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Ferret Nutrition

Article in Veterinary Clinics of North America Exotic Animal Practice · September 2014
DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2014.05.008

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Ferret Nutrition
Cathy A. Johnson-Delaney, BS, DVM

KEYWORDS
 Nutrition  Ferret  Carnivore  Diet

KEY POINTS
 The domestic ferret is a strict carnivore, requiring high protein and fat levels in the diet.
 The ferret’s anatomy and physiology are adapted to its carnivorous diet.
 There are several commercial ferret diets that adequately meet the ferret’s nutritional
needs.
 Nutritional diseases have been reported in ferrets as seen in other species.
 There are specific nutritional considerations for ferrets with insulinoma or who are
geriatric.

INTRODUCTION

The domestic ferret (Mustela putorious furo) is a strict carnivore, also referred to as an
obligate carnivore.1–3 Its dentition and gastrointestinal (GI) tract are adapted to a
carnivorous diet. Its ancestor, the European polecat (Mustela putorius), feeds on birds
and other small vertebrates. Domesticated ferrets have been fed mink feeds, cat
foods, and now mostly subsist on commercial ferret diets formulated specifically to
meet their needs.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

As obligate carnivores, ferrets have a very short intestinal tract and lack a cecum and
ileocolic valve.1,3 The gut is essentially a simple tube from stomach to rectum that al-
lows food to pass through too quickly for efficient absorption.1 The small intestine is
approximately 5 times longer than the ferret’s body.1 For comparison, a cat’s small in-
testine is 8 to 10 times the length of its body.1 The GI transit time is approximately
3 hours.2,4 Kits may have a more rapid transit time, as little as 1 hour.1,4 This rapid
intestinal transit time contributes to the inefficiency of absorption. Additionally, con-
centrations of at least some intestinal brush border enzymes (eg, lactase) are lower

Disclosure: None.
Washington Ferret Rescue and Shelter, Box 1034, 11700 Mukilteo Speedway, Suite 201, Mukilteo,
WA 98275, USA
E-mail address: cajddvm@hotmail.com

Vet Clin Exot Anim 17 (2014) 449–470

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2014.05.008 vetexotic.theclinics.com
1094-9194/14/$ – see front matter Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
450 Johnson-Delaney

in ferrets than in other species.1 Weaning-age kits have less lactase per gram of jejunal
mucosa than mature rats. This results in soft stool appearance within an hour when an
adult ferret drinks an ounce of milk.1
Ferrets are spontaneous secretors of hydrochloric acid. It is natural for them and
other closely related mustelids (eg, mink, weasels) to store food and to eat small
amounts at frequent intervals rather than gorging every day or two like most carni-
vores.1 Pet ferrets often take their kibble and hide it for snacking.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FERRET’S GI SYSTEM

Because of the rapid intestinal transit time and small meals eaten, ferrets should not be
fasted more than 3 hours before surgery. Four to six hours is generally successful in
reducing gut content as much as an overnight fast does for a dog or cat.1,4 Growing
kits or juveniles become irritable and may be likely to bite after a long fast. Ferrets
with insulinomas may become severely hypoglycemic if fasted for more than 1 to
2 hours. If it is necessary to empty the GI tract in a ferret with insulinoma, it is acceptable
to continue to feed the ferret concentrated, low-volume supplements, such as Nutri-Cal
(Vetoquinol USA, Inc, Ft Worth, TX) until 1 to 2 hours before surgery.1 On ultrasound or
radiographic examination if there is food in the stomach after a 4- to 6-hour fast it may
indicate delayed emptying or the potential possibility of a trichobezoar.
Another effect of the ferret’s gut morphology is an unsophisticated gut flora.1 The
usual anaerobic flora abundant in most mammals is scanty in the ferret, probably in
part because of the abbreviated large intestine. The large intestine is only approxi-
mately 10 cm long in an adult male.1 Ferrets raised in an isolator after cesarean deri-
vation had none of the intestinal problems common to other germ-free animals;
however, they did require vitamin K supplementation, suggesting that gut flora does
play an essential part in some of the digestive processes.1 Ferrets treated for weeks
or months with broad-spectrum antibiotics do not seem to experience GI upsets,
such as diarrhea.1

DENTITION

The adult dental formula of the ferret is I3/3 C1/1 P3/3 M1/2, which equals 34.5,6 There
is exaggeration of the carnassial teeth (fourth maxillary premolar) and dimunition and
shift in function of the molariform teeth for shearing.5,6 There is a loss of grinding func-
tion in the molars, and it is not unusual to find the mandibular second molar has only
partial or no occlusion with the maxillary dentition.5 In many cases it does not come
into actual contact with the maxillary first molar.5 These teeth are located in the
back of the jaw where leverage and muscular force is the greatest, likely to serve to
crack bones, rather than to grind food.5 Another adaptation is the overlapping and
interdigitation of the mandibular arcade by the maxillary arcade, which prevents lateral
movement of the mandibles. This prevents the grinding motions necessary to process
plant materials and abrasive foods, but does allow for the dorsoventral movement
necessary for the cheek teeth and carnassials to shear tissue-based foods.5 The
temporomandibular joint effectively locks the mandible into the skull preventing the
loss of bite force during predation.5 The maxillary canines and cheek teeth are aligned
into what effectively become arches, which is a common adaptation of carnivores that
strengthens the skull without adding bone mass.5 The canine teeth form a tight inter-
lock when the mouth is closed.6 The biomechanics of these adaptations are markedly
different from those of herbivores. It is likely that the shift from a whole-prey diet to one
of dry kibble may have deleterious impact on the function of the ferret’s specific dental
adaptations, although this has yet to be the focus of a published research study.5
 Ferret Nutrition 451

Kibble is crunchy and abrasive, a selling point to reduce dental calculus, but chewing
kibble may cause structural changes to the tooth and underlying boney support.5 This
ultimately causes excessive wear of the tooth and may result in fractures or loss of the
tooth. In short, the ferret’s dentition is not well-suited to having to grind kibble.

COMMERCIAL DIETS

Years ago ranched ferrets were fed a mink diet. But pet ferrets do not like the fish fla-
vor and instead prefer chicken flavor. Fish-source diets may cause vomiting in some
ferrets.4 A whole-prey diet or a balanced fresh or freeze-dried carnivore diet may be
most appropriate and such diets are currently fed in many areas of the world with great
success.2,7 Clean sources of prey food, such as chicks, mice, and rats, are now avail-
able in many areas thanks to the reptile market, which uses these foods for carnivo-
rous pets.2 If an owner does not want to feed a 100% whole-prey or raw diet,
consider the occasional treat of a whole mouse or chick as valuable environmental
enrichment. The stools of a ferret on a whole-prey diet are very firm and of low volume
and odor.2 Grocery store cat foods are very palatable because of their coating of
animal fat, but nutritionally are inadequate for any stage of a ferret’s life. Minimally
stressed pet ferrets may get by on these foods for years, but nutritional deficiencies
are quickly revealed in breeding animals. The acid test of a complete diet is to feed
it to a large group of young animals, then allow them to reproduce. Some premium
dry cat foods and pelleted ferret diets have proved to meet all the ferret’s nutritional
requirements for growth and reproduction.1 The most common type of diet fed to
pet ferrets in the United States is in the form of dry kibble. Several brands are available.
Table 1 lists analysis of several commercial diets that meet a ferret’s needs for growth
and reproduction.

FOOD CONSIDERATIONS

To compensate for the inefficiency of its digestive tract, the ferret requires a concen-
trated diet that is high in protein and fat and low in fiber.1 The main source of calories
should be fat. When fat is metabolized, it releases twice as much energy as either car-
bohydrates or protein.1 Diets with as much as 40% fat have been fed to ferrets without
apparent injury, but 15% to 30% fat for pets is generally considered sufficient.1,2,4
Unless ferrets are constantly fed high-fat treats, most ferrets eat as much as they
want without becoming pathologically obese. They normally increase their food intake
by at least 30% in the winter, gaining a great deal of weight by depositing subcutane-
ous fat.1 The rule of thumb is that an adult ferret eats about 43 g/kg body weight of dry
food per day. The ferret eats up to 10 meals a day if given feed ad libitum.9 Seasonal
obesity is not harmful and should be considered normal. As the hours of daylight in-
crease in the spring, the ferret reduces its food intake, metabolizes the extra fat,
and regains its long, slender shape. If the photoperiod does not vary seasonally, the
natural physiologic change may not occur. Some ferrets may remain either lean or
plump all the time.1 A study looking at the dietary preferences and digestion of com-
mercial feline diets in cats and ferrets showed that both preferred diets of higher fat
content. However, the ferret differed in its ability to use the cat food, and the conclu-
sion of the study was that ferrets cannot be used as model animals for cats for either
preference or digestibility studies!10
Ferrets require a higher protein level in the diet than most animals, probably
because of the inefficiency of their digestive process or for a need for certain amino
acids in short supply than to a greater protein requirement at the cellular level.1 The
basic diet for adults should have a crude protein level between 30% and 35% and
452 Johnson-Delaney

be composed primarily of high-quality meat sources, not grains. The fat content
should be between 15% and 30%.2 Kits do not thrive on a diet containing less than
30% protein. Conception rate, litter size, and survivability of the kits improve when
the protein concentration is increased to 35% to 40% of the breeding ferrets’ diet.1
Protein quality is as important as concentration.1 The protein in the best-quality animal

Table 1
Analysis of commercial diets that support growth and reproduction

Diet A Diet B Diet C Diet D

Nutrient
Crude protein % 39.8 39.0 38.0 36.5
Crude fat % 20.2 20.5 20.0 23.3
Crude fiber % 2.2 2.6 4.0 1.4
Moisture % 4.2 10.0 12.0 7.5
Ash % 7.4 6.5 7.5 6.5
Carbohydrate % 26.2 21.4 17.5 24.8
Amino acid profile
Arginine % 2.52 2.05 2.5 2.4
Cystine % 0.45 0.59 0.56 0.44
Histidine % 0.91 0.61 0.75 0.95
Isoleucine % 1.67 1.44 1.40 1.30
Leucine % 3.09 3.20 2.60 2.55
Lysine % 2.74 2.02 2.20 2.40
Methionine % 1.18 0.85 0.80 1.05
Phenylalanine % 1.64 1.48 1.30 1.40
Tyrosine % 1.32 0.76 1.20 1.10
Threonine % 1.90 1.31 1.40 1.50
Tryptophan % 0.33 0.29 0.32 0.38
Valine % 1.99 1.77 1.70 1.72
Taurine % 0.25 0.24 0.52 0.24
Fat
Linoleic acid % 3.0 2.76 3.0 4.50
Minerals
Calcium % 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.28
Phosphorus % 1.05 1.25 1.30 0.88
Ca/P ratio 1.14:1 1.12:1 1.08:1 1.45:1
Potassium % 0.75 0.56 0.70 0.68
Magnesium % 0.10 0.12 0.10 0.09
Sodium % 0.55 0.40 0.40 0.42
Iron ppm (mg/kg) 360 320 305 240
Copper mg/kg 30 24 22 24
Manganese mg/kg 70 72 75 80
Zinc mg/kg 145 232 235 240
Iodine mg/kg 2.6 2.0 1.9 2.0
Selenium mg/kg 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.35
(continued on next page)
 Ferret Nutrition 453

Table 1
(continued)

Diet A Diet B Diet C Diet D

Vitamins
A (IU/kg) 35,100 25,100 31,765 25,000
D3 (IU/kg) 2200 3700 3560 1800
E (IU/kg) 155 250 235 300
K (ppm, mg/kg) 1.2 3.2 3.0 2.0
Thiamin mg/kg 12.8 56 54 45
Riboflavin mg/kg 25 20 22 55
Niacin mg/kg 95 110 128 120
Pantothenic acid mg/kg 25 26.2 25 35
Folic acid mg/kg 1.5 4.3 4.4 3.0
Pyridoxine mg/kg 12.5 17.5 28 35
Biotin mg/kg 0.60 0.48 0.43 10.2
Metabolizable energy kcal/g 3.89 4.0 4.2 4.35

Diet A: Marshall Premium Ferret (Marshall Pet Products, North Rose, NY, www.marshallpet.com).
Diet B: Purina High Density Ferret Lab Diet 5L14 (Lab Diet, St Louis, MO, www.labdiet.com).
Diet C: Mazuri Ferret (PMI Nutrition International LLC, Brentwood, MO, www.mazuri.com/
product_pdfs/5M08.pdf).
Diet D: Totally Ferret Active Show & Pet Formula (Performance Foods, Inc, Broomfield, CO).
Data from Refs.1,7,8

feeds is 85% to 90% digestible as compared with less than 75% in many grocery store
cat foods.1 A food with 30% crude protein of 70% digestibility really only contains
21% available protein, and may be mainly cereals.1 The diet of an obligate carnivore
like a cat or ferret must contain predominantly animal protein and fat. Infectious and
metabolic diseases are prevalent in growing, gestating, or lactating ferrets when
grains are the major source of protein.1
The proportion of carbohydrate is higher in a grain-based diet than in a meat-based
diet. Grains are used to help the pellet hold its shape. Very high levels of plant proteins
in the diet can lead to urolithiasis.2,11 The hardness of the kibble may promote exces-
sive dental wear and disease.2,5 The only natural source of carbohydrates for mustel-
ids is the gut content of their prey.1 Dogs make good use of carbohydrates as an
energy source in diets containing more than 60% carbohydrates. Cats, however,
with a shorter intestinal tract and different metabolism, do poorly if carbohydrates
exceed 40% of the diet.1 Ferrets have an even shorter intestinal tract, comparatively
deficient in brush-border enzymes, and are less able than cats to absorb enough cal-
ories from carbohydrates.1,12 The simple gut flora and rapid passage time through the
colon does not allow a ferret to make as much use of complex carbohydrates as
other species.1,12 The nitrogen-free extract in a chemical food analysis is made up
of soluble, digestible carbohydrates (eg, sugar or starch). Insoluble carbohydrates
are referred to as fiber. The digestibility of soluble complex carbohydrates is improved
by cooking. However, fiber remains completely indigestible by simple-stomached an-
imals. Fiber attracts fluid to the lumen of the gut, increasing stool volume and having a
beneficial effect when natural laxative is required. “Lite” pet foods designed for weight
reduction are based on the principle of feeding a high-fiber food of low digestibility to
allow the animal to lose weight without always feeling hungry.1 Increasing dietary fiber
causes the volume of stool to increase in ferrets as it does in dogs and cats, but it also
induces a relative protein-calorie deficiency in the ferret.1 Ferrets cannot eat enough
454 Johnson-Delaney

low-density food to meet their maintenance requirements.1 Simply, the ferret has little
ability to digest fiber.13 Pet ferrets sometimes develop a taste for high-carbohydrate or
high-fiber foods, such as fruits or vegetables, but they derive little nutritional benefit
from them.1 Treat foods consisting of cereals are likewise not digestible, but may
be extremely palatable because they are sugar-coated.2 A study looking at sweet
receptor gene (Tas1r2) and preference for sweet stimuli in species of carnivore has
found that ferrets preferred fructose over other sugars. Ferrets did not respond to arti-
ficial sweeteners. They have an intact Tas1r2 gene.14

SPECIFIC NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Although the exact nutritional requirements of ferrets have not been determined by
feeding trials with defined diets as have been done for other animals, diets that
have sustained reproduction and growth of generations of healthy kits must meet or
exceed their minimum requirements.1 Daily metabolizable energy intakes for ferrets
have been estimated to range from 200 to 300 calories (kcals) per kilogram body
weight. Energy intakes above maintenance are needed for growth, gestation, and
lactation.3,4 Table 2 lists energy needs of ferrets in kilocalorie metabolizable energy
per day with increases needed for differing calorie requirements. Examples of the
nutritional content of several complete rations that support growth, gestation, and
lactation are shown in Table 1. These diets contain 3.9 to 4.58 kcal of metabolizable
energy per gram of food.1 Other premium cat foods, ferret foods, or mink foods of
similar analysis and quality of ingredients may be expected to provide adequate nutri-
tion for a breeding ferret and more than adequate nutrition for a pet.1 Palatability is a
major concern when considering the benefits of any food for a ferret. For example, a
well-balanced mink diet with a strong fishy flavor may be so unpalatable that pets
steadfastly refuse to eat it.1 Table 3 lists nutrients provided by some of the ingredients
found in the ferret diets.

Table 2
Energy needs of ferrets (kcal ME/day) increase above maintenance for growth, reproduction,
and lactation

Multiples of Maintenancea (kcal ME/d)

Body Weight (g) 1 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
600 150 225 300 375 450
700 175 262 350 438 525
800 200 300 400 500 600
900 225 338 450 562 675
1000 250 375 500 625 750
1200 300 450 600 750 900
1400 350 525 700 875 1050
1600 400 600 800 1000 1200
1800 450 675 900 1125 1350
2000 500 750 1000 1250 1500
2200 550 825 1100 1375 1650

Abbreviation: ME, metabolizable energy.

a
Maintenance is defined as the daily ME intake (kcal/day) of healthy adults in comfortable
surroundings (250 [W]), in which W 5 body weight in kg.
Data from Kupersmith DS. A practical overview of small mammal nutrition. Sem Avian Exotic Pet
Med 1998;7(3):141–7.
 Table 3
Nutrients provided by some ingredients of ferret diets and supplements

Calories Calcium/
Ingredient or Supplement Crude Protein (%) Fat (%) Fiber (%) Carbohydrate (%) per gram Moisture (%) Phosphorus Ratio
Poultry by-product 58.7 13.1 2.3 3.6 2.8 7 1.9:1
Ground beef 20.7 10.0 Not listed 3.5 calculated 1.8 68.3 1:19
Fresh liver (beef) 19.9 3.8 0.1 6.5 1.4 69.7 1:35
Liver meal 71.4 17.0 1.5 3.4 Not listed 8 1:2
Wheat 14.2 1.8 2.6 68.7 Not listed 89 1:10.5
Rice 7.9 1.7 8.9 65.6 Not listed 89 1:4.7
Soybean meal 42.9 4.8 5.9 30.4 Not listed 90 1:2.3
Corn 10.9 4.3 2.9 80.4 NL 11 1:1
Nutri-Cal 1 tsp (6 g) 0.04 g 2.1 g 0.22 g 2.8 g 26.5 14 6:1
Ferrettone 1 mL 0 0.9 0 0 8.7 Not listed Not listed
Whole cooked egg (1 egg, 50 g) 6.45 5.8 Not listed Not listed 82 73.7 1:4
Whole milk (3.5% fat, 10 mL) 0.35 0.35 0 0.56 6.5 87.4 Not listed
Raisins (6 small or 3 large 0.1 g 0.02 g 0.2 g 2.4 g 9.5 Not listed Not listed
yellow; 3 g)
Cheerios (10–11 pieces; 1 g) 0.5 g 0.2 g 0.2 g 2.1 g 11.9 Not listed Not listed
Baby food chicken 10 mL 1.3 g 0.68 g 0 0 11 80 Not listed

Ferret Nutrition
Science Diet A/D 10 mL 1.1 g 0.7 g 0.03 g 0.4 g 12 77 1:1

Data from Bell JA. Ferret nutrition. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 1999;2(1):169–92.

455
456 Johnson-Delaney

Examples of diets that failed to meet the nutritional requirements of breeding ferrets
are shown in Table 4. These diets have a higher carbohydrate content and lower pro-
tein content than those in Table 1. Furthermore, the protein was a lower quality, a fact
that cannot be appreciated from either the analysis or the ingredients list, but which
made a significant difference to the animals.1 Low-quality meat or poultry meal con-
tains too much indigestible protein (eg, feathers or hooves), too much bone, and
too little muscle meat. The result is a diet deficient in essential amino acids. The
serious consequences of feeding poor-quality meat protein or too high a proportion
of cereal protein to breeding ferrets include but are not limited to urinary tract, GI,
and respiratory infections; urolithiasis; reproductive failure; and poor growth of kits.1
Although little research has been done on the requirements of ferrets, a great deal
of effort has been put into developing diets for ranch mink by feeding analyzed diets
to breeding mink and observing the results.1 Although this does provide an insight
into the minimum requirements of minks and ferrets, the information is not complete
because the interactions of individual nutrients are uncontrolled in these studies.1
Before the true requirements of ferrets can be known, purified diets must be tested
on large groups of animals, so that a single nutrient may be varied and its effect
analyzed independent of other variables. There are many gaps in what is known
about ferrets’ specific requirements.1 For example, arginine and methionine are
limiting amino acids in the diets of other animals, and probably of ferrets, but their
actual requirements in ferrets are unknown.1 An animal eats enough food to meet its
requirements for the limiting amino acids, even if that means consuming two or
three times more than the requirement amount of other amino acids.1 The excess
is metabolized and used for energy, and the nitrogen is excreted by the kidneys.
The high blood urea nitrogen of healthy ferrets suggests that they usually have an
excess of protein, but their physical condition suffers when the diet contains less
than 30% protein. Providing all of the limiting amino acids in the required concen-
trations in a lower protein diet should make it possible to maintain the ferret in the
same state of good health and productivity that presently necessitates that their
diet contain 35% crude protein.1
Taurine deficiency has been linked with dilated cardiomyopathy and retinal degen-
eration in cats. Although dilated cardiomyopathy and retinal degeneration are found

Table 4
Guaranteed analysis of two diets associated with urolithiasis and poor reproductive
performance in ferrets

Analysis (%) Diet #1 Diet #2

Crude protein 31.0 30.0
Crude fat 16.0 8.0
Fiber 3.0 4.5
Ash 8.0 6.3
Moisture 11.0 12.0
Carbohydrate 31.0 39.2
First 8 listed Poultry by-product meal, ground Whole kernel corn, soybean meal,
ingredients wheat, ground yellow corn, corn gluten meal, poultry by-
soybean meal, wheat germ meal, product meal, whole wheat,
animal fat preserved with BHA, animal fat preserved with mixed
meat and bone meal, salt tocopherols (source of vitamin E),
brewers rice, fish meal

Data from Bell JA. Ferret nutrition. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 1999;2(1):169–92.
 Ferret Nutrition 457

in the ferrets, there is no hard evidence that taurine deficiency causes either one.1
However, it is recommended that taurine be added to ferret diets at the same level
as is present in premium cat foods.1 The author has used taurine supplementation
in ferrets with dilated cardiomyopathy and has clinically seen improvement in the con-
dition. It is also assumed that arachidonic acid is an essential fatty acid for ferrets as it
is for cats, because it is present only in animal tissues. Fish oil is a good source of
arachidonic acid, and hence the beautiful pelts grown by fitch ferrets that eat pelleted
mink food. Meat-based diets usually are not deficient in either taurine or arachidonic
acid.1

MINERALS AND VITAMINS

Although very little research has been done to evaluate ferret mineral requirements,
mink diets have been extensively researched, and their requirements seem to be
similar to those of other animals including cats.1 It is safe to assume that ferrets
have similar requirements. The calcium-phosphorus ratio should be at least 1:1. Com-
mercial formulations generally contain ratios 1.2:1 to 1.7:1.15 The diets listed in Table 1
show the varying ratios and because all minerals have proved adequate for growing
and lactating ferrets, the amount of each mineral in the food must meet or exceed their
requirements.1 Milk and meat meal that includes bone are well-balanced sources of
calcium and phosphorus, but muscle meat or liver and grains are low in calcium.1 A
diet of meat alone induces a calcium deficiency and gross skeletal abnormalities.1
Signs of calcium or calcium deficiency include tooth loss, skeletal deformities in
kits, and spontaneous fractures. Ferrets on high-quality cat or ferret foods do not
have mineral deficiencies unless they are persistently fed a supplement of a medica-
tion (eg, tetracycline) that drastically unbalances the diet.1 Commercial diets are
considered adequate in iron, copper, sodium, chlorine, zinc, magnesium, iodine,
and potassium.15 Other microminerals called trace elements in addition to the above
include cobalt, chromium, and molybdenum, and are usually combined with other nu-
trients and never added to the diet in pure form. Additionally, fluoride, nickel, vana-
dium, silicon, and tin are necessary but in minute and organic form in the diet.7
Oversupplementation of vitamin A in liver or concentrated nutritional products in-
duces skeletal abnormalities in cats and has occurred in ferrets fed a diet of raw
liver exclusively.1 Vitamin E is added to high-quality pet foods as an antioxidant.
Ferrets fed extra fat (eg, linoleic acid) might require more vitamin E, but deficiencies
are unlikely to occur in pets fed pelleted diets.1 Vitamin E deficiency was a problem
when ferrets were fed raw meat or fish that contained rancid fat. Steatitis has been
seen in young ferrets fed diets containing an excessive amount of fish or horse-
meat.13 The ferret foods listed in Table 1 probably all contain an excess of vitamin E
for normal animals.1 Other information on vitamin requirements of ferrets have been
determined because of their use as laboratory research animals. Ferrets unlike cats
are able to convert betacarotene to vitamin A, and in the diet this conversion is
stimulated by 1% taurocholate (cholic acid conjugated with taurine), 23% fat,
40% protein, and alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) at physiologic doses.1,16 However,
ferrets convert betacarotene to vitamin A inefficiently, and the diet should contain
added vitamin A.15,17 Studies also have been done showing that ferrets had a higher
body weight gain when supplemented with betacarotene.18 The natural source of
vitamin E for a carnivorous animal is the liver of its prey.1 Studies have been
done using the ferret as a model for lung cancer, and have found that the addition
of betacarotene, alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E), and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) effec-
tively blocked the formation of preneoplastic lung lesions and lung cancer tumor
458 Johnson-Delaney

formation.19,20 Another interesting study looked at tobacco smoke induction of

changes in the gastric mucosa of ferrets as a model for gastric cancer and found
that lycopene effectively prevented the damage.21 In the author’s opinion, this
may have implications for its use in consideration of gastric health.
Vitamin D requirements may depend on dietary concentrations of calcium and phos-
phorus or on the duration of exposure to UV-B light.15 Other factors include dietary cal-
cium to phosphorus ratio, physiologic state of development, and gender. Rachitic
changes and abnormal bone development may occur when the diet is deficient in
vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus especially when exposure to ultraviolet light is mini-
mized.15 Commercial ferret diets generally have sufficient vitamin D, calcium, and phos-
phorus in the appropriate ratios. Most pet ferrets receive little to no UV-B light.
Vitamin K metabolic need has not been established in the ferret, but it is likely that a
dry diet concentration of 1.0 mg menadione/kg would sustain normal plasma prothrom-
bin levels.15 A deficiency may result in hypoprothrombinemia and hemorrhage. Vitamin
K toxicity has been linked with kernicterus and hemolytic anemia in other species.15
The thiamin concentration in commercially available ferret diets is generally consid-
ered adequate. A diet of raw eggs may predispose ferrets to thiamin deficiency.15
Thiamine deficiency disease has been reported on ferret farms in New Zealand that
fed a diet consisting of fish containing thiaminase.15 It was seen in weanling growing
and adult ferrets. It was characterized by anorexia, lethargy, marked dyspnea, pros-
tration, and convulsions.7,15 Signs disappeared after parenteral injections of vitamin
B complex (5 mg daily for 3 days).15 Death caused by depression of the respiratory
center may occur with toxic doses, likely in excess of 200 mg/kg body weight.15
Riboflavin needs are considered met with less than 3 mg/kg. Commercial ferret
diets contain in excess of this amount.15 Acute deficiency may result in decreased
respiratory rate, hypothermia, weakness, and coma. Chronic deficiency may result
in anorexia, muscular weakness, dermatitis, microcytic-hypochromic anemia, corneal
vascularization-opacification, and reduced erythrocyte and urine riboflavin
concentration.15
A sufficient amount of pyridoxin is considered to be 1 mg of vitamin B6 per kilogram
dry matter. Commercial ferret diets contain eight times this level. Deficiency in mink
showed testicular atrophy, aspermia, and degeneration. Absorption sterility occurs
in females.15
Vitamin B12 deficiency has not been described in the ferret.15 Commercial diet
amounts are considered adequate. Vitamin B12 deficiency has been linked with macro-
cytic hypochromic, macrocytic normochromic, normocytic hypochromic, or normo-
cytic normochromic anemias in other species.15
Folic acid synthesis by intestinal bacteria has not been studied in the ferret, but
commercial diets are considered to have adequate amounts that bacterial synthesis
is not needed.15 In mink, folic acid at 0.5 mg/kg of dry feed causes a remission of
such symptoms as erratic appetite, poor weight gain, glossitis, leucopenia, and hypo-
chromic anemia.15
Biotin is provided in commercial diets upward of 200 mg biotin per kilogram dry mat-
ter leading to 10 mg/kg body weight daily.15 This level is approximately twice the level
required for optimal growth in dogs.15 Deficiency may result in alopecia, hyperkerato-
sis, graying of fur, conjunctivitis, and fatty liver.7,15
Niacin must be supplied although the metabolic conversion of tryptophan to niacin
and has not been systematically studied in the ferret.15 Mink cannot metabolize
enough to meet requirements.15 Commercial ferret diets provide several times the
20 mg/kg dry diet that is stated as a requirement for mink.15 Deficiency has been
linked with anorexia, profuse salivation, diarrhea, GI inflammation, hemorrhagic
 Ferret Nutrition 459

necrosis, dehydration, and emaciation in other species. High doses have been linked
with vasodilation, pruritus, and cutaneous desquamation in other species.15
Pantothenic acid requirements are probably about 500 to 750 mg/kg body weight
based on the absence of deficiency signs in ferrets consuming a commercial ferret
diet.15 Deficiency in the ferret may result in poor appetite, slow growth, reduced blood
cholesterol and total lipid levels, loss of conditioned reflexes, alopecia, vomiting, inter-
mittent diarrhea, GI disorders, convulsions, and coma.15
Choline requirements link with dietary concentration of methionine. Both choline
and methionine may serve as methyl donors in metabolism, with the dietary supply
of one tending to spare the need for the other. The interaction of these has not
been systematically studied in ferrets.15 Deficiency has led to elevated plasma phos-
phatase activity and blood prothrombin times. Toxicity may cause an increased alka-
lination of urine and decreased ammonia excretion.15

WATER

Ferrets require approximately three times as much water as dry matter food and
should have fresh drinking water constantly available. They prefer to drink from
a dish rather than a dropper bottle, and should be given this opportunity at least
once daily ensuring that their consumption of dry pellets is not limited by their
water intake. Heavy crocks are the best water containers, because most ferrets
rest their front feet on the edge of a dish as they drink, and may tip over a lighter
container.1 Many pet ferrets also like to play in water making a water crock
problematic.

SELECTING A COMPLETE DIET FOR A PET FERRET

Most pet ferrets are acquired either as kits or young juveniles from pet shops or from
private breeders, or they are acquired as older juveniles or adults from shelters. A pet
may come to its new owner with strongly established preferences for flavors and food
textures. Once they have been accustomed to a diet, ferrets expect to find that food
and no other in their dish every day. New owners must be educated on the basics of
ferret nutrition and urge them to continue with the balanced diet the ferret is already
used to. People buying a kit from a pet store may remain completely unaware of the
animal’s requirements depending on what the pet shop personnel tells them. A pet
shop employee may suggest an expensive premium cat food rather than the ferret
food currently being fed the kit. The owner may decide that he or she can get by
with a cheaper cat food from the grocery store, leading to malnourishment of the
ferret. Most kits readily accept cat food because of its high palatability, even though
nutritionally it is not acceptable. Even after selecting a good base diet, many ferret
owners decide to give their ferret a taste of their own favorite foods. Ferrets end up
snacking on bananas, raisins, apples, ice cream, potato chips, coffee creamer,
carbonated drinks, beer, pizza, cereal, and so forth. Ferrets are utterly self-
indulgent and gorge themselves on anything they take a liking to. Left to themselves,
they eat only their favorite foods, eventually becoming grossly malnourished.1 Veter-
inarians who examine a pet shop ferret soon after purchase should advise the owner
to select the ferret’s diet carefully and limit snack foods that will unbalance the diet.1

MAINTENANCE DIETS

A pet ferret’s maintenance diet should be 30% to 35% crude protein and 15% to 30%
fat.1,2,9,13 Meat or poultry, meat or poultry meals, or their by-products should appear
460 Johnson-Delaney

first in the list of ingredients and preferably several more times in the ingredients list.1
Other animal products, such as liver and eggs, are included in the highest-quality
foods. Although ferret diets, such as Totally Ferret (Performance Foods, Inc, Broom-
field, CO) and Marshall Premium Ferret Diet (Marshall Pet Products, North Rose, NY)
were formulated for ferrets from babyhood to old age, some premium cat foods have
also proved satisfactory. Although the most expensive commercial diet is not neces-
sarily best for any individual ferret, the cheapest ones are certainly the worst.1 Ferrets
fed dog food eventually die, either directly of malnutrition or of GI or respiratory infec-
tions arising from poor immune function.1

UNSUITABLE DIETS

Grocery store and generic cat foods are incomplete diets. Serious health problems
have been directly or indirectly related to feeding a base diet of low-cost grocery store
or generic cat food to ferrets. The list of ingredients for these foods usually starts with
ground yellow corn. Metabolism of cereal proteins alkalinizes the animal’s urine,
encouraging struvite urolith formation in ferrets and cats.1,15 The normal pH of the
urine should be less than 6.5.11 When diets high in cereal proteins are fed to pregnant
or lactating jills, 5% to 10% have uroliths, and a significant number require emergency
surgery to remove large single or smaller multiple struvite uroliths.1,11 Not only is the
protein in grocery store cat foods predominantly from cereals, there is too little of it
for ferrets, and the proportion that comes from meat is usually of poor quality. Supple-
menting the ferret with the right balance of whole cooked egg, milk, and minced
ground meat or liver corrects the amino acid deficiencies caused by a steady diet
of generic cat food. However, fat must also be added, because generic cat foods
contain only 8% to 10% fat, which is approximately half of what ferrets require, and
a high proportion of carbohydrate.1
Young ferrets on protein-deficient diets grow poorly, and immune dysfunction
makes them more susceptible to respiratory and GI infections.1 This is particularly
noticeable in groups of pet shop kits that do very well despite multiple stressors as
long as they are well nourished. When poor nutrition is superimposed on stress and
exposure to pathogens, they develop respiratory infections, clinical coccidiosis, and
heavy flea and ear mite infestations. Juveniles raised on low-quality cat food are
more likely to develop clinical Helicobacter gastritis and ulcers and proliferative
colitis.1
Nutritional steatitis has been described in ferrets fed a high level of dietary polyun-
saturated fat (PUFA).7,15 In all species reported with this disease it has been caused by
feeding a diet high in PUFA and/or deficient in vitamin E. Mink are particularly sensi-
tive.15 A dietary supplement of 75 to 150 mg/ferret/day of vitamin E is advised when
feeding ferrets a high-PUFA diet.15 This is similar to the mink. The high level of
selenium found in the liver of ferrets with steatitis did not reduce the toxicity of the
high-PUFA content of the feed, although selenium does protect tissue against
lipoperioxidases.15
Osteodystrophia fibrosa (nutritional hyperparathyroidism) mainly caused by
feeding an all-meat diet with no calcium supplementation has been documented in
ferrets.7,15 True rickets (hypophosphorosis and/or hypovitaminosis D) has not been
reported in ferrets. All ages are susceptible, but rapid growth predisposes ferrets
to the disease if the diet is inadequate in calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D.15
Affected ferrets are reluctant to move, cannot support their own weight, and the
typical posture is abduction of the forelegs. The bones are soft, pliable, and fractures
may be present.15 This has been diagnosed predominantly in instances where a
 Ferret Nutrition 461

commercial ferret diet is not being fed. On necropsy, the bones are osteoporotic with
typical lesions of osteodystrophia fibrosa. The parathyroid glands are hyperplastic.15
Zinc toxicity has been reported in ferrets exposed to excessive levels of zinc in the
diet that were leached from galvanized feeding pans and water dishes.15 All ages are
susceptible. Affected animals have pale mucous membranes caused by anemia. Pos-
terior weakness and lethargy was seen. This problem was reported on two ferret farms
in New Zealand.15
Salt poisoning was caused by feeding a diet of 100% salted fish. Clinical signs
are typical of those seen in other species, particularly pigs, affected with the
disease.15 Animals are significantly depressed and have periodic choriform spasms,
seen 24 to 96 hours after ingestion of excessive salty diets. Death ensures shortly
thereafter.15 Pathology is restricted to the brain, which is edematous and
shows coning of the cerebellum.15 Nonsuppurative eosinophilic meningitis was
also found.15

SWITCHING TO AN OPTIMAL DIET

A young ferret accustomed to a mixture of several premium cat or ferret foods is usu-
ally easy to keep on feeding just one brand of ferret food. Young ferrets imprint on food
by smell at a very young age, and develop strong food preferences by the time they are
a few months old. Therefore, regardless of the diet strategy that is chosen, ferrets
should be exposed to a variety of food tastes, textures, smalls, and different protein
sources as juveniles so their diet has more flexibility as an adult. This can be extremely
helpful when ferrets experience medical conditions that may require altered diets.2
Older ferrets, however, may be quite stubborn and difficult to switch from that
lower-quality “tasty” cat food. Changing an adult ferret’s eating habits can be frus-
trating and stressful for the owner and the ferret.1 When a complete change is neces-
sary, offer a smorgasbord of high-quality foods mixed with the diet that the ferret is
used to. Some ferrets would rather fight than switch foods. They make a clear state-
ment by digging all the new food out of the dish, or deliberately carrying it pellet by
pellet into their litter box.1 A sudden change is risky because some ferrets fast to
the point of starvation rather than eat the new food. Instead of giving up and allowing
the pet to eat the generic kibble that it craves, feed it palatable, balanced supple-
ments, such as Nutri-Cal mixed into a soup of ground pellets (mix food it is used to
plus the diet you are trying to get it to convert to so that the new tastes are part of
the powder), plus mix in some baby food chicken or turkey creating “Dook Soup”
(Box 1, Table 5). Gradually decrease the water content of the Dook Soup and increase
the proportion of the correct diet in the ground powder until the ferret is converted
(Fig. 1). Unfortunately, using soup for conversion also is fraught with problems.
Some ferrets decide that they would rather eat soup than kibble at all and will not
switch back to kibble. Have kibble available always and make the soup more and
more thick, and offer it only once or twice daily. Usually a healthy ferret starts back
eating kibble, particularly if housed with more than one other ferret that has also
been converted to a different kibble. The ferret’s weight should be checked at least
every other day during conversion. If there is weight loss, go to more frequent feedings
of Dook Soup and increase the proportion of the good-quality food ground into the
powder used as the basis for the soup.

HIGH-FAT SUPPLEMENTS

A ferret on a good balanced diet, usually kibble, needs no supplementation. Feeding

coat conditioners that contain linoleic and other fatty acids adds 9 kcal/g of
462 Johnson-Delaney

Box 1
My Dook Soup recipe

Approximately one meal.

Pulverize/grind regular ferret food into a powder. 1 teaspooon of this plus enough water or
chicken broth to make it fluid; it may need to soak for over an hour until it is lumpy chowder
consistency. Add 1 teaspoon of this to the Dook Soup.
1 heaping teaspoon Carnivore Care or Emeraid Exotic Carnivore plus enough water to make a
soupy consistency.
1 teaspoon Nutri-Cal.
1 teaspoon baby food chicken or turkey, or cooked chicken puree.
Add any additional nutrients, such as powdered taurine 25 to 50 mg as indicated.
Mix all the above ingredients with enough additional chicken broth or water to make it the
consistency of split pea soup or whatever the ferret will take off a syringe, spoon, or just lap up.
The ferret may need encouragement to eat. Often you can get him/her started by feeding off a
finger or spoon.
Meal: usually 30 mL of soup per 1 kg ferret at least 3 times a day. Need to feed enough to
maintain or increase body weight.

metabolized fat, causing the ferret to reduce its intake of the balanced diet.1 If only a
few drops a day are fed as a treat, no harm is done. The most common product used is
Ferretone (8-in-1, Spectrum Brands, Inc, Islandia, NY, www.eightinonepet.com). This
product does not contain any carbohydrates, unlike other commonly used supple-
ments (Ferretvite; 8-in-1, Spectrum Brands) and Nutri-Cal. As an example of the prob-
lems this can cause if a teaspoon (5 mL) of Ferretone is given to a 700-g jill daily, she
will reduce her intake by the approximately 40 kcal she acquires in the supplement,
which is 20% of her caloric requirement per day. If she is on a good-quality ferret
food, this added fat will likely only cause her to gain weight and have a thick coat.1
If she is on a marginal diet, the added fat will detract from the protein content and

Table 5
Commercial products used in Dook Soup

Emeraid Exotic
Nutrient Carnivore Carnivore Care Nutri-Cal
Crude protein (min) % 37.80 45.00 0.68
Crude fat (min) % 34.00 32.00 28.14
Crude fiber (max) % 4.50 3.00 Not listed
Omega 3 fatty acids (min) % 1.40 1.00 Not listed
Omega 6 fatty acids (min) % 11.00 7.60 Not listed
Calcium (min) % 1.00 1.40 (max 1.80) 0.0026
Phosphorus (min) % 0.67 1.20 0.0003
Moisture (max) % 9.00 10.00 14.21
Calories Calculated, dry 6 kcal/g; 24 kcal/ 60 kcal/
weight 5.14 kcal/g tablespoon tablespoon

Analysis as listed on the package: Emeraid (Lafeber Company, Cornell, IL); Carnivore Care (Oxbow
Animal Health, Murdock, NE); Nutri-Cal (Vetoquinol USA, Inc, Fort Worth, TX).
 Ferret Nutrition 463

Fig. 1. Ferret eating my Dook Soup.

eventually lead to deficiencies of vitamins and minerals. This ferret will have a poor
coat and be in poor condition until the supplementation is ceased.1 For example, a
700-g jill requires approximately 200 kcal/day and will eat to her caloric requirement.
Using a diet that contains 30% crude protein, 8% crude fat, and 4.5% fiber (a typical
cat food), which contains approximately 3.5 kcal of metabolizable energy per gram, if it
is supplemented with 5 mL of Ferretone every day the ferret will reduce her intake of
the dry diet by approximately 40 kcal or 11 g. She was probably consuming approx-
imately 60 g of that diet (18 g of protein), and now she is eating approximately 50 g,
which is 15 g of protein. The jill’s diet now contains approximately 27% protein, which
is primarily from cereal grains and thus is less than 75% digestible. This ferret will have
a poor coat, will be thin and abnormally susceptible to infectious diseases, and may
even develop struvite urolithiasis.1

HIGH-CARBOHYDRATE SUPPLEMENTS

High-carbohydrate supplements (treats) include carbonated drinks, cookies, candy,

and raisins. Ferrets love raisins, which are very high in sugar and low in protein and
fat. A few raisins a day for a normal ferret on an excellent diet does not cause a nutri-
tional problem, but may pass largely through the intestinal tract with little digestion. In
some ferrets they may irritate the GI tract. A ferret on a generic cat food fed a handful
of raisins per day raises the carbohydrate intake enough to reduce the consumption of
the dry food, inducing protein and fat deficiencies. High-carbohydrate supplements
are not needed to augment a ferret’s diet.

ACCEPTABLE SUPPLEMENTS (TREATS)

Supplements (treats) should be limited to no more than 10% of the daily caloric intake.
A few raisins (9 kcal/teaspoon) or 1 mL of Ferretone (9 kcal/mL) daily does not harm
ferrets on good-quality ferret diets.1 Soft-moist meat or liver snacks manufactured
for cats or ferrets make good treats: they contain 50% to 60% moisture and are
balanced approximately like a good ferret diet. Check the label for the nutritional
content and convert it to a dry matter basis.1 Other acceptable snacks are a few tea-
spoonfuls of a high-protein, high-calorie human supplements; baby meats that contain
no carbohydrates; egg yolk or whole cooked egg; or small amounts of raw meat or
liver (Fig. 2). Pureed raw liver or hamburger mixed with egg yolk and milk looks and
464 Johnson-Delaney

Fig. 2. Ferret licking Nutri-Cal off a finger to start the feeding process.

smells disgusting to people and older ferrets raised on refined, pelleted kibble, but it is
universally appealing to kits and contains amino and fatty acids that immediately cor-
rect the deficiencies of inadequate diets. Ferrets with sparse coats caused by nutri-
tional deficiencies start growing hair within days. Although some raw meat may
contain bacteria or parasites harmful to humans, ferrets and other predators seem
very resistant to such infections.1

PHYSIOLOGIC STATES THAT REQUIRE SPECIAL NUTRITION

Growth
Weaned kits require an excellent diet if they are to grow to their adult weight. Well-
nourished male kits double their weight between 4 (150 g) and 6 weeks of age
(300 g) and double it again before they are 9 weeks old (700 g).1 When fed generic
cat foods exclusively, they have poor haircoats, distended abdomens, and a greater
susceptibility to respiratory and digestive diseases than kits on high-quality ferret di-
ets. This might not be noticeable to someone who has never seen well-nourished kits,
but if weight and health records and photographs are compared, there are dramatic
differences in litters on poor- and high-quality diets.1
A meat-based dry diet with at least 35% protein and approximately 20% fat should
be constantly available to growing kits. A palatable supplement to the dry diet for just-
weaned kits is made by mixing the pellets with water and adding cooked eggs and an-
imal fat (or fish oil) to give the resulting porridge the same concentration of protein and
calories as the dry diet. Offer the soft food warm once or twice daily. The kits’ intake of
dry pellets is limited by the availability of drinking water, which should be provided in a
heavy crock that needs to be cleaned and refilled at least two to three times a day.1 A
water dropper bottle should also be available. Kits that are placed in the pet stores are
usually 6 to 8 weeks old, and are eating a kibble diet, although most stores mix the
kibble with water to keep it softened into a mash.

Breeding and Gestation

Jills intended for breeding do not need extra fat, but raising the protein to more than
35% improves conception rate.1 Jills on poor-quality protein have smaller than
average kits and litters. A pregnant jill increases her intake in the last trimester of
gestation; because a large litter occupies most of the space in her abdomen, she
has to eat frequently. Even a short fast a few days before her due date may induce
 Ferret Nutrition 465

life-threatening pregnancy toxemia, which is essentially an energy deficit that

causes fatty liver syndrome.1 Extra dishes and water bottles should be provided
so that unforeseen accidents do not restrict the jill’s intake during the last week
of gestation.1
Lactating and Weaning
Lactation is heavily dependent on nutrition.1 A 700-g primiparous jill’s litter of 10 kits
weighs approximately 80 g at birth and 1000 g 3 to 4 weeks later. Three-week old kits
drink a volume of milk replacer (20% fat) equivalent to 30% of their body weight daily,
but they probably require less ferret milk, which is perfectly balanced to meet their re-
quirements.1 After the third week of lactation, the jill daily produces an amount of milk
that approaches 40% of her body weight, with a fat content of 10% to 20%.1 Her
caloric requirement doubles if she provides the kits with enough milk to grow normally.
Only a constant supply of high-quality food and unrestricted access to water allows
this tremendous expenditure of energy. The porridge described for weaned kits should
be offered to the nursing jill two to three times daily, first a teaspoonful at a time, and
after the litter is 3 weeks old, as much as she will eat.1 Jills nursing more than 8 kits
lose weight no matter what they eat. Allowing the 3-week-old litter access to their
mother’s soft diet has a sparing effect on her. Even before their eyes open at 30 to
35 days of age, kits are quite able to eat solid food because their deciduous teeth
come in at around 2 weeks of age.2 They may each consume an ounce of food a
day when they are only 3 weeks old. The more milk the jill has, the less solid food
the kits eat. After their eyes open, they start eating the jill’s pellets and any time after
5 weeks may be completely weaned. Litters left with the dam until 6 weeks of age grow
faster than early weaned kits.1

ILL FERRETS

Any illness that causes anorexia requires nursing care. Anorexic ferrets may develop
hepatic lipidosis and hypoglycemia.22 Usually this means assist-feeding with foods
high in protein and fat.22 Two commercial formulations are available that can be
used alone or mixed into Dook Soup to get nutrition into the sick ferret. Table 5 lists
nutrients used in Dook Soup. Emeraid Exotic Carnivore (Lafeber Company, Cornell, IL)
is designed to be used alone and can be delivered easily through a gastric tube if the
ferret refuses all oral administration (this includes syringing). Carnivore Care (Oxbow
Animal Health, Murdock, NE) can also be administered through a gastric tube or by
syringe. It can be used solely for the ill ferret. Both powders can be used in combina-
tion with ground soaked kibble, baby foods, broth or water, and Nutri-Cal. There are
many formulations, but all should maintain the ferret’s weight or cause weight gain.
The author’s preference is to begin by using Emeraid or Carnivore Care alone for
the first 24 hours, then to gradually introduce chicken baby food and Nutri-Cal for
the next 24 to 48 hours, then gradually mix in the soaked ground regular diet, which
thickens up the gruel. It can all be pureed so that it can be administered through a sy-
ringe. Most ferrets take syringing or by-hand feeding by dipping a finger in the mix and
smearing it on their lips. Many ferrets also take food off a spoon (Figs. 3 and 4).

ISLET CELL DISEASE AND DIETARY MANAGEMENT

Insulin-secreting tumors may be benign (insulinomas or b-cell adenomas) or malignant

(b-cell carcinomas).1 Whether histopathologically designated benign or malignant,
these tumors secrete insulin and do not differ in their association with clinical signs
and shortened life expectancy because of repeated episodes of hypoglycemia.
466 Johnson-Delaney

Fig. 3. Ferret eating Dook Soup off a spoon.

Ferrets with islet cell disease present special problems because they are unable to
regulate insulin production. Most affected ferrets have multiple pockets of neoplasia
that secrete insulin persistently and in response to feeding. Insulin increases tissue up-
take of glucose and decreases hepatic gluconeogenesis, effectively lowering blood
glucose.1 The central nervous system depends on blood glucose for normal function.
Hypoglycemia causes such signs as lethargy, nausea (shown by pawing at the mouth,
hypersalivation, retching), confusion, weakness, convulsions, and eventually coma.
Repeated attacks of severe hypoglycemia cause permanent brain damage.1 The
goal of treatment in ferrets with insulin-secreting tumors is to minimize the occurrence
of clinical hypoglycemia.
Absorption of glucose stimulates normal and neoplastic b-cells to secrete more in-
sulin and blood glucose may then fall so low that the brain is unable to function nor-
mally, and the ferret is found unconscious or convulsing.1 Even when they appear
to be completely unresponsive to other stimuli, hypoglycemic ferrets lick and swallow
a glucose solution, 50% dextrose or Nutri-Cal placed on their lips or gums or in the
corner of their mouths, and rapidly recover consciousness.1
Less severe signs of hypoglycemia are associated with nausea or with weakness
and unresponsive behavior.1 Commonly the ferret seems confused soon after

Fig. 4. Syringe feeding using a curved-tip feeding syringe with the tip cut off to allow for
more volume to be fed.
 Ferret Nutrition 467

awakening or after a few minutes of active play.1 It either lies flat on its ventrum with
eyes appearing glazed or swims, dragging itself along with flipper-like leg move-
ments.1 Ferrets showing any of these signs recover within a few minutes if given
glucose, or 50% dextrose, which immediately raises their blood sugar. However,
administration of sugar also stimulates more secretion of insulin and a second episode
of hypoglycemia.1 Administering sugar alone as a treatment of hypoglycemia or as a
snack or treat promotes peaks and valleys of blood glucose.1 Nutri-Cal is a better
treatment than a glucose source, such as corn syrup alone, because in addition to
sugar it contains fat, which is absorbed and metabolized slowly, maintaining blood
glucose at a steady level.1 Emergency treatment with a sugar source or Nutri-Cal
should be followed by a snack of their regular food or Dook Soup.
Ferrets with islet cell disease should have constant access to food and should be
encouraged to eat at least every 2 to 4 hours. It is advisable to get them to eat before
a play period. The best medical care will not be successful in controlling hypoglycemia
unless it is combined with nutritional management.1 Owners should be advised not to
give treats that are high in simple sugars including raisins, peanut butter, and any ferret
supplements containing corn syrup or other sugar products.23 There has been discus-
sion that the ferret should be on a diet high in protein and fats and very low in carbo-
hydrates and fiber, but studies supporting the theory are currently lacking. Further
scientific investigations are warranted before specific recommendations can be
made.23 Most commercial ferret diets already fit in this specification.

GERIATRIC FERRETS

Ferrets become geriatric at 3 years of age. As they age, ferrets establish their distinc-
tive habits and food preferences, and changes imposed by humans become progres-
sively more stressful.12 It is essential to begin feeding a good diet when the ferret is
young.1 Lower-protein diets (<35%) have been recommended for older ferrets to pre-
vent chronic interstitial nephritis, although there has been no real evidence to suggest
that a high-protein diet causes nephritis in ferrets or that feeding a lower-protein diet
either alleviates the condition or stops its progress.1 Nephritis might actually be
caused by unrecognized viral or bacterial infections or other dietary components pre-
sent in all foods.1 However, the less active older ferret probably does not need more
than 35% protein in his diet and may accept a lower-protein variety of his favorite
food.1 There are geriatric ferret diets on the market,12 but feeding trials looking at their
effectiveness have not been done. If switching foods is a struggle, the possible ben-
efits of the change are outweighed by the stress of the conflict. Some ferrets eat less
and lose weight as they age, even when their teeth appear normal and no systemic
disease is apparent.1 It may be that they are losing their sense of smell, because
they often eagerly devour their regular pellets mixed with warm water, either alone
or with a favorite additive, such as baby food or Nutri-Cal.1 Because more plaque is
deposited on their teeth as a result of the soft diet, their teeth need to be checked
and cleaned twice a year.1,5
Ferrets with terminal cancer also need special attention to ensure that their nutri-
tional needs are met. This may include extra meals and fortifying supplements.1 The
real secret of maintaining a good quality of life is the faithful care of an owner who
is willing to hand-feed an old and/or ill ferret at any and all hours of the day or night.1

FEEDING FERRET KITS

If the jill rejects the kits or there are problems with her producing enough milk, supple-
mentation or nursing is required. The formula to use is puppy or kitten milk replacer
468 Johnson-Delaney

Fig. 5. Kits with bowl of softened pellets.

enriched with cream until the fat content is 20%. The formula that works well is three
parts puppy milk replacer (Esbilac, Pet Ag, Hampshire, IL) to one part whipping
cream.24 The kit requires teaching for the first few feedings. Wrap the kit in a towel,
with its head protruding. Hold it at an angle that would naturally assume if suckling
from the jill. With a drop of milk on it, coax the tip of the cannula (BD Interlink Cannula,
Franklin Lakes, NJ) or small animal nipple very gently into the kits’s mouth slightly off
center.24 Be prepared to take plenty of time over the first feeding.24 If the bottle and
nipple are not working, use a 1- to 3-mL syringe with a feeding tip or cannula. Dribble
the liquid in very gradually and be extremely careful not to choke the infant. Kits drink
more if the milk is warm. Start by feeding about 0.5 mL per feed and increase to 1 mL
per feed by the end of the first week. A rule of thumb is to let the kit determine the
amount. A puppy- or kitten-size bottle and nipple can be used as the kit grows. Soft
food can be introduced by 3 to 4 weeks of age. Feed every 2 to 4 hours initially and
gradually increase the time interval as the kit matures.24 At 3 to 4 weeks of age as
the eyes open kits can be taught to drink from a low flat dish.24 In addition to the
feeding, the kit needs to be stimulated to urinate and defecate. This can be done by
stroking the stomach and back legs. A cotton ball or moistened washcloth can be
used to wipe its anogenital area very gentle. Kits start defecating and urinating on their
own at about 3 weeks of age. This is about the same time they start to eat mush and
move out of the nest box.24 The mush should be the ferret diet the jill is on, a commer-
cial ferret food moistened with water (Fig. 5).

INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE

It is speculated that inflammatory bowel disease may be associated with current ferret
diets, but no definitive studies have been done linking a diet with the development of
the disease. Anecdotally, alleviation or moderation of symptoms has been achieved in
some ferrets by switching diets, including usage of a novel protein diet (Turkey,
Venison, Lamb Meal; Performance Foods). Dietary clay (diosmectite; Smecta; IPSEN
Pharmaceuticals, Basking Ridge, NJ) has been shown to have anti-inflammatory ef-
fects in colitis in rats at a dosage of 400 mg/kg/day orally.25 Another dietary edible
clay, calcium montmorillonite (Nutramin; California Earth Minderals, Corp, Culver
City, CA) has been used in ferrets with some alleviation of symptoms. Studies are
needed to clarify the role commercial diets have in this disease and in the treatment
of it.
 Ferret Nutrition 469

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