or

command.)
2. Does “just sayin’” annoy you in everyday
ANSWER:
conversation? (This is a question.)

3. X + Y = Z (Neither true or false)

In symbolic logic, we use lowercase letters

such as p, q, r, and s to represent statements.

LOGIC p : London is the capital of England.

q : William Shakespeare wrote the television
DEDUCTIVE REASONING: series Modern Family.
1. All proper names are prohibited in Scrabble.
(general statement) NEGATING STATEMENTS
2. TEXAS is a proper name. If p is a statement variable, the negation of p
3. Therefore, TEXAS is prohibited in is “not p” or “It is not the case that p” and is
Scrabble. (specific conclusion) denoted ~p. It has opposite truth value from
p: if p is true, ~p is false; if p is false, ~p is
-Statements 1, 2, and 3 are called an true.
argument. If you accept statements 1 and 2 of
the argument as true, then you must accept EXAMPLE:
statement 3 as true. Let p and q represent the following
-Statements 1 and 2 are called the hypotheses statements:
or premises of the argument, and statement 3 p : Shakespeare wrote the television series
is Modern Family.
called the conclusion. q : Today is not Monday.

Form the negation of each statement.

p: Shakespeare wrote the television series Consider the statement “Some canaries weigh
Modern 50 pounds.” Because some means “there exists
Family. at least one,” the negation is “It is not true
“It is not the case that Shakespeare wrote that there is at least one canary that weighs
the 50 pounds.” Because it is not true that there is
television series Modern Family.” or even one such critter, we can express the
“Shakespeare did not write the television negation as “No canary weighs 50 pounds.”
series
Modern Family.” In general, the negation of “Some A are B ” is
“No A are B. ” Likewise, the negation of “No A
In symbols, ~p. are B” is “Some A are B. ”
q : Today is not Monday.
“It is not the case that today is not Monday.”
or
“Today is Monday.”

In symbols, ~q.

QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS
-We frequently encounter statements
containing the words all, some, and no (or
none).
-These words are called quantifiers. COMPOUND STATEMENTS &
-A statement that contains one of these words CONNECTIVES
is a quantified statement. Consider the statement:

EXAMPLES OF QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS: If you’re wealthy or well educated, then you’ll

1. All poets are writers. be happy.
2. Some people are bigots.
3. No common colds are fatal. We can break this statement down into three
4. Some students do not work hard. basic sentences:

You’re wealthy. You’re well educated.

You’ll be happy.

These sentences are called simple statements.

Statements formed by combining two or more

simple statements are called compound
statements.
-Suppose we want to negate the statement “All
writers are poets.” Because this statement is
Words called connectives are used to join
false, its negation must be true. The negation
simple statements to form a compound
is “Not all writers
statement. Connectives include words such as
are poets.” This means the same thing as
and, or, if … then, and if and only if.
“Some writers are not poets.” Notice that the
negation is a true statement.
CONJUNCTION
-In general, the negation of “All A are B” is
“Some A are not B.” Likewise, the negation of If p and q are statement variables, the
“Some A are not B” is “All A are B.” conjunction of p and q is “p and q,” denoted p ˄
q. It is true when, and only when, both p and q
are true. If either p or q is false, or if both
are false, p ˄ q is false.

EXAMPLE:

The sentence “It is hot and it is sunny” is

CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
understood to be true when both conditions—
being hot and being sunny If p and q are statement variables, the
—are satisfied. If it is hot conditional of q by p is “If p then q” or “p
but not sunny, or sunny implies q” and is denoted p → q. It is false
but not hot, or neither hot when p is true and q is false; otherwise it is
nor sunny, the sentence is true. We call p the hypothesis (or antecedent)
understood to be false. of the conditional and q the conclusion (or
consequent).

Because conditional statements play such an

essential role in mathematical reasoning, a
variety of terminology is used to express p →

DISJUNCTION

If p and q are statement variables, the

disjunction of p and q is “p or q,” denoted p ˅ q.
It is true when either p is true, or q is true, or
both p and q are true; it is false only when q.
both p and q are false.
A useful way to understand the truth value of
The use of the connective or in a disjunction a conditional statement is to think of an
corresponds to one of the two ways the word obligation or a contract.
or is used in English, namely, as an inclusive or.
For example, the pledge many politicians make
A disjunction is true when at least one of the when running for office is
two propositions is true.
“If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.”
For instance, the inclusive or is being used in
the statement If the politician is elected, voters would
expect this politician to lower taxes.
“Students who have taken calculus or computer
science can take this class.” Furthermore, if the politician is not elected,
then voters will not have any expectation that
On the other hand, we are using the exclusive this person will lower taxes, although the
or when we say person may have sufficient influence to cause
those in power to lower taxes.
“Students who have taken calculus or computer
science, but not both, can enroll in this class.” It is only when the politician is elected but
does not lower taxes that voters can say that
Similarly, when a menu at a restaurant states,
the politician has broken the campaign pledge.
“Soup or salad comes with an entrée,” This last scenario
corresponds to the case
the restaurant almost always means that when p is true but q is
customers can have either soup or salad, but false in p → q.
not both.

Hence, this is an exclusive, rather than an

inclusive, or.
 Inverse: If Howard cannot swim across the
lake, then Howard cannot swim to the island.
We can form some new conditional statements
starting with a conditional statement p → q. In BICONDITIONAL STATEMENT
particular, there are three related conditional
Given statement variables p and q, the
statements that occur so often that they have
biconditional of p and q is “p if, and only if, q”
special names.
and is denoted p ↔ q. It is true if both p and q
CONTRAPOSITIVE have the same truth values and is false if p
and q have opposite truth values. The words if
The contrapositive of a conditional statement and only if are sometimes abbreviated iff.
of the form “If p then q” is

If ~q then ~p.

Symbolically,

The contrapositive of p → q is ~q → ~p.

EXAMPLE:
A conditional statement is logically equivalent
Let p be the statement “You can take the
to its contrapositive.
flight,” and let q be the statement “You buy a
EXAMPLE: ticket.”

“If Howard can swim across the lake, then Then p ↔ q is the statement
Howard can swim to the island.”
“You can take the flight if and only if you buy a
CONTRAPOSITIVE: ticket.”

“If Howard cannot swim to the island, then

Howard cannot swim across the lake.”

CONVERSE AND INVERSE

Suppose a conditional statement of the form

TRUTH TABLE
“If p then q” is given.
We can construct compound propositions using
1. The converse is “If q then p.”
the negation operator and the logical
2. The inverse is “If ~p then ~q.” operators defined so far.

Symbolically, We can use truth tables to determine the

truth values of these compound propositions.
The converse of p → q is q → p,
n
In general, 2 rows are required if a compound
and
statements involves n statement variables.
The inverse of p → q is ~p → ~q.
PRECEDENCE OF LOGICAL OPERATORS

Always start within innermost grouping symbol.

EXAMPLE:

“If Howard can swim across the lake, then

Howard can swim to the island.”

Converse: If Howard can swim to the island,

then Howard can swim across the lake.
Construct a truth table for the statement A NOTED CRIMINAL CASE IN 1995 involved
form (p ˅ q) ˄ ~(p ˄ q). Lyle and Erik Menendez, who shot and killed
their parents. Although everyone agreed that
STATEMENT EQUIVALENCES the brothers committed the crime, it took two
trials before they were convicted. The
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES arguments in the trial centered around the
boys’ motivation: Was the killing a
premeditated act by two children hoping to
receive an inheritance, or was it an act
motivated by years of abuse and a desperate
sense of helplessness and rage?

An important type of step used in a An argument consists of two parts: the given
mathematical argument is the replacement of statements, called the premises, and a
a statement with another statement with the conclusion.
same truth value.
Here’s the prosecutor’s argument from the
A compound proposition that is always true, no Menendez brothers’ criminal case:
matter what the truth values of a propositions
that occur in it, is called a tautology. Premise 1: If children murder their parents in
cold blood, they deserve to be punished to the
A compound proposition that is always false is full extent of the law.
called a contradiction.
Premise 2: These children murdered their
parents in cold blood.

Conclusion: Therefore, these children deserve

to be punished to the full extent of the law.

DEFINITION OF A VALID ARGUMENT

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES An argument is valid if the conclusion is true

whenever the premises are assumed to be
The compound propositions p and q are called true. An argument that is not valid is said to
logically equivalent if p ↔ q is a tautology. The be an invalid argument, also called a fallacy.
notation p ≡ q denoted that p and q are
logically equivalent. p: Children murder their parents in cold blood.

q: They deserve to be punished to the full

extent of the law.

Premise 1: p → q If children murder their

parents in cold blood, they deserve to be
punished to the full extent of the law.
ARG
U Premise 2: p These children murdered their
parents in cold blood.
M
E Conclusion: ⸫ q Therefore, these children
need to be punished to the full extent of the
N
law.
T
(The three-dot triangle, ⸫, is read
S
“therefore.”)
To decide whether this argument is valid, we EXAMPLE 2:
rewrite it as a conditional statement that has
If I had anything more to do with the
the following form:
operation, I’d have to lie to the Ambassador.
[(p → q) ˄ p] → q
I can’t lie to the Ambassador.

Therefore, I can’t have anything more to do

with the operation.

The form of the prosecutor’s argument in the

Menendez case

is called direct reasoning. All

arguments that have the direct
reasoning form are valid
regardless of the English EXAMPLE 3:
statements that p and q
represent.

EXAMPLE 1:

In an episode of the television series Star

Trek, the starship Enterprise is hit by an ion
storm, causing the power to go out. Captain
Kirk wonders if Mr. Scott, the engineer, is
aware of the problem. Mr. Spock, the paragon
of extraterrestrial intelligence, replies, “If
Mr. Scott is still with us, the power should be
on momentarily.” Moments later, the ship’s
power comes on and Spock arches his Vulcan
brow: “Ah, Mr. Scott is still with us.”

Spock’s logic can be expressed in the form of

an argument:

p → q: If Mr. Scott is still with us, then the

power will come on.

q: The power comes on.

⸫ p Therefore, Mr. Scott is still with us.

Determine whether this argument is valid or

invalid.