Whitehead and Philosophy of Education

WHITEHEAD AND PHILOSOPHY
OF EDUCATION
The Seamless Coat of Learning
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

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Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

WHITEHEAD AND PHILOSOPHY
OF EDUCATION
The Seamless Coat of Learning
Malcolm D. Evans
Amsterdam - Atlanta, GA 1998
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

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Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

CONTENTS
Editorial Foreword vii
Preface ix
Copyright Acknowledgments xi
Part One : Romance
ONE Whitehead: A Life of the Mind in the World 3
1. Kent 3
2. Sherborne School 5
3. Cambridge 6
4. London 7
5. Harvard 8
6. Whitehead's Way 9
7. Mathematician 11
8. Science 12
9. Worldview 12
TWO Context: Two Worldviews 15
1. The Modem Worldview: The Current Context for Education 16

2. A Postmodern Worldview: An Alternative Context for Education 20
Part Two : Precision 31
THREE Philosophy: Whitehead, Philosophy, and Education 33
1. Some Commentaries on Whitehead and Education 37

2. Whitehead's Lifelong Interest in Education 40
3. Whitehead's Writings and Educational Philosophy 42
4. Philosophy and Education 56
FOUR Speculation: Examining Whitehead's Philosophy 63
1. The Web of Whitehead's Thinking 63

2. Some Elements of Whitehead's Philosophy 65
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VI Contents
Part Three: Generalization 87
FIVE Construction: A Whiteheadian Philosophy of Education 89
1. The Goal: A Balanced Education 90

2. A Theory of Education 91
3. Ethics 95
4. Metaphysics 97
5. Epistemology 100
6. Conclusion 101
Notes 107
Bibliography 115
Appendix: Whitehead's Writings Relevant to Education 119
About the Author 121
Index 123
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

EDITORIAL FOREWORD
Right about now, philosophy of education needs to reopen the case that Alfred
North Whitehead made for educational reform more than seventy years ago.
Malcolm D. Evans 's Whitehead and Philosophy of Education: The Seamless
Coat of Learning restates Whitehead's case, bringing it to light and making it
accessible to scholars of all fields.
Whitehead's philosophy of education emphasizes process and engagement
with a protean world. The more technologically advanced we become, the more
our world is characterized by change . Unversed in process philosophy, people
are stultified when faced with change. Well versed in process philosophy, people
are able to change with the world as it changes and thus adapt and flourish in it.
Whitehead's process philosophy allows us to view the world as a developing web
of interconnections rather than as disjointed parts or as a static monolith.
Technological advances not only demand that students become proficient with
computing , but also with the dynamic thinking that arises from interaction with
this medium .
Educators must steer away from inert ideas at all costs. For Whitehead, the
principal enemy in the classroom is inert ideas. Inert ideas are irrelevant notions
that move neither the hearts nor minds of students . Inert ideas fall like lead
balloons and have no chance of circulating in the classroom environment.
Whitehead's process philosophy calls for the expulsion of inert ideas and creates
conditions in which inert ideas cannot easily subsist.
Evans emphasizes Whitehead's process philosophy and inert ideas, but
another important concept as well : holism . The subtitle of Evans's book is
telling: "The Seamless Coat of Learning." Instead of seeing the learning process
as compartmentalized, Whitehead sees unity in all learning . Learning is not
segmented or modular, but is seamless . The recent critical thinking movement
in the United states can be understood as a response to people who cannot think
out of the box, who cannot see or make interconnections. Whitehead's process
philosophy encourages educators to view the curriculum as a whole and not as
disparate parts .
Whitehead's case for process philosophy and holism, and his attack on inert
ideas , is especially important to today's educators. Malcolm D. Evans is to be
commended for bringing this case to a jury of contemporary educators and
scholars .
George David Miller

Editor
Philosophy of Education Special Series
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5
PREFACE
You may not divide the seamless coat of learning. What education has to
impart is an intimate sense for the power of ideas, for the beauty of ideas,
and for the structure of ideas, together with a particular body of knowledge
which has peculiar reference to the life of the being possessing it.
Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims ofEducation, pp. 11-12
The subtitle of this book , The Seamless Coat ofLearning, a seemingly simple
metaphor, a seamless coat, conveys the message that permeates the chapters of
this book. That message is connectedness. A worldview is presented that por-
trays human beings and all of nature as being unified in our biosphere. It urges
us to abandon dualisms and to seek the connectedness of mind and body, of
human beings and nature, of individuals and community, and of ideas and action.
There is a strong message for education-that all experience is related and
learning is connected to our past and to our future. In this metaphor the seamless
coat of learning surrounds us; bringing our exper ience, our feelings, and our
relationships together in an understanding of our world .
The source of the theoretical foundation of this book is process philosophy,
principally that of Alfred North Whitehead. Process philosophy finds the reality
of this world in the flux, the flow, the change of things . Whitehead's form of
process philosophy , which he called a philosophy of organism, shows the connec-
tion and relationship of all living creatures, seemingly inanimate things, and of
ideas and ideals. His formal philosophy and his educational views are different
from those that currently dominate academic and educational philosophy. That
difference is expressed in the flow of relationships, values , and experiences that
characterize process philosophy.
I believe and argue throughout this book that process philosophy, as pre-
sented by Whitehead and several of his interpreters, is highly relevant to the
concerns of all educators, parents, and policy makers. Building upon White-
head's philosophy, I examine some of these concerns in terms that practical,
pragmatic educators have chosen to ignore-the theory, philosophy, assumptions,
and beliefs that underlie the practice of education and the expectations that we
have for that practice . This is not just a book on philosophy, or theory , or re-
search, or social policy; although all of these appear throughout. My book urges
practitioners and theorists of education to change what they think about and how
they act in the practice of educating in a complex society .
The proponents of most proposals for educational reform in the late twenti-
eth century have asked inappropriate questions and made inappropriate recom-
mendations. Recommendations for more testing, for a more narrow definition of
schooling, for more gateposts and barriers, have not been productive. The mind-
set of our technological society leads us to propose mechanical and technical
solutions . The ability to perceive education as primarily a human development
enterprise, with individual learning as the centerpiece, is denied us by the culture
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

x Preface
in which we live. Attention to education by politicians, economists, industrialists,

and the professional educators who serve them is on the specifics of educational
outcomes based on expectations of modern society. Whitehead's philosophy of
organism provides a frame for considering education from a markedly different
perspective.
I argue that the basic assumptions on which educational practice is now
founded must be discussed, alternatives explored, and action proposed. I advo-
cate two recurring themes: in simple form they are that process philosophy be
recognized as a basis for educational practice, and that current mechanistic
educational practices be replaced by organismic practices more appropriate to
human learning . I endeavor to show that the process philosophy of Alfred North
Whitehead offers a basis for radical change and restructuring of the practice of
education.
The structure of the book follow s the rhythm of learn ing presented by
Whitehead in Aims of Education. There are three stages of that rhythmic
sequence: romance, precision, and generalization. The book is divided, accord-
ingly , into three parts . Part one, romance, is intended to introduce, to motivate,
to lure. Part two, precision, is intended to teach process philosophy and its impli -
cations for educational practice. Part three, generalization, is an effort to apply
the precision of part two to construction ofa Whiteheadian process philosophy.
This book would never have been written but for friendly professional
involvements with the following able , committed, and caring advocates of pro-
cess perspective on education: Philip Bashor , Robert Brumbaugh, John B. Cobb,
Jr., David Ray Griffin, Daniel C. Jordan, and Mary Elizabeth Mullino Moore.
This book extends the dialogue about process philosophy and education begun
by them . I wish to acknowledge the importance to me and to the writing of this
book of severa l people who took time to counsel me on Whitehead and process
thought: George Allan, William Beardslee, George Bondra, Will iam E. Doll, Jr.,
Christelle Estrada, Kathleen Gershman, D. Bob Gowin, Pete A.Y. Gunter, Irene
Hartley, Brian Hendley, Carol Johnston, Edward Milner, John Sweeney, Takumi
Takeuchi, and others whose involvement over the past two decades escapes
memory.
The advice and support of Howard Greenfeld, biographer of artists; Robert
Timmerman, computer wiz; and my wife of more than four decades, Grace Davis
Evans , teacher and artist; made the completion of this book possible.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

COPYRIGHT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express appreciation to the following publishers for permission to use
excerpts from the indicated works.
Dictionary ofPhilosophy, by Peter A. Angeles. Copyright © 1981 by Peter

A. Angeles . Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers
Inc.
An Enquiry Concerning the Principles ofNatural Knowledge, by Alfred
North Whitehead, 2nd ed. Copyright 1925 Cambridge University Press. Re-
printed by permission of Cambridge University Press.
The Fifth Discipline: The Art and the Practice ofthe Learning Organiza-
tion, by Peter M. Senge . Copyright © 1990 by Peter M. Senge . Reprinted by
permission of Doubleday, a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing
Group.
Higher Education and the Human Spirit by Bernard Meland. Seminary
Cooperative Bookstore. By permission of The University of Chicago Press.
Copyright © 1953. The University of Chicago Press.
Whitehead's Philosophy: Selected Essays by Charles Hartshorne. Copyright
© 1972 the University of Nebraska Press. Reprinted with Permission of the
University of Nebraska Press.
Whitehead on Education by Harold Dunkel. Copyright © 1965 the Ohio
State University Press. Reprinted with permission of Ohio State University Press.
Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity by Gregory Bateson. Copyright ©
1979 by Gregory Bateson. Reprinted with permission of Dutton, Signet, a divi-
sion of Penguin Books USA Inc.
Essays in Science and Philosophy by Alfred North Whitehead. Copyright
1947 by Philosophical Library Inc. Reprinted by permission.
The Function ofReason by Alfred North Whitehead. Copyright © 1929,
renewed 1957 by Princeton University Press. Reprinted by permiss ion of Prince-
ton University Press.
"Some Applications of Process and Reality I and II to Educational Practice"
by Robert S. Brumbaugh in Educational Theory, Vol. 39, No .4 (Fall 1989) by
permission of Educational Theory. Copyright © 1989 by the Board of Trustees
of the University of Illinois.
"Alfred North Whitehead and the Problem of Unity" by George E. Axtelle
in Educational Theory, Vol. 19, No.2 (Spring 1969) by permission of Educa-
tional Theory. Copyright © 1969 by the Board of Trustees of the University of
Illinois.
The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, 2nd ed, edited by Paul A.
Schilpp by permission of Open Court Publishing Company, a division ofCarus
Publishing Company, Peru, III. Copyright 1951 by the Library of Living Philoso-
phers , Inc.
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xii Acknowledgments
The Dialogues ofAlfredNorth Whitehead edited by Lucien Price by pennis-

sion of Little , Brown and Company. Copyright © 1954 by Lucien Price .
An Introduction to Mathematics by Alfred North Whitehead by permission
of Oxford University Press . Copyright © 1948 by the Oxford University Press
Inc .
A Key to Whitehead's "Process and Reality" by Donald W. Sherburne by
permission of Macmillan Publishing Company. Copyright © 1966 by Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc .
Philosophy ofEducation by William K. Frankena by permission of Prentice
Hall , a division of Simon and Schuster. Copyright © 1965 by William K.
Frankena.
Religion in the Making by Alfred North Whitehead by permission of
Prentice Hall, a division of Simon and Schuster. Copyright © 1926 The
Macmillan Company; copyright renewed 1954 © Evelyn Whitehead.
Symbolism : Its Meaning and Effect by Alfred North Whitehead by penn is-
sion of Prentice Hall, a division of Simon and Schuster. Copyright © 1927 by
The Macmillan Company; renewed © 1955 by Evelyn Whitehead.
Excerpts from the following books by permission of The Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press :
Understanding Whitehead by Victor Lowe. Copyright © 1962 The Johns

Hopkins University Press .
Alfred North Whitehead: The Man and His Work, Volume I: 1861-1910 by
Victor Lowe. Copyright © 1985 The Johns Hopkins University Press .
Alfred North Whitehead: The Man and His Work, Volume 2: 1910-1947 by
Victor Lowe, ed. J.B. Schneewind. Copyright © 1990 The Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity Press .
Excerpts from works by Alfred North Whitehead published by Simon and

Schuster:
Reprinted with the permission of Simon and Schuster from The Aims of
Education and Other Essays by Alfred North Whitehead. Copyright 1929 by
Macmillan Publishing Company; copyright renewed © 1957 by Evelyn White-
head.
Reprinted with the pennission of Simon and Schuster from Science and the
Modern World by Alfred North Whitehead . Copyright 1925 by Macmillan
Publish ing Company; copyright renewed © 1953 by Evelyn Whitehead.
Reprinted with the permission of Simon and Schuster from Adventures of
Ideas by Alfred North Whitehead. Copyright 1933 by Macmillan Publishing
Company; copyright renewed © 1961 by Evelyn Whitehead.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Acknowledgments xiii
Reprinted with the permission of Simon and Schuster from Process and
Reality, Corrected Edition by Alfred North Whitehead, edited by David Ray
Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne. Copyright 1929 by Macmillan Publishing
Company; copyright renewed © 1957 by Evelyn Whitehead. Copyright © 1978
by The Free Press .
Excerpts from works published by State University of New York Press :
Reprinted from Whitehead, Process Philosophy, and Education by Robert

S. Brumbaugh by permission of the State University of New York Press . Copy-
right © 1982 State University of New York.
Reprinted from Plato, Time, and Education edited by Brian P. Hendley by
permission of the State University of New York Press. Copyright © 1987 State
University of New York
Reprinted from The Epochal Nature of Time in Whitehead's Metaphysics
by F. Bradford Wallack by permission of the State University of New York Press.
Copyright © 1980 State University of New York .
Reprinted from Perspective in Whitehead's Metaphysics by Stephen David
Ross by permission of the State University of New York Press. Copyright ©
1983 State University of New York .
Reprinted from Education, Modernity, and Fractured Meaning by Donald
W. Oliver with the Assistance of Kathleen W. Gershman by permission of the
State University of New York Press. Copyright © 1989 State University of New
York.
Reprinted from The Rehabilitation ofWhitehead oy George R. Lucas, Jr. by
permission of the State University of New York Press. Copyright © 1989 State
University of New York.
Reprinted from American Philosophy: An Historical Anthology by Barbara
Mackinnon by permission of the State University of New York Press. Copyright
© 1985 State University of New York .
Reprinted from Spirituality and Society edited by David Ray Griffin by
permission of the State University of New York Press . Copyright © 1988 State
University of New York .
Reprinted from The Reenchantment ofScience edited by David Ray Griffin
by permission of the State University of New York Press . Copyright © 1988
State University of New York.
Reprinted from Founders ofConstructive Postmodern Philosophy by David
Ray Griffin and others by permission of the State University of New York Press .
Copyright © 1993 State University of New York .
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5
PART ONE
ROMANCE
The stage of romance is the stage of first apprehension. The subject-matter
has the vividness of novelty ; it holds within itself unexplored connexions
with possibilities half-disclosed by glimpses and half-concealed by the
wealth of material. In this stage knowledge is not dominated by systematic
procedure. Such system as there must be is created piecemeal and ad hoc.
We are in the presence of immediate cognisance offact, only intermittently
subjecting fact to systematic dissection. Romantic emotion is essentially the
excitement consequent on the transition from the bare facts to the first
realisations of the import of their relationships.
Whitehead's most commonly known educational concept is that of the three

stages of growth. These are called romance, precision , and generalization. For
Whitehead the first stage, romance , means a period of excitement, enthusiasm,
interests, liking, and fascination . Romance may be likened metaphorically to
travel. Travel to new places has to do with imagining and experiencing new
sights, sounds, and smells. It also has to do with glimpsing views offar off peaks
and verdant valleys and with hints of distant joys. Interest, encounter, and
wonder are present. One need not have command of a foreign language to enjoy
travel in strange lands; a few utilitarian phrases will suffice for getting along . So
too in the romance stage of learning: unsophisticated enjoyment of the new
adventure is the rule . The happy traveler may be blithely unaware of the exact
political and economic facts of the region. The learner in the stage of romance
need not know myriad facts. Exactness is not necessary, just the broadest ideas
and the play of new ideas in a new context.
During the stage of romance, possibilities are explored, frequently without
acknowledgment of any limits or constraints. Whitehead describes this as
"discursive activity amid a welter of ideas and experience. " The dominant
feeling should be joy. A vision of what might be, the far off mountain peak
associated with the metaphor of travel, may also exist in the period of romance .
The activity of this period need not be random . Most often it is not. A high
degree of intensity characterizes this absorbing and rewarding activity . It is the
period of exploration without attention to detail and of the deferral of mastery .
This is a time of imagination, of zest, of involvement. Perhaps it is a time in
which objective judgment is suspended and one allows subjective feeling to
engulf and enrich. It is truly a period of romance.
For a profe ssional educator, romance is that stage in which the ideals that
lured one to teaching are unsullied by the realities that are to come. It is a period
of individual growth in which the vision of what might be fuels a desire to excel,
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

2 Romance
to achieve for and with the students, to have made a difference in the lives of
others, to share the love of a field of knowledge, and perhaps to even influence
the shape of the nation. It is a period of ideals, dreams , and hopes. Precision is
to follow . This is the time for exploration, examination, and speculation.
Whitehead tells us that all learning must be achieved in an irreversible
sequence of phases . For learning to occur , whether as a student or as a teacher,
the first stage of this sequence must be one of romance-strong motivation to
explore the horizons of a new experience. Each new experience, whether it is
simple or complex, begins not with detail, but, with a vision, ideal, hope, determi-
nation, and always a sense of adventure and romance.
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One
WHITEHEAD: A LIFE OF THE MIND IN THE

WORLD
Alfred North Whitehead was an English mathematician, philosopher of science,

and metaphysician. A reader who is interested in educational philosophy will
wonder what in the world those qualifications have to do with thinking about
education. That is the charm, mystery, and adventure that this small volume
reveals. For while Whitehead is recognized for his work as a mathematician (he
was co-author with Bertrand Russell of Principia Mathematica) , and greatly
admired for his philosophical works such as Science in the Modern World and
Process and Reality, he remained throughout his long life a student and advocate
of education, particularly what Americans would think of as elementary and
secondary education. We will be looking at Whitehead as a philosopher of
education by examining both his informal philosophy such as essays in Aims of
Education and his formal philosophy as found in the seven books he wrote
between 1924 and 1938 while he was a member of the philosophy department at
Harvard . The primary focus of this first chapter will be on Whitehead as a living
human being, stressing those experiences that may have made him the sort of
person that he was. Subsequent chapters interpret his philosophical thought, his
views on education, and their relevance to teaching and learning in the late
twentieth century and the beginnings of a new millennium .
1. Kent
East Kent , where Whitehead was born and raised as a child , is rich with the
markers of history : the English Channel and the Armada, the beaches where the
Saxons came ashore, the site of August ine' s first sermon , Canterbury Cathedral
and the murder of Becket, Norman ruins, chalk cliffs, the straits of Dover. Alfred
North Whitehead was born into a family of schoolmen and clergymen in his
father ' s vicarage at Ramsgate in 1861. He was the youngest of four children born
to Alfred and Sarah Whitehead. Small and considered frail, Whitehead was
taught at home by his father. He often went on rounds of the three parochial
schools in the rural par ish with his father , an Anglican priest. Despite a seem-
ingly limited environment, he was not truly provincial as evidenced by stays in
London with his maternal grandmother, and trips to Paris as a boy and young
man . Further there were interesting visitors to his father 's home, chiefly clergy,
including the Archbishop of Canterbury, Archibald Tait, who Whitehead de-
scribes fondly in his memoirs. Whitehead loved the England of his youth, having
thoroughly absorbed the environment in which he grew up. The values and
relationships experienced as a boy growing up in the Victorian age in Kent gave
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4 Whitehead: A Life ofthe Mind in the World
Whitehead a connection with history, with community, and sense of personhood

that influenced him throughout his life.
Whitehead was a very private person. He directed his wife to destroy his
manuscripts, drafts, and correspondence upon his death, thus biographers have
only his own published writings and formal public records as a basis for con-
structing an account of his life. He gives some glimpses into his personal life in
four essays in Essays in Science and Philosophy .' The principal secondary
source of information about Whitehead , the person, is the biography written from
very meager and difficult sources by Victor Lowe.' Any reader wishing to
understand Whitehead as a person , not simply to know his ideas, should turn to
this easily read two-volume work. Lucien Price has prepared dialogues based on
years of visits with the Whiteheads in their American horne .' They provide
delightful glimpses of Alfred North Whitehead as a real person as well as one of
the leading thinkers of his time. Lowe 's interviews with Whitehead's children,
North and Jessie, provide some help in knowing the philosopher as a family man .
We will never know a great deal about what events shaped this remarkable
person. The requisite biographical materials simply do not exist.
Whitehead's life at home was pleasant and secure. He was indulged by his
father and well loved by his brothers . He was taught by his father who had been
a teacher and headmaster prior to being ordained. His father taught him Latin at
the age often, Greek at age twelve, arithmetic, and plane geometry. Becau se he
was taught at home and was bright, his studies were not time consuming. He had
time to spend with a gardener who taught him much about plants and flowers and
something about human character. In the summer he would go with other chil-
dren to be rowed and to bathe, developing in the process some further under-
standing of the character of local Kentish people. He saw their character as
displaying obstinacy and the habit of lonely thought." As we shall see, White-
head also displayed these characteristics, although in a refined and intellectual
way .
Where did this very bright boy get his knowledge and ideas ? His father
taught him much prior to his leaving home for preparatory school. But his
father's interests were not primarily academic; they were more oriented toward
community actions and interaction with his friends and parishioners. Whitehead
has written, "My father was not intellectual, but he possessed personality." ?
Young Alfred developed a strong appreciation of the value of persons through
watching the participation of his father in parish affairs, the conversations of able
men like the Archbishop of Canterbury in his home, and by observation and
interaction with very basic people such as the bobbin man, a seller of kindling
wood, who came on his rounds leading a decrepit old horse . These people may
have been "characters" by our postmodern perceptions, but, as real people with
views as to who they were and what was valuable, they influenced our young
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Sherborne School 5
Whitehead . That influence, I believe, showed itself in his persistence in difficult

tasks, his reluctance to criticize, and an openness to possibly better ideas .
2. Sherborne School
Whitehead entered Sherborne in Dorset in 1875 and spent five years there . The
supposedly frail child entered into athletics, playing "football," cricket, and being
Captain of the Games . In his senior year he was Head Boy, a serious responsibil-
ity for the behavior of other boys. He was recognized as having talent in mathe-
matics and was pulled out of Latin class to receive additional tutoring. He was
also editor of the school magazine. He was very active in the debating society,
which is consistent with his adult life of ideas, reasoning , and logic. Victor Lowe
writes in detail about the impact of the environment of the town and community
of Sherborne on young Whitehead. There was a beauty to the orchards and
fields. With some degree of exaggeration, Whitehead wrote of " intimate scenery
such as, in all the world, only the West of England can provide." 6 The Abbey
Church was truly a fine example of fifteenth-century Gothic architecture and had
magnificent bells that Whitehead enjoyed hearing. The environs of Sherborne
connected with history as had the relics surrounding his East Kent home . This
connection of the present and the past is a part of Whitehead's personality that
persists throughout his writing and philosophizing
Whitehead showed talent in mathematics at Sherborne. He won the
school' s annual mathematical prize each of his last three years there . He did not
excel in other subjects. In the examinations that would lead to his stud ies at
Cambridge, he was first among thirty-five boys in mathematics but eighteenth in
classics. His five years at Sherborne added to the values he learned at home . He
learned about seeking common ground, the golden mean, harmony. He added to
his sense of history as he read the classics . What we today would consider
medieval history, he saw as the root of English history and a predecessor to the
founding of the British empire . The importance of athletics at an English board-
ing school cannot be over-emphasized. The seemingly trite comments about the
connections between Waterloo and the playing fields ofEton become true enough
as we read about Whitehead's experiences at Sherborne. Athletics and vigorous
sport were an integral part of British "public" schooling. The foundation of
Whitehead's unique personality and character were laid down at home in Kent,
but Sherborne provided experiences which expanded his views and reinforced his
valu es. Home provided love, security, sense of place, and history. Sherborne
added to this foundation during Whitehead's adolescence, a time when intellec-
tual and physical strengths and limitations are usually explored.
Whitehead's adult life is usually thought of as having three parts or distinct
eras. Life as a student and teacher at Cambridge University, 1880-1910; his life
and work as a professor in London, 191 I-1924; and professor of philosophy at
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Harvard, 1924-1937. Even Whitehead is said to have seen himself this way .
They were three distinct, purposeful eras in his life of the mind and in the world.
We have been looking in on Whitehead's growth as a child and adolescent. Now
we turn to his intellectual and moral development as a young adult.
3. Cambridge
Whitehead began his long association with Cambridge University when he was
admitted to Trinity College on a scholarship in 1880. This was not a simple cash
scholarship, but one won by his performance on a highly competitive six-day
examination. He was on that campus for the next thirty years as an undergradu-
ate, graduate student, teaching fellow, lecturer, and don. Strangely for us, accus-
tomed as we are to "requirements" to broaden students, Whitehead only attended
lectures in mathematics. Most of what we would look for in liberal studies was
achieved through discussion and personal reading. Whitehead wrote, "The
missing portions were supplied by incessant conversation, with our friends,
undergraduates, or members of the staff,"? Some writers on Whitehead stress the
importance of a group known as the Apostles to which Whitehead was admitted
as a graduate student. They met weekly on Saturday evenings to discuss a wide
vari ety of subjects. Th is was not a debating society as was the Student Union.
Whitehead recalled it as a "replica of the Platonic method." Whitehead' s strong
belief in self-education may have had its roots here, for a Cambridge education
was a self-education in most ways .
Because this book is about Whitehead as a philosopher, I find myself
looking for those experiences that led him to process philosophy and to an
organismic worldview. I would venture a guess that his conversational experi-
ences at Cambridge reinforced the sense of continuity, conn ectedness, and
relationality established in the historical environments of his childhood and
Sherborne education. More significant for his career as a mathematician and later
a philosopher of science was the emerging place of mathematics and science in
probing new horizons-new concepts of how the world work s. He was able , as
his writing shows, especially in Science and the Modern World, to connect the
vigorous new era of science and mathematics at Cambridge with his sense of
history and flow of events acquired earlier. His principal work as a mathemati-
cian , although abstract, was never totally out of touch with application and
connectedness.
During this period, he wrote several articles for learned societies and impor-
tant books . His interest in application, as contrasted to pure theory, is evident in
the titles of some: Treatise on Universal Algebra, The Axioms of Projective
Geometry, "On Mathematical Concepts of the Material World," The Axioms of
Descriptive Geometry. He became a faculty member in 1884 as a teaching
fellow, moving on to be a lecturer the following year. He gave lectures in several
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London 7
branches of mathematics and did research in topics of interest, particularly new

algebras and geometries . It was at this time that he began, in collaboration with
his former student, Bertrand Russell, the monumental task of working out the
theories and explanations of the major mathematical work Princ ipia
Mathematica .
4. London
Whitehead left Cambridge for several reasons, but, for our purposes, his concern
for higher education in a modem industrial society and the education demanded
by "artisans seeking intellectual enlightenment" was most evident." His convic-
tion that a mathematical foundation was needed for persons involved in an
increasingly scientificltechnical world was another motivation. London was
where the challenge and the active involvement was, not in the intellectual and
abstract atmosphere of Cambridge. In his more than a decade of life in London,
he wrote on the expansion of mathematical ideas, on teaching mathematics, and
on the demands of a technological society . He spoke to societies of educators
about improvement of the teaching of mathematics. These essays can be found
in two of his collections, The Aims of Education and Essays in Science and
Philosophy.
His life in London from 1910 to 1924 was a busy one. After a year without
a teaching position, he began teaching at the University of London where he
remained until he resigned to take a position in philosophy at Harvard. He was
active within the university and in the city, serving on boards and commissions
as well as being a professor and administ rator in the university. Because of the
huge outpouring of books in his lifetime, it is easy to think of Whitehead 's life
as a life of the mind . Indeed, he had a first rate mind, but his life was a life of the
mind in the world. His vigorous engagement with ideas, with students, and with
institutions exemplified a theme we will see repeatedly in his philosophy, con-
creteness. In many situations abstraction may be required, but, for Whitehead,
return to the concrete was an absolute necessity.
It was here, at the University of London, that he wrote his first books on
philosophy of science. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles ofNatural Knowl-
edge (1919), The Concept ofNature (1920), and The Principle ofRelativity, with
Applications to Physical Science (1922) firmly established his position as not
only a mathematician, but also a philosopher of science . Whitehead looked for
generalizations that would explain particulars. As a speculative philosopher, he
was interested in what was real, what would explain , and what the relationships
were. The disciplined mind of Whitehead, the mathematician, came into good use
as he explored new concepts of science in a world that was leaving Newtonian
physics behind as the age of relativity and quantum mechanics emerged. His
books were well received in Britain and led to an invitation to speak in the United
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8 Whitehead: A Life of the Mind in the World
States at Bryn Mawr College . He and his wife, Evelyn, so enjoyed their experi-
ence in the United States that when an occasion to return was offered by Harvard
two years later Whitehead readil y accepted.
The First World War was a major event in Whitehead's personal life as well
as a watershed in Western civilization. All three Whitehead children served their
country: North in the army in Flanders and Africa; Jessie as a civilian employee
of the government; and Eric, the youngest son , killed in action in the Royal
Flying Corps. Eric's death and the loss of so many of Whitehead 's former
students greatly affected Whitehead. Despite his personal sorrow, this Victorian
Englishman firmly believed that his government had the right to demand service
of its citizens. His support of the government and its war aims strained his
longtime friendship with Bertrand Russell, who was an ardent , outspoken pacifist.
True to his nature, while disagreeing with Russell's position, Whitehead main-
tained his friendship with his former student and collaborator.
Whitehead continued his work at the university during the war years and for
several years after. His identifiably philosophical work began in this period. His
general approach to philosophizing reflected his personality and general behav-
ior . His biographer, Victor Lowe writes, " He never thought the progress of
thought depended so much on polemic as on the elucidation of premises. White-
head saw that polemic was in danger of becoming the chief occupation of
philosophers."? Whitehead 's philosophical work was never polemical. His work
was better classified as speculative, and , within that frame as a process philo-
sophy. In the spring of 1924, he was invited to join the philosophy department
at Harvard where he spent the next 13 years as a highly productive and much
admired philosopher.
5. Harvard
Whitehead was delighted with the opportunity to take up a position in philosophy

at Harvard. Here was a chance to be, as Victor Lowe put it, " .. . free to do just
what he wanted to do---develop the philosophical ideas that had accumulated in
his mind, and to express them in lectures."!" Teaching philosophy gave him the
opportunity to interact with students , something he loved , and, I suspect, needed
to do ; and to pursue the many philosophical ideas, principally metaphysical,
about which he had been thinking. It has been said of his students that although
frequently they did not understand his lectures, they were genuinely fond of this
courteous Englishman. His contacts with students were not only in lectures and
seminars but also in well attended teas at the Whitehead's apartment. He would
ask them with enthusiasm about their ideas and academic work, being so courte-
ous as to create the impression of agreement. What Whitehead valued was fresh
ideas, exploration of alternatives, and knowledgeable departure from inherited
knowledge. In short, speculative philosophy in practice as a way of life.
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Whitehead 's Way 9
Whitehead tried to write for at least two hours every day. He was now
writing about ideas that he had been thinking about for decades. These ideas
connected the past with the present and in so doing brought forth new ideas, new
formulations of alternatives. During the years at Harvard, he wrote seven impor-
tant books. Some were elucidations and extensions of past thinking, others were
on fresh topics or ideas not previously written about. These books are summa-
rized in Chapter Three below, but, for the reader who wishes to explore White-
head 's thinking now, browsing Science and the Modern World and Adventures
ofIdeas will be rewarding.
6. Whitehead's Way
Lowe has written of"Whitehead's Way."11 It is this, the character and worldview
of Alfred North Whitehead, that we should know as we embark on understanding
the work of this serene, uncontentious, cerebral man. What does Lowe mean by
his phrase "Whitehead's Way?" First, he is identifying Whitehead as different
from all other philosophers . The differences are many . Whitehead is a specula-
tive philosopher; his philosophy is a process philosophy. Second, Whitehead's
espousal of a worldview that takes as reality the idea that every thing is in process
toward what he called a "creative advance to novelty" is contrary to prevailing
substance thinking . Third, to take a holistic position, seeking generalities rather
than endeavoring to engage in reductionism is different. Fourth, Whitehead made
relations and feelings central to learning , growth, and change. This is quite
different from more individualistic thinking. Whitehead was not only different
from other philosophers; his thinking about the world is unique. If we are to
understand Whitehead's philosophy of education, the intent and purpose of this
book, we must first understand "Whitehead's Way."
Whitehead made a lifelong habit of thinking about the general or philo-
sophic significance of whatever he read . His search as a mathematician was for
general ideas, and frequently those ideas were expressed in philosophic language.
His delightful Introduction to Mathematics is replete with insights that recur in
his philosophical writings." My reading of Whitehead leads me to see his
thought and his writing as a constant search for process , for continuity, for
relationality , and for unifying aspects of civilization. Whitehead wrote little on
epistemology, ethics, axiology, and such topics that are usually of interest to
philosophers. His treatment of perception, of wisdom , and of knowledge sub-
sume the traditional discussions of epistemology. His broad approach to
"beauty" subsumed much that might be found in other philosophers' discussions
of ethics, aesthetics, and value . We think of him as a metaphysician in his later
years, but he may always have had a propensity to look for the big ideas, to seek
the overarching principle that would lead to harmony. It is nearly fruitless to look
for Whitehead's position on a given philosophic topic, particularly in order to
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compare it with someone else's work . His philosophy is broad and complex,
reflecting a worldview that seeks the general principles that explain the particular.
In the opening pages of Process and Reality, he wrote, "the philosophical scheme
should be coherent, logical, and in respect to interpretation, applicable and
adequate.':" As one tries to understand Whitehead's way , this statement serves
as an excellent, useful guideline.
To understand Whitehead, as a person and as a systematic philosopher, we
need to recognize that he was very clear that systematic thought begins with
presuppositions. Assumptions, what if questions, and disciplined hunches pre-
cede speculative activity . The cornerstone of Whitehead's formal philosophy is
creativity, seen as a universal that exists in all things. If one assumes creativity
as being present, then it is possible to consider it as causative of change. Simi-
larly, if Whitehead assumed that process is reality, then to develop a philosophy
that describes process as fundamental to how the world works is a rational act.
It is entirely human to be ignorant of or to deny assumptions that guide our
thinking and behavior. All too often we do not recognize, let alone admit, our
presuppositions. Whitehead urged recognition of our presuppositions as neces-
sary for rational, logical thought. Some contemporary educational theorists and
philosophers make presuppositions about individuality, isolation, and competi-
tiveness without explicitly recognizing them . They proceed to construct theories,
policies, and practices compatible with those presuppositions. To make such a
leap to activity prior to consideration of suppositions would be contrary to
Whitehead's way. Whitehead presupposes that everything is interdependent and
that individual entities can only exist as part of a broader context. This position,
the interdependence and interrelatedness of the world, marks his philosophy, his
way of looking at the world, and what is being presented here as Whitehead's
way .
Whitehead's personal life and personal philosophy reflect his belief that
there is no rule adequate for the conduct of life. This position is not an excuse
for saying that everything is situational or that anything goes . Actually, White-
head 's position is quite empirical. He is saying that life in the real world, the
concrete experience of human beings, denies acceptance of absolutes. True
religions, perfect systems, ultimate principles, and similar notions are only
approximations of truths we can never know . They are useful and some, such as
the great world faiths, are durable. But the particulars are not adequate for all
individuals in all situations. Whitehead, for example, did not offer his philosophy
as a truth to be codified and practiced, but instead, he said to his students, "these
are my thoughts see what you can do with your own thoughts." Drawing on the
past, recognizing the presuppositions of others, adopting that which is relevant,
are reasonable acts, but, to allow oneself to be drawn into fixed positions is
contrary to life 's advance to novelty. Whitehead said that life offers two
choices-advance or decadence.
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Whitehead 's Way 11
Whitehead's openness to alternatives was exemplified in his love ofconver-

sations with all kinds of people, most especially his students whom he would fre-
quently greet with "tell me what you have been doing ." His three careers: Cam-
bridge, London, and Harvard; mathematics, philosophy of science, metaphysics
illustrate the notion of disciplined change that was so much of Whitehead's way.
His rationalism was an outstanding characteristic. His self-disciplined, rational
thinking enabled him to be an outstanding systematic philosopher as well as a
world-class mathematician . The depth and complexity of that thinking frequently
exasperated critics who tried to understand his metaphysics. His very openness
to alternatives makes reading his formal philosophy difficult. I was told by one
Whitehead scholar that as his thinking evolved during his writing, he couldn't be
bothered , in his rush to embrace new ideas, to rewrite prior passages with which
he now disagreed. Whitehead's way included the discipline of writing nearly
every day, but, not rewriting and revising . It seems that it was enough to write
his thoughts without worrying about apparent contradictions. For they were not
contradictions to Whitehead, but further elucidation and deeper probing of
important ideas . Whitehead's concepts seldom appear in writing as sequential
and linear ; his heartfelt sense of relationality, of connectedness, and the role of
emotion in experience produced a web-like pattern in which Whitehead raised up
a concept, found connections, examined aspects, and set it aside while he exam-
ined related ideas, returning later to examine the concept from other vantage
points. This style does not make for easy reading, but does allow for the coher -
ence and logic that Whitehead considered so essential to his philosophizing.
Early in this chapter, Whitehead was said to exemplify the obstinacy and lonely
thought of the Kentish people. What is called Whitehead's way is testimony to
the lifelong Kentish character in Alfred North Whitehead.
7. Mathematician
Whitehead's long life (1861-1947) spanned an age oftremendous change in the

Western world, much of that change associated with advances in science and
technology . It was not to science that Whitehead was attracted but to the essen-
tial foundation of science-mathematics. It is important for both the reader and
writer to be sensitive to Whitehead's background as a mathematician, for it
profoundly shaped his work in philosophy and particularly his metaphysics. His
most popular essays, found in Aims ofEducation, were originally talks to associa-
tions of mathematics teachers. Throughout his later works, metaphysical con-
cepts are illuminated by mathematical examples. Whitehead was recognized as
one of the important mathematical thinkers of modern times . His early work in
mathematics was a major contribution to development of the mathematical
foundations of the emerging era of rapid growth of science and its offspring,
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technology. The reader who wishes to know more about his mathematical publi-
cations will find a listing in Lowe 's biography of Whitehead. 14
8. Science
Whitehead the philosopher of science was admired by philosophers on both sides

of the Atlantic . Whitehead's philosophy of science is found in three books
written in the early part of this century, together with several articles that have
been published in other collections. IS This era of his development should not be
confounded with his later work, highly metaphysical, which he called a philoso-
phy of organism. When we speak of Whitehead as a philosopher of science, it is
as the mathematician now looking at nature, princ ipally through principles of
physics, but also in terms of biology. He is quite clear that he is writing about a
philosophy of natural science and not a philosophy of nature. He is thinking
about what natural science is-in its own right-not as intellectualized by the
human mind . Thus much of what he says is disconcerting to the contemporary
reader who has matured in an era of television and print material that
anthropomorphizes nature's creatures and events, or at least, frames them in
terms of human reference. A reader must realize that Whitehead was no ordinary
philosopher simply seeking meaning from experience. He was a world -class
mathematician who was applying his skills and concepts to the rapidly expanding
world of modem science .
In this brief biographical sketch what is being presented to you is that
Whitehead was more than the metaphysician acclaimed by American academics,
more than the mathematician appreciated by Britons and Europeans, more than
the observant philosopher of education cited by educators in the United States .
He was also a voice in the exciting era in which Bohr, Planck, Heisenberg, and
Einstein were actively changing the world of physics. In the early part of this
century, he wrote a book on relativity and numerous articles about scientific
subjects." He was not a major player, as we say today . His work was appreci-
ated in British circles , virtually ignored in American scientific circles.
9. Worldview
Whitehead's worldview is based on process associated with living things and

even changes of things we think of as inert. It is complex and multi-faceted. The
princ ipal ideas are developed throughout this book and will not be discussed at
length here . The reader must realize that his philosophy is anchored in a
worldview. That worldview and philosophy have some basic presuppositions:
that everything in this world is in some way connected with every other thing in
this world; that the world is organic in its structures and operations; and that the
reality of the world is process. Whitehead's worldview is infinitely more com-
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Worldview 13
plex, as his formal philosophizing indicates . But these ideas seem basic and
relevant to seeking out his philosophy of education. The language of the times
in which these words are being written would describe Whitehead's worldview
and his philosophy as relational-holistic-systemic. These may serve as a written
version of present day sound bites . Such simplification is insufficient as a de-
scription of the thinking of the man as I have presented him. He was acutely
aware of his surroundings, of the connectedness of past and present, and of
people and ideas. His formal philosophy, his metaphysical scheme, and his
worldview reflect the totality of Whitehead's personal experience, scholarship,
and radically different thinking about what the world is like. They reflect a
wonderful example of a life of the mind, but, one very much in the world.
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Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5
Two
CONTEXT: TWO WORLDVIEWS
The intensity of debate about American education that has raged for most of the
last half of the twentieth century is usually interpreted as an indication of failure
by those individuals and institutions empowered to act in education: legislatures,
school boards, professional educators-failure to effect the results desired by
variou s critics . As popular as this view is, the persistent problems of education
force a search for other interpretations. One presented here is that the basic
problem is that the perspective and assumptions of what is called the modern
worldview, create or at least contribute to, the continuing intractability of the
problems of education in a complex society .
Criticism, commentary, and suggestions for change in American education
have been made by a wide range of individuals and institutions reflecting diverse
values and expectations. Yet, whether the commentators are of one political
persuasion or another , whether institutions issuing reports represent the corporate
boardroom, governments, or venerable foundations, the philosophical framework,
the assumptions being made, and the points of reference of all parties reflect
shared perceptions grounded in an era . That era, the modern one, is rooted in
nearly four centuries dom inated by the development of science and technology.
We have, for better and worse, a worldview based on a certain scientific perspec-
tive on how the world works-s-causes, effects, relationships . That worldview, the
modem worldview, impacts on the theory and practice of education. This chapter
examines that impact and goes on to offer an alternative worldview based on
quite different suppositions.
Simply put, the modern world is dominated by science, scientific method,
and technology. That world order defines the context in which education occurs.
To ignore that fact is to misperceive the contemporary context and to inevitably
expend energy pursuing fallacies. In several of his books , but particularly in
Scien ce and the Modern World, Whitehead provided us with a well reasoned
analysis of the rise of science and scientism and their effect on society . He
argued that the methods of science, so succe ssfully applied to material objects,
have been erroneously applied to human beings and to our societies. Throughout
all of Western society and, in this century, most of the world, economic , political,
and social transactions are conducted as if the laws of physics applied not only
to material objects, but also to persons and human societies. Whitehead proposed
a counter to this philosophy of mechanism, calling it a philosophy oforganism.
That philosophy is the basis for creating a new context for society and for educat-
ing.
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16 Context : Two Worldviews
1. The Modern Worldview: The Current Context for Education
Whitehead wrote of science and the modem world. The modern world has been
and continues to be significantly shaped by science, scientism, and technology.
If all of society is influenced by an extensive science, so is education at every
level. Connected to modem science is the idea of mechanism , that is, thinking of
all things, animate and inanimate alike , as functioning like machines. The con-
text for education in this modem world is bounded by these two concepts : scient-
ism and mechanism, ideas discussed in the sections that follow .
A. The Dominance of Science
The modern world , a world dominated by scientific thought, has its roots in
seventeenth and eighteenth century science. The great historic names of Des-
cartes, Galileo, and Newton are associated with the foundations of modern
science and the modern world. It is not my purpose here to explain the roots of
modernity, but to describe the effects of the scientific age on the current context
of education. I The growth of scientific knowledge and its progen y, invention and
technology, has resulted in a far reaching influence on Western society by sci-
ence , technology, and scientific method . The extent and intensity of technology
has increased rapidly in the twentieth century , perhaps the most modern century.
Modern science has created a wondrous world of a communications highway,
biogenetic material s, high speed travel, changing work places , and altered inter-
personal relations. We, as a Western society , are sustained and beguiled by new
inventions and applications of technology to nearly every aspect of our lives,
including our educational institutions.
The heart of the issue of context of education in the modern world is not the
wondrous extension of science and technology. The issue of context has to do
with the effect of scientism on every facet of our lives. Not only are we sur-
rounded by technology developed from scientific research; we are also educated,
persuaded, and required to adopt and utilize the methods of science to solve
social, business, and personal problems . The notion that science and technology
can solve all problems is well established in Western society. Whitehead put it
well.
This quiet growth of science has practically coloured our mentality so that
modes of thought which in former times were exceptional are now broadly
spread throughout the educated world .... The new mentality is more
important than the new science and technology. It has altered the meta-
physical presuppositions and the imaginative contents of our minds ; so that
now old stimuli provoke a new response. '
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The Current Context for Education 17
The coloring of which Whitehead writes has become so pervasive that we now
take as the only reality a way of thinking that did not exist four centuries ago. It
is not the fact of a scientific age that created the problem Whitehead addresses
and about which I am writing. It is the effect of this scientific era on every aspect
of human endeavor.
The successes of science and technology have created in our society a sense
that the methods of science should be applied to all aspects of society. From the
highly successful methods of the laboratory have come methods of social science
in such varied fields as economics, sociology, anthropology, political science,
psychology , and education . Quantification and objectification are supreme. We
measure, count, and record everything from market transactions to personal
intimacies. Some of this is necessary and important; some of it is inappropriate
use of the methods of science to describe and understand human beings , their
behavior, and societies. In the last decades of the twentieth century, statistical
treatment of human behavior in surveys, polls, and tests have assumed an aura of
truth and accuracy. An important understanding is missing. Surveys and tests
do not describe the experience, emotions, and expectations of individuals ; only
their knowledge or opinion on a small matter at a given point in time .
Insistence that scientific method is the right and only way is a pervasive
aspect of modernity. A homely example is the common experience of a person
saying, " I know that this is not very scientific, but I feel . . ." We tend to want to
put all of our life experiences into a scientific mode . Whitehead's biographer,
Victor Lowe, tells us, "The championing of science , notably in the last hundred
years has seldom been expressed in terms of cosmologies; it has most often taken
the form of insistence that the scientific method is the right way, and the only
way, to deal with situations.") Scientific methods are not the "right way and the
only way" to deal with societal situation s; they are but one way and at times are
inappropriate. The methods of science, anchored as they are in the laboratory,
are highly mechanistic. The world of Newtonian physics is one for which the
metaphor of the machine is appropriate. Living human beings are not machines
and the broad application of the methods of materialistic, mechanistic, science is
inappropriate. Scientism has limitations in matters concerning the education of
human beings ; so does its companion concept, mechanism.
B. A Mechanistic Paradigm
The mechan istic paradigm has several interrelated concepts, some of them
directly addressed by Whitehead. Education and the context in which educating
occurs are affected by several mechanistic ideas. The following list is merely of
those ideas selected for their connection to educating: abstraction, simple loca-
tion, and misplaced concreteness, cause and effect, individualism, differentiation,
mechanization, and materialism. Simple location is the idea that a thing is where
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18 Context: Two Worldviews
it is in time and space and is isolated from every other thing. This is contrary to
Whitehead's philosophy of organism in which everything is connected to every-
thing else. Our direct experience shows us that events, objects, and emotions are
indeed connected. A tropical storm may roar into the Gulf Coast out of the
Caribbean, but its origins may have been in the heat of the Saharan desert . A
sharp change in the stock market has causes that occurred months earlier in
political, corporate, and consumer decisions. A tree is not simply an object of
leaves, wood, and certain biochemical structure . It is part of an environment that
is interconnected in multiple ways . Nothing, not even a rock, is simply located
except as an abstract conceptualization. Misplaced concreteness, has to do with
the notion of taking what we perceive as being real and acting as if that is all
there is. Concepts associated with schooling such as faculty, student body, class,
grade are splendid examples of a kind of misplaced concreteness. The reality
behind the words is that of individuals in all their wondrous complexity, most of
which is lost or unappreciated when language is restricted to a present concrete-
ness.
Abstraction, as used here, addresses much the same sort of idea as mis-
placed concreteness. When we abstract , we draw away from the whole . But, for
purposes of handling data, we often must deal with abstractions. For nearly thirty
years, I was a school adm inistrator. The term classifies me in my work role , but
tell s nothing about personality, style, beliefs or how I may have been the same
as or different from other persons identified as " school administrator." Abstrac-
tions taken as reality: worker, boss, affluent, poor, student, teacher, tree, flower,
red , green, liberal , conservative lead to errors of understanding-errors that
plague modern society. The concern that educators should bear in mind is that
the labels for persons and ideas always obscure the reality of any object. Too
often , in the late modern context, words and ideas are man ipulated for expedi-
ency ' s sake, and, without intent, those words create problems of comple te under-
standing.
The modern worldview, among other things, deals with linear cause and
effect-the effect of external relations on natural objects and events. The impact
of Newton ian physics on Western thou ght is most clearly visible in the way we
link cause and effect in much of our lives. We, in the modern world , look at
causation principally in terms of efficient causes. If A acts on B, then B will
move or behave or respond in a certain way. This is undoubtedly true about
machines; it is a far less accurate account of human behavior. In the modern
context, final cause or subjective aim is ignored, as is creativity. A mechanistic
paradigm has no place for either human will or for the spontaneous, creative, self-
organization which also exists .
Four additional concepts associated with the modern worldview have
significance for education. These concepts are individualism, differentiation,
mechanization, and materialism . Critics of the modern worldview see these four
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The Current Context for Education 19
concepts as having negative effects on society, and, I would add, on school ing."
Individualism is said to raise up individual interests and in so doing to deny the
importance of the individual in community . Differentiation is said to emphasize
differences between and among persons, objects, and events and in so doing to
break the existing connectedness. Mechanization , referring to the use of ma-
chines, is said to accommodate persons to machines and in so doing to diminish
our humanity. Materialism is said to emphasize the primacy of persons and
machines and in so doing ignores the place of human beings in nature . Each of
these concepts has validity within a modernist frame. Each is clearly evident in
the modem world order. Each in some way presents a problem for the education
of human beings.
Individualism in the mechanistic, modem paradigm is paramount. The indi-
vidual student doing assigned work, insulated from others, fits the notions of the
Newtonian physics mentioned earlier. Schools have traditionally viewed cooper-
ation, collaboration, and sharing as inimical to good order . Evaluative systems
have depended on individual performance, not collaboration. Only in recent
decades has cooperative learning been accepted, and then not universally.
Schools and most institutions act as if the keystone to our complex contemporary
society is rugged individualism. Yet, most research, corporate planning, some
contemporary industrial production , and much work-task achievement require a
degree of collaboration.
Differentiation, as with many modem concepts, only presents a problem
when applied erroneously to human situations. Discovering and examining
differences is an essential aspect of much oflife, including education. Knowing
about differences and acting in response to differing characteristics of students
is not the problem. The problem is allowing knowledge of differences to inter-
fere with the connectedness of students, students and their learning, and of the
school and community. Universal education has brought into schools a wide
range of students; their differences are real, so is their common humanity. To
classify, program, track , differentiate in myriad ways is to jeopardize a sense of
community for students and to limit or eliminate their connectedness. I am not
urging educators to ignore the very real differences that exist, but to recognize the
problems differentiation creates and to act, however possible, to build a sense of
community in the midst of diversity.
The direct implications of mechanization, thought of as accommodation of
persons to machines, is evident in two ways . First, we immediately think of the
organization of schools with bells, buzzers , schedules, and requirements-all
very mechanical. And, in that sense, the students are bound by the computer, the
clock, and buses. The concept of mechanization that troubles modernity's critics
has to do specifically with accommodating humans to machines. It is obvious that
human beings have been accommodated to machines in the workplace. The
second relevant matter is that in the information age, machines impact on teach-
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ing and learning. Computers are changing the relationships of persons and things
in schools in ways that we do not yet fully appreciate. Yes, machines require
students to accommodate to their command structures, but, use of those same
machines is empowering the students and their teachers. At this time I would not
see the extensive use of computers in school as being detrimental to human
development. The impact of computers and other machines that limit and dehu-
manize individuals is a concern in modernity that will carry on into post-
modernity.
Materialism, emphasizing the primacy of human beings and their material
needs, is a characteristic of modernity that is everywhere. Advertising, entertain-
ment, sports, and many publications are focused on creating "needs" for material
things . In such a milieu, schools understandably tend to develop curriculums that
emphasize and glorify invention and technology. A focus in school that is so
materialistic virtually precludes attending to other values such as altruism, caring,
spirituality, and conservation of resources .
This first portion of this chapter has been a simple attempt to show that the
context of education in the recent past and the present is that of a mechanistic
paradigm historically anchored in the rise of science and technology from the
seventeenth century to the present. The intrusion of scientific method into every
facet of modem life has been criticized as has the philosophy of mechanism that
prevails in Western society . Thinking of human beings in the same way as we
think about machines is so contrary to the nature of human beings, particularly
as learners, that the current mechanistic context of modem society creates virtu-
ally insurmountable problems for educating in that society . One more fix, intro-
duction of new technology, infusion of more funds will not correct the difficulties
inherent in a mechanistic modem world. There must be an alternative. One such
alternative is proposed in the pages ahead . Before moving on to examining that
alternative, we must pause for a moment to recognize that although scientism and
mechanism are formative concepts in the modem context; there are other evident
factors affecting an effort to educate in the modem world . My contention here
is that all those factors: political, economic, religious, and cultural are shaped by
the pervasive scientism of the modem world .
2. A Postmodern Worldview: An Alternative Context for Education
The twentieth century may be the most modem century. It is also the period,
particularly since mid-century, of awareness that a postmodern era is emerging.
Although Whitehead's philosophizing pre-dates general awareness ofpostmoder-
nity , his metaphysics addresses many of the elements of a postmodern world .
The shift from modernity to postmodernity impacts on education. Whitehead's
philosophy aids in explaining and understanding the myriad shifts in education
that accompany the larger shifts from modernity to postmodernity.
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Constructive Postmodernism 21
A. One Kind of Postmodernism
A promising alternative to the mechanistic context of the modem era is one

derived from Whitehead's philosophy of organism. That philosophy, as was
shown in the discussion of the mechanistic context of modernity, repudiates what
Whitehead called scientific materialism-looking at the world as if the laws of
physical matter applied to everything. In Science and the Modern World and in
Process and Reality, he advocates that the basis of science be recast and founded
on the concept of organism. His philosophy of organism, the worldview it
represents, and the world order it implies are a radical alternative to a Newtonian
worldview based on ideas of inert objects subject to external forces (for example,
billiard balls being struck). Whitehead 's worldview is based on processes associ-
ated with living things and even changes of things we think of as inert. Organism
replaces mechanism and the metaphor ofthe machine is replaced by the metaphor
of the tree of life.
What to name this alternative to modernity is problematical. In earlier
drafts of this chapter I used the phrase "Whiteheadian context" throughout. A
friendly critic questioned that choice, and rightly so, for Whitehead 's philosophy
of organism , although paramount, is not the sole influence on the alternative that
is being proposed. Yet, the influence of the philosophy of organism on this
postmodern era could result in sweeping changes, at times radical departures
from the positions ofmodemity, in physics, biology, psychology, and religion as
well as in philosophy itself. The very foundations of modem thought may be
revised , discarded, reshaped into someth ing beyond modernity-into forms of
postmodernity. The influence of Whitehead's philosophy of organism and his
philosophy of education on the emerging epoch is one of several factors in
postrnodern thought. It is undeniably beyond and in many instances substitutive
for some of the suppositions of modernity. John B. Cobb , Jr. puts a gentle, and
accurate, perspective on the idea I am advocating.
Although Whitehead (1861-1947) never used the term 'postmodern,' the

way he spoke of the modem has a definite postmodern tone. Especially in
his book, Scien ce and the Modern World the modem is objectified and its
salient characteristics are described. Whitehead is appreciative of the
accomplishments of the modem world, but clearly recognizes its limitations
as well, and points beyond it. He sees his own time as one of new begin-
nings as fundamental as those that constituted the shift from the medieval
to the modern world.'
To describe the postmodern context that Whitehead's philosophy influ-

ences, I will use the term constructive postmodernism . It is a term that I will use
to describe a worldview and world order that owes much to Whitehead but is
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22 Context: Two Worldviews
inclusive of more than his contributions. Constructive postmodern is an inviting

and useful term. While much of what is considered postmodernism among
academics would not be compatible with Whitehead and his worldview, the
particularly American version ofpostmodernism developed by David Griffin and
others is based on Whitehead 's worldview. Griffin defines constructive post-
modernism in the following terms:
It seeks to overcome the modern worldview not by eliminating the possibil-

ity of worldviews as such, but by constructing a postmodern worldview
through a revision of modem premises and traditional concepts. This
constructive or revisionary postmodernism involves a new unity of scien-
tific, ethical, aesthetic, and religious intuitions. It rejects not science as
such but only that scientism in which the data of the modern natural sci-
ences are alone allowed to contribute to the construction of our worldview.?
For my purposes, Griffin's vision is quite suitable for explaining the

Whitehead-based context for education that I am writing about. As I see it, the
postmodern world will have the following characteristics: people's lives have
meaning, there is a satisfying participation in community, the environment is
protected and renewed, an extensive spirituality prevails, reason is enriched by
intuition, creative change is tempered with tradition, and human beings and all
of nature are seen as a unity in a fragile biosphere. This context for education is
quite different from that of mechanistic modernity.
B. Creativity, One , Many
Although this chapter is about context, not philosophy, I want to explain some-
thing of Whitehead's philosophy of organism before discussing the implications
of that philosophy for a worldview and for a context in which educating occurs.
The first significant element of his philosophy that I present is that relations now
become important. In a mechanistic paradigm, the emphasis has been on external
relations. According to Whiteheadian philosophy, external relations are now less
important; but are not ignored-after all the metaphoric tree of life does need sun
and rain. In short, Whitehead's philosophy of organism, applied to a complex
society, focuses attention on the relationship of every element of a society to
every other element of that society, and of the relationships of that society to
every element of its natural and human-made environments. Complex? Yes. An
unreal ideal? Probably not. Despite the prevailing mechanism of late modernity,
there are indications of shifts toward organismic thinking in several areas of
contemporary life-resource utilization, management practices, learning strate-
gies , and cognitive sciences come to mind.
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Creativity, One, Many 23
The central idea around which Whitehead's philosophy, the accompanying

worldview, and the related world order are developed is creativity. In Process
and Reality, he names creativity as the universal of universals.' Whitehead's
creativity is in everything-you, me, minute particles, neurons, animals, even
seemingly inert objects such as stones. This is a special, and very important,
instance ofa creativity that is deep within every aspect of the world. To under-
stand the Whiteheadian worldview, we need to understand that the creativity that
brings about change and evolution, even on the most minute scale, is present and
active in every thing. That creativity underlies the motion of molecules, creation
and withering of cells, integration of experiences, feelings of love and hate,
growth ofliving organisms, the aging of all material things, birth and procreation,
etc. When we ask what makes things happen in Whitehead's postmodern world,
the Whiteheadian must say "creativity."
As explained by Whitehead, each entity is a microcosm in wh ich the world
takes on a new form . This new entity becomes part of the world that flows into
new microcosms in a process of becoming. The whole constitutes a great macro-
cosmic process. Thus, the reality of the world is process. Wh itehead's philoso-
phy is a process philosophy, and he is widely recognized as the preeminent
process philosopher." Process philosophy is the broad construct that supports a
process worldview. By this I mean that just as at present, in modernity, we think
of material objects in place or acted upon , in constructive postmodernism we
think of everything as being in a process of becoming. Through learning pro-
cesses , a student becomes more knowledgeable; through processes of nutrition,
growth occurs; through processe s of integration and generalization, we entertain
new possibilities. To be sure, Whiteheadian process is much more minute and
particular. But, to understand on an intellectual level that, for Whitehead, pro-
cesses can be analyzed into microscopic ones does not preclude thinking about
process macrocosmically in connection with human beings, institutions, and
societies."
Explanation of the nature of process requires discussion of one more dimen-
sion . One of Whitehead's famous epigrams, at least famous among White-
headian scholars, is that " ... the many become one and are increased by one ."!"
Examining the meaning of that epigram will help to clarify the dimension to
which I refer . The "many" are, in the first instance the many entities, processes,
or events that make up the past. But they are also the many possibilities pre-
sented; for example, in writing this I choose from among several words and
experiences. Second, these become folded and integrated into my thinking. And ,
lastly, I write a phrase. The many words and experiences become a new idea, and
my mental stock is increased by that one. A student encounters new information;
that student has prior experiences, skills, and knowledge, some of which are
selected to be integrated with the new information or behavior. All of society,
all of the world works this way. Selections are made in the present to create a
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future . As Whitehead has said, "The present contains all there is. . . . it is the past
and the future ."!' His construct of many becoming one and being increased by
one is essential to his process philosophy and to constructive postmodernism.
Creativity, existing in all things, powers the processes of change which
follow a pattern, whether minute or gargantuan, of the past influencing the
present which in tum becomes the future . Relationships, creativity, and the
processes associated with these concepts are principal elements of the philosophy
supporting constructive postrnodernism. Such thinking, when extended to natural
science, to the study of societies, to the organization of the practical world , and
to educating, energizes a whole new world order. This world order is described
extensively in Griffin 's constructive postrnodern series. 12 My more limited effort
in the following pages will be to describe the aspects of that world order which
constitute a constructive post-modem alternative as context for educating.
C. Shifts of Emphasis
The constructive postrnodern alternative does not repudiate all aspects of moder-
nity. In fact, a thoughtful reading of Whitehead shows that what he called scien-
tific materialism is what he wished to alter. He does not call for abandonment of
the fruits of modernity, but rather looks for new emphases and new appreciation
of a different reality. He does call, as indicated earlier, for science to be based
on a philosophy of organism. Any such approach means that in a society contin-
uing to be dominated by science and technology, there will be several shifts from
the theories and practices of modernity to those of constructive postmodernity.
Those shifts need to be explored in some detail.
The shift of fundamental importance is an overall shift in thinking : from the
simple mechanism of Newtonian science to an understanding of the organic
complexity of contemporary science. Whiteheadian philosophy recognizes the
complex relationships of the environment and all of nature . It is obvious that
altering one aspect of an environment has implications for every aspect of that
environment and for the communities of which that specific environment is but
one part. The "quick fix" approach , so characteristic of late nineteenth and
twentieth-century modern ity, has been set aside in this context and supplanted by
careful analysis of complex relationships involving not only science and technol-
ogy , but also community, politics, and economics. The late twentieth-century
environmental legislation, efforts at resource management, and ecological aware-
ness have been precursors to the shift to a more organic alternative. This new
epoch , like the modem one, is dominated by science and technology; but with the
observable difference of an extensive awareness that all of nature is related,
fragile, and finite . Awareness alone is insufficient. In the constructive
postrnodern context , we find a marked change in attitude and techniques accom-
pany ing the shift of scientific emphasis from mechanism to organism.
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Shifts ofEmphasis 25
The individualism characteristic of modernity-influencing economics,

politics, community, and family-is now redirected to a construct of individual
in community. The Newtonian notion of objects separated by time and space ,
insulated from each other, brought about a change in thinking from a pre-modem
sense of community to modem individuality. An organic worldview, in contrast,
sees everything as being connected; thus, in such a worldview there are no
isolated individuals. It is a worldview that prizes community and perceives
individuals as being in community. Emphasis on the individual in community
need not mean loss of individual identity. In fact, the connectedness of belonging
to community may strengthen and enlarge our personal sense of self and thereby
enhance individuality, but not the type of individuality that is characteristic of
modem society and incompatible with constructive postrnodernism. For persons
with experience in modem society, emphasizing individual attainment, individual
property, and individual rights, the shift away from individualism is a difficult
aspect of the Whiteheadian alternative to understand and accept. The implied
ideal of placing community above self is a source of conflict for many modems
whose values and experience were shaped by an industrial society that did not
offer the sense of community which existed in earlier agricultural, craft, and guild
societies.
A shift of great importance needs to be introduced here. The shift I refer
to is from simple reductionist solutions to complex situations and toward deliber-
ate use of systems thinking . For our purposes, let us consider systems thinking
to be a form of thought about events and objects that acknowledges the interde-
pendence of every aspect of an event. Whitehead's attention to relationships, to
time-space connectedness, and to process provide the philosophical and theoreti-
cal basis for stressing systems thinking in a context shaped by his thoughts. The
late twentieth-century work of Peter Senge and others to move planning and
management away from simple linear thinking toward more inclusive, complex
thinking has been greatly expanded in the constructive postmodern era." Sys-
tems thinking, as advocated by Senge, is a matter of looking for relationships and
patterns rather than static "snapshots"-a concept that is quite compatible with
a philosophy of organism .14 If we take a look at educating in the modem mecha-
nistic era, it is apparent that our thinking has been very linear. For example, in
educational practice, as test results go down, we prescribe intense drill on test
items. The scores go up, so we feel that we have solved the problem. Or have
we? If we were to think systemically, the problem and alternatives might take on
a different configuration . Let 's assume that the problem is, indeed, one oflow
cognitive achievement. Instead of leaping to the "fix" of more direct cognitive
instruction, one may begin to ask questions about relationships. Some of these
are: time on task , mastery of prerequisites, physical, mental, and environmental
limitations, teacher commitment and competence ; and intrinsic appeal of methods
and materials. None of what I have just said is new to readers of this chapter.
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Modern society seems to insist that we think of quick fixes derived from linear
thought processes. Educators working in the constructive postmodern context
reject this approach because they know that a web-like connecting of ideas is
more fruitful : an essential aspect of the individual and institutional learning
required in postmodernity.
One of the most interesting shifts for society as a whole and education in
particular is away from competition toward collaboration. Competition is an
emotionally charged word in modern society associated with advancement in the
workplace, vying for profits in the marketplace, winning in individual and team
sports, and conflict throughout modern society. The emergence of a global
economy at the end of the twentieth century has brought competition to the fore
and into the vocabulary of presidents, statesmen, and politicians. Others have
written extensively on competition, in far more detail, and with more expertise
than I bring to the topic. IS My concern here is to show that Whitehead had clear
views about competition and its opposite, cooperation. He took an historical
perspective, seeing the end of community and the rise of competitiveness as
associated with the demise of medieval society and the beginning of nationalism
and extensive trade.
Wherever men looked, they saw ' competition' written across the face of
things. Nations arose, and men thought of nations in terms of international
competition. They examined the theory of trade , and they construed its
interactions in terms of competition, mitigated by ' higgling.' They consid-
ered the bounty of nature in the provision offood, and they saw the masses
of mankind competing for insufficient supplies . They saw the fecundity of
nature in the provision of a myriad species of living things, and they con-
strued the explanat ion in terms of competition of species. What the notions
of 'form ' and ' harmony' were to Plato, the notions of ' individuality' and
'competition ' were to the nineteenth century."
What Whitehead calls the struggle between strife and harmony has been charac-
ter istic of modernity. He sees this strife as simply mask ing the conflict between
an ideal of competition and an ideal of cooperation. Whitehead came down on
the side of cooperation as more fundamental. He wrote , "Successful organisms
modify their environment. Those organisms are successful which mod ify their
environments so as to assist each other."" This notion is at the root of how the
struggle between competition and cooperation is resolved in a Whitehead ian
context. Cooperation toward constructing and maintaining a mutually beneficial
society is Whitehead's way. " Collaboration" is the term I choose to describe the
milieu of education in the Whiteheadian context. Cooperation implies one level,
a level of good will and complementarity. Collaboration implies another level,
a level of full commitment to mutual effort , joint use of resources, and shared
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Altered Science 27
purposes. Constructive postmodernism is characterized by the presence of

collaborative efforts to maintain community, to preserve the environment, to
secure economic justice, to govern wisely , and to educate the young. What I
envision is not a utopian society, but one in which strong reaction to much of the
dysfunction in late modernity energizes a will and a culture of mutuality and
collaboration that limits competition to activities which are not destructive of
community, individuals, or their societies.
An unanticipated change in societal context is the widespread recognition
and acceptance ofthe spiritual nature of humankind. It is a shift of major magni-
tude and impact. That humankind has a spiritual as well as a material nature is
self-evident. Religions in their myriad forms, art, music, poetry, literature are all
potentially transcending events that express humankind's search for the un-
known . They are an attempt to express that which is felt, but not known through
the senses. We are aware of the spiritual nature of humankind, not only in
aesthetics and religion, but also, in altruism, in caring, in respect for nature, in the
many ways that people go beyond self-interest to act, contemplate, serve and
worship. Bernard Meland, theologian and educator, wrote powerfully:
What we have left undone in this culture of the mind, bent on power, is the
culture of the spirit in man which can open man's mind and imagination
responsively to demands and lures that may judge and transform this inces-
sant striving toward power and thus tum his energy toward purposeful and
beneficent ends. This implies no simple choice between power and good-
ness , between knowledge bent on power and knowledge concerned with
goodness, but an interrelation of power and goodness. The working out of
this relationship constitutes the prior concern of any philosophy of educa-
tion suitable for our times. IS
A complete education will address the spiritual nature of human beings. The
needed full exploration of the shift to awareness and appreciation of human
spirituality is developed in Chapter Four.
D. Altered Science
Whitehead wrote in Science and the Modern World, "My point is that a further
stage of provisional realism is required in which the scientific scheme is recast
and founded upon the ultimate concept of organism ." 19 Deep ecology, with its
attendant concerns for all of nature and relationships therein, has been given a
place in constructive postmodernism denied to it in the era of modernistic scien-
tism . Attention to use of resources, to renewal of those resources, to anticipation
of environmental danger are in stark contrast to the exploitation of nature charac-
teristic of earlier decades. Frederick Ferre , in an essay on postmodern science
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and technology, advances a theory that guides speculation about an ecological

frame for new thinking about science and technology:
But perhaps the best example of the seeds ofa fundamentally new approach
to scientific thinking-one that radically accepts complexity as its proper
domain and synthesis as its cognitive aim (although still demanding preci-
sion and using modern analysis as its tool)-can be found germinating in
the vulnerable new science of ecology. To be itself, to do its proper job,
ecology must begin and end with large, complex systems ofliving, interact-
ing organisms and their inorganic settings. Its essential aim is to understand
whole living systems . Between the beginning and the end , it uses the tools
of rigorous analysis, not with the modern reductionist assumption that
understanding the parts separately will somehow add up to the whole, but
with the significantly different aim to discover more precisely how within
this whole the parts are differentiated and mutually interactive, essentially
influenced by the complex relationships in which they interact and in turn
essentially influencing the whole."
Science and technology are not rejected. There is not a rush to pre-
modernity. Ferre and, I believe, Whitehead are pointing toward a wholeness that
minimizes inappropriate reductionism , focuses on the relationship of the whole
to the parts. Ferre uses language that speaks of looking from the "whole down-
ward" as distinguished from looking from the "parts upward.'?' Holism modifies
reductionism. The parts are looked at in relation to the whole with full recogni-
tion that the whole influences the character of the parts. Whitehead writes of
electrons behaving differently in a living body than in a machine. The concept
of holism whether applied as in the earlier reference to Senge 's work on
systemics, or in Whitehead 's philosophy of science, or in theory and pract ice of
deep ecology, is one that is dominant and essential to the altering of science in a
constructive postmodern context.
Before leaving this discussion of an altered science, let us take a quick look
at the scientism that has been mentioned frequently in this chapter. Scientism,
thought of as endeavoring to apply the explanations of natural science as the
only genuine explanations of all events or entities, is rejected for the very same
fundamental reasons that mechanistic reduction is rejected in the paragraphs
above . The methods and suppositions of the laboratory are inappropriate for the
study and creation of knowledge about human individuals, communities, and
societies. In the postmodern era, a new, fascinating construct has emerged to
create a new body of knowledge that is relevant and appropriate. It is called by
Willis Harmon a complementary science. Upon on initial exposure, his language
has the feel of the sort of concepts and vocabulary that Whitehead might have
used ifhe were writing in this decade .
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Education 29
If the positivistic and reductionistic assumptions no longer serve well , what

are the replacement assumptions? How is "consciousness as causal reality"
to be accommodated?
One possible way is through a "complementary science." This addi-
tional body of knowledge, like the present science, would be experimental
and cumulative (in a broad sense at least) . However, it would take as its
particular focus subjective experience, consciousness, unconscious pro-
cesses, etc. It would have special concern for purpose, value choices,
search for meaning, total human development, etc. Among its emphases
would be attention and volition ; teleological explanations; explorations of
alternate states of consciousness, particularly "deep intuition." Compared
to present science, it would develop a weaker stance with regard to positiv-
ism, determinism, reductionism, and objectivism. Models and metaphors
would tend to be more holistic; teleological explanations would comple-
ment reductionistic kinds of explanations."
Harmon 's thinking, however, is not exactly what Whitehead had in mind.
Whitehead wanted to change scientific thinking. Harmon leaves natural science
intact and has developed an additional system . Perhaps Whitehead would have
found the harmony in their thinking. Both Whitehead and Harmon attempt to
describ e a new context in which there is a new worldview and a new world order.
That worldview is organismic and the related world order modifies the extensive
scientism so characteristic of modernism. Harmon's idea of two systems of
science, one serving the historical role of science in inquiry and discovery in the
natural sciences, the other serving the organic elements of societies of living
human beings in collaborative relationships with each other and all of nature, is
very appealing, though divergent from Whitehead 's thought.
E. Education
Examination of the contemporary context for education and the projected con-
structive postmodern context could be expanded into a volume of its own .
Indeed, critical theorists and postmodernists have produced numerous books
criticizing modern society and advocating alternatives." Most of these have been
related to economic justice and political ideology. What has been presented here
is only peripherally related to those constructs. The two contexts I have pre-
sented are connected to scientism in the modern world , to mod ify Whitehead's
apt title, and to scientism refocused in an emerging world. The use of the terms
mechanism and organism and the metaphors "machine" and "tree of life" over-
simplify. Yet this is the essence for educators. The very ideas of mechanism,
scientism, reductionism are incompatible with education ofliving human beings.
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Concepts derived from Whitehead such as organism, complementary science,

holism are much more appropriate.
Readers can see in educational practice around them the fixation on mea-
surement, the hucksterism of loudly proclaimed and quickly fading educational
nostrums, the dysfunction of administrative schemes taken from industrial mod-
els . We can also see harbingers of the future in programs, usually labeled
"constructivist," that have as their focus the interaction of learner and learning
environment so as to make personal meaning of educational experience; in the
authentic and direct assessment movement; in the generalized effort to empower
learners and their teachers . There is a shift underway; a shift in belief and vision .
To call it a paradigm shift would be inaccurate, because, at least Kuhnian para-
digms , have practitioners sharing theory and praxis." The Whiteheadian alterna-
tive to modernism is not a paradigm , but an alternative to the mechanistic context
of modernity. Few practit ioners endeavor to implement Whiteheadian concepts,
and others whose practice is organismic are unaware of the ir debt to Whitehead
and his philosophy of organism. This book presents to readers the philosophy
and praxis which , hopefully, will expand awareness and utilization of White -
head 's philosophy of organism as the basis of a philosophy of education.
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PART TWO
PRECISION
In this stage we do not merely remain within the circle of facts elicited in
the romantic epoch. The facts of romance have disclosed ideas with possi-
bilities of wide significance, and in the stage of precise progress we acquire
other facts in a systematic order, which thereby form both a disclosure and
an analysis of the subject-matter of the romance.
In Whitehead's stages of mental growth the second stage, the one which follows
the enthusiasm of romance, is the period of precision. Each of us has experi-
enced the excitement of a special new experience, for example, learning to sail
a small boat. The thrill of wind and wave and the beauty of sails and hull on
water are the romance . Learning to steer, trim, and tack, to control the craft and
to harmonize with natural forces is the stage of precision. This stage requires
discipline, mastery , and will. It is the time when one faces what Whitehead
called "stubborn facts." Discipline is the dominant mood but romance is in
evidence. Precision related to the lure of exciting experiences is what enables a
person to transform a romantic intention such as "to sail a boat" into the actual
competence of sailing .
During the stage of precision, new knowledge is added to the rud imentary
info rmation acquired during the stage of romance. Exactness of formulation ,
acquisition of language skills needed for analysis-what Whitehead called the
grammar of language and the grammar of science--characterize the period of
precision. However, this middle stage is not isolated and distinct. Whitehead
took pains to make clear to his audience that the three stages-romance, precision
and generalization-are understood to be fluid phases , not unique separate
periods. Each of the stages contains aspects of the others. Thus, during the stage
of precision a measure of romance may be experienced and also some generaliza-
tion as bits of mastery are achieved.
For a professional educator, precision is that stage in which the stubborn
facts related to teaching and learning are studied and constructive approaches to
them are learned . It is the period of growth as an educator in which the very
foundations of the education profession are mastered . A professional educator
has command of a special body of knowledge about the education of human
beings. For all educators, there exists a common knowledge base . That knowl-
edge base draws on the sciences of biology, psychology, sociology, and anthro-
pology. We need to know about human development and learning theory, also
about the beliefs, assumptions, and philosophy that are at the core of our profes-
sional knowledge. Mastery, leading to competence in educational practice,
occurs during the stage of precision .
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Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5
Three
PHILOSOPHY: WHITEHEAD, PHILOSOPHY,

AND EDUCATION
Whitehead's philosoph y is described as organic, speculative, metaphysical, and

processive . It is all of these in one way or another. It is organ ic as we have seen
in the previous chapter. It examines and explains the world from an organismic
viewpoint, looking at relationships as being active, alive, constantly changing.
It is its biological and physical frame that makes Whitehead's philosophy so
relevant for education . Rejecting the machine metaphor and substituting what he
has referred to as "nature alive," enables him to look at both physical and biologi-
cal science from a unique perspective . For example, he writes, "an electron
within a living body is different from an electron outside it, by reason of the plan
of the body .") The plan of the body, in Whitehead's view, contains both the
mental and physical attributes of unified experience. No separation of mind and
body in this philosophy; the body includes the mental state . That mental
state -the mind, perception, and reasoning-is our concern as educators. Stu-
dents do not present to us isolated minds or bodies but themselves as integrated
human beings whose relations in the world are experiences that Whitehead's
philosophy of organism explains.
His philosophy is also a speculative philosophy, a topic treated more exten-
sively later in this chapter. Speculative philosophy is not simply intellectual or
solely rational. Speculative philosophy, in Whitehead's hands, involves both
reasoning and utilization of experiences. Constructing a speculative system as
Whitehead did requ ires the two disciplines of logical reasoning and empirical
observation . At times, observation is insufficient, and at such time imaginative
generalization will augment observation. Speculation in philosophy does not
mean free reign to imagine or fantasize what might be, but the disciplined use of
the three modes just mentioned : reasoning, observation, and imaginative general-
ization .
Processive is another entirely appropriate description of Whitehead's
philosophy. Change, flux, becoming something new are very evident characteris-
tics of the philosophy of organism. George Lucas, a respected interpreter of
process philosophy, says, " . .. Whitehead is the chief figure and in many ways
the founder of process philosophy . . . ." 2 Don't misunderstand Lucas. There are
antecedents, philosophers who saw process in the world, but, clearly, White-
head 's philosophy shaped the discussion, study , and application of process
philosophy in the twentieth century .
Lastly , Whitehead's philosophy, particularly his work after coming to
America in 1924, is metaphysical. Metaphysical, in its current popular use refers
to a variety of interests from astrology to psychokinesis. It is not this use of the
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34 Philosophy: Whitehead, Philosophy, and Education
word that applies to Whitehead. In his own words, "By 'metaphysics' I mean the
science which seeks to discover the general ideas which are indispensably rele-
vant to the analysis of everyth ing that happens ."? From a systematic philosophy
that seeks to discover and explain "everything," I will draw out and present those
elements that are relevant to educating.
The rich complexity of Whitehead's formal philosophy and the seeming
simplicity of his educational writings has created some problems for those who
have tried to describe his educational philosophy. Robert Brumbaugh states the
situation incisivel y. " Whitehead' s admirers in education today tend either to
accept his earlier recommendations, which seem sensible but obvious, and stop
there or to get tangled with his later theoretical scheme and never return to its
educational application. " Whitehead 's writings fall into two categories: the
formal and informal. It is wrong to think of them as philosophical and non-
philosophical. Whitehead was a philosopher-a world-class philosopher. Except
for his explicitly mathematical work s, all of his writings reflect the philosopher
thinking about philosophy itself, science, education, civilization, and culture . For
the purposes of this book , I borrow a distinction made by loe Burnett. ' He
distinguishes between the informal philosophy found in talks to teachers and in
explicitly educational writings and the formal philosophy in which Whitehead
developed his worldv iew and systematic philosophy. For some people looking
for Whitehead 's educational philosophy, the informal writ ings, expres sly about
teaching-usually mathematics- are the sources most often used. Find ing these
essays insufficient for their purposes, they then procl aim that Whitehead did not
develop a philosophy of education. True , but, this position misses the point. To
full y appreciate Whitehead as an educational philo sopher we must think of the
man and his life's work . Those who woirid seek Whitehead, philosopher of
education, must examine all of his writings. My intention is to tap both formal
and inform al philosophies for the rich insight they provide and to draw out the
impli cit philosophy of education found there .
As Whitehead considered a possible move from London to Harvard Univer-
sity in 1924, he indicated his intention to write on education, "The post might
give me a welcome opportunity of developing in systematic form my ideas on
Logic, the Philosophy of Science, Metaphysics, and some more general ques-
tions, half philosophical and half practical , such as Education ... ." 6 In fact, he
wrote little on education after coming to the United States. We have, instead , his
impressive out-pouring of philosophical writings in which he developed his
philosoph y of organism. Th is remarkable productivity for a man in his sixtie s
and seventies- seven books in thirteen years-established Whitehead as a major
philosopher in America . In this period, he is not thought of as an English philoso-
pher of science and mathematics, but as an American philosopher, the equal of
William lames and lohn Dewey. To really appreciate Whitehead , it is important
to read the books written in this period. Here his depth, sensitivity, and brilliance
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Whitehead's Philosophy 35
are revealed. But be warned. Anyone not trained in philosophy will read some
passages very carefully, browse others, and skip more than a few. Whitehead's
formal works are not an easy read. Yet to confine reading Whitehead to Aims of
Education and Essays in Science and Philosophy (containing his informal writ-
ings) is to fail to know and appreciate the beauty and wisdom found in Science
and the Modern World and Adventures of Ideas. Here in the late twentieth
century, educators, parents, and other informed citizens will find in both the
formal and informal writings scattered elements of a philosophy of education that
is significant for not only the twentieth century in which Whitehead wrote, but,
also for the little understood twenty -first century just ahead.
I have linked myself with those interpreters of Whitehead who see in his
whole work a lifelong interest in education and, in many of his formal works,
insights about education. Joe Burnett and Harold Dunkel support such a view.'
Other commentators make connections across the range of Whitehead's writings,
but, to my knowledge, none attempt to construct a Whiteheadian philosophy of
education. Such a construction requires a synthesis of formal and informal
philosophy. This has been done throughout this book . The synthesis has been
one created by an educator seeking to connect educational theory with process
philosophy. The reverse , one by a philosopher seeking connections of White-
head's philosophy with education would be a different and valuable contribution
to understanding Whitehead's educational thought. Burnett argues that a scholar
attempting this task would develop from Whitehead's formal philosophy an
explanation and elaboration of his educational philosophy."
As I read Whitehead's American era writings, I pick up ideas about how we
process information, about civilization, about humankind's spiritual nature, about
individuality, and more-all aspects of philosophy that blend into educating. In
Dunkel's words , Whitehead
seemed to many thoughtful laymen to speak with more insight about really
important matters than did many of his professional colleagues. If some
parts of his writings were literally incomprehensible to these readers, other
parts addressed their deepest feelings and concerns."
If educators actively look for it, there is much about educating expressly or
implicitly presented in Whitehead's writings. His philosophy of organism is not
about lifeless abstraction; it is about entities from part icles to pachyderms. It is
a wonderful alternative to the excesses of mechanism that have penetrated every
aspect of our lives. Whitehead's philosophy enables educators and those con-
cerned with the quality of educating to understand the world and especially the
relations and connectedness of every part of that world .
I take Whitehead's philosophy of education to be an expression of his
deeply felt perception of the connectedness of all things and the rhythmic stages
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and sequences of those relationships . Connectedness of all things , relations both

internal and external, are hallmarks of Whitehead's philosophy of organism . This
idea appears often throughout this book. It is a basic notion of process thinking.
Why such stress on connectedness? Whitehead writes , "According to the onto-
logical principle there is nothing which floats into this world from nowhere.
Everything in the actual world is referable to some actual entity."!" There is a
cause, frequently not understood, within every event. Nothing just happens ; there
is an antecedent. That antecedent may be an obvious, recognized experience or
it may be some minute biological or neurological event. To us, as educators,
learning doesn't just happen . Learning takes place because of connections within
the body and in relation to environment. Whitehead's philosophy of organism,
as I will show, enables us to see the importance of relations for a process theory
of learning.
Whitehead is not easily labeled . He was a mathematician, philosopher of
science, educator, metaphysician. His philosophy evolved from science to
metaphysics. He was recognized in England for his co-authorship with Bertrand
Russell of Principia Mathemati ca and for several books that he wrote about
science, including relativity. His remarkable productivity in America won the
respect of American philosophers. He is best known, popularly, for his essays in
Aims ofEducation and most respected, academically, for his systematic philoso-
phy, Process and Reality . Just who was he? His biographer, Victor Lowe , saw
him as a genius . His wife, Evelyn , directs our thinking toward his multi -faceted
mind. It is best not to label Alfred North Whitehead , but to simply accept him as
the principal figure in a philosophy that influences several fields and institutions,
one of which is our concern here-education.
At the conclusion of this introduction to Whitehead 's philosophy, a pressing
question naturally occurs to both reader and writer. Why should anyone engage
in an effort to understand and apply this or any other philosophy of education?
I think that as strong an answer as I know rests in some statements by Harold
Dunkel:
The educator during the past hundred years has eagerly accepted all that the
developing sciences could tell him, and has attempted to utilize this infor-
mation in planning and executing educational programs. But in the long
run the scientific answers have seemed to him inadequate or incomplete in
certain respects, and he has turned to philosophy in the hope of supplement-
ing them in two major respects .
The first of these tasks which the educator wishes philosophy to perform for
him is to help with the problem of value .
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Commentaries on Whitehead and Education 37
Values are so much part and parcel of the educator's work that he naturally
hesitates to give up hope that some solution to his most fundamental prob -
lem can be found.
A second reason for the educator's interest in philosophy is his need for a
fairly comprehensive matrix within which he can examine and attempt to
solve his problems.
Hence, his hope of finding this sort of matrix is one of the forces that sends
him to philosophy.
By and large, these two needs-the need for some criterion of value and the
need for a comprehensive conceptual matrix-are traditionally two of the
educator's chief reasons for his interest in philosophy. II
My own search, as an educator, for a "comprehensive conceptual matrix,"

has brought me to process philosophy and Whitehead in particular. I believe that
this perspective holds much promise for future educational practice . Perhaps
readers will see, as I have , aspects of process philosophy that match their own
needs as educators and parents .
1. Some Commentaries on Whitehead and Education
Henry Wyman Holmes, Dean of the Harvard Graduate School of Education,

writing in The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead in 1941, finds much to
support in Whitehead's philosophy .' ? Holmes urged those who are interested in
Whitehead's general views on education to read Adventures ofIdeas, Religion in
the Making , Symbolism : Its Meaning and Effect, and The Function of Reason
before picking up the better known Aims of Educat ion. He saw much that is
important for education throughout Whitehead's formal philosophical writings .
But he is hardly euphoric as he writes about Whitehead and the educational
enterprise. As a dean of education , he was wrestling with the problems of mass
education in an industrial society and felt that Whitehead did not address the
problems of educating all children and youth in a democracy-a task which to
this day has not been resolved. That does not diminish Holmes 's admiration for
Whitehead's philosophy as it applies to education. In fact, his endorsement is
striking. "But the general argument Whitehead advances as to the character and
order of learning and the meaning of education for civilization is trustworthy,
coherent, and (more important) powerful. His way of looking at the whole
educational enterprise has the clarity and sting of a northwest breeze after a
murky morning." !'
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Nathaniel Lawrence wrote much on Whitehead, some of it on Whitehead

and education. He saw clearly connections of formal philosophy with White-
head 's implicit educational theory. He introduces the idea that theory of evolu-
tion and biological, as contrasted to physical , constructs are a basis of much of
Whitehead 's thinking about education and metaphysics. Lawrence embraces
Whitehead 's choice of the "rich language of biology, closer to our experience in
any case," seeing it as opening up opportunities closed to a solely physics-based
metaphysics." Lawrence, like Holmes, writes of Whitehead's views on educ a-
tion, not his philosophy of education . This is a recurring theme of interpreters of
Whitehead. Lawrence presents an energetic exposition of Whitehead 's educa-
tional thought. He calls our attention to Whitehead's vocabulary-mental,
physical , feeling, prehension , experience, grasping, satisfaction, inheritance-that
appears in Whitehead's educational writings and reappears in his formal philoso-
phy. The following quotation illustrates Lawrence's perception ofthe connection
of philosophy and education in Whitehead 's writings.
The humanistic feature of the early educational writings becomes synthe-

sized in Science and the Modern World with the otherwise formal philoso-
phy of sc ience in a way that leads to a new metaphysics of nature . The
reason we turn to the larger context of Whitehead's educational views is
that these metaphysical views are funded and grow out of an earlier preoc-
cupation with educational theory . The metaphysics adapts to the educa-
tional views. It provides context and overview for notions that are deriva-
tive from the ideas first expressed in popular talks about education."
Not all interpreters of Whitehead agree with Lawrence . But, for intended readers
of this book, the connectedness of Whitehead 's lifelong interest in education and
his mature philosophy is important.
Robert Brumbaugh ' s Whitehead, Process Philosophy, and Education
provides valuable insights and connections to Whitehead's metaphysical and
educational thinking." With admirable sophistication, he pursu es the flow of
Whitehead's views as an alternative to present educational and social thought that
is based on the extension of principles of physics to all of life:
Whitehead diagnosed some ofthe causes for our dissatisfaction with current
education, and with ourselves, correctly. One of his insights was that both
our common sense and our social science have over-generalized the ideas
of 17th-century physics. Those ideas were a highly selective set of abstrac-
tions, focusin g on only those properties relevant to inanimate particles
moving or colliding . The elegance and success of those explanatory ideas
of physics led to their being transformed into principles of metaphysics,
which is quite another thing. This transformation takes the concepts of
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Commentaries on Whitehead and Education 39
physics to be the description of the whole of reality . Following from this ,

of course, came a new criterion for judging what is realistic in education
and social planning . If, as is the case when extension is made , our view of
reality is one-sided and ill-considered, so will our social systems be."
Brumbaugh developed in several chapters, not a Whiteheadian philosophy,

but elements of a theory that, if adopted and implemented in educational practice,
would redress some of the current dissatisfaction with education. These ideas,
simply presented here are: (I) education should pay more attention to apprecia-
tion of concrete things ; (2) learning must follow the three-stage pattern in which
growth and concrescence take place; (3) we need to reinterpret our notion of
causality; (4) curriculum must include a vision of our place and importance in
cosmology; and (5) we need to reconsider our understanding of space and time .
Brumbaugh was an important contemporary advocate of process philosophy as
an alternative to current educational theories that may be called mechanistic and
substantive. As such, his work and thought will appear throughout this chapter
and the next.
Harold Dunkel's Whitehead on Education is a basic source for any student
seeking to know Whitehead's views on education. As have other commentators,
he sees the connections between Whitehead's metaphysics and his educational
writings . Dunkel sets forth ten "expectations for education" that can reasonably
be derived from Whitehead 's formal philosophy and finds the connections where
they exist in the educational writings. Dunkel's willingness to try to connect the
formal and educational writings is a very special contribution to the literature
about Whitehead and education . In so doing, he pays little attention to academic
philosophers and educators who accept Whitehead's epigrams and early essays
but choose not to take him seriously. It is to educational theorists and practitio-
ners seeking new formulations and guidance that Dunkel offers Whitehead 's
views on education as a framework for speculation and action . He writes,
"Whitehead's system does indeed offer a comprehensive matrix. Within a system
which sweeps from general principles like creativity to the particular concres-
cences of given actual entities, everything can find a place; not merely a place but
a place which relates that item to the rest of the system .?"
Dunkel does not present the reader with Whitehead's philosophy of educa-
tion, but with Whitehead's philosophizing and his place as a philosopher for
education. The following quotation, I think, sums up the strengths and limita-
tions of Whitehead and education as seen by Dunkel. "One cannot ask, of course,
that an educational philosopher chart everything. Whitehead has reared an
enormous framework to guide educational thought and practice: The immediate
need is the increased utilization of it in a wide variety of situations."!"
Joe Burnett's 1958 doctoral dissertation brought a needed degree of rigor
to discussion of what Whitehead's philosophy of education is. He compares
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Whitehead's educational writings and his formal philosophy, determining that a

high degree of consistency between his formal philosophy and more informal
philosophy exists," Burnett argues that this consistency allows, perhaps encour-
ages, an exposition of Whitehead's educational philosophy based on concepts
found in the formal philosophy He sees Whitehead's educational writings as
systematic and compatible with his formal philosophy. But, by comparison, the
educational philosophy is not complete, for it lacks concepts found in the formal
philosophy. This is perfectly understandable because most of Whitehead 's
explicitly educational writings were originally talks to education associations.
They are charming, witty, and even wise. They never were intended to be a
coherent series of lectures as were those that appear in Science and the Modern
World and Process and Reality. In another context, Burnett argues that any great
impact of Whitehead's philosophy on educational theory will be as a result of
interpretation of his general, formal philosophic writings."
In this brief account, using only a few commentators, it is apparent that
Whitehead's educational writings lack the extensiveness that enables us to spin
out a summation labeled "Whitehead's Philosophy of Education." His formal
philosophy and educational writings must be conjoined so as to render, to the
extent possible, a coherent presentation of Whitehead's philosophizing about
education. It is also apparent that each commentator brings to the task of interpre-
tation a particular perspective. In the absence of Whitehead's own explication
of his philosophy of education, perhaps the best we can expect is a given writer's
interpretation. The test of such an interpretation is that of scholarship and integ-
rity, accurately reflecting Whitehead wherever possible and being clear about
interpretation.
2. Whitehead's Lifelong Interest in Education
It is unusual that Whitehead, the mathematician, philosopher of science, and

metaphysician, should also be interested in the problems of education not only
in universities but in elementary and secondary schools . His interest in education
extended at least from 1911, when Introduction to Mathematics was published,
to a 1936 essay in the Atlantic Monthly, "Harvard: The Future ." His interest was
not merely that of a detached scholar, but one of active involvement in many
concrete dimensions. His writings on education, some fifteen books and essays
both explicitly and implicitly pertaining to teaching, curriculum, and purposes of
education, are powerful evidence of interest." There are extensive implications
for education in his formal writings, as I will show in the next section of this
chapter. Although his writings are the most tangible proof of Whitehead's
interest, his work in what I will call governance of education in and around
London is also a noteworthy indicator of his abiding interest in education.
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Whitehead 's Interest in Education 41
Whitehead's talks to teachers and his essays on education are principally

about teaching mathematics, but range far beyond that subject to include advo-
cacy of content and method across the curriculum. Whitehead is best known
among educators for his book of essays, The Aims of Education, and for his
clever epigrams about students, teachers, and learning . Those who only know
this side of Whitehead are missing the process philosopher, the metaphysician,
the scholar whose work in mathematics, philosophy of science, and education
addressed the central problems of Western society in the twentieth century . To
think of Whitehead as only a mathematician, only a philosopher of science, only
a commentator on education is too limiting. He was a person of vast intellectual
power, acute awareness with broad interests in human society . His educational
interests were far-ranging and lifelong . They reflected his own position as a
scholar who recognized the centrality of education in the emerging
scientific/technical world order .
During the period in which he taught at the University of London (1911-
1924), after leaving his lectureship at Trinity College , Cambridge, Whitehead
gave numerous talks and wrote several essays about education in and for an
increasingly scientific and technical world. Most of these essays are collected in
either Aims of Education or Essays in Science and Philosophy. Those that
originally were addresses to mathematical associations reflect two points that
contribute to understanding Whitehead in relation to education. First, he was
quite clear in his own thinking that the emerg ing scientific/technical culture
required competence in mathematics, not only among academics and university
students, but also in the general population. His teaching at the University of
London was of higher mathematics. But the talks and essays on mathematics and
education written during this period were directed to elementary and secondary
education . Among these were "The Place of Mathematics in Relation to Elemen-
tary Teaching," "The Mathematical Curriculum," and "The Aims of Education:
A Plea for Reform." A gem to which each reader of this book is urged to tum is
Introduction to Mathematics, a small book in a home study series." It is White-
head, the educator, at one of his best moments. The second point, so apparent in
Whitehead's educational writing is his insistence on the infusion of teaching with
zest and the importance of incorporating into mathematics instruction in the
schools the advance s being made in the subject. During this period, Whitehead
also wrote and talked about science and technical education, about the place of
classics, and he wrote two valuable essays about the rhythms of growth and
learning. Both essays appear in Aims ofEducation.
Whitehead's interest and commitment to science education and to the
educational problems of an urbanized, industrial society led him to accept several
responsibilities beyond his teaching of mathematics. A listing of his positions
and assignments is impressive . During those London years, he served as a
oovernor of a borouzh oolvtechnic. was Dean of the Faculty of Science , was a
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member of the University Senate, was a member and Chairman of the Academic
Council of the Senate, was Chairman of the Delegacy of Goldsmiths' College,
was appointed by the Prime Minister to a committee "to inquire into the position
of the classics in the nation's educational system," served on the Surrey Educa-
tion Committee, and was head of the department of mathematics . These activities
certainly show that he was interested in the educational scene in a large university
and its urban environment. His actions in London, together with his writing,
speaking, and philosophizing on education and matters affecting education earn
him the accolade of "educator." The experiences in London, as I see them,
exemplify Whitehead's commitment to concrete appreciation of the real-a
theme that recurs in his educational writings.
Whitehead 's interest in education continued after he left the University of
London to accept a position in the department of philosophy at Harvard. During
the remarkably productive period from 1924 to 1937, Whitehead wrote several
important books, all philosophical. Whitehead's continuing interest in education,
which was a very real part of him, appears in various forms in these philosophical
writings . In the next section of this chapter, these connections will be explained.
3. Whitehead's Writings and Educational Philosophy
In the period following his leaving Cambridge University (1910) and prior to his
appointment to Harvard (1924), Whitehead wrote nearly all of his specifically
edu cational work. These eleven essays and commentaries will be found in his
three collections: The Organization of Thought (1917), The Aims ofEducation
and Other Essays (1929), and Essays in Science and Philosophy (1947). These
are the essays that Burnett calls Whitehead's informal philosophy and
Brumbaugh refers to as being "sensible but obvious.''" They are most interesting
commentaries on teaching and they display glimpses of philosophical positions
that are more fully developed subsequently in Whitehead's formal philosophy.
1will draw on his writings of this period to show the connectedness found there
to the general theme of this book which is an exposition of Whitehead's philo so-
phy of education. Below I will also discuss the educational philosophy to be
found in his writings after arriving in the American Cambridge. Beginning with
Science and the Modern World (1924), and concluding with essays published in
1941, he established himself as a major philosopher in the United States. None
of these later works are specifically addressed to teachers or are they focused on
teaching; but in this phase of Whitehead's life the philosophy of organism was
developed and the influence of his process philosophy realized, particularly by
theologians.
Let us begin our exploration of Whitehead's educational writings by becom-
ing acquainted with the first book written in this stage of his life, one that reveals
much about his commitment to mathematics, philosophy, and education. Early
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Whitehead 's Writings 43
on he brought together ideas he thought to be important in Introduction to Mathe-

mattes." It is a splendid example of a wise teacher teaching well. Any reader
wishing to understand Whitehead's thinking will be amply rewarded by becom-
ing familiar with it. Victor Lowe tells us:
All students of Whitehead's thought will profit from an examination of this

book. His explanations of the nature and importance of mathematics con-
tain short statements of philosophical doctrines, not intended to be such, but
therefore all the more revealing of the selective emphases and the natural
bent of Whitehead's thought in his-so-called-prephilosophical period."
Among the philosophical ideas that appear in this clearly mathematical work are
order, relatedness, connection, holism, the place of assumptions, periodicity,
concreteness, and abstraction. These concepts, as well as others more directly
related to teaching, appear throughout his writing of this period and are discussed
in some detail below.
What is identified in this book as periodicity, will return a decade later as
an extensive examination of rhythm in learning and teaching. Whitehead sees
periodicity and rhythm as important aspects of nature . He discusses this natural
phenomenon in relation to math and science , but in his later writings he appears
to treat rhythm and periodicity as universals. He writes in Introduct ion to Mathe-
matics :
Our bodily life is essentially periodic. It is dominated by the beatings of the

heart, and the recurrence of breathing . The presupposition of periodicity is
indeed fundamental to our very concept of life. We cannot imagine a
course of nature in which, as events progressed, we should be unable to
say: 'This has happened before.' The whole conception of experience as a
guide to conduct would be absent. Men would always find themselves in
new situations possessing no substratum of identity with anything in past
history."
He later refers to this idea in "The Rhythm of Education" (1922) by saying to a

group of educators, "The point of this address is the rhythmic character of
growth. The interior spiritual life of man is a web of many strands . They do not
all grow together by uniform extension.':" A contemporary educator can see the
foreshadowing of attention to learning styles, individual differences, and multiple
intelligences.
The most popular of Whitehead's ideas about education are those about
rhythm . His constructs of rhythm of learning and rhythm of freedom and disci-
pline are very relevant to educators in any era . The construct of rhythm of
learning introduces his three stage theory of romance, followed by precision,
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followed by generalization. In "The Rhythmic Claims of Freedom and Disci-

pline," he connects to contemporary child development theory as he says, "The
two principles, freedom and discipline, are not antagonists, but should be so
adjusted in the child's life that they correspond to a natural sway, to and fro, of
the developing personality.'?"
In his talk to educators, "The Place of Mathematics in Liberal Education" ,
he presents mathematics as a series or set of ideas, not as a task of calculations.
This is consistent with his zeal for concrete appreciation and for the real. Al-
though mathematics is indeed abstract, it reflects , in its special language, realities
of the world and ideas of nature that are important to learners. Whitehead always
emphasizes concrete appreciation. It is a hallmark, along with rhythm, of the
most direct application of Whitehead 's thinking to the practice of educating.
Later, in another talk, th is one to techn ical students in 1917, he says ,
"Action and our implication in the transition of events amid the inevitable bond
of cause to effect are fundamental. An education which strives to divorce intel-
lectual or aesthetic life from these fundamental facts carries with it the decadence
of civilisation .'?" He goes on to tell these technical students, "In estimating the
importance of technical education we must rise above the exclusive association
of learning with book learning. First-hand knowledge is the ultimate basis of
intellectual life."31 He told a group of educators, " . . . to be effective in the
modem world you must have a store of definite acquirement of the best practice.
To write poetry you must study metre; to build bridges you must be learned in the
strength of mater ials.?" He is not speaking of action without regard for basic
principles. Whether dealing with abstraction or concreteness he tells us, " . . . but
the habit of active utilisation of well-understood principles is the final possession
of wisdom.'?' And wisdom is a major aim of education for Whitehead.
In the several talks on the teaching of mathematics, the value of logic is
brought to our attention . This is not unexpected in a first-rate mathematician and
one who , with Bertrand Russell, brought new dimensions to rigorous logical
thinking. Whitehead is not thinking of primers of logic or courses in the study
of logic but the training in logic that mathematics can offer and the application
of the skill acquired to concrete situations. He told his audience:
We have really two general aims before us. In the first place, we have to
teach what logic is. I do not mean by this that we should indulge in the
somewhat futile task of affixing names to elementary logical processes after
the manner of primers in formal logic. But we have to make our pupils feel
by an acquired instinct what it means to be logical , and to know a precise
idea when they see it; or, rather what unfortunately is more often wanted,
to know an unprecise idea when they see it. In the second place, we have
to make them understand that logic applies to life. This is, in fact , the
harder task . Mast people agree that there are abstract precise ideas capable
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of logical treatment, but few really believe that a sensible man need take
any account of them . Such and such ideas, they will say, are all right in
theory, but in practice they are useless."
Elsewhere, he reiterates this notion, ". . . it is not the knowledge ofthe philosophy
of logic which it is essential to teach, but the habit of thinking logically.'?'
Whitehead's concerns in the first part of the twentieth century are even more
important in the twenty-first. We find them advocated in the programs called
th inking skills and the stress on "higher order thinking skills" in contemporary
schooling.
Crucial to the era in which Whitehead was speaking and writing to audi-
ences of educators, and equally important in own era, is the matter of time for
teaching. As schools in the early twentieth century tried to prepare students for
an age of industrialism and technology and to transmit something of the classics
of old, there was insufficient time for the many subjects to be taught. Whitehead
recognizes this and made several observations that are valid many decades later.
He writes of lack of time as a rock on which educational plans are wrecked. He
urges cutting of the superfluous, because the expanding world of knowledge
demands more and more time which is in fact finite. He calls this cutting concen-
tration, saying, " In all modem educational reform the watchword must be
"concentration.t'"
A simple teaching strategy is suggested by Whitehead, "Again, this rough
summary can be further abbreviated into one essential principle, namely, simplify
the details and emphasize the important principles and applications.":" "Do not
teach too many subjects," and "what you teach, teach thoroughly" are two more
pertinent observations by Whitehead." A frequently quoted statement about
"concentration" is this one.
Let the main ideas which are introduced into a child's education be few and
important, and let them be thrown into every combination possible. The
child should make them his own, and should understand their application
here and now in the circumstances of his actual life. From the very begin-
ning of his education , the child should experience the joy of discovery. The
discovery which he has to make, is that general ideas give an understanding
of that stream of events which pours through his life, which is his life. 39
Whitehead addresses the issue raised in the previous chapter on context in

the essay "The Place of Mathematics in Liberal Education." He writes of three
points that become more evident in later writings and are prominent in our own
contemporary context of teaching . (I) "Science now enters into the very texture
of our thoughts." (2) "Mechanical inventions alter the material possibilities of
life" and change "the very structure of Society." (3) "The idea of World means
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the whole world of human affairs."? These ideas influence the writing of this
book, my attempt to construct Whitehead's philosophy of education, and my
effort to present to contemporary educators the construct of process philo sophy.
They constitute the parameters of the modern epoch in which we live and the
emerging postmodern era.
In several essays, Whitehead speaks in strong language against what he calls
" inert ideas." In "The Aims of Education ," he writes, "Education with inert ideas
is not only useless; it is above all things, harmful" and the equally pungent
statement, "Except at rare intervals of intellectual ferment, education in the past
has been radically infected with inert ideas."" It is incumbent upon present-day
educators to distinguish between inert ideas and ideas which are not excitingly
interesting but are essential prerequisites to further acquisition of knowledge. To
simply memorize place names and historical dates is to engage in what I would
think is the inert. To link those bits of information with acts and events changes
the inert to something much more relevant and perhaps concrete. Whitehead is
broadly critical of the school curriculum of his day for the presence of inert
ideas."
Ifnothing else, Whitehead is consistently making connections. He writes ,
"Any serious fundamental change in the intellectual outlook of human society
must necessarily be followed by an educational revolution.?" " Revolution" is a
strong word for usually tradition-minded educators. Does the rise of progressiv-
ism during the period of great social change in America at the beginning of the
twentieth century connect with this ? Is the negation by late twentieth-century
conservatives of the traditional governance of public education another example?
Whitehead goes on to make clear that he is talking about relevance to the current
epoch or era as he writes:
But the law is inexorable that education to be living and effective must be
directed to informing pupils with those ideas, and to creating for them those
capacities which will enable them to appreciate the current thought of their
epoch."
What constitutes the epoch of the students at any time? Is it the vast sweep of the
"American Era" on the world stage ? Is it the technological dominance of the
Information Age? Is it the global economy and market capitalism? All of these
conditions affect schooling at the end of the twentieth century. What should
teachers, curriculum theorists, and other practitioners accept as "the current
thought of their epoch?" An answer is necessary, for as Whitehead says :
There is no such thing as a successful system of education in a vacuum, that

is to say, a system which is divorced from immediate contact with the
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Whitehead's Writings 47
existing intellectual atmosphere. Education which is not modern shares the

fate of all organic things which are kept too long."
Knowing what is modern (in the sense of contemporary relevance) is not as

simple as Whitehead implies . He criticizes classical education as not being
relevant to modern thought. We are now engaged in teaching students who
appear to have little sense of the past, and a transient perspective related to
nation, community, and family. Contemporary ideological positions are too
evanescent to be taken as thoughts indicative of an epoch for which schools
should be educating the young. What information should a school impart? What
habits and attitudes should be encouraged? Can teachers in an era of transi-
tion-which I define as from the modern to the postmodern-act on Whitehead's
doctrine? Yes, I believe, if they can look at the task through philosophical eyes.
Such a perspective enables educators and communities to think in terms of
purpose, principles, and precepts. In broad brush strokes, Whitehead's philoso-
phy of organism gives us the needed perspective.
So far there has been much discussion of aspects of teaching, most of it just
as relevant today as it was many decades ago. This is the informal philosophy to
which Burnett refers. Educational philosophy must also have specific elements
that express the author's views about reality , knowledge, and values, together
with a perspective on the nature of humankind and its society. The focus of that
philosophy must be on the peculiar nature of the endeavor to educate human
beings . Whitehead expresses in the works cited at least an informal educational
philosophy that meets these criteria.
The explicitly educational writings discussed in the pages above were
written prior to Whitehead's appointment to the philosophy department at Har-
vard. After taking up his duties in the American Cambridge, he wrote several
books; some of them bear directly on aspects of education but none of them are
about teaching as were the essays written while he taught at the University of
London . These books are philosophical and not only philosophical, but meta-
physical. In this stage of his life, Whitehead was endeavoring to explain the
nature of the world we experience and the universe as a totality . He was engaged
for the most part in presenting his own unique metaphysical views. Education
in all of its dimensions is rightly a portion of metaphysical considerations, is a
large part of our experience, and is a primary means for transmitting knowledge
of the world. A persistent presence of educating, implicitly and explicitly, in so
much of Whitehead's formal philosophy compels anyone extensively examining
his views on education to seek the rich insights revealed in these books written
between 1925 and 1938. What follows is a series of comments focused on the
educational implications found in each of the seven books written in this period.
Science and the Modern World is an account and an analysis of a world
dominated by science and technology. The modern world from the seventeenth
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to the early twentieth centuries is the frame of the book. It is more than commen-
tary, more than polemic against scientific materialism, more than philosophizing
about science. In Whitehead's holistic way, the essays, originally given as the
Lowell Lectures at Harvard, embrace investigation of natural order and laws, the
place of reason, elements of his philosophy of organism, the rise of invention and
technology, romantic literature as criticism, God, and education. Whitehead has
written about the modern world and the influence and dominance of scientific
materialism over our past and present. These essays have importance not only
for educators, but, concerned lay persons, scientists, philosophers, and interested
scholars as well.
Whitehead's considerable intellectual ability enabled him to bring into being
a singularly important book, one that required a breadth of learning, disciplined
mind, and firsthand experience in mathematics and science. Scienc e in the
Modern World explains the influence of science on the modern world; makes
connections between the intellectual worlds of the traditional liberal arts and the
emergent world of science and technology; explores the relationship and conflict
between religion and science; and, at its conclusion , advocates a balanced educa-
tion that leads to wisdom. It was well received in England and America, several
printings being required to meet unanticipated demand .
Early in the book is a passage, written to enlarge upon a discussion of
empiricism and rationality , but written by Whitehead, the philosopher, as almost
a credo . I have not seen this passage cited in any commentary on Whitehead, and
it may be that I interpret it wrongly. I present it as a stirring expression of
thought by the architect of a philosophy of organism.
Faith in reason is the trust that the ultimate natures of things lie together in
a harmony which excludes mere arbitrariness . It is the faith that at the base
of things we shall not find mere arbitrary mystery . The faith in the order of
nature which has made possible the growth of science is a particular exam-
ple of a deeper faith. This faith cannot be justified by any inductive gener-
alisation . It springs from direct inspection of the nature of things as dis-
closed in our own immediate present experience. There is no parting from
your own shadow. To experience this faith is to know that in being our-
selves we are more than ourselves: to know that our experience, dim and
fragmentary as it is, yet sounds the utmost depth of reality; to know that
detached details merely in order to be themselves demand that they should
find themselves in a system of things; to know that this system includes the
harmony of logical rationality, and the harmony of aesthetic achievement;
to know that, while the harmony of logic lies upon the universe as an iron
necessity , the aesthetic harmony stands before it as a living ideal moulding
the general flux in its broken progress towards finer, subtler issues."
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Except for chapter 13 of Science and the Modern World, a priceless essay
recommended to all educators, the book is not about educating. Yet, there are
many messages for educators. It is here we find the first introduction of the
philosophy of organism, the foundation on which his philosophy of education
rests. Some of Whitehead's observations about science and society have implica-
tions for curriculum. His comments on psychology are relevant to contemporary
cognitive science. His concern for harmonizing observation and rationality,
action and contemplation, abstraction and concrete experience permeates the
book.
Whitehead's educational philosophy is anchored within his philosophy of
organism. There were indications of this in his earlier writings, but the connec-
tion between formal and informal philosophy becomes more apparent in Science
and the Modern World. Here a reader makes initial contact with the vocabulary
and concepts of the philosophy of organism . Concepts such as prehension,
concrescence, connectedness, occasion, organism, and process are introduced and
explained in this first book of what he saw as a trilogy. We meet these ideas, not
as aspects of a theory of education, but as part of his attempt to explain the world .
This point is crucial. Whitehead's metaphysical writings, although far removed
from traditional educational theory, provide a new and necessary frame for
thinking about education and its societal setting.
Religion in the Making contains some metaphysical elements relevant to
readers with educational interests as well as those reading the book primarily to
explore Whitehead's religious views. Whitehead thought of this book as display-
ing an application of metaphysics to religion somewhat as had been done for
science in Science and the Modern World. He writes, "By ' metaphysics' I mean
the science which seeks to discover the general ideas which are indispensably
relevant to the analysis of everything that happens.":" We might wonder at the
use of "science" in connection with an aspect of philosophy, but taken as mean-
ing system or organized approach, it makes sense. We find here further elabora-
tion of metaphysical concepts introduced in Science and the Modern World, such
as creativity, occasion, concretion, process.
This is clearly a book about religion, Whitehead's appreciation of and
reservations about formal religion, and about God in the universe . Religion in the
Making is exceptionally well written and may prove satisfying reading for anyone
wishing to understand this aspect of Whitehead's thought. As for its use as a
book for educators, it is helpful in the same way that most of the formal philoso-
phy done at Harvard by Whitehead can be. Whitehead's work examines the
relationships of everything in the world , one part of which is education. But
education does not stand alone ; it is an institution and activity embedded in a
world order and connected with virtually every element of that world order.
Religion is also a part of that world order. It addresses in an organized fashion
humankind's undeniable spiritual dimension . Despite the particular constraints
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on United States public schools , educators need to understand religion in society,

and educators endeavoring to know Whitehead should know his thinking about
this important topic. Victor Lowe , Whitehead's biographer, said of Religion in
the Making , "this book as a whole is one of the best things he wrote as a philoso-
pher .":"
Symbolism: Its Meaning and Effect is rich with ideas that appeal to philoso-
phers and educators: an epistemology, a theory of perception, and distinctions
between types of perception. This small book consists of three lectures given at
the University of Virginia in 1927. They were on a topic about which Whitehead
had not previously written-perception. Whitehead presented a new theory of
perception-one that ran contrary to the prevailing scientific view of sense-
perception. He wrote, not as a physiologist describing the function of sense
organs, not as a psychologist describing behaviors associated with the senses, but,
as a philosopher seeking to go behind seemingly obvious reality to examine
another level of reality. In this book , we have an excellent example of what
Whitehead felt philosophers should demonstrate to their students-"the work of
an ignorant man thinking." He was thinking new thoughts, frequently not ex-
pressed as clearly as ideas about which he had been thinking for some time . The
first two chapters are not an easy read . The th ird chapter is quite readable,
making connections with society and its symbols. That chapter puts Whitehead 's
theory of perception in perspective.
The book deals with symbols and symbolism, yet symbols are only signifi-
cant in terms of the meaning they have for us. In the early paragraphs of Symb ol-
ism, Whitehead explains the many forms of symbols; heraldry, structures, lan-
guage, mathematics, art, music, etc. These symbols stand for something. But
what do they stand for? This is the core of the book-linkage of symbol , percep-
tion, and experience. To say that a church is an edifice, constructed of stone,
metal, wood , and glass is true. But is that an adequate statement ? To Whitehead,
process philosopher, there is far more to a church as a symbol. A church building
is a symbol that takes on meaning for the individual seeing it. Perception of this
particular church is related to experiences with other churches, other buildings,
religious experiences, other institutions. The symbol (church) symbolically
represents the sometimes primitive, vague aspects of our experience. Do we
clearly remember and acknowledge that feelings about churches are attributable
to specific prior experiences? Perhaps , but much of symbolic representation is
imprecise simply because it comes from a welter of experience. This is important
for teaching practice and learning theory . Errors, misunderstanding, and mistakes
creep into a learning situation through symbolic representation . A further look
at perception will help to explain the relation of the idea of symbolic representa-
tion to effective teaching.
In the first two chapters of Symbolism, Whitehead develops his unique
notions of perception. Stripped of Whitehead's special language, here is some-
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Whitehead's Writings 51
thing of value to teachers. We see, hear, touch, taste, smell actual data : people,
buildings, animals, words, flags, and other artifacts. This is our conventional idea
of what the concept of perception means . It is, in Whitehead's view, inadequate.
This level of perception is concrete, perhaps accurate ; an edifice is standing, this
person next to me is my friend, my dog is barking. But Whitehead tells us in this
book and in future ones that this level of perception is insufficient. We need to
consider that our past experiences, our personal and social history, as Victor
Lowe has aptly phrased it, have an effect on perceptions that is crucial. A
homely example is as follows. A stranger can see my large dog; that she is large,
strong , energetic is apparent and an accurate perception . Beyond this immediate
percept is the effect on present perception of experience with large strong, ener-
getic dogs. Joyous or fearful experiences color the perception of my large dog.
Objective fact is diminished or enhanced by emotions from past experience. My
dog , despite the reality I attach to her, is, for that stranger, a symbol of past
experience. Whitehead considers the dog, a teacher, a flag, etc. to be symbols
and the connection of those symbols with our past experience as the meaning of
the symbols. Whitehead asserts :
The human mind is functioning symbolically when some components of its

experience elicit consciousness, beliefs , emotions, and usages , respecting
other components of its experience. The former set of components are the
' symbols,' and the latter set constitute the 'meaning' of the symbols. The
organic functioning whereby there is a transition from the symbol to the
meaning will be called ' symbolic reference." ?
Thus, our hypothetical stranger confronted by my large dog , as friendly as

she is, may have had experiences with vicious large dogs that cause a perception
not of a dog that wants to be hugged, but of one that may do harm . To tum to a
learning situation, an American student seeing the Cyrillic letters of a Russian
word, recognizes them as letters because of prior experience with letter forms.
Unless the student has had prior experience with the Cyrillic alphabet, the letters
are meaningless and no effort will be made to pronounce such a word . But a
student confronted with a strange word, one written in Roman letters , may try to
pronounce the word because the letters and phonemes are meaningful. A strong
connection exists between Whitehead's theory of perception and educating. I
suggest that he has significantly broadened the established principle that we make
meaning out of new experiences by relating the new to the known.
Chapter 3 of Symbolism-"The Uses of Symbolism"-is the most readable
chapter and the most useful for educators. The value and persistence of symbols
in all cultures is presented by Whitehead, who says, " Mankind it seems, has to
find a symbol in order to express itself"?" Just think of the symbols in school :
flags, banners, mascots, mottoes, titles, words, numbers ; to mention the obvious.
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Even the historic hierarchy of student, teacher, administrator in American schools

is symbolic. It symbolizes order, responsibility, control. In every act of teaching
symbolism is rampant: George Washington , atomic era, democracy, SAT, final
exams, report cards , syllabi. The emotional symbolism of music, art, poetry
cannot be overlooked. The world is full of symbols, and our perception of those
symbols affects learning, development, change, and responsibility. The meaning
attached by students to symbols presented by teachers is influenced by the quality
of prior school experiences. In a different form , Symbolism echoes and elabo-
rates on Whitehead's insistence on the importance of the past.
The Function ofReason consists of three lectures that Whitehead gave at
Princeton University. He wrote about rhythm, the influence and limitations of
scientific methods, aim or final causation, speculative reason/speculative philoso-
phy, metaphysics, and relations. Some memorable passages are scattered
throughout. This book is essential reading for those educators developing and
refining programs that purport to develop thinking skills. Whitehead's division
of reason into practical reason and speculative reason is quite helpful. He de-
scribes practical reason as that of the foxes and speculative reason as that of the
gods. One is focused on method, the other on seeking understanding. Of practi-
cal reason, he warns that "Some of the major disasters of mankind have been
produced by the narrowness of men with a good methodology.'? ' Whitehead
goes on to develop reason in these two dimensions showing the value and limita-
tions of each . Speculative reason is shown to be essential to the advance of
civilization . Its role, not only in how we think, but also what we think is part and
parcel ofschool studies that involve the history of ideas, philosophy, and thinking
skills .
Great passages connect with schooling-the Greek contribution of logic, the
place of purpose in countering entropy, the value and limits of science , and the
importance of disciplined reason . Despite its usefulness to educators planning
curriculum and related policy statements, The Function ofReason is clearly not
intended for audiences of teachers as were some of the essays in Aims ofEduca-
tion; Whitehead makes no mention of school, learning, or students. What we
have is a splendid presentation on the title topic, the function of reason, and of
that Whitehead says, "The function of reason is to promote the art of life,"?
Process and Reality has a profound message for education. That message,
unfortunately, is buried within the larger purpose of the book . Process and
Reality was written as a series of lectures given at the University of Edinburgh,
the Gifford Lectures. Whitehead, who had been widely acclaimed for his Science
and the Modern World, was invited to give the lectures in 1928. The lectures
were addressed to the academic community and presented a radically different
way of looking at the world. His draft title for the lectures was "The Concept of
Organism," later changed to "Process and Reality ." This was a world-class
philosopher writing for other philosophers, scientists, and academics. Like much
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Like much of Whitehead's work between 1924 and 1938, this work had no direct
connection with education , but a lot of implications for it. The ideas in Process
and Reality are ones that were introduced or anticipated in earlier work by White-
head. They are now much more complicated and the treatment quite extensive.
The concepts and the style of Process and Reality make for a difficult book to
understand . The style may be thought of as a web-and not an orderly web at
that. Whitehead explores an idea, drops it, and returns later from a different
perspective. Thus, not only concepts and specialized vocabulary, but also style,
make this a difficult book for most readers .
However, some parts that should be read by students of education, teachers,
and others who are interested in Whitehead 's philosophy as a basis for creating
a process philosophy of education and attendant practice. The preface is a clear
statement of what Whitehead intends to do, what his position is, and the connec-
tion of this work to the Western philosophical tradition. The following quota -
tions are examples of what I mean :
These lectures are based upon a recurrence to that phase of philosophic

thought which began with Descartes and ended with Hume . The philo-
sophic scheme which they endeavour to explain is termed the ' Philosophy
of Organism .'
All relatedness has its foundation in the relatedness of actualities; and such
relatedness is wholly concerned with the appropriation of the dead by the
living-that is to say, with 'objective immortality' whereby what is divested
of its own living immediacy becomes a real component in other living
immediacies of becoming. This is the doctrine that the creative advance of
the world is the becoming, the perishing, and the objective immortalities of
those things which jointly constitute stubborn / act.
The history of philosophy discloses two cosmologies which at different

periods have dominated European thought, Plato's Timaeus, and the
cosmologies of the seventeenth century, whose chief authors were Galileo ,
Descartes, Newton , Locke."
In addition to the preface , readers of this book may find Part 1, Chapter I .
"Speculative Philosophy," relevant to the aim of understanding Whitehead's
philosophy as a speculative one. The brief reference to education in Part 5,
Chapter 1 is an interesting comment on the relationship of Whitehead's notions
of romance and precision that will be meaningful to all teachers. Readers who
are educational philosophers will want to apply themselves to a more careful
study of Process and Reality, bearing in mind Brumbaugh's observation about
entanglement in the theoretical scheme to the neglect of educational implica-
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54 Philos ophy: Whitehead, Philosophy, and Education
tions ." The appeal of Whitehead's great work will vary immensely from reader
to reader. It is a book to know and to use in pursuit of an understanding of
Whitehead's philosophy of organism. It is one to be approached in terms of your
own interests, abilities, and purpose. It is not a book to be ignored by students
of Whitehead 's process philosophy as applied to education simply because of its
difficulty. It is here and in Science and the Modern World that the basic White-
head ian concepts of prehension, concrescence, and satisfaction connect to a
learning theory that is compatible with the relational frame of the philosophy of
organism.
Process and Reality is not an essay on education or even society. It is an
essay on cosmology-on what the world is really like. Browsing the table of
contents shows the range, depth, and complexity of the system that Whitehead
has erected. Within all that complexity are ideas that provide another, different
perspective on learning and society . Whitehead explores and illuminates the
world as seen through the frame of the philosophy of organism. At times, he
speaks to the concerns of educators because the change that he sees as universal
is brought about in human societies by learning and learning is the purpose of
educational experience.
Adventures of Ideas is, as the title implies, about ideas, principally ideas
found in Western civilization interpreted by Whitehead through the lens or filter
of his philosophical position. It is wide-ranging book, seen by Whitehead as one
part ofa sort of trilogy: Science and the Modern World, Process and Reality, and
Adventures of Ideas. It is, in my judgment, by far the best "read" for persons
wishing to know Whitehead 's work but who are not interested in the technical
aspects of his cosmology. In the preface Whitehead writes :
The title of this book , Adventures ofIdeas, bears two meanings, both
applicable to the subject-matter. One meaning is the effect of certain ideas
in promoting the slow drift of mank ind towards civilization. This is the
Adventure of Ideas in the history of mankind. The other meaning is the
author 's adventure in framing a speculative scheme of ideas which shall be
explanatory of the historical adventure.
The book is in fact a study of the concept of civilization, and an
endeavour to understand how it is that civilized beings arise. One point ,
emphasized throughout, is the importance of Adventure for the promotion
and preservation of civilization."
Adventures ofIdeas clearly is not a book about schooling or teaching. It is

about civilization and the use of philosophical thinking to understand what
constitutes civilization, civility , and community. Its message for education is
about the context or milieu for educating. Whitehead addresses matters of
concern such as aspiration, relationships, harmony, reality. None of these trans-
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late immediately to educational practice but they do offer ajumping off point for
their counterparts: motivation, cooperation, coherence, and concreteness. A
portion of Whitehead's philosophy of human beings is sprinkled throughout the
chapters. Readers who accept human development as an important part of the
educational endeavor will find many supportive and interesting passages. Readers
who see education as the instrument by which civilization is preserved and
advanced will enjoy parts of the book. Those readers seeking the aesthetics
implied in the philosophy of organism will be richly rewarded. For any moti-
vated reader there is something that relates to one 's own worldview and to
feelings and experiences about educating.
Turning to the ideas found in Adventures ofIdeas that I say are education-
oriented, let me direct you to a theme in this book that has not been previously
acknowledged. My position is that education needs a philosophical base, for me
one of process philosophy. Psychology, the existing but not historical base of
teaching and learning, is not discarded. It, in my view, becomes the handmaiden
to philosophy of education . Whitehead makes the place of philosophy very clear
as he writes :
There can be no successful democratic society till general education con-

veys a philosophic outlook. Philosophy is not a mere collection of noble
sentiments. A deluge of such sentiments does more harm than good .
Philosophy is at once general and concrete, critical and appreciative of
direct intuition. It is not-or, at least, should not be-a ferocious debate
between irritable professors . It is a survey of possibilities and their compar-
ison with actual ities."
If we look at that last sentence, it offers guidance for all who deal with young
people. It is especially relevant if one believes in education as the key to democ-
racy, as the foundat ion of economic well-being, and the translation of possibili-
tie s into actualities." Whitehead treats several other education related topics :
knowledge, unity of mind and body, wisdom , experience, relevance of the past,
art, and his own unique understanding of " Peace." Each of these ideas is philo -
sophical. Each is also an aspect of educational thought examined closely as a
Whiteheadian philosophy of education is developed in chapter five.
Throughout this book, Whitehead's style of writing in a web-like rather than
linear fashion is very evident. Although the chapter headings are distinct, the
pages and paragraphs are a flood of connectedness. The flow of Whitehead 's
thinking expands and enriches as the reader endeavors to fully comprehend the
particulars . Whitehead ian ethics and aesthetics are apparent in the chapter titles :
"The Human Soul," "The Humanitarian Ideal," "Truth," "Beauty," "Peace." In
Adventures ofIdeas, we see the broader Whitehead, the man revealed earlier in
his career as he wrote and spoke on education. These essays are the writing of
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a wise man who shares with us a rare understanding of the connectedness of ideas
and action and the advance of human societies.
Modes ofThought is Whitehead's last book. Little here is related to educa-
tion, per se, though a great is deal related to wisdom and knowledge. These are
lectures given at Wellesley College, the University of Chicago, and at Harvard
by a world-class philosopher in his mid-seventies. The lectures are written in
prose much more enjoyable for the reader than the scholarly language of Scien ce
and the Modern World and Process and Reality. Modes ofThought is the sort of
small volume that one picks up again and again . Each essay is so packed with
insight and information and is so revealing of Whitehead himself that each
reading is a satisfyingly different experience.
While Modes ofThought does not add to our understanding of teaching and
learning, it does broaden a reader's understanding of humankind, of Western
civilization , of philosophic endeavor, and of Whitehead as an exemplary philoso-
pher. It is a treasure trove of the epigrams for which Whitehead is famous and
of crisp explanations of ideas which were presented in ponderous academic prose
in some of his other writings. Two of Whitehead's better known essays, "Nature
Lifeless" and "Nature Alive," appear in this book . They provide insight into the
values that surround the thinking of the author of the philosophy of organism.
4. Philosophy and Education
A philosophy of education is only useful to educators if it enlarges our under-

standing of learning, shows relationships of persons, ideas, and things, and is
based on concrete appreciation of whatever is being considered. Toward under-
standing how Whitehead's thinking about education leads to such a philosophy,
we will examine the foundations on which rests our exploration of Whitehead 's
philosophy in Chapter Four. That examination includes : determining the nature
of philosophy of education , seeking an understanding of speculative philosophy,
taking a further look at process philosophy, and connecting process philosophy
and education.
A. The Nature of Philosophy of Education
Our first step is to inquire as to the nature of philosophy of educ ation . Just what
is such a philosophy all about? In all the ferment, turmoil, reform, restructuring,
argument, innovation, conflict, and change in education that has occurred in
recent decades , there has been a notable absence of any well-articulated philoso-
phy of education that might guide action or clearly frame debate. In the media,
in the schools , and in communities we do not hear or read about philosophies, but
about positions and purposes about the relationship of school to work, education,
and economic competition, and the obligation of the schools to provide antidotes
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Philosophy and Education 57
for the ills of society. All of these position s and purposes may, indeed, be valid
areas in which education should be concerned , but they do not constitutephiloso-
phy. They do not ask the fundamental questions about the nature of us, as human
beings, and our society . The nature of human beings, characteristics of good
citizens, aims of education, the nature of knowledge and its acquisition, and how
all these may be connected are concerns of philosophers and, in various ways, all
of us. Philosophers and their philosophies endeavor to transcend slogans and to
focus on penetrating questions about education and society. In his own particular
way, sometimes with charming forthrightness and at other times in complex
analyses, Whitehead asks questions and provides coherent answers to many ofthe
concerns that are pertinent to philosophy and education.
A philosophy of education will reflect the perspective of the formal philoso-
phy from which it is derived . That perspective serves as a lens through which the
nature of human beings, the nature of human learning, and the purposes of
education are examined. The lens focuses and highlights matters of importance.
A philosophy of education derived from a coherent formal philosophy will
highlight matters of importance as argued in the formal philosophy. For exam-
ple , philosophies of education derived from pragmatism will differ from those
derived from process philosophy. Both Whitehead and Dewey argue for con-
creteness in educational experience, but Dewey's interest in doing and White-
head 's concrete appreciation are not the same concept and lead to different
educational practices. In the discussion of context in the previous chapter, I
showed that mechanism utilizes the metaphor of the machine; and that organism
uses the metaphor of the tree of life-two quite different philosophical positions.
I believe that a philosophy of education is, at the core, a philosophy of human-
kind and of human society . A formal ph ilosophy explicitly or implicitly ex-
presses a worldview. That worldview may become the basis for thinking about
the educat ion of human beings and can lead to a philosophy of education coher-
ent with the formal philosophy. This is the position I take in my endeavor to
construct a Whiteheadian philosophy of education.
It now becomes clear that a philosophy of education, if it is not to be a mere
position, must have specific elements that express the author's views about
reality, knowledge, and values together with a perspective on the nature of
humankind and its society . A general philosophy is inadequate for educational
purpo ses. What is required is that the peculiar nature of the endeavor to educate
human beings be the focus of the philosophy. The discussion of Whitehead 's
writings in the previous section of this chapter shows that both his explicit writ-
ings on education and his more formal philosophical work contribute to this end.
The absence of a work that brings his thinking about education together greatly
complicates construction of a Whiteheadian philosophy of education, but, as we
will see, the basic elements are present in his long and deep stream of writing on
mathematics, science, philosophy, and education.
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B. Speculative Philosophy
In the opening lines of Process and Reality, Whitehead writes: "This course of
lectures is designed as an essay in Speculative Philosophy. Its first task must be
to define 'speculative philosophy,' and to defend it as a method productive of
important knowledge.?" In the next paragraphs, I endeavor to explain specula-
tive philosophy. One dictionary definition of speculative philosophy is, " philos-
ophy which constructs a synthesis of knowledge from many fields (the sciences,
the arts, religion , ethics, social sciences) and theorizes (reflects) about such things
as its significance to humankind, and about what it indicates about reality as a
whole.'?" This definition parallels a description by William Frankena ofa specu-
lative philosopher as "one who tries to work out a full-fledged metaphysical
conception of the universe as a whole and of human life and knowledge within
it."60 Andrew Reck in his book , Speculative Philosophy: A Study ofIts Nature,
Types, and Uses, names five characteristics of speculative philosophy. It is
systematic, compr ehensive, metaphysical, explanatory, and conjectural." This
expanded notion is useful for our understanding and use of speculative philoso-
phy. " Systematic" is a familiar and appropriate term . Comprehensiveness is a
necessary element if we are constructing a "synthesis of knowledge from man y
fields. " Metaphysics is the attempt to present a comprehensive, coherent, and
consistent account of reality as a whole. The attempt usually takes the form of
the study of the most gen eral , persistent, and pervasive characteristics of the
universe . For educators that study will most frequentl y be a critical examination
of teaching, learning, and societies. Explanatory means that the philosophy
provides knowledge about relevant aspects of the world, in the present instance,
about education. And the final term , "conjectural," means that imaginative
generalization is welcome as an aspect of speculative philosophy. Having looked
at some definitions and explanations, we now tum to Whitehead 's own definition
and its meaning for us.
Whitehead proposes something much more than is found in the definitions
provided above . His classic statement in Process and Reality is worthy of careful
consideration. " Speculative Philosophy is the endeavor to frame a coherent,
logical, necessary system of general ideas in terms of which every element of our
experience can be interpreted.?" As Whitehead proceeded to construct his
metaphysics, he pursued the ideal represented by that statement. As I endeavor
to achieve a much more limited task, constructing a Whiteheadian philosophy of
education, two words are crucial, coherent and logical . A coherent presentation
of Whitehead 's thinking is a necessity if we are to get past the condition de-
scribed by Brumbaugh as simple acceptance or tangled scholarship. The formal
and informal, as far as my abilities permit, must be integrated in a systematic way
that exemplifies the requirement of coherence. Whitehead, in his unique abilit y
to phrase ideas colorfully, says, "the success of imag inative con struction is
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unflinching pursuit of the two rationalist ideals, coherence and logical perfec-
tion .'?" Thus, in addition to coherent treatment of his philosophical writings,
logical construction of Whitehead's implied philosophy of education will also be
necessary.
We are living in a society in which an extensive pragmatic problem solving
position dominates. This leads to "quick fixes," to "sound bites" and to focus on
the immediate . Speculative philosophy is contrary to this! Speculative philoso-
phy requires careful attention to relationships, to empirical evidence, to disci-
plined reason. Whitehead tells us:
No systematic thought has made progress apart from some adequately

general working hypothesis, adapted to its special topic. Such a hypothesis
directs observation , and decides upon the mutual relevance of various types
of evidence. In short, it prescribes method. To venture upon productive
thought without such an explicit theory is to abandon oneself to the doc-
trines derived from one's grandfather."
The theory that guides speculation in this book is the theory that Whitehead's
formal and informal philosophy , carefully construed, will yield a process philoso-
phy of education.
C. Process Philosophy
Whitehead's speculative philosophy, the philosophy of organism, is a process

philosophy. Just what is a process philosophy? Process philosophy is one oftlux
and change. Some process thinkers look back to Heraclitus (535 ?-475? BC) and
his saying that you cannot step into the same river twice-to which a wag replies
that you cannot even step into the same river once . The metaphor of a river is
quite appropriate for process philosophy because the notions of a source or
beginning, a direction, and a final event dominated by flow are present. Too
often, process philosophers are perceived by others as taking change as the most
important characteristic of the world. Process philosophy is much more compli -
cated than simply attention to change. But the ideas of flux and change, seem-
ingly in contrast to permanence and stability, do dominate process philosophy.
What does this key word, "process," mean? There are many uses of the
word process . Most often we find it to mean procedures. Those whose interests
are in process thought have friends and colleagues who say, when we mention
work in process philosophy, " I am a process person too," meaning, " I am as
concerned about procedures as with product." We are not considering proce-
dures, but something different that is connected with the idea of becoming. As
the term is used throughout the rest of this book, process should be thought of in
connection with becoming and being: the becoming of something new from what
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is, relating objects and events , and being something different, no matter how
minute. As I write these words and think about their adequacy and ability to
conve y meaning to you, I am changing. I am becoming a different person than
I was before I tried to express these thoughts. Process embodies the events and
occasions that are constantly associated with being and becom ing. The rising up
of a mountain is a long process . A single thought may be quite a short process.
Important for education is the idea of human development, a long and complex
process.
The idea of process has many facets. Process-whether thought of in terms
of atoms colliding, cells maturing and being discarded, mountains gradually
eroding , a student thinking , or a teacher explaining-always has to do with flux
and permanence. Process is reality, for process is continually in the world, but,
so is substance . Even though I am changing as I write, I also exist in a real sense .
This is a world of permanence and flux, of change and continuity, of becoming
and being . The value of process cannot be overemphasized for education.
Donald Oliver has nicely captured the feeling of process that we need in
order to become attuned to process philosophy and its implications for education .
He uses the word "cosmology" here because he is writing in these passages about
a total system that is one of proce ss. His concepts are equall y valid for our
simpler examination of process philosophy.
Process cosmology sees all creati on as a flow, the dissolution of one occa-
sion in the becoming of anoth er. In the final explanation of how things
come into being, proce ss theor y abandons the simple notion of cause and
effect: that a solid set of objects (atoms , molecules, people , stars, winds )
impinge on other objects to make them move or change . In process there
is no external cause; the universe-and everything-makes itself. The
process includes the imagining, the selection, and the ordering Reality
is more than the decision and action. Reality includes the imaginative
potential for a variety of decisions . It is all one interrelated process. "
As we now move on to look more closely at the connections between

process and education, we should be ever mindful of Whitehead 's popular
epigram-"the students are alive." We know that process , change, and move-
ment at all times is in people and their environments. The process perspective
that teachers and parents may happily embrace is that expressed by Barbara
MacKinnon . "The type of process that Whitehead envisioned as constituting the
structure of the basic facts of nature, he also saw as the ideal for all human
developrnent.t" ?
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D. Process Philosophy and Education
A perspective from the position of process philosophy, as we have traced it,

uniquely reflects the relational nature of the world. From the vantage point of an
educator, the lineage of process thought is from speculative philosophy in gen -
eral, to process philosophy as a type of speculative philosophy, to extending the
construct of process philosophy to education. Process philosophy of education
takes process, particularly as presented by Whitehead, as its dominant theme.
Process philosophy of education attempts to explain teaching and learning in
terms of basic concepts presented by Whitehead, his interpreters, and other
process philosophers such as William James and Henri Bergson. In so doing, it
emphasizes relationality and sequence as well as a searching for meaning.
Process philosophy brings to the search for meaning a holism that is lacking in
most educational contexts . A basic supposition, perhaps an organizing principle,
is that everything is connected to every other thing . Just above, Oliver was
quoted as saying, " It is all one interrelated process." Whitehead 's sense of
processes of the world reinforces our understanding of the relatedness, unity, and
holism of central educational concepts such as teaching, learning, knowledge,
change, and growth . Holism has high validity as the antithe sis to the reduction-
ism so rampant in the world . Process philosophy urges us to turn from reduction-
ism and, instead, to think of the whole in relation to the parts and the parts in
relation to the whole. A student viewed from a process perspective is a student
viewed holistically . Teachers do not confront a mind, or a body, or cognition, or
affect, but, a totality; learners bring their whole being to the situation.
Process refers to becoming and to being resulting from an inheritance of the
past and an aim for the future . Every living thing and some supposedly inanimate
objects reflect this. We are becoming someth ing different at every moment. Yet
what we become depends on our past (our genetic endowment, our experience,
our environment), the quality of what we experience now, and our aims for the
future. As I write this sentence, I am drawing on a life-time of learning, some
skills taught in the distant past, exposure to process in several contexts, extensive
reading, hopes for the future of our children and our nation, and a sense of
purpose. In some configuration, these events caused me to be a schoolman
interested in a certain philosophy, point of view , and practice. The act of teach-
ing, the form and substance of the curriculum , the environment of the school and
classroom, the dynamics of a peer group, immediate personal experience, and
personal aims are all interrelated in an educative process. Whatever the particu-
lars, the relationships, flux, intentions, and much more are the elements of pro-
cess in the world, in the classroom, and in the human mind . Examination of
Whitehead's philosophy of education in the next chapter brings these and other
facets of process philosophy together in a metaphorical web of relationships.
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Four
SPECULATION: EXAMINING WHITEHEAD'S

PHILOSOPHY
1. The Web of Whitehead's Thinking
The subtitle of this book, The Seamless Coat ofLearning, is taken from one of
Whitehead's epigrams, "You may not divide the seamless coat of learning,"? The
metaphor of a seamless coat captures the essence of my interpretation of White-
head's philosophy of education. The idea of seamlessness, of holism, of the con-
nectedness of all things is dominant in Whitehead's worldview. Our own com-
mon sense and experience affirm that the things of this world are connected . The
events of our lives, major ones involving economies, environment, governance,
and the small ones involving health, family , community, reveal the reality of in-
terdependence and interconnectedness of ideas, actions , and institutions. We
break ideas, experiences, material things apart--engage in reductionism-to
analyze and observe. Yet we know that existence depends on wholeness, on
relationships, and the connectedness of all things both alive and inert. Process,
flow, and sequence are hallmarks of Whitehead's philosophy. We would readily
assume that the flow of process philosophy would also characterize his philoso-
phizing, but Whitehead's thinking is not that straightforward. Rather than the
flow ofa river, we are more accurate when we think of Whitehead's philosophiz-
ing as web-like.
He directs our attention to relationships and the potential multiple effects of
events . These relationships, both internal and external, connect, lead to digres-
sions , reconnect in new ways, expand possibilities, and influence each other in
myriad linkages . The connections and influences are not linear but web-like.
Why web-like? Think with me about the beauty of an orb web of a garden
spider. This classic web form displays unity, purpose, relationships, and se-
quence, but not in a straight line. The silk strands of a spider's web connect
filaments in scores of segments that spiral from the center. The spider 's web with
its numerous connections, all emanating from basic sources seems to me to be an
appropriate metaphor for Whitehead 's philosophizing.
How does an orb web resemble or stand for Whitehead's thinking? Let's
look at how a web is built and some elements of Whitehead's philosophizing.
The first filament that a spider spins is the horizontal thread from one branch to
another, to one stalk from another, between posts, etc. This is called the bridge
thread . From this line all the rest of the web is constructed. Whitehead's notion
of creativity, I submit, is the mental equivalent of the bridge thread. He calls
creativity the universal of universals. It is the indispensable element in White-
head 's philosophy of organism and foundat ional to his metaphysical thinking.
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64 Speculation : Examining Whitehead 's Philosophy
Creativity, as an ever-present force in everything in the world, is the basic struc-

tural element of Whitehead 's philosophizing-his thinking about the world.
Returning to our garden spider and its orb web, we find that the spider has
constructed the boundaries of the web by spinning framing threads. One of these
threads is dropped from the mid-point of the bridge thread and becomes the
center line necessary for construction of the spiral web. Conceptually, this line,
for purposes of our metaphor, may represent process. Cannot the other framing
threads be compared to Whitehead's central concepts, such as rhythm, relations,
and coherence, as the main framing ideas of his philosophy of education? Hav-
ing established the frame, the spider spins a series of radii, anchored to the mid-
line, that extend from the center like the spokes of a wheel. These radii represent,
in this metaphor, important but subordinate Whiteheadian concepts. They are the
network on which the beautiful web is built and which supports Whitehead 's
philosophizing.
I look upon the hub of the web, connected by the radii to every filament, as
representing Whitehead 's central aim of education-wisdom. Wisdom comes
from knowledge and experience, neither of which, iflacking connectedness, leads
to wisdom. The connectedness, no matter how indirect, of everything is a para-
mount Whiteheadian view . That connectedness, we shall see, is essential for the
attainment of wisdom as an aim of education, for the understanding of White-
head' s thinking and philosophizing, and for constructing a Whiteheadian philoso-
phy of education. The intricate web with its myriad spiral lines, its framing
threads, bridge line, and hub is indeed an apt metaphor for Whitehead's intricate
relational philosophizing about education.
Why this digression to strain for a metaphor? Why not move into a straight-
forward discussion of Whitehead's philosophy and its educational ramifications?
Because, neither process philosophy nor Whitehead's way of thinking is linear.
Thinking about process philosophy is web-like, that is, the various ideas both
support and are dependent on each other. To fully appreciate the philosophy, we
must eventually see the whole as well as the parts . Whitehead's specific meta-
physical scheme, introduced in Science and the Modern World and fully pre-
sented in Process and Reality, is described by one of his interpreters thusly:
Whitehead does not present a graded series of concepts through which one
can move in linear fashion; rather, the comprehension of each entails the
prior comprehension of the others . The reader must leap into the specula-
tive circle, realizing that understanding will come like James 's drops of
perception-all at once or not at all.'
In addition, the mind of Whitehead needs to be considered. He is an original,

frequently profound, and almost never simplistic. A statement attributed to his
wife, Evelyn is quite revealing. " His thinking is a prism . It must be seen not
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Creativity 65
from one side alone but from all sides, then from underneath and overhead. So
seen, as one moves around it, the prism is full of changing lights and colours. To
have seen it from one side only is not to have seen it.") In answer to the queries
above, the suggestion, nay, requirement, is being laid down that to understand
Whitehead at more than a superficial level requires both reader and writer to put
aside traditional straight-line thinking and be willing to engage in a systemic kind
of thinking. That is, thinking that readily accepts exploration, speculation,
tentativeness, and connectedness as necessary if understanding is finally to be
achieved.
2. Some Elements of Whitehead's Philosophy
From the first chapter to the present page, you have been meeting Whitehead's
ideas about education. In a discursive journey into Whitehead's philosophy, we
now look more precisely at several ideas that are arguably the principal elements
of a Whiteheadian philosophy. This journey through Whitehead's ideas on
education will be neither as web-like as his own writing nor as linear as tradi-
tional expositions.
A. Creativity
Earlier, in constructing an analogy of Whitehead's thinking to the web of a

spider, I said that the bridge thread in Whitehead's web-like thinking is creativity.
For Whitehead, creativity is a metaphysical principle, not simply the actions we
usually think of-rearranging the present, or reinterpreting experi ence . Creativ-
ity in the context of Whiteheadian process philosophy is the ultimate fact, the
universal of universals, that which drives the endless chain of novelty . Creativity
is everywhere, in every thing, present in each event. Creativity doesn't exist in
a vacuum. It is always with what has been created-if you will, its creatures.
Those creatures may be in many forms : ideas, broad experiences, minute sub-
atomic particles, a bodily organ, one of its cells, a student's written composition,
a sight word recognized by a child learning to read, the "a-ha" moment of a
learner seeking meaning from unfamiliar material.
Creativity according to process philosophy is never ending. We do not
create an object and declare it fmished ; not in philosophy, not in life. The object
may have been completed-a painting is framed and hung-but the influence of
that experience lingers and becomes part of another experience for the artist and
the viewer. Creativity carries with it the essential Whiteheadian notion of cre-
ative advance . Donald Sherburne states, "Creativity is the concept that must
account for the perpetual ' creative advance into novelty' that is the cornerstone
of Whitehead's process philosophy." This is the key idea, the point of all that
follows . All of the relatedness of which Whitehead has written, all of the
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connectedness of past, present , and future , are linked by what Whitehead has
named creativity.
Some people will identify creativity with some form of the supernatural,
perhaps, understandably, God. Indeed, this is a reasonable line of thinking, quite
thoroughly addressed by process theologians. A reader particularly interested in
process theology and Whitehead's conception of God will find several well-
written sources .' But I am writing about process philosophy of education ad-
dressed to readers who may be present or future educational practitioners. Their
interests are the focus of these pages. Therefore, with the exception of treatment
of the spiritual nature of humankind later in this chapter, I will leave theological
considerations to others.
Process philosophy, as we know , identifies flux, flow, process as reality .
The flow is not simply from one entity to another and another-although that
notion is true. Creativity is the basis of process , and issues into novelty. Such
novelty arises from a sequence of events. Usually , there are multiple data from
which the new single event or entity is derived. In a rough analogy, the comple-
tion of a pass in football is far more than just the skillful throw of the quarter-
back. Which receivers are open ? Is the snap from center good? Are guards
blocking would-be sackers? Many actions, many events, many entities mayor
may not contribute to the one event-pass completion. Charles Hartshorne
describes the process in more academic terms :
Whitehead explicates creativity as the process whereby "the many become

one and are increased by one." This may seem obscure, but it follows
readily from the conception of actual entities as analogous to human experi-
ences. Each such experience is "one," a new singular actuality not hitherto
present in reality. But each experience prehends a multiplicity of data (the
"many"). Thus there are memories of preceding experiences of the man
himself, there are prehensions of unit-events in parts of the body, etc. Many
actual entities furnish data for any new actual entity . Accordingly, the
entity is a "synthesis" of the world out of which it rises."
This concept of creativity as process in which many become one and are in-
creased by one directly relates to schooling and learning. Events in our learning
are creative; the many events-knowledge, fact, form, experience-are in them-
selves creative, possessing the potential to become one novel entity. Every
moment of schooling is an example of creativity. Even the negative experience
of student disinterest is an example of creativity . Many possibilities are presum-
ably available, but some are rejected (what Whitehead called negative prehen-
sion) so that they cannot become the "one" intended by the teacher. But others
do become the novel "one" preferred by the student.
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Prehension 67
Whitehead tells us that "creativity is the actualization of potentiality."?

Potential is present biologically and psychologically in some form in every
human being, In educational practice, that potential is released through learning.
A student's active learning is evidence of actualizing his or her potential. The
events of schooling, materials, milieu, technique, experience, come together to
yield an outcome, a novel result of the creativity inherent in all things. Creativity
in all things? Yes, in Whitehead's scheme creativity exists in all creatures
whether scholars or stones , books or beasts , films or filaments . Hartshorne has
written, "Whitehead makes the daring leap . . . , of making creativity itself the
universal principle of reality and causation. Not just God creates, not even just
God and man, but every concrete unit of reality has its own kind and degree of
creativity. To be is to create."!
How does Whitehead's idea of creativity affect what a teacher does?
Creativity is present in every element of every teaching and learning event. The
potential within each event is unknown, but the implications of Whitehead's idea
of creativity for pedagogy are immense. A teacher's responsibility for prerequi-
sites, sequence, assessment, and mastery as well as the quality and appropriate-
ness of curriculum, instructional strategies, materials, are interwoven in this
seemingly simple idea of creativity as the basis for learning and for all human
development.
If all creatures, events, occasions have creativity, then, every student pos-
sesses creativity. Creativity does not stand alone . The ideas of process, becom-
ing, connectedness, and prehension reflect creativity . The complex interconnec-
tions of learning illustrate the many becoming one in human development and the
presence of creativity . But do not think of creativity as an explainable force like
gravity . Gravity is measurable . It can be explained. Creativity is not measurable,
cannot be explained but can be described. F. Bradford Wallack, in a discussion
of this point says, "There can be no explanation that appeals to principles more
fundamental than creativity; it is already the ultimate principle."? I suggest,
regretfully using mechanistic vocabulary, that creativity be recognized as that
ultimate which drives the universe and therefore drives the students, their envi-
ronment, and the work of educators.
B. Prehension
Intimately associated with Whitehead's basic concept of creativity is another

fundamental-his concept of prehension. The place of prehension in educational
philosophy may be revealed by the following aside . Many years ago, [ was
privileged to spend an afternoon talking with Charles Hartshorne, eminent pro-
cess philosopher, about process philosophy and its relevance for education. I
asked him just before leaving which of Whitehead 's concepts he considered most
important for education . Without hesitation and with great conviction, he replied ,
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68 Speculation: Examining Whitehead 's Philosophy
"Prehension, above all prehension." What did Whitehead mean by this unusual
term and why did Hartshorne cons ider it so important?
Whitehead , whose philosophy is highly relational, saw taking in of data as
fundamental. He wrote in Process and Reality, "Every prehension consists of
three factors: (a) the 'subject' which is prehending, namely the actual entity in
which that prehension is a concrete element ; (b) the ' datum' which is prehended;
(c) the ' subjective form ' which is how that subject prehends that datum ."!" He
went into an elaborate analysis of prehensions, but for our purposes the idea of
consciously or unconsciously grasping data is perhaps sufficient. Prehension is
not merely an abstract theoretical concept. In one model of education, stress is
placed on a learner being able to differentiate, integrate, and generalize. I I In this
macro version of Whitehead 's concept, the student is differentiating among items
prehended, selecting the relevant entity from among them, integrating that choice
into the existing event , and utilizing the emergent new form for some intended
purpose. The first two steps of the student, differentiation and selection, are
concrete examples of prehension.
Why was Hartshorne so sure that prehension was the most important con-
cept? Simply because he saw learning as a matter of taking in data and relating
it to past experience. If we think of the subject of a prehension as being a student
in school , the fact, datum, feeling to be added to current knowledge as that which
is to be prehended, and the internalizing or ignoring of that datum as the form of
prehending, then we get an approximation of what Whitehead and Hartshorne
had in mind .
In getting used to this new term, " prehension," I suggest that the reader
experi ence its use, coming to feel and know that a prehension is taking some
datum into the make-up of that which is prehending. As a reader comes to
understand process philosophy and to accept the importance of relatedness in that
philosophy , it is quite possible to think of one entity taking another into account,
or grasping it, possessing it, or prehending it. A well-established principle of
learning indicates that whatever we learn relates, in some way , to what we have
previously experienced. Perhaps the simplest expression of what prehension is
can be found in a dictionary definition: "The process of perception (thought or
feeling) whereby one takes something into one 's level of attention and relates
accordingly ."? Teaching and learning are largely about prehending aspects of
our environment and relating accordingly. A prehension is a constituent of the
process of becoming and an essential element in Whitehead 's philosophy. It
clearl y is related to the creativity that is in every entit y. It is also related to the
next element of Whitehead 's metaph ysical scheme, one implied in the term
" integrate," but wh ich Whiteh ead called concrescence.
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Concrescence 69
C. Concrescence
What is concrescence? First, let us be clear that prehending alone leads nowhere .
The notions of grasping or taking into account are insufficient. A uniting, a
coming together is necessary in the creative advance to novelty. A growing
together, a concretizing---eoncrescence, is essential. The Whiteheadian doctrine
of the many becoming one becomes quite evident as the process of concrescence
is examined . He tells us that concrescence is the name of a process in which the
many are subordinated in the constitution of the novel one." In simplest terms,
concrescence is a growing together of related entities. Within the scope of this
book , the term refers to the integration or melding of aspects of learning.
Why is the concept of concrescence important for education, particularly
learning? In prior paragraphs, I have established the centrality of creativity and
the importance of prehensions. Now we seek to understand concrescence as the
process by which what is prehended is folded into the prehending entity . That
prehending entity, for our purposes, is a learner who prehends possibilities,
selects ones related to purpose, and integrates them with relevant past experience,
thereby making what was only possible, concrete and real. Whitehead treats all
of this in a complicated manner. Stages of concrescence are laid out in Process
and Reality and interpretations in several secondary sources." That is part of the
tangle that Robert Brumbaugh calls to our attention, perhaps best avoided by
educators who see themselves as practitioners rather than theorists. The basic
idea of prehending necessary, interesting, or related data and folding it into prior
experience, thus bringing the prehensions together (concrescence) makes sense
to teachers and should not be cast aside because it seems arcane or metaphysical.
Now let us be clear. Concrescence is a process. It is a growing together . It is not
a final act. Wallack provides a clarify ing statement:
Concrescence and satisfaction are not synonymous. Concrescence is the

growing together of feelings ; it is the process of the becoming of an occa-
sion rather than the concrete occasion having become. Concrescence is the
development of subjective aim, whereas satisfaction is the attainment of
subjective aim. Concrescence concludes in satisfaction. IS
The final aim of a student may be to learn specific information. It is insufficient

to simply select related information from an array of data. The selected data
(positive prehensions) need to come together, to grow together, to become
something new. Concrescence is this process . When the new information be-
comes part of the student's knowledge, the student has achieved one particular
subjective aim and has reached a condition of satisfaction .
I think that these Whiteheadian notions parallel the experience of teachers
and common-sense learning theory. Unfortunately, these understandings are not
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always evident in actual practice. Instead of relevant possibilities, students are

confronted in some classrooms with what Whitehead called "inert ideas ." The
value of attention to the nature of possibilities presented or available to students
cannot be overly stressed. It is only from relevant data that positive prehensions
can be selected. If the data is irrelevant or unacceptable, negative prehensions
occur. Elizabeth Kraus puts a perspective on the limitations associated with
concrescence as she writes :
In general terms , order is that factor in an actual world which limits a

concrescence, deciding for it what it can and cannot become. No actual
occasion can outgrow its actual world , since it is an outgrowth of that
world. This is the root meaning of givenness . The real potentiality, the real
options offered a concrescence are settled for it by its antecedent world , by
the limited potentialities for synthes is in the data."
Within an array of data will exist the possibility of both negative and positive
prehensions ; that is to be expected. What should not be allowed to happen is that
negatively prehended possibilities are seen as absolute limitations thereby having
a vastly negative impact on potential learning . For example, outdated texts will
introduce assured negatives, as will the absence of sufficient material to proceed
with instructional purposes, or the presence of real or anticipated episodes of
violence in school and community . Although negative factors do limit possib ili-
ties, they do not preclude satisfaction which is the final result of positive prehen-
sions and concrescence . This is a recurring theme in this book-that the quality
of prior exper ience is an essential ingredient in the learning process . Creativity
and the human spirit allow human beings to transcend the limitations of negatives
and engage the positive s of the world . As Whitehead succinctly said, "The
present cont ains all there is. It is holy ground; for it is the past, and it is the
future. ?' ? The past and present control the possibilities that are open to every
event, entit y, or occasion.
D. Rhythm
Concrescence as a concept can be connected to Whitehead's most famous con-

cept related to education-rhythm. In fact, for many educators and philosophers ,
only superficially knowledgeable about Whitehead, rhythm is the only idea of his
with which they are comfortable. This limitation is regrettable, for as we have
seen Whitehead 's explicit and implied philosophy of education is rich and multi-
faceted , including much in addit ion to the notion of rhythm. Yet rhythm and
periodicity are essential aspects of the philosophy of organism , particularly in
connection with education. All of nature exemplifies rhythms; periodicity is self-
evident in the round of seasons, of night and day, birth and death, creation,
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Relatedness 71
nurturing, perishing. Whitehead observed and argued in his talk to educators,

"The Rhythms of Education," for recognition of the rhythms of human growth
and learning. These rhythms take the form of stages that he named romance,
precision, and generalization. The three stages are quite simple in their basic
meaning, although revealing more complexity as the ideas and experiences
related to each stage are explored. The first stage, romance, is that early period
of fresh exploration when the joy of the new, the zest of undisciplined explora-
tion are dominant. The second stage, precision, is the period in which discipline
is dominant, mastery of technique and information are paramount. Romance may
well be present, but it is secondary to insistent precision. Lastly, generalization,
the stage in which new knowledge is applied and is also integrated into prior
learning, marks the period in learning during which the effort to learn something
new leads to satisfaction.
Whitehead uses the expression, " Life is essentially periodic.':" This is a
basic Whiteheadian idea. The cleverness and wide recognition of the rhythm of
romance, precision, and generalization and its obvious connections to human
growth , to learning, and to education have obscured awareness of the larger
thought of Whitehead, the philosopher, about periodicity throughout nature. Two
forms of periodicity come to mind . The recurrent cycles and rhythms of the
natural world are one form. The other is Whitehead's frequent reminder that the
past, present, and future are all of a piece . The present came from the past and
contains the seeds of the future . The implications of this truth for education are
simple at first encounter and profound as we begin to speculate about the signifi-
cance of the present. Whitehead is quite explicit. "The present contains all there
is .. . ." The present, which for this discussion I take to be the immediate educa-
tive event, the unit of study, the academic course for the year, needs to be con-
nected to the past, if learning is to be realized . We learn, retain, and utilize
knowledge that can be integrated with that which we already know . Usually, we
do not think of information taught in sequential time frames as being periodic,
but what we teach reflects earlier experience with data, with forms, with con-
cepts. The once popular spiral curriculum, with its expanding and reinforcing
themes, may have had more validity than we think. The comfort level of dealing
with familiar language, concepts, topics, etc. is important for successful learning.
This is not to argue against stretching, for growth, change, novelty are essential
to the human condition. What I am bringing to the reader's attention is the
known fact that human learning is built on a foundation of prior experiences and
that in examining Whitehead's philosophy for its educational implications, we see
that the seemingly simple concept of periodicity underlines the need to recognize
that cycles, stages, and rhythms are necessary considerations. The periodicity,
the stage theories represented in the work of Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, and
Lawrence Kohlberg, when viewed as a flow of experience, not as compartments
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72 Speculation: Examining Whitehead's Philosophy
of development, are practical examples of the importance of rhythm In our

understanding of process and education.
E. Relatedness
The few elements of Whitehead's philosophy that have been explored thus far,
creativity, prehension, concrescence, rhythm , all have a common thread. That
thread is relatedness. This notion appeared in Whitehead 's writings over a period
of thirty years. Whitehead mentioned connectedness of events as earl y as his
Introduction to Mathematics and throughout the books he wrote in America. He
writes about internal and external relations; both are present in ongoing pro-
cesses . This seems to be common sense , but, in this world , with the world view
described in Chapter Two as mechanistic, we find a tendency to think of relations
solely in terms of those that are external, between one object and another, similar
to the relationship between machines and their sources of energy . The relation-
ships between individuals and other persons and with their environment are real ,
evident, and influential. Whole fields of endeavor have arisen around the notion
of human relations and public relations. Let us not forget that an extensive body
of thought also exists in religion, counseling, therapy , and the ubiquitous materi-
als on self-help , all of which address the internal relations as well as the external
relations of human beings . Relatedness of both kinds exist , and they are con-
nected.
In simple language, Whitehead asks us to "Consider how all events are
interconnected. When we see lightning, we listen for the thunder, when we hear
the wind, we look for the waves on the sea .... "1 9 In The Aims ofEducation , he
warns about parting the seamless coat of learning . His thinking is that relations
exist between all kinds of entitie s: ideas, experiences, direct causal interactions,
unseen but real internal relations in the mind and in the body, and throughout
nature. Relations are universal, and our relations form us and our present and our
future . Whitehead 's biographer, Lowe , writes, " Whitehead' s doctrine is that
structures (like everything else in his worldview) are interdependent; none can
exist save as part of a wider structure which sustains it."20 In a web-like way,
connectedness relates to everything discussed in this chapter and more broadly
to learning and educative events .
I wish to tum two writers in developing the idea of connectedness. First,
John Cobb , whose interpretations of the Whiteheadian worldview have been
valuable for theology, ecology, and economics, says in support of attention to
relations, relatedness, and connectedness, "A very simple idea impres sed upon
us by ecology is that things cannot be abstracted from relations to other things .
. . . The effort to study things in abstraction from their relations is a misunder-
standing.'?' Thus, not only are relations to be considered, but also the context
that is essential to those relations. Second, Gregory Bateson, who to my knowl-
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Relatedness 73
edge never identified himself as a Whiteheadian, writes in Mind and Nature : A

Necessary Unity about what he calls the pattern that connects. He says, using a
colorful metaphor, "In truth , the right way to begin to think about the pattern
which connects is to think of it as primarily (whatever that means) a dance of
interacting parts . .. .'>22 I like to think that Whitehead would have approved. In
a world of process, change is constant and dancing may indeed be an appropriate
description of the relations, the interactions, the connectedness of this world and
all of the occasions within it.
The pattern which concerns us is that of teaching and learning in the class-
room . A dance of interacting parts is quite apt. The relationships are not as
simple as we make them out to be. The primary relationship is not between
teacher and pupil, as valuable as that is. Neither are interrelations of students the
essential aspect of learning . Some educators would place high value on interac-
tion of student and the matter being studied, and, certainly, this cannot be lightly
dismissed. We need to consider the student's past and the implications of physi-
cal and mental health . And, the school environment is an external factor that
affects both external and internal relationships. All of these are interacting parts,
dancing in any educational environment. Yet, I believe that Whitehead saw
internal relationships as the most important. He writes of zest, of romance, of
youthful energy, combining ideas in many forms, the place of physical activities,
wisdom, and the nature of peace . These are internal matters, surely influenced by
the external, but fundamentally coming from within-the internal. But these
things are known to good teachers. As throughout much of this book, I am not
presenting something new and radical. Readers are being asked to understand the
Whiteheadian proces s perspective, especially relatedness and connectedness, and
the implications of that philosophy for their own present or prospective educa-
tional endeavors.
F. Knowledge
A philosophy of education should have among its several elements a theory of

knowledge. I now tum to examining Whitehead's theory of knowledge. Readers
must be aware that he never wrote out a theory of knowledge; it is an integral
aspect of his whole work of creating a systematic view of the world . Whitehead's
philosophy of organism offers a theory of knowledge found scattered throughout
his writing over many years . As early as 1919, he wrote on knowledge with
words that show his consistent and persistent concern with relations.
The conception of knowledge as passive contemplation is too inadequate to

meet the facts . Nature is ever originating its own development, and the
sense of action is the direct knowledge of the percipient event as having its
very being in the formation of its natural relations. Knowledge issues from
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74 Speculation: Examin ing Whitehead 's Philosophy
this reciprocal insistence between this event and the rest of nature , namely
relat ions are received in the making and because of the making."
Thus, at the outset we should think of Whitehead 's theory of knowledge as being
an intimate aspect of his philosophy of organism and a reflection of the insistence
found therein on the importance of relationships.
He reminds the reader that traditional1y we have assumed that al1 knowledge
is grounded in sense perception . His philosophy of organism takes an expanded
view, however. Whitehead 's theory becomes more complex because his ideas
about what our senses tell us and that which is reality differ from the ways we
habitual1y think about sense perception. First of all, what we perceive through
our bodily senses is limited; reality may also include emotions, microscopic
systems , unseen structures , etc. Secondly, the prior experience and relationships
of the perceiver influence the character of individual perception. Whitehead's
theory of knowledge connects with what has been said above about creativity,
prehension, concrescence, and relatedness . One helpful way to begin this journey
through Whitehead's theory of knowledge is to tum to the explanations of an-
other writer, Stephen David Ross.
Whitehead's theory of knowledge is not epistemological in the traditional

sense, but metaphysical. . . . he is concerned not with questions of epistemic
authority and testimony but with the metaphysical connections-between
past and future, knower and known-that make knowledge intelligible ."
Metaphysical connections! And, as we shal1 see, some naive, common sense

connections, but connections that are absolutely necessary for acquisition of
knowledge.
Let's look at some of the connections to which Ross refers . An act of
intel1ect is required to make experience into knowledge. As Whitehead writes ,
" .. . according to the philosophy of organism, in every act of experience there
are objects for knowledge ; but, apart from inclusion of intellectual functioning
in that act of experience, there is no knowledge.'?" In addition, it is a given that
only information which is relevant, no matter to what intensity, is knowledge .
Out of the myriad propositions and possibilities available in any event, not al1
become knowledge. Whitehead is quoted as saying in a Harvard lecture,
" Know ledge is only important when it stimulates creative effort or is itself
enjoyed in immediate feeling-where al1 values ultimately reside.'?" Relevance
and importance may not be sufficient. Clarity and concreteness are also required .
He said, " When so-called knowledge analysis is clear, it is because we have not
asked a sufficiently penetrating question."?" False clarity is a real possibility for
which we must always be alert, especial1yas we follow Whitehead 's position that
something is always unknown in the endless chain of connectedness. If clarity
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Knowledge 75
is absent it may be not only because we have not asked a sufficiently penetrating
question, but, also because we have not, as Whitehead would have us, moved our
thinking from the concrete to the abstract and back again to the concrete. Kraus
is specific on this point , writing, "If it [knowledge] entails a departure from the
concrete, that departure is justified only in virtue of a subsequent return.?"
Whitehead's theory of knowledge is built around his notions of perception.
Our knowledge is based on much more than sense perception, important as those
perceptions are. Experience, the meaning of that experience, feelings associated
with experience, unvoiced but intuitive insights , and the web of relationships of
all that is tangible and intangible in the realms of the perceived and perceiver
have their impact on knowledge . Harold Dunkel explains in the following words.
As a cosmologist, Whitehead is more interested in the constitution of the

world (causal efficacy) than in sense impression and perception (presenta-
tional immediacy) or epistemology and semantics (symbolic reference)
though as we shall see . .. , he gives great emphasis to the power of general
ideas to give understanding of the world, an operation partially in the mode
of symbolic reference."
Donald Oliver's writing is a fme example of contemporary interpretation of

Whitehead 's thinking about knowing . Drawing on the Whiteheadian distinction
between process and substance, Oliver distinguishes between two kinds of
knowing: ontological knowing and technical knowing. Ontological knowing is
grounded. Oliver contends, "ontological knowing includes feelings, vague
sensibilities, and inarticulable thought, as well as the more technical description
of such occasions as they come into being, as they exist, as they pass on.''"
Technical knowing is sharply defined, implicitly useful, specific , seemingly
objective. It is at the heart of modernity. Oliver sees the differences between
ontological knowing and technical knowing as follows . "Technical knowing
refers to adaptive, publicly transferable information or skills; ontological know-
ing refers to a more diffuse apprehension of reality, in the nature ofliturgical or
artistic engagement.'? ' These are indeed two ways of knowing. Oliver's argu-
ment for attention to grounded knowing in schools is a valuable contribution to
educational theory." I suspect that Whitehead would have applauded his work
and then proceeded to show that the two are inseparable, with a flux between the
modes of knowing being one of the prominent characteristics of disciplined
intellectual activity .
Whitehead's approach to knowledge is different from that of analytic
philosophy. His is a process-approach anchored in the relationships of concrete
systems. Kraus says, "The technique of analysis presumes that facts are isolated,
self-contained units whose character can be revealed by systematic dissection ,
and it thereby loses itself in barren abstractions.'? ' Whitehead's philosophy of
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organism rejects analysis that fails to honor the relationships within a contextual
system. Kraus tells us, " In his view, a fact is understood when it can be placed
in a wider systematic context which gives an account of its interconnections with
other facts.'?' This theme of relatedness and connection is frequently repeated
by Whitehead. It is one of the salient characteristics of his philosophy of educa-
tion . This general view of Whitehead's thinking about knowledge is entirely
consistent with the doctrines developed in his philosophy of organism as has been
shown in discussions of prehension, relatedness, and concrescence.
G. Wisdom
Whitehead was ever mindful of the difference between knowledge and wisdom .
The differences are highlighted in this passage:
You cannot be wise without some basis in knowledge; but you may easily
acquire knowledge and remain bare of wisdom. Now wisdom is the way in
which knowledge is held. It concerns the handling of knowledge, its selec-
tion for the determination of relevant issues , its employment to add value
to our immediate experience. This mastery of knowledge, which is wis-
dom, is the most intimate freedom obtainable."
Whitehead is quite clear about the differences between information and knowl -
edge and wisdom . And, so should we be clear. Information becomes knowledge
when it is placed in context. Knowledge becomes wisdom when its context is
widened and connections are made that go beyond the immediate insistent facts .
Wisdom requires the kind of synthesis or integration that is urged explicitly and
implicitly throughout Whitehead 's writings about education ."
That balanced education which leads to the attainment of wisdom was
Whitehead 's chief aim for education. He sets forth a clear position. "Wisdom
is the fruit of a balanced development. It is this balanced growth of individuality
which it should be the aim of education to secure.":" What is the balanced
growth that he considers so desirable? It is a balance between specialization and
generalization, between professional training and what has been considered the
liberal arts . Wisdom does not come easily to the person who views work and
family and community in narrow restricted terms. I may be narrowly trained as
a professional person, but, through self-education and an aim toward widening
my worldview, it is possible that I may attain balance and wisdom . It is a fact
that specialization is valued in modern and postmodern society and cannot be
disregarded. The way we employ our specialized knowledge is the distinguishing
condition that determines the presence of wisdom . Integration of that specializa-
tion into a highly relational worldview can lead to wisdom . But we should not
ignore the wisdom that is not associated with formal education. I refer to the
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Wisdom 77
wisdom which is gained by fruitful engagement in the world. The same principle
still applies-balanced development-relating and integrating experiences in
ways that provide special insight and that state of mind that Whitehead calls
wisdom .
Wisdom is more than being "wise." As Whitehead says, "Wisdom should
be more than intellectual acuteness. It includes reverence and sympathy, and a
recognition of those limitations which bound all human endeavor.'?" Wisdom
requires a sense of context, an awareness of how information, experience, and
feeling fit together to make a whole situation. Knowledge alone is insufficient.
Wisdom requ ires using knowledge to make choices and decisions that are right
for the particular context. An example of what I mean is seen in political life.
Politicians make choices all the time. Their actions are usually clever and expe-
dient. Those among them who are considered statesmen and stateswomen have
usually made wise choices; choices which are of value to themselves and others
in a broad context. The place of educating in the attainment of wisdom is three -
fold: (1) Whitehead 's aim-the development ofa balanced education for each
individual, (2) striving to teach an awareness of the values, the place , the time,
and relatedness that enables individuals to make wise choices and to act wisely,
(3) providing the opportunity to practice the integrative and reflective aspects of
learning that may lead to wisdom."
Wisdom seems a quaint concept in the context of an information age .
Whitehead's epigram captures the essence: "In the schools of antiquity philoso-
phers aspired to impart wisdom, in modern colleges our humbler aim is to teach
subjects .?" It is difficult in this age of accountability, objective assessment, etc.,
to th ink in terms of wisdom . Scores on the SAT , class rank, grades, results of
standardized testing driving educational practice are paramount. The nature of
knowledge acquired and its relationship to a life worth living is absent from our
conversations. Once again, Whitehead said it best. "The importance of know 1-
edge lies in its use, in our active mastery of it-that is to say, it lies in wisdom ."?'
H. Becoming
Now we turn to Whitehead's ideas about becoming. This concept, which has
many meanings in philosophy, is a rather clear notion in process philosophy and
one that is crucial for educators. Educators are engaged in activities that are
centered on the verb to become. Students are changing from one form to
another-from neophyte to expert, from incompetent to competent, from inap-
propriate to appropriate behavior. Through education in home, school, and
community the young are expected to become something different than they
would be ifthere were no educational interventions . "Become" is used as a verb
extensively in every-day language, in the technical language of education, and
in philosophy. "Becoming" used as a noun names a process. The process of
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78 Speculation: Examining Whitehead's Philosophy
becoming is that of acquiring definiteness (competence, form) by deciding,

consciously or unconsciously, among alternatives that are currently experienced.
We should think of becoming as a process shaped by the events or occa-
sions from which choices and decisions are made . Each event, such as a prior
lesson, contains the potential of entering into the becoming of a person. Every
past event is either accepted or rejected as being relevant to the creative advance,
to the new becoming. The idea of the influence of the past upon the present and
potentially on the future is a recurring notion within Whitehead 's philosophy of
education. From the perspective of sophisticated metaphysics, this is a simplistic
notion. But, clearly, within the flux that process philosophers see and teachers
can confirm, the character of events affects the relationship with other events and
the becoming of new events, occasions, or persons. The nature and quality of
potential antecedents become a matter of great concern to educators. For exam-
ple, we cannot do physical science without competence in mathematics. Further,
we cannot become scientists without understanding energy, mass, force , space,
time, all of which are all dependent on mathematics and skill at applying mathe-
matics.
Often , process philosophy, because of its emphasis on flux and change, is
assumed to focus solely on becoming to the neglect of being . This is a serious
error. Becoming and being are inseparable. They are in Kraus's words, "equally
insistent aspects of experience.?" Whitehead 's philosophy of organism appears
to stress becoming because he is arguing that process is reality. He shows us that
substance thinking-focus on being-neglects an understanding of the process
that results in being. The dominant fact of Whitehead's world is change. Each
entity is a being that is a potential for change , for advance to novelty, for becom-
ing. No being, no becoming. In our educative frame, one might say no relevant
experience, no creative advance. The existence of prior experience, specific
knowledge, artifacts, insight , are in some form necessary for new skill, knowl-
edge, or behaviors in order to become . Teachers control many of the factors that
enter into a student's becoming. Their work is to guide the interaction of learners
with their educational environment and thereby influence the nature of the
leamer's becoming.
I. Value
As elements of Whitehead's philosophy are examined and connected to educa-

tion, the need to examine his theory of value comes to the fore. What has value?
What makes an event valuable? Actually, everything has value. The nature of
the event or entity is irrelevant; be it positive or negative, great or small, value is
present. Value is not an abstraction or a detached intellectual condition. For
Whitehead, value is the intrinsic reality of an event.
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Value 79
Again, we directly meet Whitehead's insistence on the value ofthe concrete,

the real. Whitehead provides us, in his insistence on concreteness, a valuable
principle for educators. Teachers and others in direct educational settings are
confronted daily with a plethora of values, and they , need a perspective on the
array of value-laden events surrounding themselves and the learners with whom
they interact. That perspective, the Whiteheadian position, is that every event
and every occasion and every entity has value . Value will be different for differ-
ent persons and situations, but value exists in everything. When we dismiss an
object or an idea as being of no value, we should be aware that the complete
thought would be-"ofno value to me ."
Value does not simply occur. Value is related to limitation, to potentiality,
to fact, to feeling . In regard to the notion of limitation, we can readily agree to
a connection between limitation of material things, of ideas, and ideals and their
value . Whitehead writes, "Restriction is the price of value. There cannot be
value without antecedent standards of value, to discriminate the acceptance or
rejection of what is before the envisioning activity. Thus there is an antecedent
limitation among values, introducing contraries, grades, and oppositions ."? For
human beings , those antecedent standards are highly individual, even when they
are also valued by community. It is easy and acceptable to speak of shared
values, but value is not really shared because our individual natures produce
unique variations of perception and experience. Individual experience and
subjective aim make value different for each person and, in Whitehead's philoso-
phy , for each occasion.
The potential of an occasion, event, or experience also affects its value .
Whitehead speak s of "adjustment for the potentialities for realization.'?" an event
that seems to have no benefit has little, if any, value. Thi s is an obvious fact of
life , yet how many "inert ideas" are forced upon learners simply because of
tradition or because they have value for others , principally those with institutional
power? Value is related to feeling of the actual or potential importance of an
occasion . When that occasion can be related to potential benefit a learner may
accept it as having value. So much of current school experience is simply related
to acquiring grades , credits , certificates, admissions, etc. These things are valued ,
but valued apart from the intrinsic value of the knowledge or learning that leads
to their acquisition.
This brief discussion has assumed that value is not simply attached to an
intellectual notion , but to fact. Value is also associated with the f eeling the
individual has for the fact of learning, of change, of internalized relationship.
George Axtelle provides a well-phrased summation, " All activity is the realiza-
tion of value . But whether the activity leads to increase of value or to its diminu-
tion depends on how the value achieved reinforces other values in the long run.?"
Educators need to be aware of Whitehead's theory of value for the reason that the
recurring theme of Whitehead 's educational philosophy, relatedness, bears
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heav ily on the concept of value. In one of his last essays, Whitehead argues that
the "World of Activity " and the "World of Values" must embody each other. He
writes, "The misconception which has haunted philosophic literature throughout
the centuries is the notion of' independent existence.' There is no such mode of
existence; every entity is to be understood in terms of the way in which it is
interwoven with the rest of the universe.'?" Value, just as other elements of
Whitehead's philosophy, is intimately related to the world and how individuals
think and feel about that world .
J. Experience
" The basis of experience is emotional.":" This strong statement defines the
Whiteheadian position on experience. Despite the valuable role of cognition and
perception, it is emotion, the affective dimension of our humanity, that White-
head cons iders to be the basis of experience. Such a position is coherent with
Whitehead's concern for feeling and for perception that goes beyond simple
sense perception. Whitehead 's rejection of inert ideas calls forth attention to their
opposite, those experiences that affect our emotions. We remember that which
is emotional, affecting our visceral feelings whether they be of beauty, or adven-
ture , or peace. This is also true of educational experience. When asked to recall
experiences of schooling, the recollections are of teachers who were motivating
or tyrannical, of key athletic events, of young love . Those experiences that were
enriched and made vivid by the attached emotion are remembered and influential
ones.
We know that the emotional is not all that constitutes experience. Whitehead
is deliberately overstating his position that emotion is the basis of experience. He
wrote, "Philosophers have disdained information about the universe obtained
through their visceral feelings, and have concentrated on visual feelings .":" To
understand Whitehead's concept of experience, we have to remind ourselves that
Whitehead's philosophy of organism is holistic-relational. These are not his
words , but they are descriptive of his particular speculative process philosophy.
In the context of Whitehead's philosophizing, the reduction of experience to
present sense perceptions is a fallacy . Expe rience is also shaped by the past and
the future. The antecedent past as well as the imminent future are as important
as the present mental and physical experience-what Whitehead calls "viscera l"
and "visual" feelings. If, as has been pointed out in other discussions, we are our
relationships, internal and external, then any consideration of experience must
also be highly relational. A togetherness of past, present, and future , offeelings,
knowing, and anticipation, of value, structure , and possibilities constitutes a vast
complexity. That complexity belies the simple clarity so often associated with
experience. When we muse about experience or others relate an account of
experience, all too often one of two errors is present. Either attention to detai I
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Self-Education 81
ignores the larger context or attention to context ignores detail. Both are present,
but the emotions associated with any experience cloud clear analysis. When clear
analysis is claimed, the truth may not be present. The fol1owing quotation from
Whitehead grasps the idea and opens the way to seeing educational implications:
There is a conventional view of experience, never admitted when explicitly

challenged, but persistently lurking in the tacit presuppositions. This view
conceives experience as clear-cut knowledge of clear-cut items with clear-
cut connections with each other. This is the conception of a trim, tidy, finite
experience uniformly il1uminated. No notion could be further from the
truth . In the first place the equating of experience with clarity of knowledge
is against evidence.
Further, the clarity cannot be segregated from the vagueness. The together-
ness of the things that are clear refuses to yield its secret to clear analytic
intuition . The whole forms a system, but when we set out to describe the
system direct intuition plays us false. Our conscious awareness is fluctuat-
ing, flitting , and not under control. It lacks penetration. The penetration of
intuition follows upon the expectation of thought. This is the secret of
attention."
1f we ob serve actual teaching in the classroom, we see evidence of what

Whitehead has been saying. Experiences both vicarious and direct, individual
and group are treated simplistically by teachers, especially those who readily
assume that clear transmission of information assures clear reception by learners.
Explanation of vocabulary, clarification of context, concrete experience, obvious
expectations, may all be present, but the learning experience wiJI stiJI be influ-
enced by factors uncontrollable by the teacher and frequently no more under the
control of the learner. Traditional learning theory tends to disregard the emo-
tional complexity of learning. Whitehead 's views would lead us to take a more
relational view of learning experiences. His views direct us toward groundedness
of that learning, and away from transmission of information toward construction
of our own learning. There are implications in Whitehead's theory of experience
for the importance of self-education of individual learners, a topic we tum to next
in the identification of elements of Whitehead 's philosophy.
K. Self-Education
"The students are alive, and the purpose of education is to stimulate and guide
their self-development."? This simple statement stakes out for educators a
fundamental notion found in Whitehead's educational philosophy-self-educa-
tion is a natural condition of living creatures. This seems self-evident when we
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think of infants and young animals learning great amounts of information either
by direct guidance or by exploration. Babies put things in their mouths, kittens
climb trees, students read voluntarily, scholars conduct research-all self-educa-
tive acts. It is the idea of self-education that these few paragraphs are about, an
idea that Whitehead discusses both in his informal and formal philosophy. While
others can teach us, our actual learning is an individual, personal act. This is
obvious. What is not so obvious is the extension of that idea to concepts such as
"the self-educative individual" or to " lifelong learning." In one of his talks,
Whitehead tells young men, " In reality you educate yourselves. No one else can
do it for you. You are not pieces of clay which clever teachers are modeling into
educated men. It is your own effort which alone essentially counts.' ?'
This simple statement of informal educational theory is echoed later as White-

head writes of actual entities and self-causation in his metaphysics. Whether
actual entities , or societies, or multiplicities of societies, the creativity within each
creature provides movement toward final aim and satisfaction. In each human
being is the same condition-a natural, generic inclination to learn . This natural
inclination , with some foundation and nurturing, can become movement toward
self-education as a personal characteristic of individual learners . Oliver writes
about this idea, saying :
Whereas other s would claim that the student requires help in order to meet
an educational criterion, after which she or he is improved, Whitehead ' s
theory of metaph ysical creativity suggests that the student, as entity, himself
or herself exp eriences the novel for its own sake. It is not that the entit y
needs improvement but that it has movement. And this movement is natu-
rally self-impelled. (Italics mine.)"
In the very simplest of terms , the important message for educators about self-
education was written by Whitehead when he said , " But for all your stimulation
and guidance the creative impulse towards growth comes from within, and is
intensively characteristic of the individual."?' Now let us turn to a deeper under-
standing of that basic idea.
Self-education does not occur in isolation ; it requires an environment with
which the self-educative individual can interact intellectually, emotionally, and
physically. It is all too easy to think of self-education as isolated , individual,
personal , intimate, and private . It may be. But a context is always present. That
cont ext may include a clas sroom , a home , a library , a special thinking spot, a
favorite author, a new interest, a nurturing workplace, particular friends, a stimu-
lating insight. All of these, and others that one may think of, stimulate the desire
to learn for some intrinsic reason. Now , self-education may also be for extrinsic
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Spirituality 83
reasons . For example, learning to do word-processing makes writing this book

much simpler for me . The information came from without-a friend as tutor, a
community college course. But the motivation came from within as the frustra-
tion of typing, retyping, cutting, pasting , etc. became burdensome. Joe Burnett
puts the idea of the individual , and by implication self-education, into a
Whiteheadian context as he discusses a concept found in Whitehead's formal
philosophy, that of understanding the individual as a result (concrescence) of
purposeful experience. Self-education, growth, change are processes whereby
inheritance, environment, and experience are folded into a new unity, a novel
occasion, a new individual." As we seek to understand self-education, we must
consider the place of Whitehead's metaphysics. The individual exhibits an
"insistent concrescence into unity" that contributes to coherence." Whitehead
writes, "No entity .. . can display disjoined roles .'?" His whole theory of how
individuals become is reflected in the idea that in self-education the many are
becoming one. The individual self-educative learner is not functioning solely in
relation to himself but in relation to both inheritance and environment.
The concept of self-education is nested within the frame of Whitehead's
philosophy of organism. All that has been written previously in this chapter
applies to self-education. Creativity is present in all creatures and all events ,
including self-educative acts. Emotion, experience, and value determine the
nature of the educative acts. Relatedness to self and to others, the whole environ-
ment, is present in self-education. We need not go on. Thought-out process
education in the classroom and self-education of an individual are events that
contain the same elements. Their difference lies, I think, with the idea of volition.
Schooling in part icular and formal education in general are subject to a high
degree of external relatedness. The teacher chooses, the college assigns, the
institution evaluates. But, in self-education, the individual, responding primarily
to internal relations and only secondarily to external relations, shapes the educa-
tive event. Whitehead contends that "the principle of progress is from within; the
discovery is made by ourselves, the discipline is self-discipline, and the fruition
is the outcome of our own initiative.t'" The disciplined initiative of an individual
is necessary for self-education, but that individual initiative should not be con-
fused with individualism that is contrary to pluralism and sense of community
suggested in Whitehead's philosophy.
Self-education, as understood within a Whiteheadian context, is not individ-
ualistic. Yes, one ideal for education is the self-educative individual. Certainly,
in the world of rapid change, instantaneous information, and unknown economic
characteristics, an individual's ability to continue to learn is essential. But an
educational competence that sounds by its name, self-education, as if it is individ-
ualistic need not be. Individuals, even the self-educated ones, do live in commu-
nity. Their learning is in various ways shared with others at home, at work, and
in the community. These necessary external relations work against an extreme
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84 Speculation : Examining Whitehead's Philosophy
individualism. The notion that the self-educative competence that is desired

creates an individualistic independence is fallacious . Victor Lowe has written :
Independent existence is a myth , whether you ascribe it to God or to a

particle of matter in Newtonian physics, to persons, to nations , to things , or
to meanings. To understand is to see things together, and to see them as, in
Whitehead's favorite phrase, "requiring each other.?"
This is the common sense of Whitehead's notion of self-education. Every bit of

learning is self-learning; all education is self-education; and everything in this
world, including learning, is related . This has been a recurring theme of this
chapter and is, I think, the significant message from process philosophy for all
educators.
L. Spirituality
As this chapter is drawn to a close , one more topic must be discussed before
moving on to the next chapter and the construction of a Whiteheadian philosophy
of education . This is a topic not addressed explicitly by Whitehead but is inherent
in much of what he writes in Parts 1 and 5 of Adventures ofIdeas and in Part 5
of Process and Reality. The topic to which I refer is the spiritual nature of
humankind. The historic position of the United States on religion and public
schooling has caused educators to ignore this vital aspect of our humanity. Such
indifference is detrimental to the entire effort to educate, particularly in the
holistic-relational construct of Whiteheadian education . Human beings are more
than minds and bodies as the pages of this chapter have made plain. As we
examine a Whiteheadian philosophy of education, we must include consideration
of the human spirit and the spiritual nature of persons . In the context of this book
on education, the spiritual nature of humankind is defined to include much that
is considered secular and only marginally to refer to sacred spirituality . Spiritual-
ity as developed and discussed in these pages is about that combination of emo-
tion, physical experience, and intellect that accompanies (I) a search for the
unknown as in some aesthetic experiences, and (2) appreciation of the possibili-
ties of knowing beyond that which is directly perceived. Whitehead 's writings
are replete with references to these ideas. Part of the appeal of his writing to
people for whom much of his formal philosophy is unintelligible is centered on
his ability to identify elements of the human experience that are common to all
of us. The lengthy excerpt below captures, for me, the Whiteheadian perspective
on what I am calling the spiritual nature of humankind.
Something is still lacking . It is difficult to state it in terms that are wide

enough . Also, where clearly distinguished and exposed in all its bearings,
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Spirituality 85
it assumes an air of exaggeration. Habitually it is lurking at the edge of

consciousness, a modifying agency. It clings to our notion of the Platonic
' Harmony' , as a sort of atmosphere. It is somewhat at variance with the
notion of the 'Eros' . Also the Platonic 'Ideas' and 'Mathematical Rela-
tions' seem to kill it by their absence of' life and motion' . Apart from it,
the pursuit of ' Truth, Beauty , Adventure, Art' can be ruthless, hard, cruel ;
and thus , as the history of the Italian Renaissance illustrates, lacking in
some essential quality of civilization. The notion of 'tenderness' and of
' love' are too narrow, important though they be. We require the concept of
some more general quality , from which ' tenderness' emerges as a special-
ization. We are seeking for the notion of a Harmony of Harmonies, which
shall bind together the other four qualities, so as to exclude from our notion
of civilization the restless egotism with which they have often been pursued .
'Impersonality' is too dead a notion, and 'Tenderness' too narrow . I choose
the term 'Peace' for that Harmony of Harmonies which calms destructive
turbulence and completes civilization."
Whitehead 's notion of peace and the idea associated with secular spirituality
are not congruous , yet we fmd a great deal of similarity. In his essay on "Peace,"
Whitehead goes on to say :
It is a positive feeling which crowns the 'life and motion ' of the soul . . . .
It is a broadening feeling due to the emergence of some deep metaphysical
insight, unverbalized and yet momentous in its coordination of values. Its
first effect is the removal of the stress of acquisitive feeling arising from the
soul's preoccupation with itself. Thus Peace carries with it a surpassing of
personality."
Whitehead is referring to transcendence. That humankind displays transcendent

characteristics seems self-evident. Religions in their myriad forms , art, music ,
poetry, literature are all potentially transcending actions and events that express
a search for the unknown , an attempt to express that which is felt but not observ-
ably known. We see the spiritual nature of humankind, not only in aesthetics and
religion, but also in altruism , in caring, in respect for nature-in the many ways
that people go beyond self-interest to act, contemplate, serve, worship.
Why am I even considering the idea of spirituality, even a secular spiritual-
ity? Whitehead's work repeatedly connects with God as he develops a cosmol-
ogy . Out of this has come process theology. I do not care to address process
theology as such. John Cobb and others have done that well. But we cannot base
a book on Whitehead's philosophizing and ignore the spiritual. It is there ,
throughout most of his books. The question is, does it have any connection with
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educating? Yes it does, and for reasons only implied by Whitehead but made
explicit by Daniel Jordan who developed a model of education anchored in
aspects of Whitehead 's process philosophy. Jordan writes :
Relevance in education is associated not only with the highest intellectual

achievements of mankind but also with his most profound emotional and
spiritual insights; for within the individual occurs the interaction of the
breadth of his thought with the depths of his being-his ability to know and
his ability to love-that reflects a higher-order purpose, establishes the
relationships among things, and creates a meaning in experience."
In the holistic-relational philosophy that we have been examining the intellectual,

the physical, the emotional, and spiritual are all connected. To espouse a philoso-
phy of organism that disregards the spiritual nature of humankind is to accept a
limitation that is unnecessary and at odds with the breadth of Whitehead's
thought. Whitehead's philosophy, whether informal as in his wonderful talks to
societies of mathematics teachers, as revolutionary as his critique of scientific
materialism in Science and the Modern World, as inspiring as chapters in Adven-
tures of Ideas, or as pleasantly delightful as his lectures found in Modes of
Thought, is overwhelmingly full of zest, of wonder, of reaching beyond the
known and accepted. Whitehead's life as a scholar exhibited a spiritual dimen-
sion. So did his philosophy. So should any construction of a Whiteheadian
philosophy of education, which is the topic of the next chapter.
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PART THREE
GENERALIZATION
The final stage of generalization is Hegel 's synthesis. It is a return to

romanticism with added advantage of classified ideas and relevant tech-
nique. It is the fruition which has been the goal of precise training . It is the
final success .
Alfred North Whitehead, Aims ofEducation , p. 19
Generalization is the period following precision in which the skills and knowl-
edge acquired in that earlier stage are applied . It is the period in which ideas
linked together during precision are in tum linked to new situations. The princi-
ples we have learned earlier guide decisions and practice. Principles that have
been internalized become a mental habit rather than merely formal statements.
Let us remember that Whitehead said that generalization is a return to
romanticism . Indeed it is, not as naive as in the stage of romance, but full of zest
and confidence because ideals and skills have been brought together to create
competence. The possibility of success in a new endeavor is at hand because we
now possess a new level of competence. Within the frame of professional prac-
tice, generalization has to do with application of knowledge to new instructional
situations. These may be as simple as a young child exploring new combinations
of number relations, or as complex as a team of educators constructing a new
curriculum in response to an emerging societal problem. This third stage, gener-
alization, is an expression of the mastery of precision that comes from within the
individual. Depth of internalization and understanding of fact, rule, and principle
are evident in this stage. It is one that calls for principled application. Actions
are now guided by organizing principles, by ethical and moral standards, and by
an accepted level of professional performance standards . Some of these are
related to the content of instruction, others to human growth and development,
and still others to functioning within an institutional environment. All of the
thrill of romance and the confidence of precision are now joined in concrete
application to teaching and learning.
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Five
CONSTRUCTION: A WHITEHEADIAN
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
When educators find that their usual tools of professionalism-psychology in its
man y dimensions, curriculum design, teaching strategies, and administrative
schema-fail them in their efforts to achieve desired educational ends, they ,
sometimes, turn to philosophy in hopes of finding a coherent frame of values and
beliefs that will guide them in their search for answers to their questions. We
should not look to philosophy for concrete answers to pressing problems, but to
provide an intellectual and emotional vantage point from which we may examine
assumptions and hopefully gain insight. The vantage point we choose governs
the form and texture of the philosophical notions we will contemplate. The
position presented here is that a process philosophy, anchored in Whitehead's
views on education and his philosophy of organism, is an appropriate vantage
point from which to examine the central ideas of the education of human beings .
Whitehead's process philosophy offers a breadth and depth that can be a
much-needed foundation for educational practice. The richness of his philosoph y
of organism offers a powerful base from which we may begin the search for
appropriate questions and for guidance toward the answers one seeks. His views
on education, structured as a coherent philosophy of education, hold much
promise as educational philosophy and as a guide to practice . That promise is
rooted in his philosophy of organism , a process philosophy. Such a philosophy
is an appropriate foundation for a philosophy of education. The interaction of
learners with a variety of environments, events, and relationships is a process ,
which process philosophy explains and elaborates. Whitehead's writing across
a lifetime of thought about schooling , society , science, and civilization provides
the essence of a philosophy of education broad enough to satisfy concerns about
the complex process of educating human beings .
We do not have a written Whiteheadian philosophy of education as we do
John Dewey's educational thought. Whitehead's educational philosophy must
be drawn out of his talks to teachers and from his formal philosophical work. In
so doing, the unavoidable problem of the subjectivity of the writer arises. My
experiences, my interpretations of Whitehead's sometimes opaque text, my
understanding of process philosophy, all shape the nature of my construction of
a Whiteheadian philosophy. Whether such a construction accurately reflects
Whitehead is a matter for argument. The most that can be expected is that the
interpretation be rational , logical, based on thoughtful study .of Whitehead's
writings, and above all capture the spirit of his thinking about schooling, society ,
and process. My construction follows a simple outline, beginning with what I
take to be Whitehead's principal goal of education, proceeding to a theory of
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90 Construction : A Whiteheadian Philosophy ofEducation
education, then an examination of his ethics, metaphysics, and epistemology.

What is constructed is definitely not Whitehead's philosophy of education, for we
can never know what he would have written if he had pursued his intention to do
so. It is, however, a Whiteheadian philosophy of education, reflecting the spirit
and substance of Whitehead's thinking.
1. The Goal: A Balanced Education
Whitehead wrote of many aims of education, but one strikes me as paramount

and to lead to all the rest. That aim, which I choose to identify as the principal
Whiteheadian goal, is to achieve a balanced education, the fruit of which is
wisdom . Balanced education, as Whitehead advocated it, is one of the right mix
of necessary specialization and equal1y important generalization. Education in
a narrow groove is to be avoided. But specialization is not to be discredited.
Remember that Whitehead was educated at Cambridge to be a mathematician,
and he was a great one. But, it was said of Whitehead, "he had both," meaning
that he reflected in one person the two cultures of which CP. Snow has written .
The tension is not, however, over liberal studies versus scientific/technical ones
but breadth of view. The balance Whitehead was seeking is one of competence
in a specialization joined with a generalized understanding of society . Regard-
less of the specifics of curricular emphasis, what issues from a balanced educa-
tion should be wisdom. What is meant by wisdom, at least to educators? Wis-
dom comes not from knowledge, but from the way in which knowledge is held .
It comes not from information, for that requires relationship and context to
become knowledge . It comes not from experience, for that requires intellectual
activity for it to contribute to wisdom. Wisdom comes from a balanced education
whether that education comes through self-education, through acute sensitiv ity
to the meaning of experience, or through formal education. Wisdom is achieved
from consideration of knowledge, experience, emotions, and bodily feelings in
a broad context. The presence of both broadness and depth of feelings, experi-
ence , and knowledge is necessary if wisdom is to be achieved.
Wisdom cannot be taught; it is achieved by individuals. Wisdom is
achieved through experience that is interpreted relational1y. In contemporary
terms, wisdom may be thought of as connected with grounded knowing. By this
I mean a sense of history, connectedness, and the concrete and mystical aspect s
of experience that are the beginning of wisdom. Isolated facts and highly special-
ized knowledge, unconnected with life and failing to provide broad insight, lack
the capability to create wisdom . Much of contemporary education is of this
type-what Whitehead calls education in a narrow groove and the teaching of
inert ideas. Although factual, technical knowing is rightly valued in modem
society, it does not lead to wisdom. Whitehead's claim that balanced education
is the type of education that may lead to wisdom is an essential foundation of a
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A Theory ofEducation 91
Whiteheadian philosophy of education. Wisdom as an educational goal may seem

strange to readers who are used to thinking of competencies as the goals of
education. Whitehead expresses his feelings quite simply, "In the schools of
antiquity philosophers aspired to impart wisdom , in modem colleges our humbler
aim is to teach subjects."! He deplores a narrow education that developed only
specialized competence and fails to develop our full humanity and to develop
aesthetic appreciation. It is not competence, as important as that is, but wisdom
that is required if civilized societies are to advance or even be maintained.
2. A Theory of Education
Whitehead's essays and talks to teachers and school groups reveal definite ideas
about educating, which, when taken with parts of his later formal philosophy, can
be considered his theory of education. A theory of education describes the nature
of human beings and their societies and is the basis on which recommendations
about the what and how of educating are grounded. Within a theory of education
will be found presuppositions about learning, pedagogy, curriculum, administra-
tion, and evaluation. In addition to specific educational presuppositions, we may
also fmd ideas about human nature, about societies and civilization, all of which
should be regarded as illuminating the way toward the ultimate goal of education.
The most fundamental idea about human nature and education found in
Whitehead's educational thought is his notion that learning is a natural and
essential aspect of nature. Learners, young and old, in any era are willing and
eager to learn that which is relevant and meaningful. Whitehead saw students as
" alive"--eager to learn that which is concrete-be it arithmetic problems, a
translation from the Greek , or studying the geography of distant lands. Attempts
to teach inert ideas will fail. But where there is the opportunity for concrete
appreciation, learning will occur. This is a truth that is basic in Whitehead's
educational thinking.
Not only is it natural for human beings to learn; they also have a great
ability for self-education. To Whitehead, all education is self-education, and
indeed , others may teach us, but only the individual learns. Self-education should
be seen as more than simply pursuit of personal interest. Whitehead's process
thought leads us to reflect not only on the concrete act of individual learning, but
also, the philosophical considerations: concrescence, becoming, freedom, disci-
pline, volition that are present in the act of self-education. Self-education as
viewed from a Whiteheadian perspective is a creative act, one in which the
creativity foundational to Whitehead's philosophy of organism is demonstrably
present. Creativity is in all creatures; is especially evident and important in the
education of human beings; and is the source of the will to self-educate.
Less emphatic in Whitehead's writings, but implied and evident throughout
his philosophizing, is the value he places on the human spirit. We, as human
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92 Construction : A Whiteheadian Philosophy ofEducation
beings, have infinite capability to go beyond ourselves, to feel, to have a sense

of awe, to transcend, to seek the unknown . These basic human feelings are
expressed in art, in religion, in mystic experiences, in ordinary love. Whitehead,
frequently portrayed as the mathematician and philosopher ofscience that he was,
also wrote extensively of the aesthetic elements of the world . His essays in
Adventures ofIdeas bring forth a view of the human spirit that is inspiring and
refreshing. It is a message of belief in the ability of human beings, individually
and collectively, to advance civilization.
Any theory of education must address the question of how human beings
make meaning of experience. This has been a concern of philosophers and
teachers over the ages. Whitehead's ideas internal and external relations, the
nature of experience, and his unique position on sense perception apply to the
task of making sense of, and deriving meaning from our experiences. We need
to heighten our sense of the meaning of relationships, both as a mental construct
and as a concrete aspect of living, if we are to understand Whitehead's philoso-
phy of education . We are our relationships. The relationships we have with other
persons, with our own personal history, with our emotions, with ideas, with the
material world, determine who we are and what we think. The whole panoply of
relations associated with anyone occasion in school or in any other situation
shapes the meaning we get from any experience.
The nature of present and prior experience is another determinant of the
search for meaning. Whitehead is quite explicit in his epigram, "The basis of
experience is emotional." How we feel about something, what happens to us
emotionally, internally, is an integral aspect of experience. The meaning one
makes of any information, of any experience is highly personal, shaped by the
feelings associated with that particular event. The facts may be recognized as
indisputable, but what they mean is open to interpretation because of past experi-
ence and the feelings associated with it. Those feelings filter what is taught, what
is presented, what is perceived. Making meaning of an experience is highly
individual, is relational-holistic, and is dependent on many factors other than the
information given .
Whitehead's theory of perception indicates that what our senses tell us is not
necessarily that which is real. We make meaning from that which we think is
real, but, in fact, we do not know if what we have acquired through our senses,
mediated by our emotions, is the reality. The meaning, the sense, the interpreta-
tion of experience is colored by our feelings and emotions. My meaning is never
precisely yours, no matter how earnestly we try to share and explain our lan-
guage, our symbols, our examples. Differing perceptions of reality influence the
meaning we make of any specific event.
In a Whiteheadian theory of educating, the making of meaning is systemic.
As used here, "systemic" refers to the idea that every part is connected to every
other part; change in one part affects the whole. Whitehead's attention to internal
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A Theory ofEducation 93
and external relations becomes, in the context of systemic thinking, a powerful

principle for learning theory and particularly for the process of making meaning
of an educative experience. Whitehead's philosophy of organism, being holistic
as contrasted to reductionist, is to a large extent systemic . His philosophy, when
focused on experience viewed systemically, leads to the satisfaction of attaining
meaning from experience-in the frame of this book, meaning from educative
experiences.
Whitehead asks us to think of man in nature. The prevailing worldview has
been of humank ind and nature. Whitehead's suggested shift has significance for
education . For much of the modern era, exploitation of nature by human beings
has been a consistent aspect of the advance of civilization. Historically and
biblically, human beings have been seen as the overseers of the animals. In
recent centuries, human beings have been seen also as empowered to exploit
natural resources. Whitehead's thinking is that instead of educating to control
and exploit nature, we should educate to live in harmony with nature . In contem-
porary society, continual tension exists between those who call themselves
conservationists and those who see themselves as productive users of natural
resources . Missing from this argument is the Whiteheadian position of the place
of humankind in relation to nature. That place is as a part of nature, neither
above nature, nor in denial of the uniqueness of humankind. Our uniqueness
does not mean that we are not biological creatures as are other animals . We are
natural creatures, and part of the total environment around us. Despite the intel-
lectual, verbal, and spiritual capabilities that differentiate us from other living
things, we are we are in nature and inextricably linked to the biological and
physical world around us. In a Whiteheadian theory of education, that linkage
with nature is not disregarded, but becomes a powerful element.
A theory of education will usually indicate the type of society for which
persons are being educated. No philosophy of education, no theory of education
serves all societies even though commonalities of human nature and human
development are found in all societies . More than just society, Whiteheadian
philosophy addresses civilization, particularly Western civilization. Upon exami-
nation, the idea of civilization is an elusive one. With much justification, we look
back to the Greeks and Romans for clues. Yet for all that ancient civilization
offers us, it is not a model for the present and future. Contemporary societies are
shaped by emergent economic and scientific forces . Science, invention, and
technology have created continually emerging forms of civilization. Education
in and for a new civilization requires an education that will preserve the best of
prior civilization and advocate the specific forms and characteristics needed to
advance that civilization.
Whitehead would have us look to different characteristics than previously
embraced . He names the qualities of Truth , Beauty, Art, Adventure, and Peace.
Whitehead claims that these qualities are those whose joint realization constitutes
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94 Construction: A Whiteheadian Philosophy ofEducation
civilization . It is hard to reconcile these words and the images they bring to mind
with the material realities of the twentieth century. Yet, it is attention to truth,
appreciation of beauty, embracing of art, zest for adventure, and search for peace
that may be what is needed. Whitehead is not presenting a simple, happy outlook
on life that brings aesthetic appreciation and spiritual placidity. His treatment of
the qualities of Truth, Beauty, Art, Adventure, and Peace in Adventures ofIdeas
is complex. These qualities, if pursued in concrete application as the basis of
education by a society, would indeed be civilizing.
Civilized societies show the flow and connectedness of individuals and
events. They dispel the myth of independence, exemplify the importance of
relatedness and harmony, and cause us to be aware of the tender dynamic be-
tween persons and systems. Tucked within the idea of civilization and civilized
societies is the notion of community. Whitehead's emphasis on the relatedness
of all things quickly comes to the fore. Communities are not abstractions, they
are groupings; in the human situation, groupings of living individuals. A com-
munity is a society of individual persons bound together by some common
thread. Individuals in community cooperate to advance their community, their
society. Process thought has no place for individualism as imagined in Western,
particularly American, culture. Individuals are always in some sort of relationship
to others and to an environment. A human being is never truly alone . Actual
presence of others, the living and inanimate environment, memory and experi-
ence, put all of us in relationship to society , to community. The education of
individuals is education for community. The needs of the community for both
specialization and general competence sets some guidelines for the education of
individuals.
What should be taught, the curriculum, is a concern that arises in connection
with maintaining and advancing society. Much is said by Whitehead about
industrial-technological society and the requirement to know science and math
in such an age. Beyond this readily agreed upon concrete element of a formal
curriculum are several other subjects, skills, and behaviors associated with a
Whiteheadian theory of education. The emphasis of process philosophy on the
importance of the past assures a prominent place for lively study of history ,
preferably from source documents. Whitehead's insistence on the place of
aesthetics in civilization would lead to inclusion of a component in the arts,
particularly concrete appreciation of them . A foundation of general education,
rigorous and broad, as a cushion against the effects of necessary narrow special-
ization is to be found in a Whiteheadian curriculum. Thinking skills, reasoning,
the practical use of logic, recognition of good and bad ideas are apparent in this
curriculum; logic as real experience was strongly advocated by Whitehead. A
Whiteheadian instructional program would encourage in students the same
openness and recognition of diversity of ideas and values exhibited by White-
head . The extensive curriculum offerings found in high schools in the United
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Ethics 95
States would be modified in keeping with Whitehead's admonition to teach only

a few subjects and those well. Most importantly, the curriculum, the instructional
program viewed broadly, would recognize that "the students are alive ." There
must be zest, enthusiasm, and a sense of adventure as they engage in what White-
head aptly named an "adventure in ideas ."
Methods of teaching seem a long way from the thinking of Whitehead, the
metaphysician. But when he gave his talks to educators, he was not acting as a
metaphysician, but as a mathematician who was concerned about the evolving
industrial-technical age . The natural rhythm of learning as Whitehead saw it is
crucial to his concept of method . In addition, we ignore at our peril his admoni-
tions about the rhythm of freedom and discipline . Children should encounter real
ideas, not inert ones . He says that children should grapple with real ideas, not
engage in intellectual minuets. From his more metaphysical writings, we have
to consider the value and place of prehension and concrescence. They are vital
Whiteheadian contributions to learning theory.
No theory of education would be complete without an expression of how
management or control of education is to be conducted. Institutional arrange-
ments in a Whiteheadian school must be considered in a discussion of a
Whiteheadian theory of education. A Whiteheadian school is a small school ,
quite independent of any legally necessary larger administrative unit. Its pur-
poses and processes reflect its stated philosophy and announced goal. The goal
is a balanced education and its philosophy is a process philosophy. Curriculum,
teaching methods, selection of materials, evaluative techniques, and organiza-
tional patterns should be concrete examples of philosophy in action toward
intend ed purpo se. Whiteheadian philosophy calls attention to relationships,
rhythm , concrete application, aesthetic appreciation, and holism. These elements
of process philosophy in practice should be evident in the instructional program,
and also in administration and evaluation. The life of a school has many facets ;
a theory of teaching addresses them . School is a place where the young learn, not
only the prescribed curriculum, but also about living life, hopefully one of
adventure-in Whitehead's sense of encounter and engagement. For teachers,
school is a workplace, at times rewarding, at times difficult. For all who seek to
teach and learn, school is a highly relational place . A Whiteheadian theory of
teaching, when applied to the concrete reality ofa school as an institution, exem-
plifies the relational-holistic character of a Whiteheadian philosophy of educa-
tion.
3. Ethics
Whitehead's goal of a balanced education that results in wisdom cannot stand

alone. A goal is simply a statement of intent a desire, a hope . Realization of that
hope becomes possible when the intention is supported and justified by an ethics,
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usually, for education, a normative ethics that illuminates the purpose of the goal
and the life to be lived to achieve it. Unfortunately, Whitehead never wrote an
essay or chapter on ethical theory. The ethical theory supporting his chief educa-
tional goal, a balanced education, must be constructed from his several writings
about education , aesthetics, and human society. That is not to say that Whitehead
did not consider ethical matters; he chose to approach them through his consider-
ation of the unity of aesthetics, ideas, aims, etc. Closely associated with the idea
of balance in education is the idea of harmony within the world. As we shall see,
harmony within nature, peace as an attribute of civilization , and balanced educa-
tion are aspects of the ethics of a Whiteheadian philosophy of education.
Whitehead seeks the ideal of wisdom through education, but knows that
wisdom is not a goal of education. It is through a balanced education that wis-
dom can be obtained . That must be the goal. Formal education is not necessary
to obtain wisdom . A wisdom is to be found in persons who are not extensively
schooled but who are intelligent, principally exhibiting social intelligence. The
balance that Whitehead seeks may be obtained by balanced experience and
reflection or by a balanced education . That balanced education can be achieved
through engagement with our environment, through intelligent observation, and
above all by considering the relationship of ideas, things, and actions. Balanced
education is also achieved through design of an individual's studies so that formal
education is not education in a groove. Such studies will be broadly general, yet
with an opportunity for the specialized studies required for a rewarding life in a
complex society.
What sort of an education would a student seeking wisdom construct? What
would an advisor or teacher of this student seeking wisdom recommend? Assur-
edly, we would expect a balance of the sciences and the humanities. Within the
sciences, there would be opportunity to study the biological and physical basis
of the natural world . Mathematical competence would be necessary if we are to
fully grasp the significance of scientific information and make it part of personal
knowledge. Within the humanities would be experiences in a range of literary
and aesthetic engagements. Opportunities for concrete experience as well as
occasions of abstract theory would be evident.
Self-education, as contrasted to dependence on others, would be an aspect
of this education , for seeking wisdom is a lifelong endeavor and requires lifelong
learning. Yet, along with the independence of self-education would be deliberate
involvement with others, for we are our relations and wisdom will require know -
ing and appreciating persons of diverse views and backgrounds. A kind of
wisdom can be realized intellectually, but it is limited. Whitehead, who certainly
was an intellectual, also had intense involvement with fellow students at Cam-
bridge University and with his own students in his home at Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts. Involvement in practical issues: political, social , intellectual, environ-
mental , to whatever extent is appropriate for our student. Again , balance and
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Ethics 97
harmony dictate that concrete experience be connected to purpose. Emergent

wisdom must be applied to be of value and the young must have opportunities to
test their ideas and the relationships that determine practical outcomes.
The education of a student seeking wisdom would include several of the
factors that recur in Whitehead's writings. Among these are: reason, logic ,
aesthetic appreciation, and peace. Gathering of information is not knowledge.
A student will consciously think about the relationship of information to other
persons, to past experience, and to interests at hand. Confidence in one's ability
to reason from the data at hand and the feelings within is an attribute of balance
and a contributor to wisdom . Logic, not a set of rules, but disciplined, sensible
thinking about sequence, order, truth, assumptions, and conclusions is a part of
a balanced education and of wisdom . The awareness, the connectedness with
truth, beauty , and art that is inherent in aesthetic education will be present in the
education of a student seeking wisdom. Peace , thought of as self-understanding,
is a harmony of ideals and strivings, of ambition and altruism. It is the mark of
a person who sees the flux of events, the relationship of values, and the desirabil-
ity of balance in one's life and in the world . Whitehead wrote, "The essence of
Peace is that the individual whose strength of experience is founded upon this
ultimate intuition, thereby is extending the influence of the source of all order."?
What is that source of all order? The one source of all order in the life of those
persons seeking wisdom is manifested as a persistent spirituality. This element
of Whiteheadian philosophy, recognized by theologians, but ignored by educa-
tors, is the cornerstone of wisdom and is a vital necessity in a balanced education.
4. Metaphysics
Whitehead's metaphysics must be examined if a full accounting of his philosophy

of education is to be attempted. Metaphysics has been defined as the attempt to
present a coherent and consistent account of reality as a whole. Education is not
the whole of life and does not require a metaphysics that describes reality as a
whole. What is required is an examination of the metaphysics that focuses on
considerations of teaching, learning, and the conditions that affect these basic
elements of education. To present Whitehead's metaphysics in relation to educa-
tion necessitates going beyond his written work on education. That is not to
dismiss his informal educational writings . Whitehead's informal educational
writing and his formal philosophy are compatible and reflect his values and
feelings over decades of rich intellectual life. In his formal and informal philoso-
phy, we find psychological and sociological speculation and insight that bring
metaphysics and education into a stimulating relat ionship with educational
theory.
Whitehead wrote in Religion in the Making, " By metaphysics I mean the
science which seeks to discover the general ideas which are indispensably rele-
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vant to the analysis of everything that happens .'? "Analysis of everything that
happens " is a big order, seemingly well beyond the limits of educational theory.
But let us pause. Is it not true that human beings interact with their environment
in myriad ways? The content, the disciplines, the subject matter to be taught
come from a vast physical and intellectual world . How we perceive that world,
our worldview, affects learning and teaching, our growth and development, our
whole life. An understanding of what our environment, our world may be like
is necessary for making any meaning out of that interaction. Educators may not
fully accept Whitehead's "analysis of everything that happens," but awareness
of relationship to a very large world is requisite to the balanced education and
wisdom sought by Whitehead . His idea of seeking "the general ideas" does open
a metaphysical door to the examination of that which is indispensably relevant
to education.
In much of his formal philosophy, Whitehead is writing about ideas that are
indispensably relevant to the universe. What are the ideas in his metaphysics that
are ind ispensably relevant to our lesser universe--education and schooling?
Whitehead presents the charming ideas in his specific writings on education :
rhythm, freedom and discipline, self-education, zest, rejection of inert ideas, for
example. His formal philosophical ideas relate to the rise of scientific thinking
in modernity-ideas which shaped his metaphysics . Do such ideas as creativity,
prehension, concrescence, satisfaction, actual occasions, and process fit into
education? They fit nicely if we accept the idea that Whitehead speculated that
the most minute entities and the most complex societies function similarly. In
addition, if we ignore the opaque scholasticism of Whiteheadian scholars and
interpret loosely the marvelous speculation and insight presented by Whitehead,
then his speculation about what the world is like, and his theories of educating
human being s are seen as roughly congruent. His metaphysics, construed in
relation to teaching and learning, is, I believe, "indispensably relevant" to educa-
tion .
The foundation of that Whiteheadian metaphysics is found in his complex
categoreal scheme presented in Process and Reality. He set forth "creativity,"
"many," and "one" as the category ofthe ultimate. We, as educators, need to be
familiar with these metaph ysical elements which have significance for educa-
tional theory as well as for philosophy. Creativity is taken to be present in all
things. Creativity, thought of as a sort of driving force, is fundamental to all
process. Whether we study physics or psychology, at the root of all change is a
universal principle that Whitehead identified as creativity. It lies within every
object impelling a constant process of creating novelty. All things , including
ourselves, exhibit creativity as we become a novel entity ; then they create from
that entity, which "perishes," yet another novel entity; and so forth as Whitehead
says, "to the crack of doom. "
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Metaphysics 99
Because of creativity, from the many possibilities of an event comes one

novel occasion. Educators can readily see this principle at work as students
confront new ideas , integrate them , and thus create novel ideas . This is not a
static condition, but an on-going one-a process of movement from what is to
what will be. Whitehead 's construction of what goes on in the process of bring-
ing forth a novel occasion is conditioned by creativity. That construction in-
volves three ideas: prehension, concrescence, and satisfaction. For educational
purposes, they may be thought of as engagement, integration, and completion.
The student engages or is confronted by new information, feelings, or insights.
From that situation of many possibilities the relevant entities are consciously or
unconsciously selected-what Whitehead named prehens ion. They are integrated
into what already exists, a complex internal process--concrescence. The final
stage, when selection and integration are completed, is one of satisfaction. The
immediate situation has reached satisfaction, but, upon doing so, Whitehead says
it perishes and becomes one of the many from which another cycle of prehension,
concrescence, satisfaction is begun . According to Whitehead's philosophy of
organism, all of the world functions in this manner-a process.
Whitehead writes, "Metaphysics is nothing but description of the generali-
ties which apply to all details of practice." Such a statement is deceptively
simple. Locating and naming the generalities which apply to all details of
practice-even only the practice of educating-may be impossible in actuality.
Yet to name and examine a few in addition to our prior discussion of Whitehead 's
"category of the ultimate"--creativity, many, one-is manageable. For example,
in Adventures ofIdeas, Whitehead lays down three metaphysical principles that
guide the search for generalities which apply to details of practice. They have to
do with proc ess as reality, with which the reader is quite familiar, finitude, a
seemingly new idea, and individuality, an idea previously examined but now
connected to Whitehead's doctrine of harmony .'
These terms relate to education as much as to metaphysics if we are able to
put them into a frame of teaching and learning. Process is clearly present and is
the reality of learning, of human growth, and of change in the world . Finitude
refers to the idea of something being in its own nature finite, that is-it is what
it is until it enters a relationship which leads to change and novelty. In educa-
tional practice, taking a student where that student is and seeking to bring about
change by teaching that student is a commonplace. Whitehead would have us
fully realize that a student, or any society of occasions, is capable of becoming
many things as a result of relationships but cannot become something that is
contrary to limitations within or without the student or occa sion . We cannot
educate for democracy and fascism simultaneously. The symmetry of an alge-
braic graph may evoke aesthetic feelings, but, a graph is not a poem or a painting .
Having acknowledged the finite condition, Whitehead goes on to his third princi-
ple of individuality and its connection to harmony. In simplest terms, Whitehead
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has us recognize the finite individual and then seek the element by which distinct
individuals can be brought together in a harmony of new classification. Not
change of the unique individual, but a new perception or understanding due to
introduction of a harmonizing element. This not a new idea. We see it applied
in diplomacy and negotiation. The idea of recognizing individuality, celebrating
it, yet harmonizing disparate concepts and occas ions becomes important to
teaching and to learning when ideas, values , claims , etc. seem to be irreconcil-
able .
"Metaphysics" is not a term readily found in the conversations or even in
the professional writings of practical educators. Yet, metaphysical assumptions
are what guide our practices. Ideas about what the world is like, how things are
connected, how things get done are essential to living. Without implicit consider-
ation of the world, civilization as we know it would not exist. Educators confront
metaphysical ideas regularly. They frequently rename them with educational
vocabulary: goals, objectives, mission , beliefs, outcomes, strategies, etc. Meta-
physics is much with us, and, Whiteheadian metaphysics, urging educators to see
and act upon process as reality, is an undeniable feature of a Whiteheadian
philosophy of education.
5. Epistemology
As in the matter of ethical theory, Whitehead did not develop and write about an
epistemology. Examination of his writings reveals not a traditional epistemology,
but a theory of knowledge consistent with his worldview, one that is highly
relational. The epistemology to be drawn out of his philosophy of education
reflects his philosophy of organism. This is true of his specific educational
writings and his more formal work . Epistemological ideas are not separate,
abstract notions, but an integral part of the organic world about which Whitehead
writes. He does not see knowledge as passive but as dynamic. Knowledge is not
simply presented and stored. It is the result of interaction, of relations with ideas,
persons, things, one's self. Whitehead's general approach to knowledge is
metaphysical, not epistemic.
Whitehead's thinking about epistemic concepts is metaphysical ; it is part of
his endeavor to discover general ideas about the world. His most famous educa-
tional idea-the rhythm of learning-would seem, initially, to belie statements
about the metaphysical basis of his theory of knowledge . But, if we look at each
stage of his rhythm of learning-romance, precision, and satisfaction-there we
find indications of his metaphysical notions. Romance does not occur spontane-
ously. At this stage we find relationships between present and past, also emo-
tions-a range of emotions, and we find purpose-subjective aim . In the stage
of precision, will be found the same connection with relationships, experience,
and emotions, but with more intense attention to detail. At this stage, the details
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Conclusion 101
are connected to general ideas about the world. Facts and information become
knowledge on which the final stage of satisfaction depends. The structure, so
clear in al1 of Whitehead's educational writing, reappears in his metaphysical
writing; romance, precision, and satisfaction take the form of prehension, con-
crescence, and satisfaction. In both constructions, completion requires satisfac-
tion . Motion toward completion, toward satisfaction is essential. For learners,
that satisfaction is the achievement of some form of subjective aim .
In Whiteheadian philosophy of education, traditional ideas about epistemol-
ogy are largely ignored; they are replaced by his concerns about the importance
of connections, relationships, and experience, with general ideas of what the
world is like, and with recognition of process as reality . Knowing, learning,
changing, developing depend on process; above al1 Whitehead's epistemology
is one of process. It requires educators to reject the notion of learning as a
passive activity of transmission and to embrace a concept of learning as engage-
ment of subjects and objects in a flux of interplay: teacher and student, student
and material, teacher and material, student as self-educator, teacher in multiple
roles, student as active initiator, and more . Whitehead's epistemology, inferred
from his broad philosophical work in the absence of any specific writing, is one
of process in harmony with his process philosophy-the philosophy of organism .
6. Conclusion
These chapters have portrayed Whitehead as a person. Due to a dearth of bio-

graphical material, we do not know of him as we would like. We have been
required to turn to secondary sources to augment Victor Lowe's work as White-
head 's biographer. We have examined, al1 too briefly, Whitehead's writings over
a period of forty years . In so doing, we have sought to identify his educational
ideas in both his formal and informal philosophizing. And, final1y, a
Whiteheadian philosophy has been constructed. Now we must ask ourselves,
"What does Whitehead's process philosophy offer educators?" In the final pages
of this book, I argue that Whitehead's philosophy, as a whole, offers much to
teachers , to educational theorists, to philosophers, and to al1 concerned with the
education of human beings .
A. Why a Process Philosophy?
I have tried to make the case for process philosophy and Whiteheadian process
philosophy specifical1y. You may wel1 ask, "Why process philosophy, are there
no other philosophies that are appropriate ?" Several other respected philosophies
may be examined for their relevance to educating Why have they been put aside
and process philosophy advocated? Analytic philosophy, dominant in the col-
leges and universities, is a resource of inestimable value. But, how can analytic
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philosophy be used to create a coherent, workable philosophy? Pragmatism, ever

useful and popular, stops short, leaving unexplored questions. Critical philoso-
phy reveals the distortions and injustices of society, but fails to project coherent
alternatives. Existential philosophy appeals to our awakened responsibility, but
contains within itself the potential of self-destruction. Each of these philosophies
satisfies a portion of the need for educational thinking relevant to educating
human beings. None fully answer the call for relevancy, for creativity, for social
and intellectual progress. Process philosophy seems to be the most trustworthy
alternative. Process philosophy as it has been presented to you is highly relevant
to the chaotic times at the change of the centuries. It is presented as a unifying
philosophy, connecting in a flow of experience the many events, facts, and acts
of our lives in the real world. The stubborn facts, as Whitehead called them , are
that although the world is, from a metaphysical viewpoint, one seamless unity,
it is also, in concrete reality a universe of striking diversity. That diversity can
overwhelm teachers and undermine effective teaching and learning.
Whiteheadian process philosophy, provides a perspective on educating all human
beings that reduces the frustration and tension felt by teachers and enables and
empowers them to act confidently in the face of diversity and conflict.
B. A Whiteheadian School
No Whiteheadian school is known to me. Lowe cites few attempts to put White-
headian philosophy into practice. Scattered across the United States are centers
and programs that bear Whitehead's name . But no one has established a school
that deliberately, coherently, in an integrated manner, represents the philosophiz-
ing of Alfred North Whitehead. In the absence of exemplars, we must wonder
and speculate about the form, spirit, and substance of such a school. We need not
start with a blank slate. John Cobb has attempted "a synthetic statement of the
form that education would take if it were truly informed by Whitehead's vision. "
With Cobb's permission, I present to you a blending of his ideas and mine in a
statement that brings Cobb's Whiteheadian scholarship and my experience as a
schoolman to focus on the nature of a Whiteheadian education in a Whiteheadian
school.
From the outset, let us be crystal clear: school cannot offer the whole of
education . Yet to wall off schooling as a distinct isolated activity is contrary to
Whitehead's sense of the connectedness of all things , and certainly fails to
recognize the reality of the demands made on education by a complex, ever-
changing society. We would want the boundaries between school and society to
be fluid. Cobb asks, "How could we express in the school the close interconnec-
tedness with all other educative activities in society?" I find no easy answer, and
none will be attempted here . But, Cobb 's concern lays down one of the
Whiteheadian school 's operating principles-openness to accept responsibility
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Conclusion 103
for activities it can do well and willingness to consign to others those activities
they do better. Judgments as to roles and tasks are never easy, but the
Whiteheadian school, because it has a foundation in an articulated philosophy,
is able to be focused on its own purposes and at the same time be open to rela-
tions with other educative agencies.
By declaring that school cannot offer the whole of education, we require
ourselves to ask about the purposes of schooling and a Whiteheadian school in
particular. The purpose of a Whiteheadian school is different from that of Ameri-
can public schools as we have known them and also different from charter
schools and other alternative schools. In Cobb's words, "For Whitehead the
purpose of education is primarily aesthetic, that is, in the language of Adventures
ofIdeas, it is primarily for increasing strength of beauty. . . . the overall focus is
clearly on what happens in the interior life of people." We have not put much
emphasis in this book on Whitehead's aesthetic considerations. Much more
attention has been put on relations. The aesthetic, having to do with Whitehead's
ideas about Adventure, Art, Beauty, Peace and Truth, is relational. Much of what
Whitehead and Cobb are addressing is internal. We have been referring through-
out this book to internal relations-feelings about our experiences-our interior
life . Critics of education seem to ignore the aesthetic, focusing instead on the
cognitive. In a Whiteheadian school, these two concepts , cognitive and aesthetic ,
cannot be in conflict, but must be in a dynamic tension .
It is impossible, in a Whiteheadian context, to sharply separate ends from
means. Cobb would have us consider the relations of individuals , one to another,
as we consider how to shape a Whiteheadian school. He writes, "The strength of
beauty attained in one occasion in the life of individual students depends on
inheritance from others ." In the reality of the life of a school, this means that the
contributions of others to our knowledge, understanding, and satisfaction, and
ours to theirs, is a valued aspect of learning and teaching together. Learning how
to work together would be an integral part of schooling. Cooperative learn-
ing-an element of contemporary classroom practice, team teaching-done
excellently in some schools, and emerging personnel and management practices
that focus on individual and group development, reflect in the real world the
Whiteheadian vision of holism and relationality.
Interpreters of Whitehead cite another element of his thinking that would
shape a Whiteheadian school-awareness. Cobb mentions that Bernard Meland
uses the term "appreciative awareness." I have written that Robert Brumbaugh
uses the phrase "concrete appreciation." Attention to what is going on, to aware-
ness of total environment, not only human relations , but also in nature is, accord-
ing to Cobb a "distinctive emphasis" of Whitehead. Recognition of this aware-
ness and acting to enhance and enlarge it will shape the curriculum and instruc-
tional practices of a Whiteheadian school. We can see that emphasis on aware-
ness is a prescription for overcoming the inert ideas that Whitehead so vehe-
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mently criticized. An extension of the concept of awareness is the idea of enjoy-

ment of experience. Appreciating, enjoying, and relating to physical, social, and
intel1ectual experience leads to recognition of Whitehead's phase of romance as
a significant first part of the rhythm of growth. Whiteheadian educators will pay
close attention to the place of awareness in the educative process.
In a serious discussion ofthe Whiteheadian school, that often misunderstood
activity, physical education, appears and demands our attention. Awareness,
enjoyment, attention require healthy functioning of the body. Whitehead is not
writing about a required number of "gym " classes each week, but the develop-
ment of attention to the body . Cobb says of a Whiteheadian school, "Students
will be encouraged to listen to their bodies and learn from them, and reflection
about bodily experience will play its role in the whole process." We remember
Whitehead's words in Aims ofEducation, "the students are alive." That aliveness
has to do with relations, with awareness, with learning, and with the condition of
being human . Our bodies, our minds, and our spirit are intertwined and interde-
pendent. The Whiteheadian school is partial1y shaped by this reality.
In an earlier section of this book, I presented Charles Hartshorne's ener-
getic advocacy of prehension as the most important of Whitehead's ideas for
education . Cobb calls our attention to another distinctive feature-Whitehead's
doctrine of propositions. Cobb takes the position that "The heart of teach ing is
lifting appropriate propositions into the attention of students." For Whitehead it
is more important that a proposition be interesting than that it be true. In the
Whiteheadian school, it will be exploration of imaginative propositions that
contributes to the beauty that is to be derived from a Whiteheadian education.
What is the place of a Whiteheadian school in the socialization of children
into the values of a community? What is its stance regarding criticism of those
values? Whitehead tends toward a both-and position. This develops from atten-
tion and creative absorption of the past, out which a future, synthesized with that
past, may come . Cobb asks us to see that in Whitehead's writings we find evi-
dence that "socialization into the past and transcendence of the past are mutually
complementary rather than contradictory." A Whiteheadian school would have
its own distinctive values and would show how those values celebrate the past
while anticipating the future .
My last point about a Whiteheadian school calls attention to the rhythmic
advance from romance to precision to generalization as the most familiar and
distinctive feature of a Whiteheadian education. It is the last stage, generaliza-
tion, that is so crucial to a balanced education and which a Whiteheadian school
would be more successful than more narrowly focused schools . Education, as it
is now structured, is increasingly fragmented and narrow as the schooling years
ascend . We would hope that in a Whiteheadian school, as we ascend to higher
levels of education, we also broaden our views and encourage open, inclusive,
generalization.
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Conclusion 105
C. Coherence and Practice
The ideas .in process philosophy and Whitehead's educational thinking are not
unique. Most of these ideas maybe found elsewhere. The notion that such ideas
should be coherent and systematic is unique. In his opening remarks in Process
and Reality, Whitehead writes, "The philosophical scheme should be coherent,
logical, and in respect to interpretation, applicable and adequate."? He gives us
a new worldview, a new cosmology, and a new metaphysics. These are indeed
weighty intellectual matters, yet, as we have seen throughout these pages, his
formal and informal philosophy, when translated into specifics of schooling, are
full of common sense and applicability.
What Whiteheadian process philosophy gives to an educator willing to read
and think about what Whitehead writes, is a framework for the education of
human beings that is coherent and comprehensive. It addresses characteristics of
learners , places human beings squarely in the midst of nature, offers ideas about
civilization, emphasizes the connectedness of all entities, recognizes the spiritual
aspects of humankind, and throughout, illum inates the aesthetic components of
educating. It is, I believe, a philosophy from which a comprehensive program
can be developed. Such a comprehensive program does not exist anywhere. Yes,
there are excellent bits and pieces to be found in public and independent schools;
coherent programs exist, Waldorf and American Montessori, for example. What
we lack, and for which a Whiteheadian process philosophy can be the foundation ,
are well-reasoned, integrated , educational programs. In the opening sentences of
this chapter, the claim was made that when the usual tools of professionalism fail
educators, they at times, tum to philosophy in hopes of finding a coherent frame
of values and beliefs that will guide them in their search for answers to their
questions. Whiteheadian process philosophy provides the philosophical basis for
such contemporary practices as the essential schools movement-"teach few
subjects , but those well," and the constructivist movement-"the self-educating
learner." Having such a philosophy would enable practitioners of these and other
approaches to move on from attention to technique toward a vision of fully
educating human beings in all of our schools.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5
NOTES
Chapter One
I . Alfred North Whitehead, Essays in Science and Philosophy (New York: Philo-
sophical Library, 1947 ; reprint, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1968). The four
essays referred to are " Autobiographical Notes," " Memories," "The Education of an
Englishman," and " England and the Narrow Seas."
2. Victor Lowe, Alfred North Whitehead: The Man and His Work. Vol. I (1861-
1910) (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985). Lowe, Alfred North
Whitehead: The Man and His Work, Vol. 2 (1910-1947), ed. J.B. Schneewind (Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990) .
3. Lucien Price, ed. Dialogues ofAlfred North Whitehead (Boston : Atlantic-Little
Brown and Co ., 1954 ; reprint, Westport, Conn .: Greenwood Press, 1977).
4. Whitehead, Essays, p. 40 .
5. lbid., p. 4.
6. Lowe, Alfred North Whitehead, Vol. I , p. 46 .
7. Alfred North Whitehead, " Autobiographical Notes," The Philosophy ofAlfred
North Whitehead, ed . Paul A. Schilpp (Evanston, III.: Northwestern University Press,
194 I ; 2nd ed . New York : Tudor, 195 I), p. 7.
8. Whitehead, Essays, p. 12.
9. Lowe, Alfred North Whitehead, Vol. 2, p. 91.
10. Ibid. p., 135.
I I . Victor Lowe, Understanding Whitehead (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press, 1962), pp . 3- I 13.
12. Alfred North Whitehead. Introduction to Mathematics (London : Home Univer-
sity Library of Modern Knowledge, 191 I; reprint, London : Oxford University Press,
1978).
13. Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York: Macmillan Co., 1929;
corrected cd., cds. David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne, Free Press, 1978) , p. 3.
14. Lowe, Alfred North Whitehead, Vol. 2, pp. 335-340.
15. See An Enquiry Concerning the Principles ofNatural Knowledge (Cambridge,
England : Cambridge University Press, 1919; 2nd ed ., 1925 ; reprint, New York: Dover
Publ ications,1982). The Concept ofNature (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press, 1920; reprint, 1978) . The Principle of Relativity. with Applications to Physical
Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922) .
16. See Interpretation ofScience ed. A.H . Johnson (Indianapolis, Ind .: The Bobbs
Merrill Co ., 196 I) . Alfred North Whitehead, Essays in Science and Philosophy (New
York: Philosophical Library, 1947 ; reprint, Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1968),
Part 4.
Chapter Two
I. See David Ray Griffin, cd. Spirituality and Society (Albany : State University of
New York Press, 1988), pp . 1- I 4, and David Ray Griffin, cd . The Reenchantment of
Science (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), pp . 2- 13.
2. Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (New York: Macmillan
Co., 1925 ; Free Press, 1967), p. 2.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

108 Notes
3. Victor Lowe, Alfred North Whitehead : The Man and His Work, Vol. 2 (1910-
1947), ed. J.B . Schneewind, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), p.
167.
4. See Griffin, Spirituality and Society, pp . 8-13 .
5. John B. Cobb, Jr., "Alfred North Whitehead," in David Ray Griffin and others,
Founders ofConstructive Postmodern Philosophy: Peirce, James , Bergson, Whitehead,
and Hartshorne (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), p. 165 .
6. David Ray Griffin and others, Founders ofConstructive Postmodernism: Peirce,
James, Bergson, Whitehead, and Hartshorne (Albany: State University Press of New
York, 1993), p. viii .
7. Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York: Macmillan Co ., 1929 ;
corrected ed., eds . David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne; Free Press, 1978), p. 21.
8. George R. Lucas, The Rehabilitation of Whitehead (Albany: State University of
New York Press, 1989), p. 6.
9. Barbara MacKinnon, ed., American Philosophy: An Historical Anthology (Al-
bany : State University of New York Press, 1985), p. 394 .
10. Whitehead, Process and Reality, p. 2 I.
11. Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims ofEducation and Other Essays (New York:
Macmillan Co ., 1929 ; Free Press, 1967) , p. 3.
12. See David Ray Griffin, ed. Spirituality and Society (Albany: State University
of New York Press, 1988). David Ray Griffin, ed. The Reenchantment ofScience (Al-
bany : State University of New York Press, 1988) . David Ray Griffin, ed. Postmodern
Politics for a Planet in Crisis (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993). David
Ray Griffin and others, Founders of Constructive Postmodernism: Peirce, James,
Bergson, Whitehead, and Hartshorne (Albany : State University of New York Press,
1993).
13. See Peter M. Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice ofthe Learn ing
Organization (New York: Doubleday, 1990), and Margaret J. Wheatley, Leadership and
the New Science: Learning about Organization from an Orderly Universe (San Francisco:
Berrett-Koehler, 1992).
14. Peter M . Senge, The Fifth Discipline : The Art and Practice of the Learning
Organization (New York : Doubleday, 1990), p. 68 .
15. See the extensive work of Alfie Kohn , particularly, No Contest: the Case Against
Competition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986) .
16. Alfred North Whitehead, Adventures ofIdeas (New York : Macmillan Co ., 1933;
Free Press, 1967), p. 3 I .
17. Whitehead, Science, p. 205.
18. Bernard E. Meland, Higher Education and the Human Spirit (Chicago : Semi-
nary Cooperative Bookstore, 1953) , p. 47 .
19. Whitehead, Science , p. 64.
20. Frederick Ferre , "Toward a Postmodem Science and Technology," in Spiritual-
ity and Society, ed. David Ray Griffin (Albany: State University of New York Press,
1988), pp . 137-138.
2 I. Ibid ., p. 138.
22. Willis W. Harman, 'The Postmodern Heresy : Consciousness as Causal," in The
Reenchantment ofScience: Postmodern Proposals, ed . David Ray Griffin (Albany : State
University of New York Press, 1988), p. 137.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Notes 109
23. See William E. Doll, Jr., A Postmodern Perspective on Curriculum (New York:
Teachers College Press, 1993). Stephen Toulmin, The Return to Cosmology: Postmodern
Science and the Theology ofNature (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1982).
24 . Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure ofScientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. (Chicago :
Univer sity of Chicago Press, 1970).
Chapter Three
1. Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (New York : Macmillan
Co., 1925; Free Press, 1967), p. 79.
2. George R. Lucas, Jr., The Rehabilitation ofWhitehead (Albany : State University
of New York Press, 1989), p. 6.
3. Alfred North Whitehead, Religion in the Making (New York : Macmillan
Co.,1926 ; reprint, New York : New American Library, 1974), p. 82.
4. Robert S. Brumbaugh, " Some Applications of Process and Reality 1 and 11to
Educational Practice ," Educational Theory, 39 (Fall 1989), p. 385.
5. Joe R. Burnett, "The Educational Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead" (Ph.D.
diss., New York University, 1958).
6. See Victor Lowe, Alfred North Whitehead: The Man and His Work, Vol. 2 (1910-
1947), ed. J.B. Schneewind (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), pp.
132-134.
7. Burnett, "Educational Philosophy." Harold B. Dunkel, Whitehead on Education
(Columbus, Ohio: State University Press, 1965).
8. Burnett, " Educational Philosophy," Abstract, p. iv.
9. Dunkel, Whitehead, p. 7
10. Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York: Macmillan Co., 1929;
corrected ed., eds. David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne, Free Press, 1978), p. 244.
II. Dunkel, Whitehead, pp. 16-20.
12. Henry Wyman Holmes, "Whitehead's Views on Education," in The Philosophy
ofAlfred North Whitehead, ed. Paul A. Schilpp (Evanston, III : Northwestern University
Press 1941; 2nd ed. New York : Tudor , 1951).
13. Ibid., p. 634.
14.Nathaniel Lawrence , " Whitehead: Teacher of Teachers," in Plato, Time, and
Education ed. Brian P. Hendley (Albany : State University of New York Press, 1982), p.
237 .
15. Ibid ., p. 240.
16. Robert S. Brumbaugh, Whitehead, Process Philosophy, and Education (Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1982), pp. 1-19.
17. Ibid., pp. 2-3.
18. Dunkel , Whitehead, p. 171.
19. Ibid ., p. 173.
20. Burnett, "Educational Philosophy," Abstract , p. iv.
21. Joe R. Burnett, "Alfred North Whitehead," Educational Theory, 11 (October
1961), p. 193.
22. See Appendix below, "Whitehead' s Writings Relevant to Education"
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

110 Notes
23. Alfred North Whitehead , Introduction to Mathematics (London : Home Univer-

sity Library of Modern Knowledge, 1911 ; reprint, London : Oxford University Press ,
1978).
24. Brumbaugh, " Some Applications," p. 385 .
25. Whitehead, Introduction .
26 . Lowe , Alfred North Whitehead, Vol. 2 , p. 3.
27 . Whitehead, Introduction, p. 122.
28 . Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims of Education (New York : Macmillan Co. ,
1929 ; Free Press, 1967), p. 27.
29. Ibid., pp. 30-31.
30 . Whitehead, Aims , p. 47.
31. lbid., p. 51.
32. Ibid., p. 34.
33. Ibid., p. 37.
34. Alfred North Whitehead, Essays in Science and Philosophy (New York : Philo-
sophical Library, 1947; reprint, Westport, Conn .: Greenwood Press, 1968), p. 178.
35 . Alfred North Whitehead, The Organization of Thought , Educational and
Scientific (London : Williams and Norgate, 1911 ; reprint, Westport, Conn .: Greenwood
Press, 1974), p. 97.
36 . Whitehead, Essays, p. 177.
37. Ibid., p. 188.
38. Whitehead, Aims , p. 2.
39. Ibid.
40 . Whitehead, Essays , p. 176.
41. Whitehead, Aims, pp. 1-2.
42 . Ibid ., p. 7.
43. lbid. , p. 77.
44 . Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46 . Whitehead, Science , p. 18.
47. Whitehead, Religion, p. 82.
48 . Lowe, Alfred North Whitehead , Vol. 2, p. 185.
49. Alfred North Whitehead, Symbolism: Its Meaning and Effect (New York : Mac-
millan Co. , 1927; reprint, New York : Fordham University Press, 1985) , pp. 7-8 .
50. Ibid., p. 62 .
51. Alfred North Whitehead, The Function ofReason (Princeton : Princeton Univer-
sity Press , 1929 ; Boston: Beacon Press , 1958), p. 12.
52. Ibid., 4.
53. Whitehead, Process and Reality, pp. xi-xiv,
54 . Brumbaugh, "Some Applications," p. 385 .
55. Alfred North Whitehead, Adventures ofIdeas (New York : Macmillan Co ., 1938;
Free Press, 1969), p. vii.
56. lbid ., p. 98 .
57. See Daniel C. Jordan and Raymond F. Shephard , "The Philosophy of the Ani sa
Model." World Order, 7 (Fall 1972), pp. 23-31 .
58. Whitehead, Process and Reality, p. 3.
59. Peter A. Angeles, Dictionary ofPhilosophy (New York: Harper and Row, 1981),
p.272.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Notes III
60 . William K. Frankena, Philosophy of Education (New York: Macmillan Co .,

1965), p. 10.
61. Andrew 1. Reck, Speculative Philosophy: A Study ofIts Nature, Types, and Uses
(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1972), pp . 2-3.
62 . Whitehead, Process and Reality, p. 3.
63. lbid., p. 6.
64 . Whitehead, Adventures, p. 222 .
65 . Donald W. Oliver with the assistance of Kathleen Waldron Gershman, Educa-
tion, Modernity, and Fractured Meaning (Albany : State University of New York Press,
1989), p. 115 .
66 . Barbara MacKinnon, ed . American Philosophy: An Historical Anthology
(Albany : State University of New York Press, 1985), p. 394 .
Chapter Four
I . Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims of Education (New York: Macmillan Co .,

1929); Free Press, 1967), p. 11.
2. Elizabeth M. Kraus, The Metaphysics of Experience: A Companion to White-
head 's "Process and Reality" (New York : Fordham University Press, 1979), p. xii .
3 . Lucien Price, ed ., The Dialogues ofAlfred North Whitehead (Boston : Atlantic-
Little, Brown and Co. , 1954; reprint, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977), p. 16.
4. Donald W. Sherburne, A Key to Whitehead 's "Process and Reality" (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 33 .
5. See John B. Cobb, Jr. and David Ray Griffin , Process Theology: An Introductory
Exposition (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1976) . Ewart H. Cousins, ed ., Process
Theology (New York: Newman Press, 1971). John B. Cobb, Jr ., A Christian Natural
Theology (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1965). Charles Hartshorne, A Natural
Theology for Our Time (La Salle , Ill.: The Open Court Publi shing Co ., 1973). David Ray
Griffin, God and Religion in the Postmodern World (Albany: State University of New
York Press, 1989).
6 . Charles Hart shorne, Whitehead 's Philosophy (Lincoln : University of Nebraska
Press, 1972), p. 175.
7. Alfred North Whitehead, Adventures ofIdeas (New York: Macmillan Co. , 1933 ;
Free Press, 1967), p. 179.
8. Hartshorne, Whitehead 's Philosophy, p. 132.
9. F. Bradford Wallack, The Epochal Nature ofProcess in Whitehead 's Metaphysics
(Albany : State University of New York Press, 1980), p. 52-53 .
10. Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York : Macmillan Co., 1929 ;
corrected ed., eds . David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne; Free Press, 1978), p. 23.
11. Daniel C. Jordan, " Rx for Piaget's Complaint: A Science of Education," Journal
of Teacher Education , 30 (September-October 1979), p. 12.
12. Peter A. Angeles, Dictionary ofPhilosophy (New York: Harper and Row, 1981),
p.222.
13. Whitehead, Process and Reality, p. 21 I.
14. See Donald W. Sherburne, A Key to Whitehead 's "Process and Reality" ;
Elizabeth M. Kraus , The Metaphysics of Experience ; F. Bradford Wallack, The Epochal
Nature ofProcess in Whitehead's Metaphysics .
15. Wallack, Epochal Nature, p. 126.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

112 Notes
16. Kraus, Experience , p. 61 .

17. Whitehead, Aims, p. 3.
18. Ibid ., p. 17.
19. Alfred North Whitehead, Introduction to Mathematics (London : Home Univer-
sity Library of Modem Knowledge, 1911 ; reprint, London: Oxford University Press,
1978), p. 3.
20. Victor Lowe, Understanding Whitehead (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1962), p. 29 .
21. John B. Cobb, Jr., "Ecology, Science, and Religion," in The Reenchantment of
Science: Postmodern Proposals, ed. David Ray Griffin (Albany : State University of New
York Press, 1988), p. 107.
22 . Gregory Bateson, Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity (New York: E.P. Dutton,
1979), p. 13.
23 . Alfred North Whitehead, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural
Knowledge (Cambridge, England : Cambridge University Press, 1919 ; 2nd ed. 1925 ;
reprint, London: Dover Publications, 1982), p. 14.
24 . Stephen David Ross, Perspective in Whitehead 's Metaphysics (Albany: State
University of New York Press , 1983), p. 117.
25 . Whitehead, Process and Reality, p. 156.
26. A.H . Johnson, Whitehead and His Philosophy (Lanham, Md : University Press
of America, 1983), p. 17.
27. Ibid., p. 7.
28 . Kraus, Experience, p. 41.
29 . Harold B. Dunkel, Whitehead on Education (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State
University Press, 1965), p. 61.
30. Donald W. Oliver with the assistance of Kathleen Waldron Gershman, Educa-
tion, Modernity, and Fractured Meaning (Albany: State University of New York Press,
1989), p. 14.
31. Ibid ., p. 3.
32. Donald W. Oliver, "Grounded Knowing: A Postmodem Perspective on Teaching
and Learning," Educational Leadership, 47 (September 1990), pp . 64-69.
33 . Kraus, Experience, p. 41 .
34. Ibid .
35 . Whitehead, Aims, p. 30 .
36 . Whitehead, Adventures, pp . 47-48.
37. Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (New York: Macmillan
Co . 1925 ; Free Press, 1967) , p. 198.
38 . Alfred North Whitehead, Essays in Science and Philosophy (New York :
Philosophical Library, 1947 ; reprint, Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1975), p. 169.
39 . See Donald A. Schon, The Reflective Practitioner (New York: Basic Books,
1983); Educating the Reflective Practitioner (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987); and ed .
The Reflective Turn (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991) .
40 . Whitehead, Aims, p. 29 .
41. Ibid., p. 32.
42. Kraus, Experience, p. I.
43 . Whitehead, Science , p. 178.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Notes 113
44. Alfred North Whitehead, "Immortality," in The Philosophy of Alfred North

Whitehead, ed. Paul Arthur Schilpp (Evanston, III.: Northwestern University Press, 194 I;
2nd ed. New York : Tudor: 1951), p. 685.
45. George E. Axtelle, "Alfred North Whitehead and the Problem of Unity," Educa-
tional Theory, 19 (Fall 1969), p. 152.
46. Whitehead, "Immortality," p. 687.
47. Whitehead, Adventures, p. 176.
49. Alfred North Whitehead, The Function ofReason (Princeton: Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1929; Boston : Beacon Press, 1958), pp. 78-79 .
50. Whitehead, Aims, p. v.
51. Alfred North Whitehead , Essays in Science and Philosophy (New York :
Philosophical Library , 1947; reprint Westport, Conn .: Greenwood Press, 1968), p. 173.
52. Donald W. Oliver with the assistance of Kathleen Waldron Gershman, Educa-
tion, Modernity, and Fractured Meaning , p. 165.
54. Joe R. Burnett, "The Educational Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead"
(Ph.D. diss., New York University , 1958), pp. 319-320.
56. Ibid .
58. Lowe, Understanding Whitehead, p. 36.
59. Whitehead, Adventures, pp. 284-285 .
60. Ibid ., p. 285.
61. Daniel C. Jordan and Raymond F. Shepard. "The Philosophy of the Anisa
Model ," World Order, 7 (Fall 1972), p. 30.
Chapter Five
1. Alfred North Whitehead, The Aims of Education (New York : Macmillan Co.,
1929; Free Press, 1967), p. 29.
2. Alfred North Whitehead, Adventures in Ideas (New York : Macmillan Co., 1933;
Free Press, 1967), p. 292 .
3. Alfred North Whitehead , Religion in the Making (New York : Macmillan Co.,
1926; reprint , New York : New American Library , 1974), p. 82.
4. Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality (New York : Macmillan Co., 1929;
corrected edition , eds. David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne; Free Press, 1978),
p.13.
5. Whitehead, Adventures, pp. 274-279 .
6. Malcolm D. Evans, "Time for Practical Proposals: Some of John Cobb 's
Thoughts About a Whitehead ian Education," Association for Process Philosophy of
Educat ion Newsletter (September 1996).
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5
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_ _ _ _ . Process and Reality. New York: Macmillan Co., 1929; corrected edition, eds .
David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne. Free Press, 1978.
_ _ _ _ . Religion in the Making . New York: Macm illan Co., 1926; New York : New
American Library , 1974.
____. Science and the Modern World. New York : Macmillan Co., 1925; Free Press,
1967.
_ __ _ . Symbolism : Its Meaning and Effect. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927; reprint ,
New York: Fordham University Press, 1985.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

APPENDIX
WHITEHEAD'S WRITINGS RELEVANT

TO EDUCATION
1911
An Introduction to Mathematics. London : Home University Librar y of Modern
Knowledge, 1911; reprint , London : Oxford University Press, 1978.
"The Place of Mathematics in a Liberal Education," in Essays in Science and

Philosophy . New York : Philosophical Library, 1947; reprint , Westport, Conn. : Green-
wood Press, 1968.
1912
"T he Principles of Mathematics in Relation to Elementary Teaching," in The
Organi zation of Thought. Educational and Scientific. London : Williams and Norgate,
1917; reprint , Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1974.
1913
"The Mathematical Curriculum," in The Aims ofEducation and Other Essays. New
York : Macmillan Co ., 1929; The Free Press, 1967.
1916
'T he Aims of Education," in The Aims ofEducation and Other Essays. New York :
Macmillan Co.,1929; The Free Press, 1967.
1917
"Technical Education and Its Relation to Science and Literature," in The Aims of
Education and Other Essays. New York: Macmillan Co., 1929: The Free Press, 1967.
1921
"Science in General Educat ion," in Essays in Science and Philosophy. New York :
Philo sophic al Library , 1947; reprint , Westport , Conn .: Greenwood Press, 1968.
1922
"The Rhy thms of Education," in The Aims of Education and Other Essays. New
York : Macmillan Co., 1929; The Free Press, 1967.
1923
"The Place of Classics in Education ," in The Aims ofEducation and Other Essays.
New York: Macm illan Co., 1929; The Free Press, 1967.
"The Rhythmic Claims of Freedom and Discipline," in The Aims ofEducation and
Other Essays. New York : Macmillan Co., 1929; The Free Press, 1967.
1925
Science and the Modern World. New York : Macmillan Co., 1925; The Free Press,
1967.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

120 Appendix
1926
"The Education of an Englishman," in Essays in Science and Philosophy. New
York : Philosophical Library, 1947; reprint, Westport, Conn.: The Greenwood Press, 1968.
Religion in the Making. New York: Macmillan Co., 1926; New York: New Ameri-
can Library, 1974.
1927
"England and the Narrow Seas," in Essays in Science and Philosophy. New York :
Philosophical Library, 1947; reprint, Westport , Conn .: Greenwood Press, 1968.
1929
Symbolism: Its Meaning and Effect. New York: Macmillan Co., 1927; reprint, New
York : Fordham University Press, 1985.
The Function of Reason. Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1929; Boston,

Beacon Press, 1958.
Process and Reality. New York: Macmillan Co., 1929; corrected edition, eds. David
Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne. Free Press, 1978.
1930
"Historical Changes," in Essays in Science and Philosophy. New York : Philosophi-
cal Library, 1947; reprint, Westport , Conn., 1968.
1933
Adventures ofIdeas . New York : Macmillan Co., 1933; Free Press, 1967.
"The Study of the Past-Its Uses and Its Dangers," in Essays in Science and Philos-
ophy. New York : Philosophical Library , 1947; reprint, Westport , Conn ., 1968.
1941
"Autobiographical Notes," in Essays in Science and Philosophy. New York :
Philosophical Library, 1947; reprint, Westport , Conn .: Greenwood Press, 1968.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Malcolm D. Evans is currently executive secretary of the Association for Process

Philosoph y of Education , an organization focused on bringing the process philos-
oph ies of John Dewey , Henri Bergson , and Alfred North Whitehead to the
att ention of educational theorists and philosophers. He has been a teacher,
principal, and superintendent of schools in several communities. Following
retirement from public school administration, he was a visiting scholar at the
School of Theology at Claremont, California where the Center for Process Stud-
ies supports research on the process thought of Alfred North Whitehead. His
work in recent years has been in the advocacy of process philosophy as a founda-
tion of educational theory and practice. He received his Ed.D. in educational
administration from Harvard University.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5
INDEX
Adventures of Ideas (Whitehead), 54- ecology, 27-28
56,99 epistemology, 9, 75, 100-101
Aims of Education (Whitehead), 43-47 Essays in Science and Philosophy
Axtelle, George E., 79 (Whitehead),4, 7, 41-42
ethics, 95-96
balanced education, 48, 76-77 , 90, 95, experience, 75-77 , 80-83
96-98 , 104
Bateson, Gregory, 72 Ferre, Frederick, 27-28
becoming , 23-24, 53, 59, 60-61 , 77-78 , Function of Reason. The (Whitehead),
83, 99 52
being , 59-61 , 78, 99
biolog(ical)(y), 12,31 ,33,38,67,93 generalization, x, I , 87, 90, 104
Brumbaugh, Robert S. 34, 38-39 , 42, Gifford Lectures, 52
53,58, 103 Griffin , David Ray, 22-24
Burnett, Joe R.34-35 , 39-40 , 42, 83
harmon (izing) (y),49, 100
Cambridge University, 6-7 Hartshorne, Charl es, 66-68
Cobb, John B., Jr. 21, 85, 102-104 Harvard University, 8-9, 34, 42
collaboration, 19, 26, 27 higher order thinking skills, 45
commentaries on W' s writing s, 37-42 hol(ism)(istic) 28, 61
competition, 26-27 Holme s, Henry Wym an, 37
complementary science, 29
com prehensive conceptual matrix 37, individu al(ism), 9, 18, 25, 82, 86, 92
39 i. in community, 25, 82, 92
concentration, 45 inert ideas, 7, 46, 70, 79-80 , 90-91 , 98,
concrescence, 39, 68-70 103
concrete appreciation, 42, 44, 56 Introduction to Mathematics. An
connectedness, ix, 6, II , 12, 19,25,3 5, (Whitehead), 42-43
36, 56, 63-66 , 72-74 , 90, 94, 97,
102,105 Jordan , Daniel C., 86
constructive postmodernism, 21-29
creativity, 10, 18,22-24,63-67, 82-83, Kent, 3-4
98 knowing, ontological, 75
c. as process , 65, as actualization k., technical, 75
of potential, 64-65 knowledge, 73-76
creative advance , 9, 53, 65, 78 k., theory of, 73-75
curriculum, 39, 49, 52, 61, 71, 94-95 , Kraus, Elizabeth M., 70, 75-76 , 78
103
Lawrenc e, Nathaniel; 38
differentiation, 17-19, 68 Iearner(s), 30, 61, 65, 68-69,78-79,81-
Doll, William E., Jr., 109 n.23 83,101
Dunk el, Harold B., 35-36 , 39, 75
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

124 Index
learning, vii, ix, 2, 9, 19, 36, 39, 43, 55, preh ension, 38, 49, 54, 64, 66, 67-68 ,
61,91 69,70,99
I., theo ry, 31, 50, 81, 92-93, 95 Price, Lucien, 4
linear cause and effect, 18 Principia Mathematica (Russell and
logic, 44-45, 94, 97 Whitehead), 3, 7, 36
London , 7-8, 40-42 process, 23, 59-60
Lowe, Victor, 4, 8, 9, 17,43,72, 84 Process and Reality (Whitehead), 9, 18,
Lowell Lectures , 48 52-53
Lucas, George R., Jr., 33 process philosophy, 23, 59-61, 77
p.p. and education, 61-62
machin e as metaphor, 17,21 ,29 process theology, III n.5
MacKinnon, Barbara, 60
man in nature, 93 Ramsgate,3
materialism, 17-20 Reck, Andrew, 58
mathemati cs, II reduct ionism, 9, 28, 29, 61, 63
mathematical publ ications, II relatedness, 53,61 ,65,68,71-73,76,
mechan(ism)(istic)(ization), 13, 14, 15- 79,83 ,94
18 relation s, external, 18, 22, 72, 83,
mechanistic paradigm, 15-18 r. internal, 22, 72, 83
Meland, Bernard E., 27 relationships, 22, 72-74, 75-76, 86, 92
metaphysic(al)(s), 47, 49, 58, 64, 97- Religion in the Making (Wh itehead) ,
100 49,97
Mind and Nature (Bateson), 73 rhythm , 43, 70-72
misplaced concreteness, 17-18 romance, x, 1-2, 31,71 ,87,100
modem world, 15-16 Ross, Stephen David, 74
Modes of Thought (Whitehead), 56 Russell, Bertrand, 6-7, 8, 44
Oliver, Donald W., 60, 75, 82 satisfaction, 38, 54, 69-71, 82, 93, 98,
one and many, 22-23 99-101
Organization ofThought, The Schon, Donald A. 112 n.39
(Whitehead), 42 Science and the Modern World
(Whitehead), 47-49
paradigm , 17-22, 30 scientism, 15-17,20,22,27-29
peace, 55, 73, 80, 85, 93-96 scientific method, 15, 16-17,20
perception, 50, 74, 92 seamless coat, ix, 63
periodictityj .G, 70 self-education, 6, 81-84, 90-91, 96
philo sophy of organi sm, 9, 18, 21, 22- Senge, Peter M., 25
30,36,53 Sherborne, 5
postmod ern(ism)(ity), 20-22 , 23, 24, Sherborne School, 5-6
27 shifts of emphasis, 24-27
precision, x, 1-2, 31,43,71 simple location, 17
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Index 125
speculat(ion)(ive) 7, 8, 9, 28, 33, 52, W. as philosopher of science, 6,

58-60, 80 7,11-12,107n.15
speculative philosophy, 33, 52, 58-60 W.'s formal and informal
Speculative Philosophy (Reck), 58 philosophy compared, 3, 34, 35,
spiritual(ity), 27, 83-86 38,39-40,42,49,57-59,82,97
stages of growth, 31, 71 W.'s interest in education, 41-42
stubborn facts, 3 I, 102 W' s educational philosophy, 89-
students, Whitehead and, 7, 8, 10 105
s. in school, 19-20,33 ,46,47,60, W.'s theory of education, 49, 91-
77,88,91,94,99, 103, 104 95
symbol(s)(ism),50-52 W.'s writings, 42-56
Symbolism: Its Meaning and Effect Whitehead, Evelyn, 36, 64-65
(Whitehead), 50 Whitehead on Education (Dunkel), 35,
systematic philosophy, 10,34 36,39,75
systemic(ally)(s), 25, 28, 65, 92 Whitehead, Process Philosophy, and
s. thinking, 25, 93 Education (Brumbaugh) , 38-39
Whiteheadian school, 102-104
teach(er)(ing), 31, 43, 50-51, 60-61, 67, Whitehead's way, 9-11
68, 73, 78, 81, 95, 100, 105 wisdom, 44, 48, 55, 56, 64, 76-77, 90,
Toulmin, Stephen, 109 n.23 91-94
tree of life, 21, 22, 29, 57 world order, 13, 19,21 ,23,24,29,41 ,
Trinity College, 6, 41 49
worldview, ix, 6, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18,
University of London, 7, 41 20,21,22,23,25,29,55,57,63 ,
University of Virginia, 50 72, 93, 98, 100
University of Edinburgh, 52 W . , modern, 18, constructive
postmodern, 20-21, 22, process,
value(s) , 3, 5, 9, 36, 57, 74, 76, 78-80, 22
83,89,97, 104 World War 1,8
volition, 29, 83, 91
zest, 1,41 ,71,73,86,87,94,95,98
Wallack, F. Bradford, 67, 69
web(-like),II, 26, 46, 53, 55, 61, 63-
65, 72, 75
Whitehead, Alfred 3-4,
Whitehead, Alfred North, 3-12
W. as mathematician, 6-7, 9,10,
11,41 , III n.14
W. as metaphysician, 9, 10, 11,
12,36,40,49,82,95,97-100
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5
VIBS
The Value Inquiry Book Series is co-sponsored by:
American Maritain Association

American Society for Value Inquiry
Association for Personalist Studies
Association for Process Philosophy of Education
Center for East European Dialogue and Development, Rochester Institute
of
Technology
Centre for Cultural Research, Aarhus University
College of Education and Allied Professions, Bowling Green State
University
Concerned Philosophers for Peace
Conference of Philosophical Societies
Institute of Philosophy of the High Council of Scientific Research, Spain
International Academy of Philosophy of the Principality of Liechtenstein
International Society for Universalism
Natural Law Society
Philosophical Society of Finland
Philosophy Born of Struggle Association
Philosophy Seminar, University of Mainz
R.S. Hartman Institute for Formal and Applied Axiology
Society for Iberian and Latin-American Thought
Society for the Philosophic Study of Genocide and the Holocaust
Society for the Philosophy of Sex and Love
Yves R. Simon Institute.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Titles Published
1. Noel Balzer, The Human Being as a Logical Thinker.
2. Archie 1. Bahm, Axiology: The Science of Values.
3. H. P. P. (Hennie) Lotter, Justicefor an Unjust Society.
4. H. G. Callaway, Contextfor Meaning and Analysis: A Critical Study in the

Philosophy of Language .
5. Benjamin S. Llamzon, A Humane Case for Moral Intuition.
6. James R. Watson, Between Auschwitz and Tradition: Postmodern

Reflections on the Task of Thinking. A volume in Holocaust and Genocide
Studies.
7. Robert S. Hartman, Freedom to Live: The Robert Hartman Story, edited by

Arthur R. Ellis . A volume in Hartman Institute Axiology Studies.
8. Archie 1. Bahm, Ethics: The Science of Oughtness.
9. George David Miller, An Idiosyncratic Ethics; Or, the Lauramachean

Ethics .
10. Joseph P. DeMarco, A Coherence Theory in Ethics.
11. Frank G. Forrest, Valuemetrics": TheScience ofPersonal and Professional

Ethics . A volume in Hartman Institute Axiology Studies.
12. William Gerber, The Meaning of Life: Insights of the World 's Great
Thinkers.
13. Richard T. Hull, Editor, A Quarter Century of Value Inquiry: Presidential

Addresses ofthe American Societyfor Value Inquiry. A volume in Histories
and Addresses of Philosophical Societies.
14. William Gerber, Nuggets of Wisdom from Great Jewish Thinkers: From
Biblical Times to the Present.
15. Sidney Axinn, The Logic ofHope: Extensions ofKant's View ofReligion.
Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

16. Messay Kebede, Meaning and Development.
17. Amihud Gilead, The Platonic Odyssey: A Philosophical-Literary Inquiry

into the Phaedo.
18. Necip Fikri Alican, Mill's Principle of Utility: A Defense ofJohn Stuart
Mill 's Notorious Proof A volume in Universal Justice.
19. Michael H. Mitias, Editor, Philosophy and Architecture.
20. Roger T. Simonds, Rational Individualism: The Perennial Philosophy of

Legal Interpretation. A volume in Natural Law Studies.
21. William Pencak, The Conjlict ofLaw and Justice in the Icelandic Sagas.
22. Samuel M. Natale and Brian M. Rothschild, Editors, Values, Work,

Education : The Meanings of Work.
23. N. Georgopoulos and Michael Heim, Editors, Being Human in the

Ultimate: Studies in the Thought of John MAnderson.
24. Robert Wesson and Patricia A. Williams, Editors, Evolution and Human
Values.
25. Wim J. van der Steen, Facts, Values, and Methodology : A New Approach
to Ethics.
26. Avi Sagi and Daniel Statman, Religion and Morality .
27. Albert William Levi, The High Road of Humanity: The Seven Ethical
Ages of Western Man, edited by Donald Phillip Verene and Molly Black
Verene.
28. Samuel M. Natale and Brian M. Rothschild , Editors, Work Values:

Education, Organization, and Religious Concerns.
29. Laurence F. Bove and Laura Duhan Kaplan, Editors, From the Eye ofthe
Storm : Regional Conjlicts and the Philosophy of Peace. A volume in
Philosophy of Peace.
30. Robin Attfield , Value, Obligation, and Meta-Ethics .
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31. William Gerber, The Deepest Questions You Can Ask About God: As
Answered by the World's Great Thinkers.
32 . Daniel Statman, Moral Dilemmas.
33. Rem B. Edwards, Editor, Formal Axiology and Its Critics. A volume in
Hartman Institute Axiology Studies.
34 . George David Mill er and Conrad P. Pritscher, On Education and Values:

In Praise of Pariahs and Nomads. A volume in Philosophy of Education.
35. Paul S. Penn er, Altruistic Behavior: An Inquiry into Motivation.
36 . Corbin Fowl er, Morality for Moderns.
37 . Giambattista Vico, The Art of Rhetoric (Institutiones Oratoriae, 1711-

1741), from the definitive Lat in text and notes, Italian comment ary and
introduction by Giuli ano Crifo, translated and ed ited by Giorgio A. Pinton and
Arthur W. Shippee. A volume in Values in Italian Philosophy.
38. W. H. Werkmeiste r, Martin Heidegger on the Way, ed ited by Rich ard T.

Hull.
A volum e in Werkmeister Studies.
39 . Phillip Stambovsky , Myth and the Limits of Reason.
40 . Sa mantha Brennan, Tracy Isaacs, and Michael Milde, Editors, A Question

of Values: New Canadian Perspectives in Ethics and Political Philosophy.
41 . Peter A. Redpath, Cartes ian Nightmare: An Introduction to

Transcendental Sophistry. A volume in Studies in the History of Western
Philosophy.
42 . C lark Butler, History as the Story ofFreedom: Philosophy in Intercultural

Context, with Responses by sixteen scholars.
43. Denni s Rohatyn, Philosophy History Sophistry.
44. Leon Shaskolsky She leff, Social Cohesion and Legal Coercion: A Critique
of Weber, Durkheim, and Marx. Afterword by Virginia Black.
45. Al an Soble, Editor, Sex, Love, and Friendship: Studies of the Society for
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the Philosophy of Sex and Love, 1977-1992 . A volume in Histories and
Addresses of Philosophical Societies.
46. Peter A. Redpath, Wisdom 's Odyssey: From Philosophy to Transcendental

Sophistry. A volume in Studies in the History of Western Philosophy.
47. Albert A. Anderson , Universal Justice : A Dialectical Approach. A volume

in Universal Justice.
48. Pio Colonnello, The Philosophy ofJose Gaos. Translated from Italian by
Peter Cocozzella. Edited by Myra Moss. Introduction by Giovanni Gullace .
A volume in Values in Italian Philosophy.
49. Laura Duhan Kaplan and Laurence F. Bove, Editors, Philosophical

Perspectives on Power and Domination: Theories and Practices. A volume in
Philosophy of Peace.
50. Gregory F. Mellema, Collective Responsibility.
51. Josef Seifert , What Is Life? The Originality, Irreducibility, and Value of
Life. A volume in Central-European Value Studies.
52. William Gerber, Anatomy of What We Value Most.
53. Armando Molina, Our Ways: Values and Character, edited by Rem B.
Edwards. A volume in Hartman Institute Axiology Studies.
54. Kathleen J. Wininger, Nietzsche's Reclamation of Philosophy. A volume

in Central-European Value Studies.
55. Thomas Magnell , Editor, Explorations of Value.
56. HPP (Hermie) Lotter, Injustice, Violence, and Peace : The Case of South
Africa. A volume in Philosophy of Peace.
57. Lennart Nordenfelt, Talking About Health: A Philosophical Dialogue . A

volume in Nordic Value Studies.
58. Jon Mills and Janusz A. Polanowski, The Ontology of Prejudice. A

volume in Philosophy and Psychology.
59. Leena Vilkka, The Intrinsic Value of Nature.
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60. Palmer Talbutt, Jr., Rough Dialectics: Sorokin 's Philosophy ofValue, with
Contributions by Lawrence T. Nichols and Pitirim A. Sorokin.
61. C. L. Sheng, A Utilitarian General Theory of Value.
62. George David Miller, Negotiating Toward Truth: The Extinction of

Teachers and Students. Epilogue by Mark Roelof Eleveld . A volume In
Philosophy of Education.
63. William Gerber, Love, Poetry, and Immortality: Luminous Insights ofthe
World's Great Thinkers.
64. Dane R. Gordon, Editor, Philosophy in Post-Communist Europe. A

volume in Post-Communist European Thought.
65. Dane R. Gordon and J6zef Niznik, Editors, Criticism and Defense of
Rationality in Contemporary Philosophy. A volume in Post-Communist
European Thought.
66. John R. Shook, Pragmatism: An Annotated Bibliography, 1898-1940.

With Contributions by E. Paul Colella, Lesley Friedman , Frank X. Ryan, and
Ignas K. Skrupskelis.
67. Lansana Keita, The Human Project and the Temptations of Science .
68. Michael M. Kazanjian, Phenomenology and Education : Cosmology, Co-

Being, and Core Curriculum. A volume in Philosophy of Education.
69. James W. Vice, The Reopening ofthe American Mind: On Skepticism and
Constitutionalism.
70. Sarah Bishop Merrill, Defining Personhood: Toward the Ethics ofQuality
in Clinical Care.
71. Dane R. Gordon, Philosophy and Vision.
72. Alan Milchman and Alan Rosenberg, Editors, Postmodernism and the
Holocaust. A volume in Holocaust and Genocide Studies.
73. Peter A. Redpath , Masquerade ofthe Dream Walkers: Prophetic Theology

from the Cartesians to Hegel . A volume in Studies in the History of
Western Philosophy.
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74. Malcolm D. Evans, Whitehead and Philosophy of Education: The
Seamless Coat of Learning. A volume in Philosophy of Education .
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WHITEHEAD AND PHILOSOPHY

The Seamless Coat of Learning

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

The Seamless Coat of Learning

Amsterdam - Atlanta, GA 1998

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Part One : Romance

ONE Whitehead: A Life of the Mind in the World 3

TWO Context: Two Worldviews 15

1. The Modem Worldview: The Current Context for Education 16

Part Two : Precision 31

THREE Philosophy: Whitehead, Philosophy, and Education 33

1. Some Commentaries on Whitehead and Education 37

FOUR Speculation: Examining Whitehead's Philosophy 63

1. The Web of Whitehead's Thinking 63

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Part Three: Generalization 87

FIVE Construction: A Whiteheadian Philosophy of Education 89

1. The Goal: A Balanced Education 90

Appendix: Whitehead's Writings Relevant to Education 119

About the Author 121

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

George David Miller

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

in which we live. Attention to education by politicians, economists, industrialists,

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Dictionary ofPhilosophy, by Peter A. Angeles. Copyright © 1981 by Peter

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

The Dialogues ofAlfredNorth Whitehead edited by Lucien Price by pennis-

Understanding Whitehead by Victor Lowe. Copyright © 1962 The Johns

Excerpts from works by Alfred North Whitehead published by Simon and

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Excerpts from works published by State University of New York Press :

Reprinted from Whitehead, Process Philosophy, and Education by Robert

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Whitehead's most commonly known educational concept is that of the three

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

WHITEHEAD: A LIFE OF THE MIND IN THE

Alfred North Whitehead was an English mathematician, philosopher of science,

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Whitehead a connection with history, with community, and sense of personhood

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Whitehead . That influence, I believe, showed itself in his persistence in difficult

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

branches of mathematics and did research in topics of interest, particularly new

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Whitehead was delighted with the opportunity to take up a position in philosophy

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Whitehead's openness to alternatives was exemplified in his love ofconver-

Whitehead's long life (1861-1947) spanned an age oftremendous change in the

Malcolm D. Evans - 978-90-04-49401-5

Whitehead the philosopher of science was admired by philosophers on both sides

Whitehead's worldview is based on process associated with living things and