English Grammar

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 Articles: a/an, the, 
A/an
 The first time you mention a thing/person.
Ex: I saw an old man with a dog.

 When you say who something is or what somebody does.

Ex: It’s a nice house / she is a lawyer.

 In exclamations with “what…!”.

Ex: What an awful day!

 In expressions of frequency.
Ex: I have classes five times a week.

The
 When we talk about something we have already mentioned.
Ex: I saw an old man with a dot. The dog was barking.

 When it’s clear what you are referring to.

Ex: My father opened the door / He got into the car.

 When there is only one of something.

Ex: The moon goes around the Earth.

 With names of places in a town (ex: cinema, theatre, hotel, galleries, museums).
Ex: I’m going to the cinema tonight / The British museum is in London.

 With superlatives.
It’s the best restaurant in town.

 With mountains ranges, rivers, seas, canals, deserts, island groups.

Ex: The River Danube flaws into the Black Sea.

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No article
 When we are speaking in general (plural or uncountable nouns).
Ex: Love is more important than money.

 With some nouns, after at/to/from.

Ex: She is not at home today.

 Before meals, days and months.

Ex: I never have breakfast.

 Before next/last + day/week/…

Ex: See you next Friday.

 In phrases like at home, at work, go home, go to bed, next/last week,…

Ex: I stayed at home last weekends.

 Most countries, continents, regions, ending with the name of a country/continent,

islands, states, provinces, towns, cities.
Ex: Tunisia is in North Africa.
/!\ The USA, the UK, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic.

 Roads, streets, parks, bridges, shops, restaurant.

Ex: Selfridges is in Oxford Street.

 Individual mountains and lakes.

Ex: Lake Victoria and Mount Kilimanjaro are both in Africa.

 With words like “prison, church, school, hospital, university” don’t use an article
when you are thinking about the institution and the normal purpose it is used for. If
you are thinking about the building, use “a” or “the”.
Ex: My father is in hospital / My mother used to work in the prison as a teacher.

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 Possessives forms
‘s
 We usually use “’s” when something belongs to a particular person or thing (person,
animal, place, organization,…).
Ex: The company’s head office is in NYC.

 If a name finishes with -s, we either add “’s” or “’” at the end of the word.
Ex: It’s Chris’s book/ It’s Chris’ book.

 If there are two people, we put “’s” on the second name.

Ex: The girl is Alex and Maria’s daughter.

 When “’s” refers to “the house of” or “the shop of”, we often omit “house” and
“shop”.
Ex: We had dinner at Tom’s last night.

Of
 With things or abstract nouns, especially when one thing is part of another one.
Ex: Can you remember the name of the film?

 We use “of” to express possession with a long phrase.

Ex: Helen is the sister of my cousin I told you about.

 With “friend”, we often say “a friend of + name/noun + ‘s”.

Ex: Jim is a friend of my brother’s.

Compound nouns
 To refer to people or things in terms of what they are for, what they are made of,
what work they do, what kind they are. The second noun is the main thing or person
and can be plural. The first noun gives more information about the second one and is
usually singular.
Ex: I need a tin opener/ I bought a huge flower pot/ I opened the car door.

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 With containers, a compound noun focuses on the container which is usually empty.
The container + a possessive noun focuses on the contents which is usually full.
Ex: There was a wine bottle on the table (empty) / There was a bottle of wine on the
table (full).

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 Uncountable and plural
nouns
Uncountable nouns
 Some nouns are always uncountable but need a singular verb, they don’t have plural
and they can’t be used with “a/an”, but with “some”.
o Ex: The weather is fantastic there.
o List: Assistance, behaviour, traffic, service, weather, accommodation, health,
progress, scenery, rubbish, works, politics, athletics, economics, words ending
in -ics.

 Some nouns are always uncountable and need a singular verb, but can have a
singular meaning. We use “a piece of” when we want to talk about an individual
item.
o Ex: Could you give me some advice about where to stay? One useful piece of
advice is to get a travel card.
o List: furniture, information, baggage, luggage, advice, homework, research,
news, luck, bread, toast, equipment.

 Some nouns can be either countable or uncountable, but the meaning changes.
o Ex: The new opera house is made mainly of glass/ Can I have a glass of tap
water please?
o List: Glass, iron, business, paper, light, time, space.

 List of uncountable nouns: time, bread, work, knowledge, permission, pleasure,

noise, applause, laughter, money, hair, food, spaghetti, music, transport, rain,
nonsense, behaviour, sugar, experience, medicine, rubbish, bacon, beer, beauty,
chalk, clothing, coffee, currency, damage, danger, entertainment, evidence,
evolution, fruit, gossip, help, ice, juice, leisure, lighting, litter, paper, pasta, publicity,
quantity, revenge, room, smoke, soap, soup, sport, thunder, underwear,
unemployment.

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Plural and collective nouns
 Some plural nouns don’t have a singular form. They need a plural verb and they can’t
be use with “a/an”. If they consist of two parts (shorts, scissors,…) they can be used
with “a pair of” or “some”.
o Ex: My clothes are filthy, I’ll put on some clean trousers.
o List: arms (guns), belongings, clothes, manners, outskirts, scissors, trousers,
shorts.

 Collective nouns refer to group of people. They can be used with a singular or plural
verb.
o Ex: The hotel staff is/are very efficient.
o List: crew, police (always in plural, this one), staff,…

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 Quantifiers
All, very, most
 All + plural, uncountable noun (talk in general). All can be used before a main verb
(after be).
Ex: All animals need to eat / The animals all need to eat.

 All (of) the + plural, uncountable noun (talk specific).

Ex: All (of) the animals in the zoo look sad.

 Everything/everybody + singular verb.

Ex: Everybody is here.

 Every + singular countable noun (= all of a group).

Ex: Every room has a bathroom.

 Most + plural noun (= the majority) (talk in general).

Ex: Most people live in cities.

 Most of the + plural noun (talk specific).

Ex: Most of the children in this class are 12 years old.

 All of/most of + object pronoun.

Ex: All of us work hard and most of us come to class early.

Both, neither, either

 Both + plural positive verb. Both can be used after be and before a main verb when it
refers to the subject of a clause.
Ex: Both Pierre and Marie Curie were scientists / They both won Nobel prizes.

 Neither + plural/singular positive verb.

Ex: Neither was the food cheap, nor was it tasty.

 Both, either, neither + of + object pronoun / + of the + noun.

Ex: Neither of them realized how dangerous it was / We can go on holiday either in
July or in August.

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Zero quantity
 No + noun + positive verb.
Ex: Sorry, there is no milk.

 Any + noun + negative verb.

Ex: Sorry, there isn’t any milk.

 None + short answers / + of + pronoun/noun + plural positive verb / + singular

positive verb.
Ex: Is there any food? No, (there is) none. / None of us are hungry.

 Any, anything, anyone,… + singular positive verb = it doesn’t matter what, who,…
Ex: Come any weekend. Anyone can come.

Small quantities
 Little + uncountable noun.

 Few + plural countable noun.

 A little, a few = some, but not a lot.

Ex: Do you want more ice cream. Just a little. / The town only has a few cinemas.

 Very little, very few = not much, not many.

Ex: I have very little time for myself. / Sarah has very few friends.

Large quantities
 A lot of = lots of + plural noun.
Ex: Nina has lots of clothes.

 A lot after a verb.

Ex: James eats a lot.

 Much + uncountable noun/ Many + countable noun.

Ex: There aren’t much chocolate here.

 Plenty of (= more than enough) + positive sentence.

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 Ex: Don’t run! We have plenty of time.

 Too + adjective.
Ex: This city is too noisy.

 Too much + uncountable noun.

Ex: There is too much traffic.

 Too many + countable noun.

Ex: There are too many tourists.

 Enough + noun.
Ex: There aren’t enough cars.

 Adjective + enough.
Ex: The buses aren’t frequent enough.

 Adverb + enough.
Ex: The buses don’t run frequently enough.

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 Pronouns
Generic pronouns
 You: to mean people in general.
Ex: You can learn a language faster if you go in a country where it is spoken.

 One: to mean people in general.

Ex: One should never criticize without being sure.

 We: general statement which includes the reader and the listener.
Ex: when we talk about an accent, we must not confuse with pronunciation.

 They: informal talk about other people in general, or people in authority.

Ex: They never say it’s too late to learn a language.

 They, them, their: to refer to one person who may be male or female, instead of
using “he or she”.
Ex: Could the person who left their bag in the library please come and see me.

Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns

 When the subject and object of a verb are the same person. We don’t use with
“wash, shave, feel, relax”.
Ex: you need to look after yourself with that cold.

 After prepositions when the complement is the same as the object. After
prepositions of place we use object pronouns, not reflexive pronouns.
Ex: I was really pleased with myself.

 To emphasize the subject.

Ex: We decorated the house ourselves.

 By + reflexive pronoun = alone, on your own.

Ex: I don’t feel comfortable going there by myself.

 “Each other”, “one another” for reciprocal actions (A does the action to B and B does
it to A).
Ex: My mother and sister don’t understand one another and don’t talk to each other.

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It and there
 It + be: to talk about time, temperature, distance.
Ex: It’s five miles to London.

 It + be: as a preparatory subject before adjectives.

Ex: It was great to hear from you.

 There + be + noun: to say if people and things are present or exist.

Ex: There is a big crowd of people in the town center.

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 Comparatives and
superlatives
Comparing two people, places, things
 We use comparative adjectives

 Spelling rules
o Old  older
o Big  bigger
o Easy  easier
o Difficult  more difficult

 Irregular
o Good  better
o Bad  worse
o Far  further

Comparing two actions

 We use adverbs.

 Spelling rules
o Fast  faster
o Slowly  more slowly

 Irregular
o Well  better
o Badly  worse

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Equality comparatives
 (not) as + adjective + as
Ex: The new sofa is not as comfortable as the new one.

 (not) the same as

Ex: Her dress is the same as mine.

Inferiority comparatives
 Less + adjective + than
Ex: This test is less difficult than the last one.

Superiority comparatives
 More + adjective + than (long adjectives)
Ex: London is more expensive than Malta.

 Adjectives ending in Y: adjective + ier + than

Ex: Susan is prettier than Suzy.

 Short adjective: adjective + er + than

Ex: My sister is a bit taller than me.

Superlatives
 Superlatives adjectives and adverbs to compare people, things or actions.

 We use -est and “most/least”.

Ex: Kevin is the tallest player in the team.

 We normally use “the” before superlatives, but we can also use possessive
adjectives.
Ex: She is my best friend.

 We often use a superlative with present perfect + ever.

Ex: It’s the best book I have ever read.

 We use “in” after superlatives before places.

Ex: It’s the longest bridge in the world.

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 Comparison
Modifiers with “as…as”
 We often use the modifiers “almost, just, nearly, half, twice, thrice” with “as…as”.

 You can use “so” instead of the first “as” in negatives sentences.
Ex: She is not nearly so difficult as people say.

 After “as…as” we can either use a subject pronoun + auxiliary verb, or an object
pronoun.
Ex: She drives as fast as I do.

 “Twice” can only be used before “as…as”. However, “thrice, four times,…” can also be
used with a comparative adjective or adverb.
Ex: The holiday cost three times more than I’d expected.

Modifiers with comparative adjectives or adverbs

 We use “far, much, a lot” + comparative adjective or adverb for a big difference.
Ex: The French wine is far more expensive than this one.

 We use “more + noun”, “much/far/a lot more / uncountable noun”, “many/far/a lot
more + countable noun” for big differences.
Ex: She earns much more money than I do.

 We use “slightly, a little, a bit + comparative noun or adverb” for a small difference.
Ex: She is a little better than she was yesterday.

 We use “more + noun”, “a little/slightly/a bit more + uncountable noun”, “a

few/slightly/a bit more + plural countable noun” for small differences.
Ex: We only have a few more minutes before it starts.

 We sometimes repeat a comparative adjective or adverb for emphasis. when the

comparative is formed with “more”, the adjective or adverb is only used after the
second “more”.
Ex: The taxi driver drove faster and faster.

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Modifiers with superlatives
 We often use “by far, much easily, nearly, almost” to modify superlatives adjectives
or adverbs.
Ex: She’s much the prettiest of the three children. / I’m nearly the oldest in my class.

The … the + comparatives

 To say that things change or vary together.

 When the verb in the first part is “be”, it can be left out.
Ex: The more dangerous a sport (is), the more exciting it is to watch.

 We often use “more + noun”.

Ex: The more coffee you drink, the less well you will sleep.

 When the second comparative is “better”, a reduced structure can be used.

Ex: The bigger, the better.

Other comparisons
 Comparing past with present.
Ex: Where once he was successful, he now struggles to find work.

 As + aux + subject.
Ex: He lived to a ripe old age, as did his wife and children.

 Words with comparatives: a bit, a little, slightly, much, a lot far, significantly,
considerably.
Ex: I’m feeling considerably better than I did yesterday.

 Words with superlatives: by far, easily, by a long way.

Ex: China’s the company’s largest market, by a long way.

 Words with as/as: not quite, not nearly, almost, just, half, twice, nothing like,
nowhere near.
Ex: She earns twice as much as me and works half as many hours.

 With the same … as …: not quite, not nearly, almost, just, very much.

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 Ex: I have much the same opinions as my colleagues.

So/such… that
 So + adjective
Ex: The flight was so bumpy (that) we all felt sick.

 So + adverb
Ex: The taxi driver drove so quickly we got to the airport on time.

 So much / so many + noun

Ex: There was so much traffic we nearly missed our flight.

 Such a + adjective + single countable noun

Ex: It was such a great hotel we want to go back next year.

 Such + adjective + uncountable noun

Ex: We had such terrible weather we didn’t really enjoyed the holiday.

 Such + adjective + plural noun

Ex: There were such uncomfortable seats I couldn’t sleep at all.

 Such a lot = so many/much

 Such as = for example

Ex: He loves winter sports such as skiing.

 So + adjective/adverb at the beginning of a sentence + verb + subject.

Ex: So successful was the first night that…

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 Adjectives as nouns + order
Adjectives as nouns
 The + adjective: to talk about groups of people
o Nationalities that end in -ch, -sh, -ese, -ss: The French, the Spanish, the
Japanese, the Swiss.
o Most other nationality words are nouns and are used in the plural: the
Italians, the Poles, the Turks.
o Specific groups in society: the young, the old, the sick, the blind, the deaf.

 To talk about one person: a rich man

 Adjective + “people”: poor people, homeless people, French people,...

Adjective order
 You can put more than one adjective before a noun.

 Opinion adjective always go before descriptive adjective.

 If there is more than one descriptive adjective, they go in this order:

OPINION – SIZE – AGE – SHAPE – COLOUR – PATTERN – ORIGIN – MATERIAL
Expensive – little – brand new – long – blue – striped – French – silk.

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 Auxiliary verbs
 To avoid repeating the main verb/verb phrase.
Ex: I like cats, but my husband doesn’t.

 With “so” and “neither” to say that someone or something is the same.
Ex: I loved his latest novel. So did I.

 To say that someone or something is different.

Ex: I don’t like shopping online. I do.

 To make reply questions, to show interest or surprise.

Ex: I went to a psychic yesterday. Did you?

 To show emphasis in a positive sentence, often when you want to contradict what
somebody says.
o Do/does/did: before the main verb with the present and the past simple.
o Be/have/will: with other auxiliaries.
Ex: You didn’t lock the door! I did lock it, I know I did.

 To make questions tags usually to check information. We use a positive auxiliary with
a negative verb and a negative auxiliary with a positive verb.
o Question tags are often used simply to ask another person to agree with you.
Ex: It’s a nice day, isn’t it?
o Question tags can also be used to check something you think is true.
Ex: She is a painter, isn’t she?

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 Modifiers with strong
adjectives
Normal adjectives
Very, really, extremely, incredibly, unbelievably.
Ex: It was incredibly cold/ extremely hot / unbelievably windy.

Strong adjectives
Absolutely, completely, totally.
Ex: It was absolutely freezing.

Other strong adjectives

Boiling, freezing, pouring.
Ex: It’s boiling here.

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 Adverbs and adverbial
phrases
Adverbs of manner
 How somebody does something.
 Usually goes after the verb or verb phrase.
 Go in mid position with passive verbs (before the main verb but after an auxiliary
verb).

Ex: He walks very slowly.

List: slowly, fast, fluently, normally, bitterly, aggressively, angrily, quickly, hard, seriously,
badly, healthy.

Adverbs of frequency
 How often somebody does something.
 Go before the main verb.
 Go after the verb “to be”.
 “Sometimes, usually, normally” can also be put at the beginning of the sentence for
emphasis.
 If there are two auxiliary verbs, the adverb goes after the first one.

Ex: I hardly ever have time for breakfast.

List: hardly ever, never, always, usually, often, rarely.

Adverbs of time and places

 When something happens.
 Usually go at the end of a sentence or a clause.
 Place adverbs usually go before time adverbs.

Ex: My parents will be here in half an hour.

List: straightaway, now, suddenly, tomorrow, yesterday, here, there…

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Adverbs of degree
 How much something is done.
 Modify an adjective.
 “Extremely, incredibly, very” are used with adjectives and adverbs and go before
them.
 “A lot” and “much” are often used with verbs and go after the verb or verb phrase.
 “A little, a bit of” can be used with adjectives or verbs.

Ex: My husband works a lot but doesn’t earn much.

List: extremely, incredibly, very, a lot, much, a little, a bit of, nearly, slightly, really, rather.

Comment adverbs
 The speaker’s opinion.
 Go at the beginning of a sentence or a clause.

Ex: Unfortunately, the parcel never arrived.

List: unfortunately, ideally, luckily, basically, clearly, obviously, apparently, eventually.

Other adverbs
Most other adverbs go in mid-position.
Ex: I just need 10 more minutes. / She didn’t even say goodbye.

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 Discourse makers linkers
Result
 So: the most common way
Ex: It was freezing cold, so I wore a thick coat.

 As a result, therefore, consequently: more formal, often used at the beginning of a

sentence.
Ex: It snowed hard last night. As a result, the airport was closed. / We have therefore
decided not to offer you the job.

Reason
 Because, as, since: are used to introduce clauses giving a reason.
Ex: I have stopped writing to her, as/because/since she never answers me.

 Because of, due to, owing to: also express the reason for something and are followed
by a noun.
Ex: Flight 341 has been delayed due to/owing to adverse weather conditions.

Purpose
 To, in order to, so as to: introduce a clause of purpose.
Ex: I did a language course in order to improve my English.

 In order not to, so as not to: negative purpose.

Ex: She closed the door quickly so as not to wake him up.

 So that + can/could/will/would
Ex: They moved to London so that they could see them more.

 In case + clause: when we do something on order to be ready for future situations or

to avoid them.
Ex: I’m not going to tell Anne in case she tells someone else.

 For + noun/gerund.
Ex: This liquid is for cleaning metal.

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Contrast
 But: the most common and informal way, used to link two contrasting points within a
sentence.
Ex: we enjoyed the concert, but we didn’t have good seats.

 Yet: same but more formal/literary.

Ex: Agnes was attracted to the stranger, yet something in her head was telling her
not to get close to him.

 However, nevertheless: at the beginning of a sentence, to contrast with the previous

one.
Ex: We enjoyed the concert. However, we didn’t have good seats.

 Although: at the beginning or middle of a sentence.

Ex: Although the weather was cold, the barbecue was a success.

 Even though: more formal than “although” and can be used at the beginning or the
middle of a sentence.
Ex: I went to work even though I was feeling sick.

 Though: more informal.

Ex: I like Anne, though she sometimes annoys me.

 In spite of, despite + gerund/noun/the fact that

Ex: In spite of being 85, she is still very active./ Despite her age, she is still very active.

 Others:
o Whereas
o While
o Whilst
o In comparison
o In contrast
o On the contrary
o On the other hand
o Similarly

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Time
 After
 As soon as
 Before
 By the time
 Hardly
 No sooner
 Once
 Since
 Then
 Until
 When
 Whenever
 While
 Afterwards
 Beforehand
 By that time
 Eventually
 Ever since
 Finally
 From that time on
 In the end
 Meanwhile
 Until then

Addition
 Additionally
 Besides
 Apart from
 As well as
 In addition to
 First of all
 Secondly
 Finally
 Furthermore
 Moreover

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 What is more

Discourse makers: adverbs

and adverbials phrases
 Talking of: to change the direction of a conversation but making a link with what has
just been said.
Ex: I really like your shirt, Harry has the same one. Talking of Harry, did he get the job
he applied for?

 By the way, incidentally: to introduce something you have just thought of, or to
change the subject completely.
Ex: So let’s meet at 5 o’clock then. By the way, could you lend me some money until
the weekend?

 Actually, in fact, as a matter of fact: to introduce additional surprising or unexpected

information.
Ex: Did you see the match last night? No, I didn’t. Actually, I don’t really like football.

 In any case, anyway: to introduce the idea that what you said before is less important
than what you are going to say. To return the main topic after a digression.
Ex: We didn’t go away at the weekend because I had to much work. In any case the
weather was awful.

 At least: to introduce a positive point after some negative information. To make what
you have just said less definite.
Ex: Tom’s going to the meeting, or at least he said he was.

 As I was saying: to return to a previous subject, often after you have been
interrupted.
Ex: As I was saying, if Mark gets the job, we will have to reorganize the department.

 On the whole: to generalize.

Ex: On the whole, I think that women are better than men.

 All in all: to say that you are taking everything into consideration.
Ex: I like both flats, but all in all, I think I prefer the first one.

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 After all: to introduce a strong argument that the other person may not have taken
into consideration.
Ex: I think we should buy them. After all, we will never find them anywhere cheaper.
 Besides: to add additional information or arguments.
Ex: I won’t go to the party because it will finish late. Besides, I won’t know many
people there.

 Basically: to introduce the most important point.

Ex: Basically, my job involves computer and human skills.

 Obviously: to introduce a fact that is very clear to see or understand.

Ex: Obviously you can’t get a real idea of life in Japan unless you can speak the
language.

 I mean: to make things clearer or make some details.

Ex: She’s very selfish. I mean, she never thinks about other people at all.

 In other words: to say something in another way.

Ex: A lot of people booed and some people left early. In other words, it was a
complete disaster.

 Otherwise: to say what the result would be if something did not happen or if the
situation was different.
Ex: Please try not to make a mess when you cook the cake. Otherwise, I’m going to
have to clean the kitchen again.

 As far as… is concerned, as regards, regarding: to introduce a new topic or to

announce a change of subject.
Ex: As far as accommodation is concerned/ as regards the accommodation/
regarding the accommodation, the options are living with a family or living in a
residence.

 That is to say: to introduce an explanation or clarification of a point you have just

made.
Ex: The government are going to help first time buyers. That is to say, they are going
to make mortgages more easily available.

 On the one hand/on the other hand: to balance contrasting facts or points.
Ex: On the one hand, more young people today carry knives. On the other hand, the
total number of violent crimes has dropped.

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 Ellipsis and substitution
Ellipsis: leaving out subjects and auxiliaries
 After “but, and, or, then” we often leave out a repeated subject or a repeated subject
and auxiliary verb, especially when the clauses are short.
Ex: He got up and (he) had a shower.

 After “before, after, because, when, while” you can not leave out the subject
pronoun.
Ex: He is stressed because he has too much work.

Ellipsis: leaving out a verb phrases or adjectives

 We often leave them out and just repeat the auxiliary or modal verb, or the verb “to
be”. If the verb we don’t want to repeat is the present/past simple, we substitute the
verb with do/does/did.
Ex: Gary thinks he is right but he isn’t. / I liked the film, but Mike didn’t.

 We can use a different auxiliary or modal verb from that used in the first part of the
sentence.
Ex: I thought I would be able to come, but I can’t.

 We can also leave out a repeated verb phrase after the infinitive with “to”.
Ex: I haven’t been to Egypt, but I’d love to.

Substitution: so and not

 We often use “so” instead of repeating a whole positive clause after verbs of
thinking.
Ex: I will have finished to work by Friday, I hope so.

 With negative clauses, we use a positive verb + not, or a negative verb + so.
Ex: Do you think it will rain tonight? I hope not/ I don’t think so.

 Do/does/did to replace a verb.

Ex: Paul didn’t want to go, but I did.

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 So/nor/neither + auxiliary verb + subject.
Ex: She likes dogs and so do I. / I have never been to Paris and nor has he.

 So/not to replace a “that clause” after “expect, hope, seem, suppose, think”.
Ex: Is he coming? I think so.

 If not/if so to replace whole clauses.

Ex: Are you free on Friday? If so, do you fancy going to the cinema? If not, how about
next week?

 One/ones to replace countable nouns.

Ex: Those red apples are much tastier than those green ones.

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 Inversions
 The main verb is used with an auxiliary verb, the position of the subject and auxiliary
verb is reversed.
Ex: Never again will I lend money to Richard. / Hardly ever did Steve turn up on time
for his lectures.

 After certain phrases with “not”

Ex: Not since I was little have I enjoyed myself so much. / Not until we got to my
parents did we realize… / Not only did he leave footprints, but he also sat…

 After certain phrases with “only”

Ex: Only when I tell you can you put your books away.

 After certain phrases with “no”

Ex: On no account must you speak to strangers.

 After certain frequency adverbs

Ex: Never have I seen such an ugly building.

 With “no sooner… than…, hardly/barely/scarcely… when”

Ex: No sooner had I got into the shower than the electricity went off.

 After “little” meaning “not at all”

Ex: Little did they realize that their conversation …

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 Verbs of the senses
Stative or continuous form
We use the stative form for habits or sensations.
We use the continuous form for voluntary actions.

 I’m seeing the doctor tomorrow.

 I can see the car over there.

 I’m feeling much better today.

 I feel your hand on my shoulder.

 He’s smelling her new perfume.

 I smell gas.

 They are tasting the dessert to see if they like it.

 I taste too much salt in this dish.

 She’s hearing good reports about her job.

 I hear beautiful music.

Use
 Look, feel, smell, sound, taste + adj
Ex: You look tired / That cake smells good.

 Look, feel, smell, sound, taste + like + noun.

Ex: Tim looks like his father/ This coffee tastes like tea.

 Look, feel, smell, sound, taste + as if + clause.

Ex: It smells as if something is burning.

 You can use “like” or “as though” instead of “as if”.

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 Ex: It sounds like/ as though it is raining.

Feel like
 “Feel like” can also be used as a verb meaning “want” or “would like”. It is followed
by a noun or a verb in the gerund.
Ex: I feel like pasta for lunch today.

See/hear
 See/hear + obj + inf = you saw/heard the whole action.
Ex: I heard a girl play a piece by Chopin.

 See/hear + obj + gerund = you saw/heard an action in progress or a repeated action.

Ex: I heard the girl playing a piece of Chopin.

Seem
 We use “seem” when something/somebody gives us an impression of being or doing
something through a combination of the senses and what we know, but not purely
through one sense.

 Seem + adjective
Ex: You seem worried, what’s wrong?

 Seem + infinitive (simple, perfect, continuous)

Ex: You seem to be a bit down today. Are you ok?

 Seem + like + noun / as if / as though + verb phrase.

Ex: It seemed like a good idea at the time, but in fact it wasn’t.

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 Have something done
 We use it when we arrange for somebody else to do something for us.
Ex: Jim had the house repaired (somebody repaired it for him).

 “Have” is the main verb so it changes according to the tense.

Ex: Julia has just had her hair cut.

 You can also use “get something done”, but it is more informal.
Ex: I think you should get your hair cut.

 Sometimes “have something done” has a different meaning. We can use it to say that
something happens to somebody or their belongings. Usually what happens is not
nice.
Ex: George had his nose broken in a fight.

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 Whatever, whenever,…
 Whenever: at any time, it doesn’t matter when.

 Whatever: anything, it doesn’t matter what.

 Whichever: anything, from a limited number.

 Whoever: anyone, it doesn’t matter who.

 However: in any way, it doesn’t matter how.

 Wherever: any place, it doesn’t matter where.

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Changing stress on noun and
verbs
 Some words change their stress depending on whether they are verbs or nouns.
o The nouns are usually stressed on the first syllable/
 An export
 A record
 A progress
 A refund
o The verbs are stressed on the second syllable.
 To export
 To record
 To progress
 To refund

 Words like this include: increase, decrease, import, progress, permit, produce,
refund, transport, export, record.

35
 Modal auxiliary verbs
 Might/may: when you say something is possibly true.
Ex: Tony’s phone is switched off. He might be on the plane right now.

 Can/could: to talk about an ability, possibility.

Ex: I can swim.

 Might/may/can/could: to talk about permission, requests.

Ex: can I go to the toilets?

 Can’t: when you are sure something is impossible, not true.

Ex: That woman can’t be Jack’s wife. Jack’s wife has dark hair.

 Must: when you are sure something is true, probability.

Ex: Your sister must have a lot of money if she drives a Porsche.

 Might/may/can’t/must: to say how sure or certain we are about something, based on

the information we have.

 Must/have to/ought to/should: to talk about obligation, advice.

Ex: You must wear a decent outfit at school.

 Will/shall: to talk about the future, advice, suggestion, decision. Shall is always used
with the first singular/plural person and is only used in questions or suggestions.
Ex: Do you feel like cooking or shall we eat out?

 More information:
o We don’t use “can” instead of “might/may”.
o The opposite of “must” is “can’t”.
o We can use “could” instead of “might/may” in positive sentences.
o We often use “Be + -ing” after “might, must, can’t”.

 Obligation, order:
o Must: personal opinion of the speaker.
o Have to: general obligation, law, authority.
o Have got to: exceptional obligation, informal.
o Must not: negative obligation.
o Don’t have to: no obligation, not necessary.

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 Have to, must, should
Have to
 Is used to talk about obligations, strong recommendations or something that is
necessary to do.
 Is a normal verb and it exists in all tenses and forms, also as a gerund or infinitive.
 Have to is more common for general, external obligations, for rules and laws.
Ex: I had to wear a uniform at school.

Must
 Is used to talk about obligation, strong recommendations or something that is
necessary to do.
 Is a modal verb, it only exists in the present, but it can be used with a future
meaning.
 Is more common for specific or personal obligation.
Ex: You must be on time tomorrow for the test.

Have got to
 Is often used instead of “have to” and “must” in spoken English, but is more informal.
Ex: I’ve got to go now, it’s very late.

Don’t have to
 Is used when there is no obligation to do something.
Ex: you don’t have to pay, this museum is free.

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Mustn’t
 Is used when something is prohibited.
 We often use “can’t” or “not allowed to” instead of it.
Ex: You mustn’t eat that cake, it’s for the party.

Should/shouldn’t
 Is used to give advice or an opinion, to say if we think something is the right or wrong
thing to do.
 You can use “ought to” instead of “should”.
Ex: You should take warm clothes to Norway. / You ought not to drink so much coffee.

Adjectives and adverbs for speculation

 To be bound = to be sure, to say that something is certain, is to be true, or to happen.
Ex: He is bound to be here in a minute.

 Subject + be likely/unlikely to
Ex: She is likely to agree to our proposal.

 Definitely/probably go before a main verb and after an auxiliary if there is one in a

positive sentence, and before it in a negative sentence.
Ex: She will definitely pass the exam / she probably won’t be here at 8 o’clock.

 Be likely to/ will probably are very similar but the first one is more formal.
Ex: The new coach is likely to be appointed today.

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 Past modals
 Must have + past participle: when we are almost sure that something happened or
was true.
Ex: I must have left my phone at Anna’s.

 Can’t have + past participle: when we are almost sure something didn’t happen or
that it is impossible.
Ex: She can’t have seen their faces very clearly, it was very dark.

 Couldn’t have + past participle: when we are almost sure something didn’t happen or
that it is impossible, but the speculation is about the distant past.
Ex: She couldn’t have gone to bed. It was just 10.

 May/might/could have + past participle: when we think it’s possible that something
happened or was true.
Ex: Somebody might have stolen your wallet when you were getting off the train.

 Should have/ought to have + past participle: to say that somebody didn’t do the right
thing, or to express regret or criticism.
Ex: We shouldn’t have turned left at the traffic lights. We have gone the wrong way.

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 Would rather
 We use “would rather” with the infinitive without “to” as an alternative to “would
prefer”.
o Positive sentence: subject + would rather + infinitive + complements.
Ex: I would rather go on holiday in June than in July.
o Negative sentence: subject + would rather + not + infinitive + complements.
Ex: I would rather not to go out tonight.
o Questions: would + subject + rather + infinitive + complements.
Ex: Would you rather stay in or go out tonight?

 We can also use would rather + person + past tense to talk about what we would
prefer another person to do.
Ex: I’d rather you didn’t smoke inside.

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 It’s time
 To say that something has to be done now or in the near future.

 It’s time + subject + past simple.

Ex: It’s time you found a job.

 It’s time + to + infinitive (when we don’t want to specify the subject).

Ex: It’s time to go now.

 It’s high time (for emphasis).

Ex: It’s high time the government did something about the unemployment.

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 As
 To describe somebody or something’s job or function.
Ex: She works as a nurse.

 To compare people or things.

Ex: She is as tall as me now.

 To talk about how something appears, sounds, feels.

Ex: It looks as if it is going to snow.

 To give a reason.
Ex: As it was raining, we didn’t go out.

 To say that something happened while something else was happening.

Ex: as they were leaving, the postman arrived.

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 Get
 Get + noun/pronoun:
o It means “receive, bring, fetch, obtain, buy, catch”.
Ex: I got an email from Marc today.
o With “to” and a place it means “arrive to”.
Ex: When do you think we will get to Paris?

 Get + adjective: it means “become”.

Ex: It’s getting dark.

 Get + object + infinitive: it means “make somebody do something” or “persuade

somebody to do something”.
Ex: We need to get someone to fix the central heating.

 Get + object + past participle:

o We use it instead of “have + object + past participle” and it is more informal.
o It means you ask or pay another person to do something for you.
Ex: I’m going to get my hair cut next week.

 Get + past participle: we use it instead of “be” to make a passive structure. This is
more informal than using “be”.
Ex: My husband got caught driving at 150km/h.

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 Participle clauses
Use
 Instead of relative clauses.
Ex: I recognize that man standing over there (= who is standing).

 Instead of certain conjunctions.

Ex: Not wishing to offend my hosts, I ate everything on that plate (because).

 After the object of the following verbs: see, hear, watch, notice, feel, find.
Ex: The police found him lying unconscious on the floor.

Note
 Stative verbs are not normally used in continuous sentences, but the -ing form can be
used in participle clauses.
Ex: Being a very shy person, I never enjoy going to parties.

 The subject of a participle clause is usually the same as the object of the main clause.
Ex: Working as a waitress, I have all my meals in the restaurant.

 “with” is sometimes used to introduce a different subject.

Ex: With both my parents working all day, I have to cook my own lunch.

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 Used to, be/get used to
Used to + infinitive
 To talk about past habits or repeated actions or situations/states which have
changed.
Ex: I used to sleep for 8 hours every night, but now I only sleep 6.

 For present habits, use “usually” + present simple.

Ex: I usually walk to work.

 We can also use “would” + infinitive to talk about repeated past actions, but only for
actions verbs.
Ex: When I lived in France, I used to live 1 hour away from work.

Be used to + gerund
 To talk about a new situation which is now familiar or less strange.
Ex: Carlos has lived in London for years. He is used to driving on the left.

 We can also use “be used to + noun/pronoun”.

Ex: I’m used to the pasta in Malta.

Get used to + gerund

 To talk about a new situation which is becoming familiar or less strange.
Ex: I can’t get used to working at night.

 We can also use “get used to” + noun/pronoun.

Ex: I need to get used to my wet clothes.

 Getting used to + gerund/noun/pronoun.

Ex: I’m getting used to the changeable weather in Malta.

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 Structures after wish
Wish + would(n’t) + infinitive
 To talk about things that irritates/annoys us and that we want it to change; things we
want to happen or stop happening because they annoy us.
Ex: I wish the bus would come; I’m freezing!

 You can’t use “wish + would” for a wish about yourself.

Wish + could + infinitive

 To talk about the will, the inability of changing the present or future.
Ex: I wish I could understand what they are saying.

Wish + past simple/continuous

 To talk about things we would like to be different in the present or future (but
impossible or unlikely).
Ex: I wish I was/were ten years younger!

 After “wish”, you can use “was/were” with “I, she, he, it”.
Ex: I wish you weren’t working so hard.

Wish + past perfect simple/continuous

 To talk about things that happened or didn’t happen in the past and which you now
regret.
Ex: I wish I hadn’t bought those shoes.
I wish you hat told me the truth.

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If only + past simple/past perfect
 We can also use “if only” instead of “I wish” in all these structures.
Ex: If only I had a bit more time.

Regret + -ing/to + infinitive

 Regret + -ing = regret in the past.
Ex: I regret choosing French when I was at school.

 Regret + to + infinitive = to say that we are sorry about something.

Ex: We regret to inform you that you have failed your exams.

Wish to + infinitive
 To express a formal intention.
Ex: We wish to congratulate you on your recent success.

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 Gerunds and infinitives
Infinitive with “to”
 To express purpose.
Ex: I went out to get some fresh air.

 After some adjective.

Ex: It’s not easy to find work these days.

 After “would hate/like/love/prefer”, with or without an object.

Ex: Would you like me to do it now?

 After the verb “To be” to give orders or to express an arrangement.

Ex: You are to stay here until I get back.

 After the following verbs: agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, choose, decide,
demand, deserve, expect, help, hesitate, hope, learn, manage, offer, prepare,
pretend, refuse, seem, threaten.
Ex: If you need any help, don’t hesitate to contact me.

 After the following verbs + object: advise, allow, ask, challenge, enable, encourage,
expect, force, get, help, intend, invite, order, persuade, recommend, remind, teach,
tell, urge, warm.
Ex: My family encouraged me to go to University.

 After the following nouns: ability, attempt, capacity, chance, decision, desire,
determination, effort, failure, intention, need, opportunity, permission, plan,
proposal, refusal, right, tendency, way, willingness.
Ex: I have the chance to go to Australia next year.

Infinitive without “to”

 After modals
Ex: I shouldn’t eat this, but I can’t resist it.

 After the following verbs: had better, help, let, make, would rather, would sooner.
Ex: We’d rather go home.

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Gerund
 As the object or complement of a clause or sentence.
Ex: Playing gold helps me relax.

 After prepositions.
Ex: We are thinking about going to France this year.

 After expressions: have difficulty, have problems, there is no/little point, it’s no
good/use, it’s worth.
Ex: It’s no use asking him.

 After the following verbs: admit, adore, advise, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, can’t
help, can’t stand, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, dread, enjoy, feel like, give up,
imagine, involve, keep, mind, miss, postpone, practice, prevent, propose, put off,
recommend, resent, resist, risk, suggest.
Ex: I resent having to do all the housework.

 After the following verbs + to: adapt to, adjust to, admit to, confess to, get round to,
get used to, look forward to, object to.
Ex: She confesses to being surprised by her success.

Gerund or infinitive (same meaning)

 With the following verbs: begin, can’t bear, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer,
start, help, dare.
Ex: She suddenly started singing/to sing.

 The infinitive is common for certain situations.

Ex: I hate to say this, but your breath smells.

Gerund or infinitive (different meaning)

 Try:
o Try + infinitive = attempt, make an effort to do something.
Ex: I tried to open the window.
o Try + gerund = experiment with.
Ex: I am trying to sleep.

 Remember:

49
 o Remember + infinitive = necessity, you do something first (thinking about the
future).
Ex: Remember to lock the door.
o Remember + gerund = memory, you remember first (thinking about the past).
Ex: I remember going to Venice as a child.

 Forget:
o Forget + infinitive = you didn’t remember to do something.
Ex: Sorry, I forgot to lock the door.
o Forget + gerund = you did something and won’t forget it.
Ex: I’ll never forget seeing the Taj Mahal.

 Need:
o Need + infinitive = necessity.
Ex: You need to clean the car.
o Need + gerund = need to be + past participle.
Ex: The car needs cleaning.

 Stop:
o Stop + infinitive = stop to do something else.
Ex: I stopped to smoke.
o Stop + gerund = give up the habit.
Ex: I stopped smoking.

 Mean:
o Mean + infinitive = intend.
Ex: I’ve been meaning to write for ages.
o Mean + gerund = involve.
Ex: Changing job also meant changing life.

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 Complex gerunds and
infinitives
Complex gerunds and infinitives
 We use a passive gerund (being done) or a passive infinitive (to be done) to describe
actions which are done to the subject.
Ex: She loves being told how pretty she is. / It’s very difficult to get promoted.

 We use a perfect gerund (having done) or a perfect infinitive (to have done) if we
want to emphasize that an action is in the past.
Ex: He thanked them for having helped him. / How wonderful to have finished the
exams.

 We use the perfect infinitive after “would like, would love, would hate, would prefer,
would rather” to talk about an earlier action.
Ex: I would like to have seen the Eiffel Tower. / I would rather have stayed in a more
central park, but they were all full.

 We use a continuous infinitive (to be + ing) to say that an action/event is in progress

around the time we are talking about.
Ex: I’d like to be lying on the beach right now. / She seems to be coughing a lot
recently.

Other uses of gerunds

 After “it, there, it’s no use, there is no point, it’s not worth”.
Ex: It’s no good talking to your dad because he doesn’t listen to you.

Other uses of infinitive with “to”

 After nouns formed from verbs which take the infinitive.
Ex: We had an agreement to share the costs.

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 After expressions with quantifiers.
Ex: There wasn’t enough snow to ski.

 When we use for + person / object pronoun.

Ex: It’s very difficult for me to decide.

 After something, anywhere,…

Ex: Is there anything to eat?

 After question words (except why).

Ex: I don’t know where to go or what to do.

 After superlatives and first, second, third,…

Ex: He is the youngest player ever to play for England.

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 The passive voice
Reasons to use the passive
 When the active subject is not known.
Ex: My bike has been stolen.

 When the active subject is not seen as being important.

Ex: The school has just been decorated.

 When the active subject is obvious.

Ex: Bill has been arrested.

 When the active object is seen as being more important than the active subject.
Ex: The aspirin was invented by Bayer.

 When we want to keep our focus on what has already been mentioned.
Ex: What a lovely painting! This one was painted by Van Gogh.

 To depersonalize a (negative) situation.

Ex: I don’t agree with what was written in the report.

 To add variety and color to the language.

Ex: Owen scored the first two goals, Heskey the third and the fourth and fifth were
scored by Beckham.

 To describe a process.
Ex: The water is heated to 100 degrees.

 To make the register or style of language more formal.

Ex: Many buildings have been damaged by the earthquake.

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To form the passive sentence
 The active object becomes the passives subject.
 We introduce the verb “to be” and we put it into the same tense as the active verb,
and we add the past participle of the active verb.
 The active subject becomes the passive object.
 If you want to say who did the action, use “by”.
 If the agent doesn’t add or give specific information, we prefer to leave it out.

Ex: They signed the contract  The contract was signed.

Basic tenses
 Present simple: is/are + pp.
 Present continuous: is/are being + pp.
 Past simple: was/were being + pp.
 Past continuous: was/were being + pp.
 Present perfect: has/have been + pp.
 Past perfect: had been + pp.
 Future simple: will be + pp.
 Future perfect: will have been + pp.
 Conditional: would be + pp.
 Conditional perfect: would have been + pp.
 Inf + to: verb + to be + pp.
 Inf: verb + be + pp.
 Gerund: verb + being + pp.

It is said that, it is thought that

 This is used in news reports and on TV with these verbs: know, tell, understand,
report, expect, say, think. It makes the information sound more impersonal.

 You can use “it is said/believed,… + that + clause”.

Ex: It is thought that the major will resign.

 You can use “He, the man,… + is said + to + (perfect) infinitive”.

Ex: He is believed to have left the country.

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 Reported speech
Reported speech
 We use it to report what someone said.

 Using “that” after “said, told” is optional.

 Change:
o Present simple  past simple
o Present continuous  past continuous
o Past simple  past perfect
o Past continuous  past perfect continuous
o Present perfect  past perfect
o Present perfect continuous  past perfect continuous
o Past perfect  past perfect
o Past perfect continuous  past perfect continuous
o Will/shall  would
o Must  had to
o Can  could
o May  might

 Other words and phrases need to be changed:

o Today  that day
o Tonight  that night
o Tomorrow  the next/following day
o Yesterday  the previous day
o Next Tuesday  the following Tuesday
o Last Tuesday  the previous Tuesday
o This/these  that/those
o Here  there
o Ago  before/earlier

55
Reporting verbs
 To + infinitive (no to do something): agree, refuse, threaten, offer, promise.
Ex: Jack offered to drive me to the airport.

 Person + to + infinitive (somebody not to do something): advise, ask, convince,

encourage, invite persuade, remind, tell, warn, beg, order.
Ex: The doctor advised me to have a rest.

 -ing form (not doing something): apologize for, insist on, accuse somebody of,
recommend, admit, regret, blame somebody for, suggest, deny, discourage.
Ex: I apologize for being so late.

Reported questions
 It doesn’t require a reply.

 The verbs are not interrogative.

Ex: He asked where I was going.

 If the question in direct speech does not have a question word, then we must use “if”
or “whether” in the reported questions.
Ex: He asked me if I lived in Thessaloniki.

Verb patterns
 Verb + that: add, admit, announce, assure, claim, complain, concede, conclude,
confirm, emphasize, estimate, explain, mention, point out, predict, reassure, remark,
remind, repeat, say, state, stress, tell, warn.
Ex: Critics predicted that the film would be a success.

 Verb + that somebody should do sth/ that something should happen: advise, agree,
ask, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest.
Ex: They demanded that he should resign.

 Verb + infinitive “to”: agree, ask, claim, demand, offer, promise, refuse, threaten.
Ex: He claimed to be an expert on ghosts.

 Verb + object + infinitive “to”: advise, ask, beg, convince, encourage, forbid, instruct,
invite, order, persuade, recommend, remind, tell, urge, warn.

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 Ex: She urged him not to get involved.

 Verb + gerund: admit, advise, deny, recommend, regret, suggest.

Ex: He denied taking/ having taken the money.

 Verb + preposition + gerund:

o Advise, argue, protest, warn against
o Apologize, blame, forgive, praise, tell off, thank for
o Discourage, dissuade from
o Accuse, speak of
o Congratulate, insist on
o Admit, confess, consent, object to

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 Conditional
Zero conditional
 To talk about something which is always true or always happens as a result of
something else.

 If + present tenses, present tenses

Ex: If you want to be fit, you need to do exercise.

First conditional
 To talk about something which will probably happen in the future.

 If + present tense, future tense/imperative

Ex: If the photos are good, I’ll send them to you.

Future time clauses

 When you are talking about the future, use a present tense after: as soon as, when,
until, unless, before, after, in case, while.
Ex: I’ll be ready as soon as I’ve had a cup of coffee.

 We use “in case” when we do something in order to be ready for future situations.
Ex: I’ll take an umbrella if it rains = I won’t take an umbrella if it doesn’t rain.

If + should/happen to/should happen to

 To make the event seem more unlikely.
Ex: If I happen to see Mr Dee there, I’ll ask him for you. / Should you wish to change
your holiday arrangements, we will do all we can to help you.

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Second conditional
 If + past tense, could/would/might + infinitive
Ex: If there was a fire in this hotel, it would be very difficult to escape.

 To talk about a hypothetical or imaginary situation in the present or future and its
consequences.
Ex: If you weren’t making so much noise, I could concentrate better.

 In the if-clause you can also use the past continuous. In the other clause you can use
“could” or “might” instead of “would”.

 With the verb “be” you can use “was/were” for “I, she, he, it”. However, in
conditionals beginning with “If I were you” to give advice, we always use “were”.
Ex: If I were you, I’d make Jimmy wear a helmet when he is cycling.

 If + were to + infinitive, could/would/might + infinitive = more unlikely to happen.

Ex: If you were to walk in that direction for 10000 miles, you would eventually arrive
in Warsaw.

Third conditional
 If + past perfect, would have + past participle.

 To talk about hypothetical past situation and its consequences.

Ex: I wouldn’t have been late if I hadn’t overslept.

 In the if-clause you can also use the past perfect continuous. You can also use “could
have” or “might have” instead of “would have”.
Ex: If the jacket had been a bit cheaper, I might have bought it.

 More formal way: begin with “Had”.

Ex: Had she revised for the exam, she would have passed it.

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Mixed conditional
 We sometimes mix second and third conditionals if a hypothetical situation in the
past has a present/future consequence.
Ex: You wouldn’t be so tired if you had gone to bed earlier last night.

Other words to replace “if”

 Supposing
Ex: Supposing you pass the exam, how will you celebrate?

 Unless
Ex: You won’t be late unless you miss the train.

 Provided that
Ex: Provided that they used it carefully, they could borrow it.

 So long as/as long as

Ex: So long as he has pressed the correct button, he couldn’t have caused the
damage.

 But for
Ex: But for his help, I’d have been in deep trouble.

 On condition that
Ex: They agreed to lend us the car on condition that we returned it by the weekend.

 Whether or not
Ex: I’m going to sell the car, whether you agree with me or not.

 Even if
Ex: Even if I get the job, I’m going to carry on living with my parents for a while.

 Had I known
Ex: Had I known that you were coming, I would have bought a bottle of wine.

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 Past tenses
Past simple (+ ed)
 Action in the past with a precise date, no links with the present.
Ex: I went to Australia in 1992.

 To talk about habits.

Ex: I swam a lot when I was young.

 To talk about consecutive actions/situations in the past.

Ex: Last week, I went to see the boss. A big dog came into the office. I looked at it, …

 Always the main event in a story.

Past continuous (be + -ing)

 To describe a longer continuous past action or situation which was in progress when
another action happened; it interrupted the former.
Ex: I was showering when you arrived.

 To describe an action/situation that was not complete, that was in progression at a

past time.
Ex: At 9 o’clock we were trying to sleep.

 Used with “while” for two actions happening in the same time.
While I was doing the housework, the children were playing in the garden.

 Used for a beginning of a story/anecdote.

Ex: It was a cold night and it was raining. I was watching TV and…

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Present perfect simple (have + pp)
 Something in the past with imprecise date.
Ex: Have you ever written a book?

 Finished actions that have a present result.

Ex: I’ve lost my keys.

 Unfinished actions starting in the past and being still true now, with non-action verbs.
Ex: I’ve had a hangover for three days.

 Life experience.
Ex: I have been to London.

 Period in which we are talking is not over yet.

Ex: I have seen three movies this week.

 With “just, yet, already”.

Ex: We have just landed but we haven’t got off the plane yet.

 With superlatives and “the first, the second,…”.

Ex: It’s the best pizza I have ever eaten.

 With how much, how many, how often we have done something up to now.
Ex: How many Spielberg films have you seen?

 With “it’s 2/3 years/a long time since…”.

Ex: It’s years since I’ve had bacon for breakfast.

Present perfect continuous (have been + pp)

 Unfinished action starting in the past and being still true now, with action verbs (still
happening).
Ex: He has been chatting online all evening.

 Recent finished action with a present result.

Ex: I’m crying because I’ve been chopping onions.

 For repeated actions, especially with a time expression.

Ex: It has been raining all day.

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  When you show an irritation.
Ex: You have been smoking!

 With “recently, lately”.

Ex: Have you been exercising lately?

 With “work, live” you can use ppc or pps. However, we use the ppc for shorter and
temporary actions.

Past perfect simple (had + pp)

 To talk about the earlier past, things that happened before another past action.
Ex: They had left when we arrived.

 With 3rd conditional sentences.

Ex: If I had seen him, I would have talked to him.

 It emphasizes the completion of an activity.

Ex: Lila didn’t want to see the film because she had already read the book.

 After certain time linkers: after, before, by the time, as soon as, once, when, until.
Ex: It was dark by the time I had finished repairing the roof.

Past perfect continuous (had been + -ing)

 With action verbs to talk about longer continuous actions/situations that started
before the main events happened and continued up to that point.
Ex: He had been playing football for three hours when he broke his leg.

 Non-action verbs are normally used in the past continuous or past perfect
continuous.
Ex: We had been flying for two hours when suddenly the captain told us to fasten our
seatbelts because we were flying into some very bad weather.

 With conditional sentences (3rd form).

Ex: If I hadn’t been overeating, I wouldn’t have gained weight.

 It emphasizes the continuation of an activity.

Ex: Lila was crying because she had been reading a very sad book.

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Used to + infinitive
 To talk about things that we did repeatedly in the past.
Ex: Every summer, I used to walk to the harbor every morning.

 To talk about situations/states which have changed.

Ex: I used to have much longer har when I was young.

Would
 Alternative for “used to” but only with action verbs.
Ex: Every night, my mother would tell me a story.

Always + past continuous

 For repeated things, especially irritating habits.
Ex: My friends were always teasing me because of my red hair when I was younger.

Unfulfilled past events

 To talk about events which were intended to take place, but which did not happen.
Ex: I was going to send you an email but…

Expressing preferences about the past

 Would like/love/prefer to + perfect infinitive.
Ex: We would like to have stayed longer.

 Would have liked/loved/preferred to + infinitive/perfect infinitive.

Ex: She would have loved to tell/to have told…

 Would rather/sooner + perfect infinitive.

Ex: We stayed in a hotel but I’d sooner have slept in a tent.
 If the subject of “would rather/sooner” is not the same as the subject of the verb
which follows, the past perfect is used.
Ex: Would you rather I hadn’t said anything?

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 Future tenses
Will + infinitive
 Instant decisions.
Ex: Is that the phone ringing? Yes, I’ll take it.

 Predictions about what we think will happen.

Ex: You will love NYC.

 Future facts.
Ex: I’ll be at work on Monday.

 Promises.
Ex: Have you been using my laptop? You didn’t switch it off. Sorry, I’ll remember it
next time.

 Offers and suggestions.

Ex: I’ll cook dinner tonight.

Going to + infinitive
 Definite plan/intention, a decision has been made.
Ex: I’m going to learn Spanish.

 Predictions if we can see what’s going to happen, we are surer about the future.
Ex: it’s getting cloudy, the weather forecast says it’s going to rain this afternoon.

Present continuous
 Schedule/arrangement (details) already arranged.
Ex: I’m leaving Malta on the 18th of June.

 Future arrangements.
Ex: We are seeing our grandparents this weekend.

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Present simple
 Timetable future (travel times and arrangements).
Ex: The train leaves at 6:30.

Future perfect
 Will have + past participle.
 An action or state which started in the past, present or future, but will be completed
before a certain time in the future.
 With the expression time “by…” or “in…”.
 By + a time expression = at the latest.
 Negative: won’t have + past participle.

Ex: The decorators will have finished painting by Tuesday, so we can move back to the flat
then.

Future continuous
 Will be + verb + -ing
 An action is in progress at a certain time in the future.
 To express events that are certain to happen in the future, not an intention or
decision but something that will happen naturally, it will happen anyway.
 To talk about things which are already planned or decided, future arrangements.
 Polite enquiries about arrangements.
 Negative: won’t be + verb + ing.

Ex: Come at 7 because we won’t be starting dinner before 8 o’clock.

Other ways to make future arrangements

 Be due to + infinitive: something is arranged or expected.

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 Ex: My sister is due to arrive at 8:30.

 Be about to + infinitive: something is going to happen soon.

Ex: My sister is about to have a baby.

 Be on the point of + ing: something is going to happen very soon.

Ex: The chancellor is on the point of resigning.

 Be to + infinitive: formal style to talk about official plans and arrangements.

Ex: The Prime Minister is to visit Malaysia next year.

 Be (un)likely to + infinitive: probability.

The situation is likely to get worse.

 Be bound to + infinitive: certainty.

Ex: It’s a ridiculous plan and it’s bound to fail.

 Modal verbs: uncertainty about the future.

Ex: Dave should be here soon.

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