12/03/2022 19:31 Introduction to Energy Efficiency | McGraw-Hill Education - Access Engineering

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Energy Efficiency and

Management for Engineers, 1st
Edition
(/content/book/9781260459098)
Mehmet Kanoğlu , Yunus A. Çengel 

ISBN: 9781260459098
Publication Date & Copyright: 2020 McGraw-Hill Education

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Table of Contents Figures (12) Graphs (1) Examples (4)

Resources (2)

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1. Introduction to Energy Efficiency

1-1. ENERGY EFFICIENCY AS AN
ENERGY RESOURCE
To meet its energy needs, the world community currently depends heavily on fos-
sil fuels that are nonrenewable and unfriendly to the environment. In 2017, fossil
fuels accounted for 82.7 percent (27.1% coal + 33.4% oil + 22.2% natural gas) of
the total energy supply in the world (Fig. 1-1). Renewable energy (including hydro-
electric power), which is environment-friendly, was responsible for 12.7 percent of
the total energy supply globally. Nuclear power supplied the remaining 4.6 percent
of the total energy used (EIA, 2018).

Figure 1-1 Percentages of total world primary energy supply by fuel in 2017.
(EIA, 2018.)

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Total global energy supply in 2017 was 589 Quad (quadrillion Btu, 1 Quad = 1015
Btu), which is equivalent to 5.6 × 1017 kJ. More than half of global energy is used
by the industrial sector (54.6 percent), followed by the transportation sector with
25.6 percent, the residential sector with 12.7 percent, and the commercial sector
with 7.1 percent (EIA, 2018).

A total of 24,255 TWh (or 24.255 × 1012 kWh since 1 terawatt hour = 1 billion kWh
= 109 kWh) of electricity was generated in the world in 2015. Fossil fuels ac-
counted for 66.3 percent of total electricity generation in the world with 39.3 per-
cent for coal, 22.9 percent for natural gas, and 4.1 percent for oil. Renewable en-
ergy (including hydroelectric power) and nuclear power were responsible for 23.1
percent and 10.6 percent of global electricity generation, respectively (Fig. 1-2). A
total of 5603 TWh (or 5.603 × 1012 kWh) of renewable electricity was generated
that year. The total global electricity generation rose from 6.1 trillion kWh in 1973
to 24.3 trillion kWh in 2015 (IEA, 2017).

Figure 1-2 Percentages of global electricity generation by fuel type and source.
Total electricity generation = 24,255 TWh. (EIA, 2017.)

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The problem of the depletion of fossil fuels and pollutants and greenhouse emis-
sions associated with their combustion can be tackled by essentially two
methods:

Using renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass,

and geothermal

Implementing energy efficiency practices in all aspects of energy production,

distribution, and consumption

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Energy efficiency refers to getting the same output with lower energy use. That is,
quality and comfort are not sacrificed in order to reduce energy consumption.
Energy conservation measures can be applied to three major areas of energy use:
industrial facilities, buildings, and transportation.

We are familiar with fossil fuels as primary energy resources, but it is now time to
consider energy efficiency as an important energy resource. Energy efficiency is
already being touted as the "sixth fuel" after coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy,
and renewable energy (Fig. 1-3). Energy efficiency is also the cheapest resource.
The cost of electricity obtained from energy efficiency is usually between 1 and 3
cents (U.S.) per kilowatt hour. Further, energy efficiency is both local and labor in-
tensive with significant benefits to the environment by minimizing pollution
(Çengel, 2011).

Figure 1-3 Energy efficiency is being touted as the "sixth fuel."

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When energy sources are discussed, the first things that come to mind are coal,
oil, natural gas, uranium that powers nuclear plants, and renewable energy
sources such as the sun, wind, geothermal, and biomass. However, the largest en-
ergy resource that we can readily tap is a virtual energy source that was discov-
ered in 1973 after the oil embargo. This resource is everywhere, including in our
homes, and many economic giants like the U.S. are meeting half of their new en-
ergy demand to power economic growth from this resource. The amount of en-
ergy extracted from this resource is comparable to the energy obtained from coal,
oil, natural gas, nuclear, and renewable energy. What is more, this resource does
not occupy any space, it does not face depletion, and it benefits the environment
instead of harming it. The name of this resource is energy efficiency.

It is unfortunate that many countries are investing in new power plants and ex-
tracting or importing more oil and natural gas to meet their growing energy de-
mand rather than making energy efficiency their first priority. It is important to
raise awareness that investing in energy efficiency provides the highest and
fastest returns on investment, and that energy efficiency is not something that
can be done only if there is some funding available. Also, it is not something that
can be left to individuals and companies. Strong commitment and leadership by
government is essential in raising public awareness and initiating change toward
energy efficient technologies and practices.

The 1973 oil embargo made life miserable in the Western world, but looking back,
Western countries view the oil embargo as a blessing since it dispelled the illu-
sion that low-cost energy would be available forever. Therefore, the wake-up call
in 1973 was a turning point for the way energy was perceived, and it marked the
beginning of serious all-out energy conservation efforts. As a result, the Western
world devised some mechanisms to achieve the highest level of thermal comfort
with the lowest level of energy expenditure. This was done by incorporating en-
ergy efficiency measures in all aspects of life.

1-2. CONSEQUENCES OF FOSSIL FUEL

COMBUSTION 
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Fossil fuels have been powering the industrial development and the amenities of
modern life since the 1700s, but this has not been without undesirable side ef-
fects. The conversion of fossil fuels to thermal energy via combustion affects the
environment and the air we breathe in many ways; thus, an analysis of energy sys-
tems is not complete without considering their impact on the environment and
our health. Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels are responsi-
ble for smog, acid rain, and numerous other adverse effects on the environment.
Environmental pollution has reached such high levels that it has become a seri-
ous threat to vegetation, wildlife, and human health. Air pollution has been the
cause of numerous health problems, including asthma and cancer. Therefore, the
switch to nonfossil energy sources is inevitable, and salvaging the energy that is
currently being wasted stands as the greatest resource that can be tapped to
meet the growing energy demands of the world.

Carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming.
Global climate change is widely believed to be caused by the excessive use of
fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products, and natural gas in electric power
generation, transportation, buildings, and manufacturing, and it has been a con-
cern in recent decades. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as
of 2019 is 410 ppm (or 0.41 percent). This is 20 percent higher than the level a
century ago. Various scientific reports indicate that the earth has already warmed
about 0.5°C during the last century, and it is estimated that the earth's tempera-
ture will rise another 2°C by the year 2100. A rise of this magnitude is feared to
cause severe changes in weather patterns resulting in storms, heavy rains, and
flooding in some areas and drought in others. It could also cause major floods
due to the melting of ice at the poles, loss of wetlands and coastal areas due to
rising sea levels, variations in water supply, and changes in ecosystems due to the
inability of some animal and plant species to adjust to the changes. Increases in
epidemic diseases due to warmer temperatures and adverse side effects on hu-
man health and socioeconomic conditions in some areas are also predicted.

The combustion of fossil fuels produce the following undesirable emissions (Fig.
1-4):

Carbon dioxide (CO2), primary greenhouse gas, contributes to global

warming.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and hydrocarbons (HC) cause smog.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is toxic.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) causes acid rain.

Particulate matter (PM) causes adverse health effects.

Figure 1-4 Effects of undesirable emissions from the combustion of fossil

fuels.

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Notice that CO2 is different from the other emissions in that CO2 is a greenhouse
gas and a natural product of fossil fuel combustion, while the other emissions
listed are harmful air pollutants.

1-3. ENERGY INTENSITY 

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Earning money is no doubt important for comfortable living, but spending the
earned money wisely and avoiding waste is no less important. Likewise, extract-
ing energy from a resource is important, but using this energy in the most efficient
way and avoiding waste is just as important.

Energy efficiency is reducing energy use to the minimum level, but doing so with-
out reducing standard of living, production quality, or profitability. Energy efficiency
is the most effective use of energy resources, and it results in energy conserva-
tion. There is a close connection between efficiency and conservation, and these
two terms are often used interchangeably. Energy conservation is usually associ-
ated with the measures taken to reduce energy use at the point of consumption,
like the use of electricity in a house for lighting. Energy efficiency, on the other
hand, is associated with the most efficient and thus least wasteful use of energy
at all stages from production to end use. Therefore, energy efficiency is a broader
term that includes energy conservation. The second law of thermodynamics is
closely associated with energy efficiency. A second-law efficiency of 100 percent
corresponds to zero waste and thus the upper limit for energy efficiency (Çengel
et al., 2019).

The concepts of energy conservation and renewable energy appear to be indepen-

dent of each other, but they are closely associated. If the energy of wind is not
captured by a wind turbine or if the solar energy is not collected by solar collec-
tors or PV cells and converted into a usable form of energy right away, it will go to
waste and contribute to global warming. Burning natural gas for energy that can
be obtained from the wind or the sun is a waste of natural gas. Therefore, the in-
creased utilization of renewable energy is one of the most effective measures of
energy conservation.

A common measure of energy efficiency for an economy is energy intensity,

which is the amount of energy used to produce a dollar's worth of gross domestic
product (GDP). The high value of energy intensity raises concerns, but it also
points to the great opportunities that exist in energy efficiency. A country with a
relatively high value of energy intensity can reduce its energy consumption with-
out reducing its standard of living by simply incorporating measures of energy
efficiency in all aspects of life. This allows the country to meet its growing energy
needs by implementing energy efficiency measures alone without tapping any ad-
ditional energy resources. That is, the only kind of power plant a country in this
situation needs to power its economic growth is the "conservation plant" that has
no chimneys and emits no pollutants instead of the usual coal, oil, or natural gas
power plants that pollute the air, cause global climate change, and jeopardize en-
ergy security.

The most effective way to combat rising energy costs, greenhouse gas emis-
sions, and dependence on imported energy is to increase energy efficiency and
thus to reduce energy intensity. In nations with a high level of energy awareness,
such as the U.S., energy intensity continues to decline and energy efficiency con-
tinues to rise. The energy-efficient technologies developed since the early 1970s
and the conservation measures that are put to use played a major role in this in-
crease in energy efficiency.

The energy use per dollar of GDP in the U.S. has dropped by 40 percent from 1980
to 2005. The energy intensity of the U.S. manufacturing sector has been decreas-
ing over the years. Figure 1-5 gives the data between 1998 and 2014 for gross
output, fuel consumption, and energy intensity. From 2010 to 2014, gross output
increased by 9.6 percent, while fuel consumption increased at a much lower rate
of 4.7 percent. This resulted in a 4.4 percent decrease in energy intensity (EIA,
2017).

Figure 1-5 The decline in the energy intensity of the U.S. manufacturing sector.
(EIA, 2017.)

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Energy efficiency covers a wide range of applications from insulation to energy-

efficient lighting and from energy-efficient appliances to high-efficiency electric
motors. The energy-efficient compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), for example, con-
sume one-third to one-fifth of the electricity that incandescent lamps consume for
the same light output. So it is no surprise that the use of incandescent lamps is
being banned or restricted in Australia, the European Union, and the U.S., and the
tariffs applied to energy-efficient lamps are being lifted. Further, the energy con-
sumption of fluorescent tube fixtures commonly used in public, commercial, and
industrial buildings can be reduced by up to 30 percent by simply replacing the
magnetic ballasts with their electronic counterparts. This replacement has the
added benefit of eliminating the irritating buzzing sound, the flickering of light,
and the reactive power loss by raising the power factor from 0.60 to 0.99.
Electronic ballasts operate at lower and thus safer temperatures with a longer life
because of their higher efficiency and thus lower rate of heat production. They fit
into existing fixtures, are economical, and easy to install. Additional savings can
be realized by replacing the old-type fluorescent tubes by the newer more energy-
efficient ones that provide the same amount of lighting.

Energy efficiency efforts also had a major impact in the transportation sector.
Today's automobiles use roughly 60 percent of the gasoline they did in 1972 per
mile (or km) driven, due in part to new technologies, such as better engine design
and controls, improved transmission, weight reduction, improved aerodynamics,
the use of variable compression ratios in a multilink system, hybrid engines that
recover power lost during braking, and individually controlled intake and exhaust
valves. Considering that transportation accounts for 27 percent of total U.S. en-
ergy consumption and cars and light trucks comprise over 75 percent of that con-
sumption, even a small increase in energy efficiency of vehicles can have a major
impact on human health and the environment. Therefore, governments continue
to offer generous incentives toward the purchase of fuel-efficient vehicles and use
legislation to discourage the production of fuel-inefficient vehicles.

1-4. THE POWER OF ENERGY

EFFICIENCY
The best way to minimize the use of a natural resource is not to use it at all—that
is, to conserve it. But this should be done without lowering the quality of life. This
was the approach taken in the U.S. in 1970s after the oil embargo, when conser-
vation measures were given a high priority. The results of these efforts were im-
pressive. Between 1975 and 1985, the total energy use remained constant while
economic growth continued, as shown in Fig. 1-6. That is, the energy needed to
power the economic growth was supplied by conservation. Between 1973 and
2000, the U.S. economy grew 126 percent, but the increase in total energy usage
remained at 30 percent—about one-fifth of the rate of economic growth. Also, be-
tween 1990 and 2000, the industrial output increased 41 percent, while the use of
electric energy in industrial facilities increased only by 11 percent (NEPDG, 2001).

Figure 1-6 Total energy usage in the U.S. if energy intensity (Energy 
consumed/GDP) stayed constant at the 1972 level versus actual energy use.
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(NEPDG, 2001.)

Interactive Graph

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If the U.S. had not turned to conservation and had continued its energy use at the
energy intensity level of 1972, its energy consumption would have been 80 per-
cent or 79 Quad more in 2000, and the U.S. would be paying about $1 billion more
every day for energy. Today the U.S. is paying several hundred billion dollars less
for energy every year, and it owes this to the conservation measures it started
zealously in the 1970s. Therefore, the past investments in energy efficiency have
paid a very high return while providing economic stimulus and environmental and
thus health benefits. The U.S. example reaffirms that the biggest energy resource
is energy efficiency, and this is a domestic, environment-friendly, and inex-
haustible resource.

Two examples from the U.S. clearly demonstrate the power of energy efficiency.
The first deals with household refrigerators and the second with nuclear power
plants.

1-4-1. The Case of Energy-Efficient

Refrigerators
The energy efficiency of refrigerators and freezers has increased greatly over the
last 40 years, and the trend for higher-energy efficiency in all appliances contin-
ues. In 1974, a typical refrigerator in the U.S. consumed 1800 kWh of electricity
per year. But owing to the efficiency enhancements in motor and compressor sys-
tems, more effective insulation, and improved control systems, the average an-
nual electricity consumption has declined by 75 percent to 450 kWh. That is, an
average refrigerator in the U.S. today consumes only one-fourth of the electricity it
consumed in 1974; thus, it saves 1350 kWh of electricity each year. The total
number of refrigerators in the U.S. is about 140 million, and the national average
price of electricity is 12 cents. It then follows that the energy efficiency in refriger-
ators alone saves the U.S. 190 billion kWh of electricity per year, and nearly $20
billion stays in the pockets of U.S. consumers rather than going toward paying
electric bills.

Considering that an average of 0.713 kg of CO2 is emitted per kWh of electricity

generated in the U.S., the 190 billion kWh of electricity saved offsets the emission
of 135 million tons of CO2 (the actual amount will be larger since a greater 
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amount of electricity needs to be generated to make up for transmission losses).
Therefore, the conserved energy also makes a significant contribution to the ef-
fort to avoid global warming.

If the refrigerators in the U.S. were to continue to consume electric power at 1974
levels, the U.S. would need about 30,000 MW of additional installed power to
meet this extra demand. This means 30 nuclear reactors with an average rated
power of 1000 MW or 60 coal plants with an average rated power of 500 MW.
Assuming an average construction cost of $2 million/MW for coal plants, the con-
struction cost of these power plants to meet the additional demand due to refrig-
erator inefficiency would be $60 billion. At $0.065/kWh for fuel and other opera-
tional expenses, it would cost $12 billion a year to operate these additional power
plants. Therefore, the implementation cost of energy efficiency measures should
be compared to all these costs that are offset.

1-4-2. The Case of Cancelled Nuclear Power

Projects in the U.S.
Another area where conservation measures have had striking effects is the can-
celled nuclear power plant projects in the U.S. As of the end of 2018, the U.S. had
61 nuclear power plants with 99 reactors supplying 19 percent of the electricity it
consumed (IAEA, 2018). Before discovering conservation, the U.S. was planning
to power economic growth mostly with nuclear energy and had started the con-
struction of dozens of nuclear power plants in the 1970s. But something unex-
pected happened: the conservation measures turned out to be sufficient to meet
the power needs of the growing economy. Consequently, a total of 97 nuclear
power plants at different stages of construction with a total capacity of 107,000
MW were cancelled, and the billions of dollars invested were wasted (EIA, 1991).
About 90 percent of these cancellations occurred between 1974 and 1984 (the
rest were cancelled between 1985 and 1995). One nuclear reactor entered service
in 2016, and there were only two nuclear reactors currently under construction as
of 2018. This shows the effectiveness of conservation measures and teaches the
important lesson that energy efficiency should be given the highest priority in en-
ergy planning.

1-5. IMPACT OF BASIC ENERGY

EFFICIENCY MEASURES
The impact of energy efficiency measures is discussed by considering three areas
of energy efficiency: thermal insulation, energy-efficient lighting, and energy effi-
ciency in electric motors.

1-5-1. Insulation: The First Step in Energy

Efficiency
When the topic is energy conservation, the first thing that comes to mind is usu-
ally insulation. For decades, insulation has been one of the cornerstones of en-
ergy conservation projects, and it plays an important role in a sustainable econ-
omy. The cumulative insulation products installed in U.S. buildings save con-
sumers about 12 Quads a year, or about 42 percent of the energy that would have
been consumed with no insulation in place. Insulation also benefits the environ-
ment and human health. Insulation installed in U.S. buildings prevents the emis-
sion of over 780 million tons of carbon dioxide annually. In the U.S. alone, $5.9 bil-
lion could be saved annually in healthcare and economic costs linked to air pollu-
tion simply by improving insulation, with the additional benefit of the improved
quality of life (Levy et al., 2003).

In a report, the conservation provided by the current level of insulation in residen-

tial, commercial, and industrial building is stated to be 23.5 Quad of energy (1
Quad of energy is equivalent to 4 billion barrels of oil), $177 billion, and the elimi-

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nation of 366 million tons of carbon (or 1340 million tons of carbon dioxide) emis-
sion (Alliance to Save Energy, 2001). Also, energy use in U.S. government build-
ings per unit floor area was reduced by 20 percent between 1985 and 2000.

Insulation projects often pay for themselves within a few months with the cost of
the energy they save. During an energy audit of a manufacturing facility, for exam-
ple, it was observed that the outer surface temperature of a furnace was 90°C,
and calculations showed that the cost of heat loss was $7400 per year. The rec-
ommendation was to insulate the outer surfaces with 5-cm-thick insulation at a
total cost of $1400, which dropped the cost of heat loss to $1700 per year. That
is, a one-time investment of $1400 resulted in $5700 of energy conservation per
year, and the insulation paid for itself within three months. If we view energy effi-
ciency as a resource, it would be like a manufacturer taps into this resource by
paying a one-time fee of $1400 and gains annual benefits of $5700, while another
manufacturer taps into the natural gas line and continues to pay $7400 every
year. This gives the first manufacturer a competitive edge and increases its prof-
itability. Such energy efficiency practices also benefit the environment.

1-5-2. Energy-Efficient Lighting

In the U.S., 22 percent of the electricity is used for lighting. Although there are
large variations with wattage and manufacturer, incandescent light bulbs produce
less than 18 lumens per W (lm/W) and less than 6 percent of the electric energy
they consume is converted to light. They also have a short operational life of
about 1000 hours. In halogen lamps, these upper limits can be doubled.
Incandescent lamps are also being phased out or banned in many countries.

Fluorescent lamps (compact and tubes) produce up to 105 lm/W and have elec-
tric-to-light conversion efficiencies of up to 35 percent, with an operation life of
about 10,000 hours. High-intensity discharge lights have comparable perfor-
mance to fluorescent lamps. Low-pressure sodium lights produce up to 200
lm/W, but their use is limited because of their characteristic yellow tones and thus
poor color rendering index. Improvements in the solid-state technology resulted in
the development of LED lamps. LED lighting devices have a potential to produce
400 lm/W of white light. The 2025 goal of the U.S. is to achieve an efficacy of 200
lm/W, which corresponds to an electric-to-light conversion efficiency of 50 per-
cent, and a reduction in the energy consumption for lighting by half. This level of
saving is equivalent to shutting down 52 of the 99 nuclear reactors in the U.S. or
to avoiding the construction of that many new nuclear reactors or fossil fuel
power plants. This would also result in an 11 percent reduction in the greenhouse
gas emissions associated with electric power production and an annual savings
of $30 billion by consumers.

At times of energy crises, replacing inefficient incandescent light bulbs with en-
ergy-efficient fluorescent ones is the first measure that comes to mind, since it
produces quick results at low cost. In 2001, for example, California distributed 8
million compact fluorescent lamps to low-income families to lessen the effect of
the electricity crises. Brazil also used the same approach in 2001.

1-5-3. Energy Efficiency in Electric Motors

About half of all electricity produced and two-thirds of the electricity used in in-
dustry is consumed by electric motors. This shows the importance of using high-
efficiency motors in industry to reduce energy cost. The cost of a typical-new mo-
tor is less than 2 percent of the total cost of that motor. The life-long energy cost
of a motor can constitute 98 percent of the total cost. That is, a typical motor will
cost over 50 times its purchasing price in the energy it consumes during its aver-
age life of 20 years. In other words, the cost of energy a typical electric motor
consumes in a few months may equal the purchase price of that motor. On aver-
age, a motor consumes its purchase-price worth of energy within 2 months. The
total energy cost of a motor with a price tag of $5000 can exceed $1 million dur-
ing its lifetime.

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Many production managers are not aware of the seriousness of the matter. They
often prefer the standard-efficiency motor over the high-efficiency one because of
the price differential (usually between 10 percent and 25 percent), but later they
pay several times this difference in energy costs. They also rewind the burned-out
motors repeatedly to avoid the cost of new motors. But rewinding causes the mo-
tor efficiency to drop even further, and the money saved by repairing an old motor
quickly disappears because of the increased energy costs. A new high-efficiency
motor purchased to replace the old one, on the other hand, will pay its cost differ-
ential in a short time from the energy it saves and will continue to conserve en-
ergy and money during the rest of its operation life.

For example, the efficiency of a 20-hp standard motor is about 88 percent. But the
efficiency of a high-efficiency motor with the same rated power output is 91 per-
cent, and it even rises to 93 percent in the case of premium-efficiency motors.
Purchasing a 93.0 percent-efficient premium-efficiency 20-hp motor that operates
6000 hours a year with an average load factor of 75.0 percent instead of an 88.3
percent-efficient standard motor will result in annual energy savings of 4102 kWh.
Assuming a CO2 emission of 0.75 kg per kWh, the premium-efficiency motor will
prevent the release of nearly 3 tons of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. As
an added benefit, high-efficiency motors reduce operation costs because of their
higher reliability (and thus fewer breakdowns resulting in less production loss)
and lower maintenance costs.

By switching to high-efficiency motors, a savings of about 4 percent in energy

consumption is possible. But when the load is variable as in the case of fans,
pumps, compressors, and conveyors, it is possible to reduce energy consumption
by 50 percent, and in some cases by 70 percent, by equipping the motors with
variable speed drives (VSD). This way, the competitiveness and profitability of in-
dustrial facilities can be improved by reducing the cost of energy significantly.
Municipal pumping stations, well water pumping systems in farms, and even resi-
dences with private wells can benefit from the savings provided by VSDs. The
cost of a VSD may be several times that of the motor it is mounted on. But in
many cases, the VSDs pay for themselves during the first year from the cost of
the energy they save.

For example, equipping a 90-kW motor in a pumping station in Istanbul with a

VSD has resulted in a drop in average daily electric consumption from 1370 kWh
to 690 kWh—a drop of 49.6 percent. This corresponds to annual energy and cost
savings of 248,000 kWh and $30,000, respectively. The simple payback period for
this VSD system was less than one year. This VSD application has also benefited
the environment by avoiding the emission of about 16 tons of CO2 gas into the
atmosphere.

Example

EXAMPLE 1-1 Ton of Oil Equivalent (Toe) Unit

The "ton of oil" equivalent (toe) is an amount of energy unit commonly used to
express large amounts of energy. It represents the amount of energy released
by burning one ton (1000 kg) of crude oil. One toe is equal to 41.868 GJ,
sometimes rounded to 42 GJ. Power plants in the U.S. generated 4.05 × 109
MWh of electricity in a year. Also, 74.5 Quad of electricity were produced glob-
ally in the same year. Express these values in toe units. Also, determine the
percentage of global electricity generation that occurred in the U.S.

SOLUTION Noting that 1 MWh = 1000 kWh, 1 kWh = 3600 kJ, 1 GJ = 1 × 106
kJ, and 1 toe = 41.868 GJ, we express electricity generation in the U.S. in toes
as follows:

9
1000 kWh
Electricity generation (U.S.) = (4.05 × 10 MWh) ( )
1 MWh

8
= 3. 48 × 10 toe

Noting that 1 Quad = 1 × 1015 Btu and 1 toe = 41.868 GJ, we express global
electricity generation in toes as follows:
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15
1 × 10 Btu
Electricity generation (world) = (74.5 Quad) ( )(
1 Quad

9
= 1. 88 × 10 toe

The percentage of global electricity generation that occurred in the U.S. is de-
termined to be

Electricity generation (U.S.) 3.48

Percent generation in U.S. = =
Electricity generation (world) 1.88

That is, 348 million toe of electricity is generated in the U.S. and 1.88 billion
toe of electricity is generated in the world. U.S. electricity generation repre-
sents 18.5 percent of global generation. Note that the toe unit is not normally
used to express the amount of electricity. Instead some multiples of kWh,
such as MWh, GWh, and TWh, are used.

Example

EXAMPLE 1-2 Reduction in CO2 Emission by a Household

Consider a household that uses 8000 kWh of electricity per year and 1200 gal-
lons of fuel oil during a heating season. The average amount of CO2 produced
is 26.4 lbm/gallon of fuel oil and 1.54 lbm/kWh of electricity. If this household
reduces its oil and electricity usage by 20 percent as a result of implementing
some energy conservation measures, determine the reduction in the amount
of CO2 emissions by that household per year.

SOLUTION Noting that this household consumes 8000 kWh of electricity

and 1200 gallons of fuel oil per year, the amount of CO2 production this house-
hold is responsible for is

Amount of CO2 produced = (Amount of electricity consumed)(A

+ (Amount of fuel oil consumed)(Am

= (8000 kWh/yr)(1.54 lbm CO2 /kWh

= 44,000 lbm CO2 /yr

Reducing the electricity and fuel oil usage by 20 percent will reduce the annual
amount of CO2 production by this household by

Reduction in CO2 produced = (0.20)(Current amount of CO2 pro

= (0.20)(44,000 lbm CO2 /yr)

= 8800 lbm CO2 /yr

Therefore, any measure that saves energy also reduces the amount of pollu-
tion emitted to the environment.

1-6. FOSSIL FUELS AND NUCLEAR

ENERGY
The main energy sources include coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy, and renew-
able energy (Fig. 1-7). Among these, coal, oil, and natural gas are fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels were responsible for more than 90 percent of global combustion-re-
lated carbon dioxide emissions with 37 Gigatons (37,000 million tons) in 2017.

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The contributions of fossil fuels to global CO2 emissions are 45 percent for coal,
35 percent for oil, and 20 percent for natural gas (IEA, 2017). A short review of
fossil fuels is presented next.

Figure 1-7 Main energy sources.

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1-6-1. Coal
Coal is made of mostly carbon, and it also contains hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulfur, and ash (noncombustibles). The heating value of carbon is 32,800 kJ/kg.
The percentages of carbon and other components vary depending on the produc-
tion site. Energy content per unit mass (i.e., heating value) and sulfur content are
among the important characteristics of coal. High energy content allows extrac-
tion of more heat from coal, making the fuel more valuable. Low sulfur content is
crucial to meet emission limits of sulfur compounds. Coal is used mostly for elec-
tricity production in steam power plants. It is also used for space heating, water
heating, and steam generation.

There are four common types of coal with the following general characteristics:

Bituminuous coal: It is also known as soft coal. It has high energy content but
unfortunately also high sulfur content. A representative composition (referred
to in the industry as an "assay") of this coal by mass is 67 percent carbon, 5
percent hydrogen, 8.7 percent oxygen, 1.5 percent nitrogen, 1.5 percent sul-
fur, 9.8 percent ash, and 6.7 percent moisture. The higher heating value for
this particular composition of coal is 28,400 kJ/kg. Bituminuous coal is pri-
marily used for electricity generation in power plants.

Subbituminuous coal: It has lower energy content due to lower fractions of

carbon and hydrogen, but it also has lower sulfur content compared to bitu-
minuous coal. A representative composition of this coal by mass is 48.2 per-
cent carbon, 3.3 percent hydrogen, 11.9 percent oxygen, 0.7 percent nitrogen,
0.4 percent sulfur, 5.3 percent ash, and 30.2 percent moisture. The higher
heating value for this particular composition of coal is 19,400 kJ/kg.
Subbituminuous coal is primarily used for electricity generation and heating
applications.

Anthracite coal: It is also known as hard coal. It is far less common com-
pared to bituminuous and subbituminuous coals. It is used mainly for resi-
dential and industrial heating applications. Few coal-fired plants burn it. It
contains 80 to 95 percent carbon with low sulfur and nitrogen content. The
ash content is between 10 and 20 percent, and the moisture content is 5 to
15 percent. Its heating value is typically higher than 26,000 kJ/kg.

Lignite: It is also known as brown coal. It is the lowest quality coal with low
energy content and a high sulfur and moisture fraction. The carbon content is
only 25 to 35 percent with a low heating value of less than 15,000 kJ/kg. The
moisture and ash content can be as high as 75 percent and 20 percent, re-
spectively. It is used mainly for electricity generation.

In the combustion of coal, hydrogen and sulfur burn first and carbon burns last.

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As a result, nearly all of the sulfur burns into SO2, and nearly all of the hydrogen
burns into H2O by the following reactions:

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S + O2 → SO2

H2 + 1/2 O2 → H2 O

Carbon burns according to the following reactions

C + 1/2 O2 → CO

CO + 1/
2 O2 → CO2

If some carbon monoxide (CO) cannot find sufficient oxygen to burn by the time
combustion is completed, some CO is found in the combustion products. This
represents a very undesirable emission, as well as the waste of fuel, because CO
has energy content (the heating value of CO is 10,100 kJ/kg). This can happen
even in the presence of stoichiometric or excess oxygen due to incomplete mixing
and a short time for the combustion process.

Combustion of coal also causes emissions of unburned carbon particles, carbon

monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbon (HC), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ash, and nitro-
gen oxide (NOx). The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission depends on the
percentage of carbon in the coal and the degree of completion of the combustion
of carbon. Coal is considered the most polluting fossil fuel compared to liquid
and gaseous fuels, as well as being the largest contributor to global carbon diox-
ide emissions with about 40 percent.

Example

EXAMPLE 1-3 Heating Value of Coal

The assay of coal from Illinois is as follows by mass: 67.40 percent carbon
(C), 5.31 percent hydrogen (H2), 15.11 percent oxygen (O2), 1.44 percent nitro-
gen (N2), 2.36 percent sulfur (S), and 8.38 percent ash (noncombustibles).
What are the higher and lower heating values of this coal? The heating value
of sulfur is 9160 kJ/kg.

SOLUTION The combustible constituents in the coal are carbon (C), hydro-
gen (H2), and sulfur (S). The heating value of sulfur is 9160 kJ/kg. The higher
and lower heating values of hydrogen are 141,800 kJ/kg and 120,000 kJ/kg,
respectively, and the heating value of carbon is 32,800 kJ/kg (Table A-17
(/mhe-lookup/atom-id/af0e726e5a57f72b#apxAtable17), Appendix). Note
that if the combustion of a fuel does not yield any water in the combustion
gases, the higher and lower heating values are equivalent for that fuel.

Using their mass fractions (mf), the higher heating value of this particular coal
is

HHV = mfC × HHVC + mfH2 × HHVH2 + mfS × HHVS

= (0.674)(32,800 kJ/kg) + (0.0531)(141,800 kJ/kg) + (0.02

= 29,850 kJ/kg

Similarly, the lower heating value of the coal is

LHV = mfC × LHVC + mfH2 × LHVH2 + mfS × LHVS

= (0.674)(32,800 kJ/kg) + (0.0531)(120,000 kJ/kg) + (0.02

= 28,695 kJ/kg

The difference between the higher and lower heating values is about 4
percent.

1-6-2. Oil
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Oil or petroleum is a mixture of a large number of hydrocarbons (HC) with differ-
ent compositions. Crude oil has 83 to 87 percent carbon and 11 to 14 percent hy-
drogen with small amounts of other components, such as sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen,
ash, and moisture. End products, such as gasoline, light diesel fuel, jet fuel, LPG
(liquefied petroleum gas), natural gas, and heavy diesel fuel (fuel oil), are obtained
by distillation and cracking in oil refinery plants (Fig. 1-8). Nonpetroleum liquid fu-
els may include ethanol, biodiesel, coal-to-liquids, natural gas liquids, and liquid
hydrogen.

Figure 1-8 Main petroleum fuel products.

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Gasoline and light diesel fuel are used in automobiles and can be approximated
by C8H15 and C12H22, respectively. Diesel fuel also includes some sulfur, but the
latest regulations in the U.S. and European Union already reduced the sulfur limit
from about 300 ppm to 50 ppm (parts per million). The next target is only 10 ppm.
The higher heating values of gasoline and light diesel fuel are 47,300 kJ/kg and
46,100 kJ/kg, respectively.

Oil is less commonly used for electricity generation compared to coal and natural
gas. There are two groups of oil used in power plants and industrial heating
applications:

Distillate oils: These are higher quality oils that are highly refined. They con-
tain much less sulfur compared to residual oils. A typical composition of dis-
tillate oils is 87.2 percent carbon, 12.5 percent hydrogen, and 0.3 percent sul-
fur. The higher heating value for this composition is 45,200 kJ/kg.

Residual oils: These oils undergo less refining. They are thicker with higher
molecular masses, higher levels of impurities, and higher sulfur contents. A
typical composition is 85.6 percent carbon, 9.7 percent hydrogen, 2.3 percent
sulfur, 1.2 percent nitrogen, 0.8 percent oxygen, 0.1 percent ash, and 0.3 per-
cent moisture. The higher heating value for this composition is 42,500 kJ/kg.

1-6-3. Natural Gas

Natural gas is mostly methane (CH4). Its percentage of methane varies between
60 percent and 98 percent. It also contains small amounts of ethane, propane, bu-
tane, nitrogen, oxygen, helium, carbon dioxide, and other gases. It exists as a gas
under atmospheric conditions and is stored as a gas under high pressure (15 to
25 MPa). It is mostly transported in gas phase by pipelines in and between cities
and countries. When pipeline transportation is not feasible, it is first liquefied to
about −160°C using advanced refrigeration technologies before being carried in
large insulated tanks in marine ships. Natural gas is used in boilers for space
heating, hot water and steam generation, industrial furnaces, power plants for
electricity production, and internal combustion engines.

The higher and lower heating values of methane are 55,530 and 50,050 kJ/kg, re-
spectively. The heating value of natural gas depends mainly on the fraction of
methane. The higher the methane fraction, the higher the heating value. Natural
gas is commonly approximated as methane without much sacrifice in accuracy.
The heating value of natural gas is usually expressed in kJ/m3 units, and the
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higher heating value ranges from 33,000 kJ/m3 to 42,000 kJ/m3, depending on
the resource. The lower heating value of natural gas is about 90 percent of its
higher heating value. A comparison of higher heating values for various fuels is
shown in Fig. 1-9.

Figure 1-9 Higher heating values of various fuels, in MJ/kg. Coal is roughly
approximated as carbon and natural gas as methane.

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Compared to coal and oil, natural gas is a cleaner fuel because it emits less pollu-
tants. Air quality in certain cities has improved dramatically when natural gas
pipelines reached these cities and heating systems running on coal were replaced
by their natural gas counterparts. Using natural gas in public transportation
(buses and taxis) is a way to improve air quality in cities.

About 40 percent of natural gas is used by the industrial sector, while 33 percent
is used for electricity generation in power plants (EIA, 2018). Residential and com-
mercial applications account for the remaining use of natural gas. The supply of
natural gas has recently risen substantially in the U.S., Canada, and China. This is
mostly due to exploitation of shale gas made possible by horizontal drilling and
hydraulic fracturing technologies.

Example

EXAMPLE 1-4 Higher Heating Value of Methane in Different Units

The lower heating value of methane (CH4) is 50,050 kJ/kg. Determine its
higher heating value in kJ/kg, m3/kg, and therm/lbm units. The enthalpy of va-
porization of water at 25°C is hfg = 2442 kJ/kg. Assume natural gas is at 1
atm and 25°C.

SOLUTION The molar masses of CH4 and H2O are 16 and 18 kg/kmol, re-
spectively. When 1 kmol of methane (CH4) is burned with theoretical air, 2
kmol of water (H2O) is formed. Then the mass of water formed when 1 kg of
methane is burned is determined from

NH O MH2 O (2 kmol)(18 kg/kmol)

2
mH2O = = = 2.25 kg H O/kg CH
2
NCH MCH (1 kmol)(16 kg/kmol)
4 4

The amount of heat released as 2.25 kg water is condensed is

Qlatent = mH hf g = (2.25 kg H O/kg CH )(2442 kJ/kg H O) = 549

2O 2 4 2

Then the higher heating value of methane becomes

HHV = LHV + Qlatent = 50,050 kJ/kg + 5495 kJ/kg = 55,545 kJ/

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The gas constant of methane is R = 0.5182 kPa⋅m3/kg⋅K (Table A-1 (/mhe-

lookup/atom-id/af0e726e5a57f72b#apxAtable01)) and 1 atm = 101 kPa. The
density of methane is determined from the ideal gas relation as

P 101 kPa 3
ρ = = = 0.6540 kg/m
3
RT (0.5182 kPa ⋅ m /kg ⋅ K)(25 + 273 K)

The higher heating value of methane in kg/m3 unit is

3 3
HHV = (55,545 kJ/kg)(0.6540 kg/m ) = 36,330 kJ/m

Noting that 1 therm = 100,000 Btu = 105,500 kJ and 1 lbm = 0.4536 kg, the
higher heating value of methane in therm/lbm unit is

1 therm 0.4536 kg
HHV = (55,550 kJ/kg) ( )( ) = 0. 2388 the
105,500 kJ 1 lbm

1-6-4. Nuclear Energy

The tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the
nucleus of the atom is called nuclear energy. The most widely known fission re-
action involves splitting the uranium atom (the U-235 isotope) into other elements
and is commonly used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants; to power
nuclear submarines, aircraft carriers, and even spacecraft; and as a component of
nuclear bombs.

The first nuclear chain reaction was achieved by Enrico Fermi in 1942, and the
first large-scale nuclear reactors were built in 1944 for the purpose of producing
material for nuclear weapons. When a uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron and
splits during a fission process, it produces an acesium-140 atom, a rubidium-93
atom, 3 neutrons, and 3.2 × 10−11 J of energy. In practical terms, the complete fis-
sion of 1 kg of uranium-235 releases 6.73 × 1010 kJ of heat, which is more than
the heat released when 3000 tons of coal are burned. Therefore, for the same
amount of fuel, a nuclear fission reaction releases several million times more en-
ergy than a chemical reaction. The safe disposal of used nuclear fuel, however,
remains a concern.

There are over 450 nuclear reactors operating worldwide with a total capacity of
about 400,000 MW. Dozens of new reactors are under construction in 15 coun-
tries. The U.S. has 61 nuclear power plants with 99 reactors. The percentage of
electricity produced by nuclear power is 76 percent in France, 19 percent in
Russia and the U.K., 14 percent in Germany, and 20 percent in the U.S. (IAEA,
2018).

Nuclear energy by fusion is released when two small nuclei combine into a larger
one. The huge amount of energy radiated by the sun and other stars originates
from such a fusion process that involves the combination of two hydrogen atoms
into a helium atom. When two heavy hydrogen (deuterium) nuclei combine during
a fusion process, they produce a helium-3 atom, a free neutron, and 5.1 × 10−13 J
of energy (Fig. 1-10).

Figure 1-10 The fission of uranium and the fusion of hydrogen during nuclear
reactions and the release of nuclear energy.

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Fusion reactions are much more difficult to achieve in practice because of the
strong repulsion between the positively charged nuclei, called Coulomb repulsion.
To overcome this repulsive force and to enable the two nuclei to fuse together, the
energy level of the nuclei must be raised by heating them to about 100 million °C.
But such high temperatures are found only in stars or in exploding atomic bombs
(A-bombs). In fact, the uncontrolled fusion reaction in a hydrogen bomb (H-bomb)
is initiated by a small atomic bomb. The first uncontrolled fusion reaction was
achieved in the early 1950s, but all the efforts since then to achieve controlled fu-
sion by massive lasers, powerful magnetic fields, and electric currents to generate
power have failed.

1-6-5. Electricity
Electricity is the most valuable form of energy. Fuels cannot directly replace it be-
cause the vast majority of devices, equipment, and appliances operate on electric-
ity. Electricity is produced in power plants burning coal, oil, and natural gas and in
nuclear power stations. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, geother-
mal and hydro, are also used to produce electricity.

The contribution of renewable electricity is expected to increase in the coming

years, but the incorporation of wind power and solar power into the grid involves
some irregularities and uncertainties due to changing wind and solar conditions
on an hourly, daily, and seasonal basis. This requires a more flexible electrical grid
system than the existing conventional system in order to accommodate the in-
consistent supply of renewable electricity. This new grid system is called a smart
grid, which is an important area of research and development for electrical
engineers.

Energy storage systems also help to deal with the irregularities of wind and solar
electricity generation. Several techniques for storing energy have been suggested,
but the two most common types are batteries and pumped storage. The former is
well known since we all use rechargeable batteries in our cars, portable comput-
ers, cell phones, and other electronic devices. The latter involves pumping water
"uphill" from a lower reservoir to a higher one when excess power is available, and
then reversing the process ("turbining") when electricity demand is high. As more
renewable energy sources go online, the need for such energy storage systems is
also expected to grow significantly.

1-7. RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

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The main renewable energy sources include solar, wind, hydro, biomass, and geo-
thermal (Fig. 1-11). Energy sources from the ocean, including ocean thermal en-
ergy conversion (OTEC), wave, and tidal, are also renewable sources, but they are
currently not economical, and the technologies are still in the experimental and
developmental stage. Detailed coverage of renewable energy systems is available
in Kanoğlu et al. (2020).

Figure 1-11 The switch from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is
inevitable.

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An energy source is called renewable if it can be renewed and sustained without

any depletion of and any significant effect on the environment. It is also called an
alternative, sustainable, or green energy source (Fig. 1-12). Fossil fuels such as
coal, oil, and natural gas, on the other hand, are not renewable, and they are de-
pleted by use. They also emit harmful pollutants and greenhouse gases.

Figure 1-12 Renewable energies such as solar water collectors are called
green energy since they emit no pollutants or greenhouse gases. (Photo by
Kerem Kanoğlu.)

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The best-known renewable source is solar energy. Although solar energy is suffi-
cient to meet the entire energy needs of the world, currently it is not used as ex-
tensively as fossil fuels because of the low concentration of solar energy on earth
and the relatively high capital cost of harnessing it. The conversion of the kinetic
energy of wind into electricity via wind turbines represents wind energy, and it is
one of the fastest growing renewables because wind turbines are being installed
all over the world. The collection of river water into large dams at some elevation
and then directing the collected water into a hydraulic turbine is the common

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method of converting water energy into electricity. Hydro or water energy repre-
sents the greatest amount of renewable electricity production, and it supplies
most of the electricity needs of some countries.

Geothermal energy refers to the heat of the earth. High-temperature underground

geothermal fluid found in some locations is extracted, and the energy of the geo-
thermal fluid is converted to electricity or heat. Geothermal energy conversion is
one of the most mature renewable energy technologies. Geothermal energy is
mostly used for electricity generation and district heating. Organic renewable en-
ergy is referred to as biomass, and a variety of sources (agriculture, forest,
residues, crops, etc.) can be used to produce biomass energy. Biomass is becom-
ing more popular with the help of the variety of available sources.

Wave energy and tidal energy are renewable energy sources, and they are usually
considered as part of ocean energy since they are available mostly in oceans.
Thermal energy of oceans due to absorption of solar energy by ocean surfaces is
also considered part of ocean energy, and this energy can be utilized using the
ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) system. Wave and tidal energies are
mechanical forms of ocean energy, since they represent potential and kinetic en-
ergies of ocean water.

Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used to store renewable electricity. It is

still a developing technology, and many research activities are underway to make
it viable. Fuel cells convert the chemical energy of fuels (e.g., hydrogen) into elec-
tricity directly without a highly irreversible combustion process, and this is more
efficient than combustion-based conversion to electricity.

All renewable energy sources can be used to produce useful energy in the form of
electricity, and some renewables can also produce thermal energy for heating and
cooling applications. Wind and water energies are converted to electricity only,
while solar, biomass, and geothermal can be converted to both electricity and
thermal energy (i.e., heat).

Electric cars (and other electricity-driven equipment) are often touted as "zero
emission" vehicles, and their widespread use is seen by some as the ultimate so-
lution to the air pollution problem. It should be remembered, however, that the
electricity used by the electric cars is generated somewhere else, mostly by burn-
ing fossil fuels. Therefore, each time an electric car consumes 1 kWh of electric-
ity, it bears the responsibility for the pollutants emitted as 1 kWh of electricity
(plus the conversion and transmission losses generated elsewhere). Electric cars
will be zero emission vehicles only when the electricity they consume is generated
by emission-free renewable resources such as hydroelectric, solar, wind, and geo-
thermal energy. Therefore, the use of renewable energy should be encouraged
worldwide, with incentives, as necessary, to make the earth a better place to live.

We should point out that what we call renewable energy is usually nothing more
than the manifestation of solar energy in different forms. Such energy sources in-
clude wind energy, hydroelectric power, ocean thermal energy, ocean wave energy,
and wood. For example, no hydroelectric power plant can generate electricity year
after year unless the water evaporates by absorbing solar energy and comes back
as rainfall to replenish the water source (Fig. 1-13).

Figure 1-13 The cycle that water undergoes in a hydroelectric power plant
(HPP).

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1-8. REFERENCES
Alliance to Save Energy, Green and Clean: The Economic, Energy and
Environmental Benefits of Insulation, p. vii, April 2001.

Çengel YA, Energy Efficiency as an Inexhaustible Energy Resource with

Perspectives from the U.S. and Turkey, International Journal of Energy
Research, 35(2), 153–161, 2011.

Çengel YA, Boles MA, and Kanoğlu M, Thermodynamics: An Engineering

Approach, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2019.

EIA, Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook, U.S.

Department of Energy, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/graphic_data.html
(http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/graphic_data.html), 2007.

EIA, Energy Information Administration, Commercial Nuclear Power, DOE/EIA-

0438 (9.1), Appendix E, page 105. Also, Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
1991.

IEA. 2017. International Energy Agency, Key World Energy Statistics.

EIA. 2017. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Based on Manufacturing

Energy Consumption Survey and U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of
Economic Analysis Gross Domestic Product by Industry.
https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=33392
(https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=33392) (Access date:
Mar. 14, 2019)

IEAE. 2018. International Atomic Energy Agency.

EIA. 2018. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook.

Kanoğlu M, Çengel YA, and Cimbala JM, Fundamentals and Applications of

Renewable Energy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2020.

Levy JI, Nishioka Y, and Spengler JD, The Public Health Benefits of Insulation
Retrofits in Existing Housing in the United States, Environmental Health: A
Global Access Science Source, pp. 1–16, April 2003.

NEPDG, National Energy Policy Development Group, National Energy Policy,

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, ISBN 0-16-050814-2, May
2001.

1-9. PROBLEMS
ENERGY EFFICIENCY

1-1 What are the main problems associated with using fossil fuels?
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1-2 Explain two methods for tackling the problems associated with the use
of fossil fuels.

1-3 What are the three major areas of energy use?

1-4 Define energy efficiency.

1-5 What is the difference between energy efficiency and energy

conservation?

1-6 The concepts of energy conservation and renewable energy appear to

be independent of each other, but they are closely associated. Explain this
with examples.

1-7 Define energy intensity.

1-8 Consider two countries—one with a high value of energy intensity and
one with a low value of energy intensity. Which country has more potential for
energy efficiency opportunities? Explain.

1-9 What is the relationship between energy intensity and energy

efficiency?

1-10 The energy use per dollar of gross domestic product in the U.S. has
dropped significantly since the early 1970s. What are the main factors for
this drop in energy intensity?

1-11 The fuel consumption in cars has decreased by 40 percent or more

since the early 1970s. What measures have been taken on cars to accom-
plish this?

1-12 What measures in household refrigerators have caused significant re-

duction in electricity consumption since 1974?

1-13 During an energy crisis, what energy efficiency measure is the first
one to be implemented? Why?

1-14 Which undesirable emissions are produced by the combustion of fos-

sil fuels? What adverse effects are produced by these emissions?

1-15 Is carbon dioxide (CO2) an air pollutant? How does it differ from other
emissions resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels?

1-16 Total world oil consumption by end-use sectors in 2017 was 188.8
Quad, while the renewable consumption was 19.4 Quad. Express these con-
sumptions in Btu, GJ, and kWh.

1-17 Ton of oil equivalent (toe) is an amount of energy unit commonly used
to express large amounts of energy. It represents the amount of energy re-
leased by burning one ton (1000 kg) of crude oil. One toe is equal to 41.868
GJ, sometimes rounded to 42 GJ. Total world energy consumption in 2010 by
fuel was 523.9 Quad, while that consumed by the end-use sector was 382.0
Quad. Express these values in toe units.

1-18 In 2013, 21.7 percent of global electricity was generated from natural
gas-burning power plants. Total electricity generation in that year was 23,332
TWh, and it was estimated that 45 Quad natural gas was consumed to gener-
ate electricity. Determine the overall thermal efficiency of natural gas-burning
power plants in 2013.

1-19 According to a 2007 report, 19,028 terawatt-hours (TWh) electricity

was produced in the world in 2006, and 55.3 percent of this production took
place in OECD countries. The report also indicated that the average efficiency
of thermal power plants in OECD countries in 2006 was 38 percent.
Determine the amount of energy consumed in OECD countries in TWh, Quad,
and toe.

1-20 The average annual electricity consumption by a household refrigera-

tor has decreased from 1800 kWh in 1974 to 450 kWh today. Consider a
country with 10 million households with a market penetration of 100 percent
for modern refrigerators. If the refrigerators in this country were to continue
to consume electric power at the 1974 levels, how much additional installed
power would be needed to meet this extra demand? Assume that the load
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factor (average fraction of installed power load that is actually produced) of
the power plants is 0.8 and the power plants operate 90 percent of the time
on an annual basis.

1-21 Which one cannot be considered as an energy source?

a. Oil

b. Natural gas

c. Energy efficiency

d. Coal

e. Hydrogen

1-22 Which one is touted as the "sixth fuel"?

a. Oil

b. Natural gas

c. Energy efficiency

d. Nuclear

e. Hydrogen

1-23 The amount of energy used to produce a dollar's worth of gross do-
mestic product is called

a. Specific energy

b. Unit energy

c. Energy intensity

d. Energy ratio

e. Energy fuel ratio

1-24 Cars in the U.S. today use roughly _________ of the gasoline they did in
1972 per mile driven due to energy-efficient technologies.

a. 15 percent

b. 30 percent

c. 60 percent

d. 80 percent

e. 90 percent

1-25 The average annual electricity consumption by a household refrigera-

tor has declined by _________ since 1974.

a. 15 percent

b. 25 percent

c. 35 percent

d. 55 percent

e. 75 percent

1-26 The average annual electricity consumption by a household refrigera-

tor in 1974 and today are, respectively (in kWh).

a. 500, 250

b. 900, 300

c. 1400, 600

d. 1800, 450

e. 2300, 750

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1-27 If refrigerators in the U.S. were to continue to consume electric power
at the 1974 levels, the U.S. would need about _________ of additional installed
power to meet this extra demand.

a. 300 MW

b. 3000 MW

c. 30,000 MW

d. 1000 MW

e. 10,000 MW

1-28 Which one may be considered the cornerstone of energy conservation

projects?

a. High-efficiency lighting

b. Insulation

c. Heat recovery

d. Cogeneration

e. High-efficiency electric motors

1-29 Approximately what percent of electricity is used for lighting in the

U.S.?

a. 5 percent

b. 11 percent

c. 22 percent

d. 28 percent

e. 35 percent

1-30 The cost of a typical new electric motor is less than _________ of the
total cost of that motor.

a. 2 percent

b. 6 percent

c. 10 percent

d. 20 percent

e. 30 percent

1-31 The emissions from fossil fuel combustion that is not an air pollutant
is

a. CO

b. CO2

c. NOx

d. SO2

e. PM

1-32 Which emission causes acid rain?

a. CO

b. CO2

c. NOx

d. SO2

e. PM

FOSSIL FUELS

1-33 What are the main energy sources? What are the main fossil fuels?
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1-35 What causes carbon monoxide emission in a combustion process?
Will there be any CO emission when fuel is burned with stoichiometric or ex-
cess air? Explain.

1-36 What are the most common uses of coal and petroleum products?

1-37 What are the categories of oil used in power plants and industrial
heating applications? Briefly describe their characteristics.

1-38 How is natural gas transported? Explain.

1-39 What are the common uses of natural gas?

1-40 What is nuclear energy? Briefly describe fission and fusion reactions.

1-41 Why is electricity the most valuable form of energy?

1-42 What is a smart grid? Explain.

1-43 The ultimate analysis of coal from Colorado is as follows by mass:

79.61 percent carbon (C), 4.66 percent hydrogen (H2), 4.76 percent oxygen
(O2), 1.83 percent nitrogen (N2), 0.52 percent sulfur (S), and 8.62 percent ash
(noncombustibles). What is the higher and lower heating value of this coal?
The heating value of sulfur is 9160 kJ/kg.

1-44 Gasoline can be approximated by C8H15. Using this chemical formula,

determine the higher and lower heating values of gasoline.

1-45 Light diesel fuel can be approximated by C12H22. Using this chemical
formula, determine the higher and lower heating values of light diesel fuel.

1-46 The higher heating value of gasoline (approximated as octane C8H18)

is 47,300 kJ/kg. Determine its lower heating value. The enthalpy of the vapor-
ization of water at 25°C is hfg = 2442 kJ/kg.

1-47 In 2012, the U.S. produced 37.4 percent of its electricity in the amount
of 1.51 × 1012 kWh from coal-fired power plants. If the average thermal effi-
ciency is 34 percent, determine the amount of coal consumed by these
power plants. The heating value of coal is 25,000 kJ/kg.

1-48 Which one cannot be considered a fossil fuel?

a. Coal

b. Natural gas

c. Oil

d. Hydrogen

e. None of these

1-49 Which is not a fuel?

a. Oil

b. Natural gas

c. Coal

d. Carbon monoxide (CO)

e. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

1-50 Which is not a coal type?

a. Bituminuous coal

b. Subbituminuous coal

c. Anthracite coal

d. Lignite

e. Green coal

1-51 Which coal type is of the lowest quality?

a. Bituminuous coal

b. Subbituminuous coal
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c. Anthracite coal

d. Lignite

e. Hard coal

1-52 Electricity is mostly produced from _________ burning power plants in

the world.

a. Coal

b. Natural gas

c. Oil

d. Nuclear

e. Solar

1-53 The most common use of petroleum products is

a. Motor vehicles

b. Electricity generation

c. Space heating

d. Steam generation

e. Industrial furnaces

1-54 Which fuel is the most polluting and the largest contributor to global
carbon dioxide emissions?

a. Coal

b. Natural gas

c. Oil

d. Nuclear

e. Solar

1-55 Which fuel has the highest heating value?

a. Coal

b. Natural gas

c. Oil

d. Hydrogen

e. Sulfur

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

1-56 What are the main renewable energy sources? Why are ocean, wave,
and tidal energies not considered as main renewable sources?

1-57 How do you define a renewable energy source? Why are coal, oil, and
natural gas not renewable energy sources?

1-58 Solar energy is the most widely available renewable energy source,
and it is sufficient to meet the entire energy needs of the world. However, it is
not used extensively. Why?

1-59 Which renewable sources are growing at the fastest rate? Which re-
newable source is used to produce the most electricity?

1-60 Which renewable energy sources are only used for electricity genera-
tion? Which renewable sources are converted to both electricity and thermal
energy?

1-61 Some consider electric cars "zero emission" vehicles and an ultimate
solution to the air pollution problem. Do you agree? Explain.

1-62 Under what conditions can electric cars be considered "zero emission"
vehicles?
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1-63 Which source should not be considered a main renewable energy
source?

a. Wind

b. Hydro

c. Tidal

d. Biomass

e. Geothermal

1-64 The fastest growing renewable energy sources in the world are

a. Wind and solar

b. Hydro and biomass

c. Solar and hydro

d. Biomass and hydro

e. Geothermal and biomass

1-65 Which renewable energy source produces the greatest amount of

electricity?

a. Wind

b. Hydro

c. Solar

d. Biomass

e. Geothermal

1-66 Which renewable energy sources are only used for electricity
generation?

a. Wind and solar

b. Hydro and solar

c. Solar and geothermal

d. Wind and hydro

e. Hydro and geothermal

1-67 Which renewable energy source should not be considered the mani-
festation of solar energy in different forms?

a. Wind

b. Hydro

c. Wave

d. Biomass

e. Geothermal

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