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LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
LIGHT FROM THE
ANCIENT EAST:
The New Testament Illustrated by Recently
Discovered Texts of the Graeco-
Roman World

BY
Do
'"ADOLF DEISSMANN
D.THEOL, (MARBURG), D.D. (ABERDEEN, ST. ANDREWS, MANCHESTER); PROFESSOR
OF NEW TESTAMENT EXEGESIS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN;
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL
INSTITUTE OF THE GERMAN REICH

pO TRANSLATED BY
LIONEL R. M. STRACHAN, M.A.-
GERMAN LECTURER IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM; !
FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF ST, JOHN’S
COLLEGE, OXFORD

“NEW AND COMPLETELY REVISED EDITION WITH

EIGHTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE LATEST
GERMAN EDITION

URIS LIBRARY
AUG 3 0 199]
a
HARPER & BROTHERS
NEW YORK and LONDON

) /
 ἣν τὸ φῶς τὸ ἀληθινόν, ὃ φωτίζει
πάντα ἄνθρωπον, ἐρχόμενον εἰς τὸν
κόσμον.
ALMAE MATRI

ABERDONENSI ft

SACRUM
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH! EDITION
THE cruel fate that overtook mankind in 1914 made deep
inroads even on the studies to which this book is devoted. It
carried off on the battlefield, or by starvation, privation and
sorrow of heart, many of the scholars, middle-aged as well as
young, who are named in the following pages, some of them
tried and trusted friends of my own; and of the survivors it
also demanded its tribute. Meit kept (to say nought of other
things) for full seven years almost completely cut off from my
old field of study. From 1914 to 1921, in such hours as were
not claimed by the University, I devoted myself almost
exclusively to fostering the solidarity which should prevail
amongst all Protestants and throughout oecumenical Christen-
dom, and which was most seriously endangered by the struggle
of the nations. This I attempted by means of my “ Evan-
gelischer Wochenbrief ’’ (circulated from Advent 1914 to the
beginning of 1917 also in English, under the title ‘‘ Protestant
Weekly Letter”’), by an extensive daily correspondence with indi-
viduals in connexion therewith, by organising, and by a consider-
able amount of attendance at conferences at home and abroad.
Meanwhile the book had long been out of print. Made
widely known in three? German and two® English editions,
there was still a considerable demand for it during and after
the war. As early as May 1915 my publisher, Dr. Paul Siebeck,
who had always shown sympathetic interest in the book, and
who has since passed away with his life’s work abundantly
prospered, drew up with me a contract for the new edition.
But it was.not until I had brought the ‘‘ Evangelischer Wochen-
brief ” to a close, at the end of 1921, that I was able to pursue
with energy the task of revision, hand in hand with the present
1 [So called, because the second edition was curiously styled ‘‘ second and
third.”——TR.]
2 (Really two, 1908 and 1909.—TR.]
3 [First edition, 1910; reprinted 1911.—TRr.]
1x
Χ PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
heads of my old firm of publishers, who carry on the paternal
tradition with all loyalty.
I now present the fourth German edition as the firstfruit of
my restored leisure. I am fully entitled to call it ‘“‘ completely
revised’’: there is scarcely a page to be found that has not
been altered (in some cases very considerably), and of new
matter, the product of the extraordinarily rich harvest in the
scientific study of antiquity since 1909, there is also no lack.
I refer, by way of illustration, to the enrichment of the collection
of ancient letters by certain items which, I think, may be
described as gems.
As regards the form of the book I have altered nothing,
although it would not have. been difficult to hit the taste of
those who think more highly of a learned work the more
unreadable it is. I had attempted (successfully, it seems) to
shape the material, by nature difficult and intractable, in such
fashion that, while research is promoted, even the novice,
educated men and women, practical people with intellectual
interests, may be able to follow the main course of the investi-
gation with some appreciation. This attempt was the outcome
of my own strongly developed general sense of form, and further
of the conviction that the literature of learning, if it is going to
be literature and not a labyrinth of parentheses, a chaos of
snippets, and a pasting together of paper slips, must aim at
artistic forms of its own. Though assigned myself to the
literary class, I have certainly a great weakness for the non-
literary and no small delight in the merely literary man’s
unconscious irony of himself. But that does not prevent me
from wishing to be seriously literary in literary things.
The demand for attention to form must be addressed with
double emphasis to our literature of research in these present
times, betokening, as they do, a catastrophe to German science
and learning. A German book on any learned subject cannot
1 Cf. Adolf von Harnack’s open letter to Viscount Haldane on the crisis
in German science and learning, in the.“ Berliner Tageblatt,” No. 586, of
24 Dec., 1922. [There followed, in Feb. 1923,an appeal for British assistance
to German Universities, signed by Troeltsch, Deissmann, Von Dobschiitz, and
Rudolf Eucken. The Society of Friends was the first body to undertake
University relief work in Germany after the Armistice, and the work was
continued by the World Student Christian Federation and the Universities
Committee of the Imperial War Relief Fund.—Tr.]
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION xi
be printed to-day without outside assistance, unless it is written
in a style intelligible to readers at home and abroad far beyond
the circle of the specialists. That, however, is impossible in
the case of very many, often the soundest, particular investi-
gations in certain branches of learning. But researches dealing
with the body and soul of the New Testament, the Book of
Humanity, can set themselves this aim. It must be possible
so to shape them that they may find, among the hundreds of
millions accessible to the indirect or direct influence of the New
Testament, some thousands able to follow the path of the
‘investigator in its main lines with pleasurable understanding.
Author and publisher have again attached special importance
to the facsimiles of ancient texts. It has been possible’ to
increase their number considerably, and for that readers will
join me in gratitude to the kindly helpers: Mr. H. I. Bell (of
the British Museum), Mr. C. C. Edgar (of the Cairo Museum),
Mr. Ellis H. Minns (of Cambridge, England), Sir William M.
Ramsay (Edinburgh), the Société des Etudes Juives (Paris),
ΤῸ. Weissbrodt (Braunsberg), Theodor Wiegand (Berlin).
These names, and the frequent references in the text to valuable
information received from cousins of the craft at home and
abroad, may show moreover that as regards the study of the
New Testament the barbed-wire entanglements of the evil
years (cf. Eph. ii. 14) have been broken down. In preparing
the new edition I have everywhere met with the old obliging-
ness and confidence. Very special gratitude is due to my
Berlin friends, Paul M. Meyer and Ulrich Wilcken. .. .

ADOLF DEISSMANN.
Berlin-Wilmersdorf
Prinzregentenstr. 6
26 Dec., 1922.
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
I was in the midst of preparations for a second Anatolian
journey when I heard from Dr. Paul Siebeck, about Christmas,
1908, that the first edition was nearly exhausted. I was able,
however, before my departure, to revise the book, making
improvements and additions to fit it for its new public
appearance. Many readers will welcome the considerable
increase in the number of illustrations. I am indebted to
many friends and colleagues who have corrected me and added
to my knowledge by letter or in reviews. Numerous instances
of this indebtedness will be found in the notes. . . .
My second journey, begun on 24 February and safely ended
on 6 May, 1909, was undertaken with financial assistance from
the Prussian Ministry of Education. I travelled with my
friends Carl Schmidt, Wilhelm Weber, and one younger com-
panion. Our route led us vié Constantinople to Asia Minor
(Eski Shehr, Angora, Konieh and environs, Afium-Kara-Hissar,
[Ala-shehr Philadelphia, Sardis,] Smyrna, Ephesus, Laodicea,
Hierapolis, Mersina, Pompeiopolis, Tarsus), Syria (Alexandretta,
Antioch on the Orontes, Beyrout, Baalbec, Damascus), Galilee
(Tiberias, Tell Hum Capernaum and environs, Nazareth),
Haifa with Carmel, Samaria, Judaea (Jerusalem, Bethlehem,
Jericho, Dead Sea, Jordan, Jaffa), and Lower Egypt (Port Said,
Cairo and environs, Alexandria). This long itinerary will gain
in distinctness if I say, speaking in terms of the New Testament,
that I was privileged to see the homes of St. Paul and the
Saviour Himself, and the principal roads traversed by them,
so far as these scenes of New Testament story were not yet
known to me from my first journey.
Looking back on the second journey, which took me also for
a brief space into the homeland of the papyri and ostraca of
which use is made in this book, I consider it an advantage that
I did not see Palestine until after I had seen Asia Minor and
ω xi
xiv PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
Syria. The great uniformity of the culture of the Mediter-
ranean lands was thus brought home to me more clearly, and
I think also that I was thus better prepared to realise the
peculiar characteristics of Palestine. I consider it equally
important that Jerusalem should be entered from the north, by
the high-road from Galilee. That is the historical road to the
Holy City, the pilgrims’ way. Thus Jesus as a boy of twelve,
thus St. Paul as a young man, and thus the Crusaders advanced
to conquer the city, and this ought still to be the only approach
to Jerusalem.
Only thus was it that Jerusalem became to me in many
respects the climax of the whole expedition. The-mass of
pathetic facts and problems connected with a unique past, the
motley commotion in the social and religious present, where,
however, vigorous types of ancient piety have kept alive
to this day—in all this the multitude of single observations
accumulated on the journey united to form one great general
impression of the essential character and value of the religious
East, which is a unity amidst all the confusion of tongues and
all the play of colours in the costumes.

Of course it has not been possible for me yet to work up

these observations. For that I must have time. But when I
think of all that I have learnt (I trust) for the better under-
standing of the gospels, the letters of St. Paul, the Acts of the
Apostles, and the Revelation of St. John, I cannot but express
my gratitude to the Ministry of Education for enabling me to
undertake this journey. I wish that right many of my fellow-
students might be given the same opportunity of beholding
with their own eyes the scenes of gospel and Primitive Christian
history. The New Testament is the most important monument
of the East that we possess; those who study it have therefore
a claim upon the East.
ADOLF DEISSMANN.
Berlin-Wilmersdorf,
9 June, 1909,
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
“ LicuT from the East ’—it is a curious title for the book, but
before you censure it just look for a moment at the Eastern
sunshine. On the castled height of Pergamum observe the
wondrous light bathing the marble of Hellenistic temples at
noonday. At Hagios Elias in Thera look with hushed rapture
upon the golden shimmer of the same light over the endless
expanse of the Mediterranean, and then in the vino santo of
the hospitable monks divine the glow of that same sun. Mark
what tones this light has at command even within stone walls,
when at Ephesus a patch of deep blue sky gleams through the
roof of a ruinous mosque upon an ancient column now mated to
a fig-tree. Nay, let but a single beam of the Eastern sun peep
through a chink of the door into the darkness of a poor Panagia
chapel: a dawning begins, a sparkling and quickening; the
one beam seems to wax twofold, tenfold; day breaks, you take
in the pious meaning of the wall frescoes and the inscribed
words, and the miserable poverty that built the shrine is
forgotten.
Make that sunbeam your own and take it with you to the
scene of your labours on the other side of the Alps. If you
have ancient texts to decipher, the sunbeam will bring stone
and potsherd to speech. If you have sculptures of the Medi-
terranean world to scrutinise, the sunbeam will put life into
them for you—men, horses, giants, and all. And if you have
been found worthy to study the sacred Scriptures, the sunbeam
will reanimate the apostles and evangelists, will bring out with
greater distinctness the august figure of the Redeemer from the
East, Him whom the Church is bound to reverence and to obey.
And then, if you speak of the East, you cannot help yourself :
made happy by its marvels, thankful for its gifts, you must
speak of the light of the East.
a, XV
 xvi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
After fifteen years spent in studying the Greek Bible and
other secular documents of the Hellenistic East, it was a matter
of extreme moment to me to be privileged in the spring months
of 1906 to take part in an expedition, assisted by a grant from
the Baden Ministry of Education, for study purposes to Vienna,
Buda Pesth, Bucharest, Constantinople, Asia Minor, Greece
with the principal islands, and Southern Italy. The tour was
organised and conducted in masterly fashion by Friedrich von
Duhn. In the great museums and at the centres where inter-
national excavations are in progress we had not only him to
instruct us, but the foremost authorities in archaeology and
epigraphy—Austrians, Hungarians, Roumanians, Turks, our
own German countrymen, Greeks, Englishmen, Frenchmen, and
Italians—rendered us the greatest assistance in our studies.
We were indebted most particularly to Wilhelm Dérpfeld and
my old schoolfellow Theodor Wiegand. For me personally the
whole expedition was hallowed with peculiar, unforgettable
solemnity owing to a deeply affecting family bereavement, the
sudden news of which reached me at Smyrna. Thus it dwells in
my memory now as a great event to which I owe both widening
and deepening of experience.
On my arrival home I began to write a book, combining my
impressions of the tour with observations I had already made
in the course of my studies. The foundation was provided by
a course of lectures! which I gave at the Hochstift, Frankfort
on the Main, in 1905, and which appeared afterwards in English,
first in serial 3 and then in book form.’ I was also able to make
use of smaller articles of mine, most of which appeared in
Die Christliche Welt, some being reprinted with my permission
in the eighth volume of Ernst Lohmann’s journal, Sonnen-
~ Aufgang : Mitteilungen aus dem Orient (1906). j
The linguistic details in Chapter 11. of the present book are to
some extent supplemented in my Cambridge lectures,’ one of
which is devoted to Septuagint philology. Of the new and
great tasks which the new texts set before the Séptuagint
1 An abstract of the course, entitled ‘‘ Das Neue Testament und die Schrift-
denkmaler der rémischen Kaiserzeit,” was printed in the Jahvbuch des Freien
Deutschen Hochstifts zu Frankfurt-am Main, 1905, pp. 79-95.
2 The Expository Times, October 1906 to April 1907.
3 New Light on the New Testament, Edinburgh, 1907.
* The Philology of the Greek Bible, London, 1908.
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xvii
scholar I have spoken but occasionally in the present book;
but nearly all the observations that I have brought together on
the New Testament could be carried further back and applied
in like manner to the Greek Old Testament.
At the desire of my publisher, Dr. Paul Siebeck, who displayed
great and intelligent interest in the whole field of my researches,
I have written the main text of the book (as distinct from the
footnotes) in a manner to be understood in all essentials by the
general reader without specialist knowledge. For the same
reason the Greek and Latin texts have been furnished with
translations—a good means, by the way, of enabling the author
to check his impressions. Dr. Siebeck complied most willingly
with my suggestion that a large number of the more important
texts should be shown in facsimile. In obtaining the necessary
photographs, rubbings, etc., I was assisted by several scholars
and publishers at home and abroad, and with especial liberality
by the Directors of the Royal Museums (Berlin), the Reichs-
post Museum (Berlin), the Epigraphical Commission of the
Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences, Lord Amherst of Hackney,
the Heidelberg University Library, the Egypt Exploration Fund
(London), the British Museum, and the Imperial Austrian
Archaeological Institute. For all this aid I return respectful
thanks.
From the beginning I was accompanied in my work by the
practical sympathy of my friend Ulrich Wilcken, who was also
one of those who helped by reading the proofs. The extent of
. my indebtedness to this pioneer worker in classical antiquities
cannot be gauged from the mere quotations in the book
itself... .

Little did I dream in October last (1907), when the book

began to be printed, that its completion would mark my fare-
well to the University of Heidelberg. Even after my summons
to another sphere of work I should have preferred to be able
to publish it in my capacity as a Heidelberg Professor, for it
is a Heidelberg book. But that summons caused the printing
to be delayed some weeks. If I am thus unable to write
Heidelberg after my name on the title-page, I must at least in
this place acknowledge what help and stimulus, what true
fellowship and friendship Heidelberg has brought me. I
XViil PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
regard it as a most kindly dispensation of Providence that for
more than ten years I have been privileged to live, work, and
learn in this ancient University—and for just those ten years in
which, while one’s own aims become gradually clearer, one is
still independent and receptive enough to be moulded by the
most various kinds of men and institutions. _
ADOLF DEISSMANN.
Castagnola, Lake of Lugano
19 March, 1908.
 TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE
THE translation of my friend Deissmann’s Licht vom Osten which I
originally made from the “ second and third ” edition of the German
work (Tiibingen, 1909) has at length been adapted in conformity
with the “ fourth, completely revised ” and enlarged edition of 1923.
The circumstances under which the revision was undertaken are
described in the author’s Preface. I should like to add that between
22 Nov., 1914, and 23 April,1918, a certain portion of the time given
to “ fostering Christian solidarity '’ was spent in tedious journeys
half-way round Berlin to visit his English translator in internment
either at Plétzensee Prison or at Ruhleben. Every two months or so
a long, weary journey was undertaken just for the sake of cheering
an enemy alien by half-an-hour’s talk under the eye of soldiers in a
guard-room; 21 visits were paid in all, permission having to be
obtained for each, not without difficulty, from the military
authorities. Rare indeed was the privilege. And the visitor never
came empty-handed, but brought with him mental pabulum and
always some‘creature comforts, even when the pinch was being felt
in the homes of Germany. ἐν φυλακῇ ἤμην, καὶ ἤλθετε πρός pe.
As in the case of the first edition of this book, the author has read
the proofs and replied to a number of questions submitted to him.
Additions for which the translator bears the responsibility are marked
(Tr.). Thanks fo Professor W. M. Calder and the publishers, the
number of illustrations has been increased by two (Figs. 2 and 53),
not included in the German edition, making a total of 85 illustrations
as compared with the 68 given in 1910. The facsimiles have their
value not only for the learned, who (by taking pains) can spell out a
good deal of the old writing, but also for the unlearned. Everybody
can gain from them, as the author says (p. 150), some idea of the
inimitable individuality of each papyrus letter. “ That autograph
Letter, it was once all luminous as a burning beacon, every word of
it a live coal, in its time; it was once a piece of the general fire and
light of Human Life, that Letter! Neither is it yet entirely extinct:
well read, there is still in it light enough to exhibit its own self; nay,
to diffuse a faint authentic twilight some distance round it. Heaped
embers which in the daylight looked black, may still look ved in the
xx
 ΧΧ TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE
utter darkness. These Letters . . . will convince any man that
the Past did exist! By degrees the combined small twilights may
produce a kind of general feeble twilight, rendering the Past
credible, the Ghosts of the Past in some glimpses of them visible ! "4
In the translations of the Greek texts I was naturally guided by
the German, but I did not feel called upon to follow it literally.
Even the translations of papyrus letters by Grenfell and Hunt,
which are of course made directly from the Greek, and which in
some cases have already attained popular celebrity, did not seem to
be the right thing for me to use, though I have carefully considered .
them. There is a modern ring about them ? which separates them
off from the diction of the English Bible, and so would have weakened
the comparison which it is a main object of this book to make
between the sacred and profane memorials of Hellenistic Greek. I
therefore have tried to render the Greek literally in language as far
as possible resembling that of the Authorised Version and the
Revised Version. If the word before me occurs in the Greek Bible
my principle is to adopt’ by preference one of the renderings of
King James’s translators. It is hoped that in this way the kinship
of these texts with the style and language of the Bible may be made
more conspicuous, and that even a reader who neglects the Greek
may be struck by the frequent Biblical echoes. The result may
leave something to be desired as regards clearness, but is it right in
translating an ancient letter to give it a perspicuity which the
original does not possess? And that ancient letters are not always
perspicuous any person acquainted only with English may see for
himself if he will trouble to look at even a modernised edition of the
fifteenth-century Paston Letters.
This subject is, I think, sufficiently important to be illustrated
by a comparison. Take these two renderings of a “ Saying ’’ in the
second Logia fragment from Oxyrhynchus :—
Jesus saith: Let him that seeketh Jesus saith: Let not him who
. not cease ... until he findeth, | seeks . . . cease until he finds,
and when he findeth he shall be | and when he finds he shall be
amazed, and having been amazed | astonished; astonished he _ shall
he shall reign, and having reigned | reach the kingdom, and having
he shall rest. reached the kingdom he shall rest.

The first is as printed at p. 426 below, the second is by Grenfell and

Hunt. The forms seeketh, findeth, him that are preferred to seeks,
finds, him who as being more archaic and Biblical. The Greek word
θαμβέω is translated amaze in Mark i. 27, x. 32, astonish in Mark
x. 24, Acts ix. 6; the R.V. uses amaze in each place, except in Acts
1 Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, Introduction, Ch. V.
2 Cf. the author’s protest about a similar matter, p. 11, n. 3 below.
 TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE xxi
ix.-6, where the word disappears from the text. So also βασιλεύω is
translated reign in Matt. ii. 22, Rom. v. 14, 17, 21, vi. 12, 1 Cor. iv. 8
(A.V. and R.V.). Note that and has dropped out before the second
astonished. It is unnecessary to give further details, but I suppose
there is not one of the translated texts but contains at least one
instance of specially chosen wording on these principles.
In the German edition the diacritical marks employed in the
Greek texts receive as a rule no explanation. I think, however,
there may be many readers able to appreciate such things who are
nevertheless not quite certain of their precise signification. The
following list is based on Grenfell and Hunt’s introductory note to
the Amherst Papyri :—

Square brackets [ ] indicate a lacuna, ¢.g. pp. 134, 139 f., 151 ff.,
162, 164f., 173f., 179.
Round brackets ( ) indicate the extension of an abbreviation, the
resolution of a ligature or symbol, e.g. pp. 166, 171, 173.
Angular brackets < > indicate that the letters enclosed in them
were omitted (i.e. not written) in the original, e.g. pp. 151,
168,174. (In the translation on p. 259 they indicate a word
and on p. 295 a letter which, though actually written in the
Greek, should be omitted.)
Double square brackets [[ ]] indicate that the letters enclosed in
them were deleted in the original. See Ρ. 153 and p. 165, n. 4.
Curly brackets { } indicate that the letters enclosed in them are
superfluous. See p. 194.
Dots within brackets indicate the approximate number of letters
missing, ¢.g. pp. I12I, 140, 152, 162, 179.
Dots outside brackets indicate mutilated or otherwise illegible
letters, e.g. pp. 121, 179.
Dots under letters indicate a probable but not certain reading,
e.g. pp. 121, 152f., 162, 164f., 174, 184, 187, 204.
Dashes under letters indicate an almost certain reading, e.g. pp.
174, 179, 184, 187.
A dash above a letter indicates a contraction, e.g. p. 216, lines 14
(Guapriq—dpaprinvy), 24, 28, p. 405 f. Sometimes it means
that the letter is used as a numeral, e.g. pp. 176, 200, 202.
The mysterious é on p. 187, line 23, is perhaps a numeral (= 5).
An oblique stroke / indicates (p. 103, n. 4; p. 388) the point where
a new line begins in the original.

The comparatively few abbreviations used in the book will, it is

hoped, explain themselves. ‘‘ P.S.I.,” which occurs at p. 155, n. 2,
‘and p. 156, n. 2, might be puzzling, but is explained at p. 152, n. 2.
ΧΧΙΪ TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE
A small numeral above the line after the name of a book (thus:
Sylloge*) indicates the edition. A sfecial monstrosity of this kind
occurs at p. 333, n. 1, where Kommentar, 8087 denotes the eighth
edition of vol. 8, and the seventh edition of vol. 9, which are bound
up together. At p. 226, n. 4, and p. 270 the symbol || means
“ parallel with.”
The Indices may still be regarded as of the author’s own design,
but with the improvements retained which 1 introduced into the
first English edition. When references are given not by the page
only, but also by the number of the footnote, this number is often
to be taken as a finger-post to a certain part of the text as well as to
the remark at the foot of the page.

L. R. M. 5.
Birmingham, 24 Feb. 1927.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER I
PAGE

THE PROBLEM—DISCOVERY AND NATURE OF THE NEW

TEXTS. ἢ A : : ‘ : . I-61
1. The Problem F F eS Ξ i : I
2. The Texts . ; : : i : : . II
(a) Inscriptions 3 : ‘ j : . XII
(ὃ) Papyri. " ; ᾿ ᾿ F . 24
(c) Ostraca . ; 5 : ; : - 50

CHAPTER II
THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT ILLUSTRATED FROM
THE NEw TEXTS : : ; 62-145
1. The Historical and the Dogmatic Method of New
Testament Philology. Principal Problems. . 62
2. The New Testament a Record of late Colloquial
Greek . : . ; : : ‘ . 69
3. Examples . é : : : . 92
A. Phonology and Reaencs : ‘ : - 72
B. Onomatology . : : é ΐ 2 93
C. Vocabulary. , ‘ : : : . 74
(a) Words : ᾧ . : . 74
(ὃ) Meanings of Words : : . 107
(c) Standing Phrases and Fixed Honivslae . στό
D. Syntax. : . . ‘ : . 11
E. Style 3 : - 31
4. The Essential Character of the Ge testi . 143
xxiii
Xxiv CONTENTS

CHAPTER III
PAGE

Tue New TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE, ILLUSTRATED BY THE

New TEXtTs 146-251
I.. The Problem of the Literary ‘Development of
Christianity 146
2. The Essential Distinction Gen Literary” sd
“ Non-Literary” 148
3. A Series of Twenty-six Ancient Letiss “(rom
Originals), representative of Non-Literary Writing 149
4. The Essential Distinction between the Letter and
the Epistle 227
5. Ancient Letters and ipistles 230
6. Primitive Christian Letters . 233
7. Primitive Christian Epistles. 242
8. The Literary Development of Primitive Christianity 245
g. The Essential Character of the New Testament 250

CHAPTER IV
SociAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY IN THE NEW TESTAMENT,
ILLUSTRATED FROM THE NEW TEXTs . 252-392
I. Clues in the New Testament referring to the Subject.
Remarks on Method. 252
.2. The Cultural Background of Primitive Christianity 267
3. The Religious World Sontemporaty with Primitive
Christianity : : 284
4. The Competing Cults . 288
5. Types of Individual Souls ee the Aseient Non-
Literary Classes . 290
6. Stimuli derived from Contemporary Popilar
Religion . 300
7. Stimuli derived form Contemporary Popular
Morality 308
8. Stimuli derived from ἼΗΙ Bomulas Dae . 318
g. Christ and the Caesars: Parallelism in the Technical
Language of their Cults . 338
1o. The Theological and the ReMi: Bidient in
Primitive Christianity 378
11. The Forces enabling Primitive Christianity ἴο gain
Converts 384
12. The Essential Charibier of ie ΠΝ Tetament 391
 CONTENTS XXV

CHAPTER V
7 PAGE

RETROSPECT—FUTURE WoRK OF RESEARCH : . 303-400

I. Retrospect : ᾿ 393
2. Christianity Popular in its Pateiealilies and Borns ,
of Expression . : : : : - 305
3. Future Work for the Philologist ‘ F ; . 307
4. Future Work for the Theologian . ἢ : . 400
5. The New Testament Lexicon ‘ 3 ; . 2401

APPENDIX I
JEWISH PRAYERS FOR VENGEANCE FOUND AT RHENEIA . . 413

APPENDIX II
ON THE TEXT OF THE SECOND LOGIA FRAGMENT FROM
OXYRHYNCHUS ᾿ : ὗ ᾿ ὶ ᾿ . 425

APPENDIX III
THE SUPPOSED FRAGMENT OF A GOSPEL AT CAIRO : . 430

APPENDIX IV
Lucitus—LUKE ᾿ ἢ ‘ : ᾿ 2 : . 435

APPENDIX V
THE SYNAGOGUE INSCRIPTION OF THEODOTUS AT JERUSALEM . 439

APPENDIX VI
THE DiptycuH ΟΕ M. VALERIUS QUADRATUS, A VETERAN OF
THE JERUSALEM CAMPAIGN . . . : . 442

APPENDIX VII
Tue EpitapH ΟΕ Recina, A RoMAN JEwEesSs . - - 447
Χχνὶ CONTENTS

APPENDIX VIII
PAGE
A JewisH INSCRIPTION IN THE THEATRE AT MILETUS 451
APPENDIX ΙΧ
THE SO-CALLED “‘ PLANETARY INSCRIPTION ” IN THE THEATRE
AT MILETUS A LATE CHRISTIAN PROTECTIVE CHARM 453

APPENDIX X
UNRECOGNISED BIBLICAL QUOTATIONS IN SYRIAN AND MESO-
POTAMIAN INSCRIPTIONS 461

APPENDIX XI
KavutTsky’s ‘‘ ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY ”
x
465

INDICES
. PLACES 469
. ANCIENT PERSONS 476
. WoRDS AND PHRASES 485
. SUBJECTS . 492
. MoDERN PERSONS 510
. PASSAGES CITED 522
(A) Greek Bible 522
Septuagint 522
Aquila and dyanvinachiis 523
New Testament 523
(B) Latin Bible 528
(C) Inscriptions : 528
(D) Papyri and Parchments 531
(E) Ostraca . 533
(F) Wooden Tablets: 533
(G) Glass Goblets . 533
(H) Coins 533
(I) Ancient Authors fothes ἕξη Biblical) . 533
 ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE
A Quirinius Inscription from Antioch in Pisidia: Base of a
Statue of C. Caristanius, Praefect of the Governor P.
Sulpicius Quirinius; possibly dating from the first ony
governorship of Quirinius (11-8 B.c.?) .
Roman Milestone, 6 B.c., at Yonuslar, passed iy Paul and
Barnabas on the road to Iconium. From a photograph
by riW. Μ. sii of Balliol fie Oxford δ μον ϑοὴ of
1924 6
Door Inscription from een at Corinth, peas
Period. Now in Corinth Museum τ F ; Page 16
Contract of Sale relating to a Parcel of Vineyard. Parch-
ment from Kopanis in the Kingdom ofSaag 88 B.c.
Now in the British Museum . . . Facing Page 32
Hereditary Lease of a Vineyard. Parchment from Kopanis
in the Kingdom of Parthia, 22-21 B.c. Now in the British
Museum 33
Ostracon from Upper oo inscribed site Luke xxii. 70 Ἢ
7th cent. A.D. Now in the Instituthe d'Archéologie
orientale, Cairo . ᾿ a τ 58
Site of the Excavations in Ῥοεῖοϑ. From a photograph’ by
Miss M. C. de Graffenried δι΄
Tombstone from Bingerbriick, early παρειαὶ Period. Now
at Kreuznach : Ε ‘ ᾿ : . : 74
Limestone Block from the Temple of Herod at Jerusalem,
inscribed with a warning notice. Early Imperial Period.
Now in the Imperial New Museum at Constantinople 80
Wooden Mummy-label from Egypt, Imperial Period . I0o
Stele with Decree of Honour from Syme, 2nd cent.B.c. Now
in the chapel of St. Michael Tharrinos, Syme . 103
Ostracon, Thebes, 4 August, 63 A.D. Receipt for Isis
Collection. Now in the Berlih Museum : 105
Limestone Slab, Magnesia on the Maeander, 138 or 132 B.c.
Judicial Award by the aa abana linescans Now in
the Berlin Museum : 106

14. Ostracon, Thebes, 32-33 A.D. Gee aafor Alien Tax. Now
in the Author’s collection ὃ ὃ 111

15. Ostracon, Thebes, 2nd cent. a.p. TransfersO Now in

the Author’s collection. ᾧ Ν δ ὃ ‘ 5 121
XXVili ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE
16. Inscription on a Glass Goblet, probably from Syria, 1st cent.
A.D. Now in the possession of Theodor Wiegand 129
17. Isis Inscription from Ios. Writing of the (2nd or) 3rd cent.
A.D. Contents ee Now in the Church of St.
John the Divine, Ios 139
18, 19. The Oldest Greek Letter yet discovered, Address (Fig. 18)
and Text (Fig. 19): Mnesiergus of Athens to his House-
mates. Leaden tablet, 4th cent. B.c. Now in the Berlin
Museum. ; ' . : ξ 3 3 . 151
20. Letter from Zoilus, a servant of Sarapis, to Apollonius, an
Egyptian minister of finance, Alexandria, 258-257 B.c.
Papyrus from a au (Fayam). Now in the Cairo
Museum : ‘ Β Ὁ 153
21. Letter from Zoilus to Apollonius: Writing on the Verso 154
22. Letters from Tubias, Sheikh of the Ammonites, to Apollonius,
Egyptian minister of finance, and to King Ptolemy II.,
Philadelphus, Transjordania, 257-256 B.c. Papyrus from
Philadelphia (Fayim). Now in the Cairo Museum . ᾿ 162

Letters from Tubias to Apollonius and to me iis 11:

Writing on the Verso 4 163
Letter from Demophon, a wealthy ἜΝ to Ptolemaeus,
a police official, civca 245 B.c. Papyrus from Hibeh.
Now in the Museum of Victoria Liang Toronto,
Canada ‘i ὦ é . . 164
Letter from Asclepiades, an Egyptian landowner, to Portis.
Ptolemaic Period. Ostracon from Thebes. Now in the
possession of Ulrich Wilcken ἃ i 166

26. Letter from Hilarion, an Egyptian labourer, to Alis, his wife.

Papyrus, written at Alexandria, 17 June, 1 B.c. Now in
the possession of Victoria University, Toronto, Canada 168
27,28. Letter from Mystarion, an Egyptian olive-planter, to
Stotoétis, a chief priest, Address (Fig. 27) and Text (Fig.
28), 12 September, 50 A.D. Papyrus from the Beye
Now in the Reichspost Museum at Berlin 170
29. Letter from Harmiysis, a small Egyptian farmer, to Papiscus,
an official, and others, 24 July, 66 a.p., lines 1-31.
Papyrus from Oxyrhynehus. Now in the Cambridge
University Library : é : . : 173
30. Letter from Nearchus, an Egyptian, to Heliodorus, 1st or
and cent. A.D. ued from» Egypt. Now in the British
Museum 174
31. Letter from Irene, an Egyptian, to a Satiein rere
2nd cent. A.D. Papyrus from ἐνὸς ἈΝNow in the
Library of Yale University. ΟΣ ᾿ 176
32. Letter from Apion, an Egyptian soldier in the Roman Navy,
to his father Epimachus, Misenum, 2nd cent. a.p.
Papyrus from the Fayam. Now in the Berlin Museum . 179
 ILLUSTRATIONS ΧΧΙΧ
FACING PAGE
33: Letter from (Apion, now) Antonius Maximus, an Egyptian
soldier in the Roman Navy, to his sister Sabina, 2nd cent.
A.D. Papyrus from the ee Now in the Berlin
Museum . 184
34. Letter from a Prodigal Son, Antonis ΤΥ to his mother
Nilus, 2nd cent. a.p. Papyrus from the Eee: Now in
the Berlin Museum 187
35: Letters from Sempronius, an Enyatian, to his mother
Saturnila and his brother Maximus, second half of the
2nd cent. a.D. Papyrus from Alexandria (?). Now in
the British Museum τ : g 5 193
36. Letter from Aurelius Archelaus, beneficiarius, to ‘Julius
Domitius, military tribune, lines 1-24, 2nd cent. A.D.
Papyrus from Oxyrhynehus. Now in the Bodleian
Library, Oxford . 197
37' Letter from Harpocras, an Egyptian, to Phthomonthes, 29
December, 192 A.D. Ostracon from Thebes. - Now in the
Author’s collection 200

38. Letter from Theon, an Fepese ΠΣ to his father Theon,

2nd or 3rd cent. a.D. Papyrus from yn Now
in the Bodleian Library, Oxford . 201

39. Letter from Pacysis, an Egyptian, to his son, about the 4

.cent. A.D. Ostracon from Thebes. Now in the Author’s
collection 204
40. Perhaps the Oldest Christian Letter extant in theἘν
Original. Letter from an Egyptian Christian to his
fellow-Christians in the Arsinoite nome. Papyrus,
written at Rome between 264 (265) and 282 (281) a.p.
Formerly in the possession of the late Lord Amherst of
Hackney : ὃ 208
41. Letter from Psenosiris, a Christian presbyter, to Apollo, a
Christian presbyter at Cysis (Great Oasis). Papyrus,
beginning of the 4th cent. a.p. eee Beer
Now in the British Museum . : 214
42. Letter (with Address) from Justinus, an Ἐκ Christian,
to Papnuthius, a Christian. Papyrus, middle of the 4th
cent. a.D. Now in the University Library, Heidelberg 216

43. Letter from Caor, Papas of Hermupolis, to Flavius

Abinnaeus, an officer at Dionysias in the Fayim.
Papyrus, circa 346 a.p. Now in the British Museum 217
44. Letter from Samuel, Jacob, and Aaron, candidates for the
diaconate, to Bishop Abraham of Hermonthis (?). Coptic
ostracon, ciyca 600 A.D. (verso). Now in theοὐ μνννωυοι
of the Egypt Exploration Fund 222

45. Letter probably from Bishop Abraham of Hennonthis (?) to

the clergy of his diocese. Coptic ostracon, civca 600 A.D.
(verso). Now in the possession of the Egypt Exploration
Fund : : ‘ : ᾿ : ὃ : 226
The first lines of the Epistle to the Romans in a rustic hand.
Papyrus from Oxyrhynchus, beginning of the 4th cent. a.p.
Now in the Semitic Museum of Harvard University .. . 240
ΧΧΧ ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE

47. Marble Inscription from Cos, containing the title Euergetes,

ciyca 53 A.D. Nowin Sarrara Yussuf’s garden wall, in the
town of Cos. : 3 . : ; i 253
48. Folio 33 recto of the Great Magical Papyrus, written in
Egypt circa 300 a.p. Now in the Se Nationale
at Paris .256

49. Folio 33 verso of the Great Magical Papyrus, written in

Egypt civca 300 a.D. Now in the Sheers Nationale
at Paris. 257
50. Report of Judicial Rinse embefore the Praefect of —
G. Septimius Vegetus, 85 a.p. Papyrus. Nowat Florence 269
51. Edict of the Praefect of Egypt, G. Vibius Maximus, 104 A.D.
Papyrus (part of a letterereopy nook): Now in the British
Museum 271
52. “« Angel” ΠΝ from the Island of Thera. Gravestone,
Imperial Period. Now in the Thera Museum ‘ 280

53: The Zeus-Hermes dedication from Sedasa (Ak-Kilisse), near

Lystra, soon after 250 a.D. Now ina house-wall at Baliik-
Ἰδοὺ (Balyklagho), near Lystra_.. ῷ ᾧ . : 281

54. Epigram on the Tomb of Chrysogonus of Cos. Marble Altar,

Imperial Period. Now built into the wall of a house in Cos 295

55. Charm for “‘ Binding.” Leaden tablet from Attica, first half
of the 4th cent. B.c. : . F ‘ : 305
56. Charm for “ Binding. ” Ostracon from Ashmunén, late
Imperial Period. Formerly in the possession of the late
F, Hilton Price, London : Ἶ . 306
57: Marble Pedestal from Pergamum with an Inscription in
honour of the Gymnasiarch Apollodorus of Pergamum.
Roman Period. Original still at Pergamum . ‘ 312
58. Marble Tombstone of Otacilia Polla of Pergamum, about the
time of Hadrian. Now in the garden of eee
Hussein, in the Selinus valley, near Pergamum 315
59. Retaining-wall of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, inscribed
with numerous ancient records of manumissions 321
60. Lytron (‘ransom ’’) Inscription from Ké6res (Keures), near
Koula, in Asia Minor. Imperial Period. Now in the
Lyceum Hosianum at Braunsberg . . ; 328
61. “Note of Hand for 100 Silver Drachmae, Ist cent. A.D.
Papyrus from-the Fayim. Now in the Berlin Museum 331
62. Original Limestone Plate (chavagma) inscribed with the seal
of Augustus. Egypt, 5-64.p. Nowin the Berlin Museum 341
63. Marble Pedestal from Pergamum with an Inscription in
honour of a Priestess of Athene. Imperial Period. Now
in the Berlin Museum . ὦ ὃ ‘ ‘ Γ 346
64. Marble Pedestal from Pergamum with an Inscription in
honour of Augustus. Age of Augustus. Now in the
Berlin Museum . . ; ὰ ὡ 3 : ἢ 347
 ILLUSTRATIONS Xxxi
FACING PAGE
65. Marble Slab from Magnesia on the Maeander with a Votive
Inscription for Nero, 50-54 a.D. Original at vai cae
Plaster Cast in the Berlin Museum ὃ ᾿ 348
66. Wall of the Propylon of the Temple at El-Khargeh (Great
Oasis) inscribed with an Edict of the Praefect Ti. ae
Alexander, 6 July, 68 a.p., lines 1-46 ῷ 358
67. Ostracon, Thebes. Dated Sebaste Day, 23 September,
33 A.D. Receipt for Embankment and Bath Tax. Now
in the Author’s collection ᾿ . 360
68, 69. Inscription of the Hymnodi of the god Augustus and the
goddess Roma on a marble altar at Pergamum, temp.
Hadrian, right side (B, Fig. 68) and left side (D, Fig. μον
Now in the courtyard of the Konak at Pergamum . 361

70. Block of Blue Limestone from a Pillar of the North Hall of

the Market at Priene, with the Calendar Inscription, lines
I-31, οἴγοῶ Q B.C. Now in the Berlin Museum. 366

71. Block of White Marble from a Pillar of the North Hall of the
Market at Priene, with the Calendar Inscription, lines
32-60, civcag B.c. Now in the Berlin Museum 367
72. Marble Stele from Cos, Tombstone of Hermes, an Imperial
Freedman, after 161 A.D. Now in the house of Said Ali
in the town of Cos F : : ᾿ 3 377
73: “Onomasticon sacrum. Papyrus from Egypt, 3rd or 4th cent.
A.D. Now in the University Library, Heidelberg 405
74. Title-page of the first New Testament Lexicon, by Georg
Pasor, Herborn, 1619. From a copy in the Gapped)
Library, Heidelberg a 406

75, 76. Marble Stele from Rheneia, inscribed with a prayer for
vengeance on the murderers of Heraclea, a Jewess of
Delos, ciyca 100 B.c., front view (A, Fig. 75) ‘and back view
(B, Fig. 76). Now in the Museum at Bucharest 414
77. Marble Stele from Rheneia, inscribed with a prayer for
vengeance on the murderers of Marthina, a Jewess of
Delos, ciyca 100 B.c. Now in the National” Museum,
Athens : " 415
78. Votive Inscription of Gamus and his family to the om Men
at Antioch in Pisidia. Imperial Period . 436
79. A second Votive Inscription of Gamus and his family to the
god Men at Antioch in Pisidia. Imperial Period ἕ 437
8ο. Synagogue situs sea of Theodotus at nai: before
70 A.D. ; 440
81. Diptych of M. Valerius Quadratus, a veteran of the ee
campaign, Alexandria, 2 July, 94 a.p. Outer Side.
Wooden Tablet from Philadelphia in the Fayim. Now
in the Museum at Alexandria ὺ 444
XXXxii ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE
82. Diptych of M. Valerius Quadratus, a veteran of the Jerusalem
campaign, Alexandria, 2 July, 94 Α.Ὁ., Inner Side.
Wooden Tablet from Philadelphia in the Fayim. Now
in the Museum at Alexandria ‘ . . . 445
Epitaph of Regina, a Roman Jewess, in the Catacomb on the
Monteverde at Rome, beginning of the 2nd cent.a.p. Now
in the Museo Cristiano Lateranense, Rome : ‘ 448
Inscription for the ὡς ἝΞ in the Theatre at Miletus.
Imperial Period. 451
Christian Archangel ἜΜΕΝ in the Theatre at Miletus.
Early Byzantine Period ‘ 3 : 454
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM—DISCOVERY AND NATURE OF

THE NEW TEXTS’
1. It was beneath an Eastern sky that the gospel was
first preached and Jesus Christ was first adored by worshippers
as “the Lord.”’ Jesus and Paul were sons of the East.
The ‘“‘ Amen” of our daily prayers, the ‘‘ Hosanna” and
“ Hallelujah ’’ of our anthems, even names such as “ Christ ”’
and ‘‘ Evangelist’? remind us constantly of the Eastern
beginnings of our religious communion. Like other words
distinctive of our faith, they are of Semitic and Greek origin.
They take us back not only to the soil of Galilee and Judaea
but to the international highways of the Greek or rather
Graecised Orient: Jesus preaches in His Aramaic mother
tongue, Paul speaks the cosmopolitan Greek of the Roman
Empire.
So too the book which preserves an echo of the message
of Jesus and His apostles: the New Testament is a gift
from the East. We are accustomed to read it under our
Northern sky, and though it is by origin an Eastern book,
it is so essentially a book of humanity that we comprehend
its spirit even in the countries of the West and North. But
details here and there, and the historical setting, would be
better understood by a son of the East, especially a con-
temporary of the evangelists and apostles, than by us.
Even to-day the traveller who follows the footsteps of the
apostle Paul from Corinth past the ruins of Ephesus to
Antioch and Jerusalem, finds much revealed to him in the
sunshine of the Levant which he would not necessarily have
seen at Heidelberg or Cambridge.
In our acts of worship we have, thank God, nothing to do
with the historical setting of the sacred text. The great
outlines. of the shining golden letters are clearly visible even
2 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
in the semi-darkness of the shrine, and here our business is
with things holy, not historical.
But theology, as an historical science, has a vital interest
in the discovery of the historical setting, the historical
background.
The ancient world, in the widest sense of that term, forms
the historical background to Primitive Christianity. It is the
one, great, civilised world fringing the Mediterranean, a world
which at the period of the new religious departure displayed a
more than outward compactness inasmuch as the Hellenisa-
tion and Romanisation! of the East and the Orientalisation
of the West had worked together for unity.
Any attempt to reconstruct this mighty background to
the transformation scene in the world’s. religion will base
itself principally on the literatures of that age,—and on the
earlier ‘‘ classical’’ literatures in so far as they were forces
vital enough to have influenced men’s minds in the Imperial
period. There are two groups of records in literary form
deserving of special attention : firstly, the remains of Jewish
tradition 2 contained in the Mishna, the Talmuds, and kindred
texts ; secondly, the Graeco-Roman authors of the Imperial age.
Of neither of these groups, however, shall I speak here,
although I am not unaware of the great importance of
this body of literary evidence. It were indeed a task well
worthy of a scholar to devote his life to producing a new
edition of Johann Jakob Wettstein’s New Testament.?
That splendid book is a century and a half old, and its
copious collection of parallels from Jewish and Graeco-
1 A problem that received little attention before it was treated by Ludwig
Hahn, Rom und Romanismus im griechisch-rémischen Osten, Leipzig, 1907.
2 I expressly refrain from saying litevature, for it is a significant fact that
Jewish tradition was at first non-literary, and only became literary after-
wards. The writings of Ludwig Blau are especially instructive on this point,
which finds its most important analogy in Primitive Christianity.
3 Novum Testamentum Graecum cum lectionibus variantibus et commentario
pleniove opera Jo. Jac. Wetstenit, Amstelaedami, 1751-2, 2 vols. folio. Dedi-
cated to Frederick, Prince of Wales, son of George II. Contains prolegomena,
apparatus criticus, and commentary. £.g. Matt. ix. 12, ‘they that be
whole need not a physician,” is illustrated by quotations from Ovid, Diogenes
Laertius, Pausanias, Stobaeus, Dio Chrysostom, Artemidorus, Plato, Quin-
tilian, Seneca, and Plutarch: There are appendices on the use of variants
and on interpretation (especially of the Apocalypse) ; a list of authors quoted;
a Greek index verborum; and, to crown the feast, the Syriac text of the
Epistles of Clement is given. (TR.)
 THE PROBLEM 3
Roman writers could be supplemented from our present
stores of scientific antiquarian lore: it was one of the
dreams of my student days at Marburg, and Georg Heinrici
has begun to carry the plan into execution.1_ But on the
whole the ancient Jewish texts at the present time are being
explored by so many theologians, both Jewish and Christian,
—the Christian with fewer prejudices than formerly, and
the Jewish more methodically,—and on the whole the
Graeco-Roman literature of the Imperial period has attracted
so many industrious workers, that we are already familiar
with a wide extent of the litevary background of Primitive
Christianity. Indeed, the literary memorials are valued
so highly that in some quarters it is consciously or uncon-
sciously believed that the literature of the Imperial period
will enable us to restore the historical background of
Primitive Christianity in its entirety.
Those who think so forget that the literature, even if we
now possessed the whole of it, is after all only a fragment of
the ancient world, though an important fragment. They
forget that a reconstruction of the ancient world is bound to
be imperfect if founded solely on the literary texts, and that
comparisons between Primitive Christianity and this world,
which has been pieced together fragmentarily out of frag-
ments, might easily prove erroneous.” Even so brilliant and
learned a scholar as Eduard Norden? in criticising Primitive
Christianity in its linguistic and literary aspects, insisted
1 The Institute for the Historical Study of Religion (Religionsgeschichtliches
Forschungsinstitut), founded at Leipzig University with Heinrici as Director,
had appointed a committee for this work, consisting of A. Deissmann, E. von
Dobschiitz, H. Lietzmann, H. Windisch, and G. Heinrici (Chairman), and a
certain amount of preliminary work was accomplished. The war and the
economic catastrophes of the post-war period seriously hindered the under-
taking; it was resumed, however, in 1921. In November 1921 it was. dis-
covered that the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (London) was
also planning a ‘‘ revised Wettstein:” Difficulties, however, beset its path;
the material already collected in England has therefore, by a happy arrange-
ment, been made accessible to the German revisers. The management is
now in the hands of E. von Dobschiitz. See an article by him in the Zeitschr.
f. Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 21 (1922) p. 146 ff.
2 See some excellent remarks by Baldensperger in the Theologische Lite-
raturzeitung 38 (1913) col. 392.
3 Die antike Kunstprosa vom VI. Jahrhundert v. Chr. bis in die Zeit der
Renaissance, Leipzig, 1898. See my review of this book in Theol. Rundschau
5 (1902) p. 66 ff.
4 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
upon contrasts between St. Paul and the ancient world which
in reality are mere contrasts between artless non-literary
prose and the artistic prose of literature. Such contrasts
are quite unconnected with the opposition in which Primitive
Christianity stood to the ancient world. The whole of
the learned discussion about the ‘‘ Greek ’’ or “ non-Greek ”’
character of certain New Testament passages in regard
to language or content still suffers considerably from the
vagueness of the concept “ Greek ’’ which the adherents of
either side have in view. If you make the Greek world end,
roughly speaking, with Alexander—if you think that in the
classical literature you possess the documents of Greek
culture as a finished product, your standard will be altogether
different from that of the man who says the Greek “‘ world ”’
really begins with Alexander, and who sees in the Greek world-
language not an artificial contamination, but a living struc-
ture, organically connected with the spoken language of the
classical period, greatly and artificially conventionalised
though that was in the classical literature. The struggle of
this second school against the first may be termed modern
anti-Atticism, and the modern Atticists, like those of the
Imperial period, often conduct their defence with appreci-
ations which, creditable as they sometimes are to the taste and
good will of their originators, are a dogmatisation of history.
As an attempt to fill in some gaps in the historical back-
ground of Primitive Christianity, and as an antidote to
extreme views concerning the value of the literary memorials,
the following pages are offered to the reader. I propose
to show the importance of the non-literary written memorials
of the Roman Empire in the period which led up to and
witnessed the rise and early development of Christianity,
the period, let us say, from Alexander to Diocletian or Con-
stantine. I refer to the innumerable texts on stone, metal,
wax, papyrus, parchment, wood, or earthenware, now
made accessible to us by archaeological discovery and
research. They were the gift chiefly of the nineteenth
century, which we might almost describe as the century of
epigraphical archaeology !; but their importance for the
1 General readers as well as specialists will appreciate the review of the
century’s work (restricted, however, to the archaeology of art) in Adolf
 Επα. 1.—A Quirinius Inscription from Antioch in
Pisidia: Base of a Statue of C. Caristanius, Praefect
of the Governor P. Sulpicius Quirinius; possibly
dating from the first Syrian governorship of Quirinius
(11-8 B.c.?). By permission of Sir William M,
Ramsay.
 THE PROBLEM 5
historical understanding of Primitive Christianity 15’ 5111 far
from being generally recognised, and it will be much longer
before they are fully exhausted.
How different it has been with the cuneiform inscriptions
of the East and ¢heiry application to Old Testament study!
Men who knew much about the Bible,-but nothing of cunei-
form, entered into competition with cuneiform specialists, to
whom the Bible had not revealed its mysteries, and an
immense literature informed the world of the gradual rise
of the edifice behind the scaffolding amid the dust and din
of the Babylonian building-plot. It was spoken of in the
wardrooms of our men-of-war and in the crowded debating
halls of the trade unions.
It cannot be said that New Testament scholarship has
hitherto profited on the same scale by the new discoveries.
The relics of antiquity found in Mediterranean lands are
able to throw light on the New Testament, but their value
is not so obvious as that of the cuneiform inscriptions for
the Old Testament, and can certainly not be made clear to
every layman in a few minutes. No tablets have yet been
found to enable us to date exactly the years of office of
the Procurators Felix and Festus,! which would solve an

Michaelis, Die avchdologischen Entdeckungen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts,

Leipzig, 1906; 2nd ed.'1908, under the title Ein Jahrhundert kunstarchdolo-
gischer Entdeckungen (English translation, A Century of Archaeological Dis-
coveries, London, 1908. TR.]. Brief and full of matter is Theodor Wiegand’s
Untergang und Wiedergewinnung dey Denkmdler, offprint from H. Bulle’s
Handbuch dev Archdologie, Minchen, 1913.
1 As late as 1910, in the last edition of this book, I here added “ or of the
Proconsul Gallio.’”’ A stone inscribed with the name of Gallio had, however,
been found at Delphi before that, and is of considerable assistance to us,
though it does not furnish an absolutely certain chronology for Gallio. Details
in the appendix to my Paulus, Tibingen, 1911, p. 159 ff.; St. Paul, London,
1912, p. 235 ff. The literature dealing with the stone has since then greatly
increased, cf. Paulus,? 1925, Ὁ. 203 ff.; Paul,? 1926, p. 261 ff. A squeeze of the
inscription is in the New Testament Seminar of the University of Berlin. New
fragments of the stone in D. Plooij, De Chronologie van het Leven van Paulus,
Leiden, 1918.—On another inscription, also very important, which establishes
the identity of Lysanias, the tetrarch of Abilene, mentioned in Luke iii. 1,
cf. F. Bleckmann, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins 36 (1913),
p. 220. Part of it was already known, and had been quoted in the earlier
editions of this work (cf. Index I, Places, 5.0. “ Abila’’). Cf. also (Figure 1)
one of the two extremely valuable Quirinius inscriptions from Antioch in
Pisidia (Sir William M. Ramsay, The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trust-
 6 ’ LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
important problem of early Christian history, and Christian
inscriptions and papyri of the very earliest period are at
present altogether wanting! And yet the discoveries made
by our diggers of archaeological treasure in Greece, Asia
Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt are of very great import-
ance indeed for the light they throw on the earliest stages
of Christianity.
worthiness of the New Testament, London, 1915, p. 285, plate I). There, in
line 6, Quirinius is named as duumvir of Antioch :
P. Sulpict Quirini duumov(ivi).
The other Quirinius inscription ibid., p. 290 ff. On both cf. also F. Bleck-
mann, Die erste syrische Statthalterschaft des P. Sulpicius Quirinius, Klio 17
(Leipzig, 1920) p. 104 ff., and H. Dessau, Zu den neuen Inschriften des
Sulpicius Quirinius, Klio 17 (1920) p. 252 ff. These inscriptions put the
time of the first Syrian governorship of Quirinius considerably further back;
hitherto it used to be placed in the years 3-2 B.c., now it is perhaps to be
dated 11-8 B.c. Important for Luke ii. 1 f. and the chronology of the birth
of Jesus. [See W. M. Calder, ‘“‘The Date of the Nativity,” Discovery 1
(April, 1920), pp. 00-103, concluding 8 B.c. to be the most probable. The
same writer points out, Classical Review 38 (Feb.-March, 1924), p. 30, that
the question of the bearing of the Quirinius inscriptions on Luke’s chronology
is still sub judice. If Dessau’s dating is correct these inscriptions cease to
have any bearing on the date of Quirinius’ first governorship of Syria. The
~
argument would have to fall back on the Egyptian census papers and on
the dated Augustan milestones of the Pisidian military. roads. One of the
milestones (Figure 2),.which St. Paul certainly saw with his own eyes, still
stands (at Yonuslar) where he passed it on his way to Iconium from Antioch.
Professor Calder, who kindly supplied the photograph of this tough milestone,
wrote in The Morning Post, 17 April, 1925 (previous articles 30 Jan., 14 April)
that the stone now stands upside down, with the name of the first Roman ~
Emperor lapped in earth. ‘‘The Hodja told us why. The villagers had
decided, a dozen years ago, to use it as a pillar to support the roof of the
mosque. Before it had been carried twenty yards (the Hodja pointed to the
exact spot) it broke two ox-carts. They let it lie, and then several villagers
died. So they took it for a ‘sign’ (keramét), carried the stone back, and set
it up where it had always stood. Upside down, it was true, but Allah knew
that they had done their best.” TR.)
1 Why they are wanting is a question that has often engaged my thoughts.
First of all it may be said that a large part of the ground on which the history
of the apostolic age took place has not yet been explored. Secondly, however,
—and this assumption follows from my whole conception of Primitive Chris-
tianity—the early Christian epitaphs, for example, would be scanty in com-
parison with the total number of contemporary texts, and would be inscribed
on poor and easily perishable material. It would seem that graffiti on ossuaries
might have been preserved more easily in Palestine than elsewhere, if we
may draw conclusions from the Jewish ossuaries of Palestine, which deserve
a special investigation without delay. Early Christian papyri are not likely
to be found there owing to the unfavourable nature of the climate; but see
below, pp. 32-36.
910] URWIOY—'z ΘΙΙΟΊΘΘΙΠΛ
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 THE PROBLEM 7
It is not merely that the systematic study of the new
texts increases the amount of authentic first-hand evidence
relating to the Imperial period. The point is that the
literary memorials are supplemented by an entirely new
group, with quite a new bearing on history.
In the literary memorials that have come down to us,
what we have is practically the evidence of the upper, culti-
vated classes about themselves. The lower classes are
seldom allowed to speak, and where they do come to the
front—in the comedies, for instance—they stand before
us for the most part in the light thrown upon them from
above. The old Jewish tradition, coming down to us by
a literary channel, has, it is true, preserved along with its
superabundance of learned dogma. much that belongs to
the people—the Rabbinic texts are a mine of information
to the folklorist—yet it may be said of the accessible fragment
of the Graeco-Roman literature of the Imperial age, that
it is on the whole, since the vulgar literature of those days
is as good as lost to us, the reflection of the dominant classes,
possessed of power and culture; and these upper classes
have been almost always taken as identical with the whole
ancient world of the Imperial age. Compared with Primi-
tive Christianity, advancing like the under-current of a
lava stream with irresistible force from its source in the
East, this upper stratum appears cold, exhausted, lifeless.
Senility, the feature common to upper classes everywhere,
was held to be the characteristic of the whole age which
witnessed the new departure in religion, and thus we have
the origin of the gloomy picture that people are still fond
of drawing as soon as they attempt to sketch for us the
background of Christianity in its early days.
This fatal generalisation involves of course a great mistake.
The upper classes have been simply confused with the whole
body of society, or, to employ another expression, Primitive
Christianity has been compared with an incommensurable
quantity. By its social structure Primitive Christianity
points unequivocally to the lower and middle classes.1_ Its
1 This sentence, of which the whole of this book is an illustration, forms
the subject of an address by me at the nineteenth Evangelical and Social
Congress, held at Dessau, on “" Primitive Christianity and the Lower Classes,”
printed together with the lively discussion that followed in the Proceedings
8 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
connexions with the upper classes are very scanty at the
outset. Jesus of Nazareth was a carpenter, Paul of Tarsus
a tentmaker, and the tentmaker’s words! about the origin
of his churches in the lower classes of the great towns form
one of the most important testimonies, historically speaking,
that Primitive Christianity gives of itself. Primitive Chris-
tianity is another instance of the truth taught us with each
return of springtime, that the sap rises upward from below.
of the Congress, Géttingen, 1908; and in a second (separate) edition, Gét-
tingen, 1908. An English translation appeared in The Expositor, February,
March, and April 1909.—I am well aware that it is difficult in many cases
to prove the division-into classes, the boundaries between ‘‘ upper classes ”’
and ‘lower classes’”’ being often shifting. The speakers in the discussion
at Dessau had much to say of importance on this head, and several reviewers
of this book have discussed the point. I would refer particularly to Paul
Wendland’s review in the Deutsche Literaturzeitung 29 (1908) col. 3146 f.
The discussion between Max Maurenbrecher and Adolf Harnack in Die Hilfe
16 (1910) Nos. 25, 26, 27 is very instructive. To make a catchword of the
“ proletarian ’’ character of Primitive Christianity seems to me, however, to
add to the difficulty of an understanding. For Harnack’s position cf. also
his book, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den ersten dret
Jahvhunderten,® Leipzig, 1915, ¢.g., II. p. 30 ff. [English translation by James
Moffatt, London, 1908, II.2 p. 33 ff.]; my hints in my ‘“ Evangelischer
Wochenbrief ” III., No. 63/68, early April 1921 (the “‘ clever Balt ’ quoted
there [p. 186; the Balts are persons of German descent born in the Baltic
provinces of Russia, now the republics of Esthonia and Latvia. Tr.] is
Reinhold Seeberg, Velhagen and Klasing’s Monatshefte 30 [1915-16] p.
227); and a significant postcard from Harnack, 4 May [ΟΖῚ, in “ Ev.
Wochenbrief’’ III., 69/78, early June 1921, p.210f. Further: Karl Dieterich,
Die Grenzboten, 9 Dec., 1909. The criticism I received from G. A. van den
Bergh van Eysinga, Kautsky’s opvatting van het oudste Christendom aan de
bronnen getoetst, Baarn, 1911, must not be overlooked. Friedrich Naumann,
Briefe δεν Religion. Mit Nachwovrt ‘‘ Nach 13 Jahven,’’ Berlin, 1916, p. 103 f.,
had understood me well. Important from the point.of view of method:
Richard Reitzenstein, Historia Monachorum und Historia Lausiaca, Gottingen,
1916, p. 215 ff.—The problem of class division has deeply engaged my
attention and I think it is to the good of the cause if I now, in order to avoid
the appearance of a mechanical separation, speak more of “‘ upper classes ”
and ‘lower classes’ in the plural, and expressly emphasise the fact that
the characteristics of various social classes can be blended in an individual.—
There is much that is stimulating with regard to method in the brief lecture
by Friedrich v. der Leyen, Die deutsche Volkskunde und der deutsche Unterricht,
Berlin, 1916. ,
1χ Cor, i. 26-31. With this compare the humble inscription from the
synagogue at Corinth (Figure 3, p. 16 below), perhaps the very synagogue in
which St. Paul first preached at Corinth. Excellent remarks by Georg
Heinrici, Paulus als Seelsorger, Gross-Lichterfelde-Berlin, 1910, p. 10 f. For
the later period Hugo Koch (postcard, Munich, 19 Nov., 1012). refers to
Victor Schulze, Geschichte des Untergangs des griechisch-rémischen Heidentums,
Jena, 1892, II. p. 339.
 THE PROBLEM 9
Primitive Christianity stood in natural opposition to the
high culture of the ancient world, not so much because it
was Christianity, but because it was a movement of the
lower classes. The only comparison possible, therefore, is
that between the Christians and the corresponding spiritual
province among the pagans, 7.6. the masses of the ancient
world.
Until recently these masses were almost entirely lost to
the historian. Now, however, thanks to the discovery of
their own authentic records, they have suddenly risen again
from the rubbish mounds of the ancient cities, little market
towns, and villages. They plead so insistently to be heard
‘that there is nothing for it but to yield them calm and dis-
passionate audience. The chief and most general value of
the non-literary written memorials of the Roman Empire,
I think, is this: They help us to correct the picture of the
ancient world which we have formed by viewing it, hitherto,
exclusively from above. They place us in the midst of the
classes in which we have to think of the apostle Paul and
the early Christians gathering recruits. This statement,
however, must not be pressed. Of course among the
inscriptions and papyri of that time there are very many
(a majority in fact of the inscriptions) that do not come
from the lower classes but owe their origin to Caesars,
generals, statesmen, municipalities, and rich people.1 But
side. by side with these texts, particularly in the papyri
and ostraca, lies evidence of the middle and lower classes,
in countless depositions made by themselves, and in most
cases recognisable at once as such by their contents or the
peculiarity of their language. These are records of the
people’s speech, records of the insignificant affairs of insig-
nificant persons. Peasants and artisans, soldiers and slaves
and mothers belonging to the common people speak to us of
their cares and labours. The unknown and the forgotten,
for whom there was no room in the pages of the annals,
1 Even these, however, especially the municipal documents of the Imperial
period, are, at least linguistically, representative not of the higher but of an
average culture.—There is a fine appreciation of the discoveries of literary
papyri as a reflex of the culture of hellenised Egypt by Wilhelm Schubart,
“Papyrusfunde und _griechische Literatur,” Internationale Monatsschrift
fiir Wissenschaft, Kunst und Technik 8 (1914) Nos. 10 and 11.
10 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

troop into the lofty halls of our museums, and in the libraries,
volume on volume, are ranged the precious editions of the
new texts.
In several ways these texts yield a respectable harvest
to the student of the New Testament.1 I am not thinking
now of the additions to our store of New Testament and
other early Christian MSS. by the discovery of early Christian
papyrus and parchment fragments, and ostraca, although.
in this direct way the value of the new documents is con-
siderable. I mean rather the indirect value which the
non-Christian, non-literary texts possess for the student
of Primitive Christianity. This is of three kinds:
(1) They teach us to put a right estimate philologically
upon the New Testament and, with it, Primitive Christianity.
(2) They point to the right literary appreciation of the
New Testament.
(3) They give us important information on points in
the history of religion and culture, helping us to understand
both the contact and the contrast between Primitive
Christianity and the ancient world.?
For the purposes of this work I have tacitly excluded
one group of memorials. I shall in the main deal only with
Greek and Latin texts and neglect those in other languages.
I could not claim to speak as a specialist with regard to
1 The importance of the texts for Rabbinic studies furnishes a good parallel;
cf. Ludwig Blau, Papyri und Talmud in gegenseitiger Beleuchtung, Leipzig,
1913.
2 There are now a number of recent works addressing themselves to these
three tasks, either dealing with the methodological problem, or offering new
material, or combining together old and new: Erik Aurelius, Till belysning
af kulturforhallandena pa urkristendomes tid, Bibelforskaren, 1908, p. 387 ff.:
Hans Windisch, ‘“‘ Das Neue Testament im Lichte der neugefundenen Inschrif-
ten, Papyri und Ostraka,’’ Neue Jahrbiicher fiir das klassische Altertum, etc.,
I. Abt., 25 (1910) pp. 201-222; Ernesto Buonaiuti, Saggi di Filologiae Storia
del Nuovo Testamento, Roma, 910 (on the fortunes of this book cf. the
Chronik der Christlichen Welt, ro11, 5. 416; W. Frommberger, “ Die
unliterarischen Funde aus hellenistischer Zeit in ihrer Bedeutung fir die
altchristliche Forschung,” in Studien des Wissenschaftlichen Theologischen -
Vereins (for Dean Ὁ. Decke), Breslau, 1913, p. 53 ff.; S. Angus, The Envivon-
ment of Early Christianity, London, 1914; Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Beaving ᾿
of Recent Discovery on the Tvustworthiness of the New Testament, London,
1915; Camden M. Cobern, The New Archeological Discoveries and their Bearing
upon the New' Testament and upon the Life and Times of the Primitive Church,
New York and London, 1917; cf. also Friedrich Pfister, Zeitschrift fiir fran-
zésische Sprache und Literatur, 43 (1914) p. 2.
 THE PROBLEM II
all of them, and moreover the sheer bulk of the Greek and
Latin texts makes it necessary to fix bounds somewhere.
I desire, however, to call special attention to at least one
group, of the utmost importance particularly in the history
of religion. The Semitic inscriptions, found in such numbers
in the province of Syria and the border-lands to the East
and North, enable us to reconstruct at least fragments of
hitherto almost unknown heathen cults that were practised
in the original home of Christianity.!
2. It will be our business to discuss the new texts in the
light of linguistic, literary, and religious history; but before
we address ourselves to this triple task it is necessary that the
texts themselves should be briefly described.?
We divide them according to the material on which they
are written into three main groups. This method of division
is mechanical, but is recommended by the simple fact that
the texts are generally published in separate editions according
to the material they are written on. We shall speak in
turn οἵ:
(a) Inscriptions on stone, metal, etc.,
(6) Texts on papyrus (and parchment),
(c) Texts on potsherds.

(a) The bulk of the INscRIPTIONS 3. are on stone, but to

these must be added inscriptions cast and engraved in
-bronze or scratched on tablets of lead or gold, a few wax
tablets, the scribblings (grafiti) found on walls, and the
1 A most promising beginning in turning the inscriptions and sculpture to
account in the history of religion has been made by René Dussaud, Notes de
Mythologie Syrienne, Paris, 1903 and 1905. Cf. Count Wolf Baudissin, Theol.
Lit.-Ztg. 31 (1906) col. 294 ff—How far this research has advanced since
then is shown by Franz Cumont, Les religions orientales dans le paganisme
yomain, Paris, 1906,.*1909; The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism,
Chicago, 1911, ch. 5; Count W. W. Baudissin, Adonis und Esmun, Leipzig,
1g11; and Ditlef Nielsen, Der Dreieinige Gott, vol. I, Copenhagen and Berlin,
1922. ὃ
2 Of course no attempt is made here δὲ exhaustiveness of statement.
8 To the layman needing a first introduction to Greek epigraphy, Walther
Janell, Ausgewahlte Inschriften griechisch und deutsch, Berlin, 1906, may be
recommended. It is only to be regretted that the translations often modernise
the originals far more than is necessary. As an introduction to independent
research: Wilhelm Larfeld, Griechische Epigrvaphik®, Munich, 1914 (Hand-
buch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft I. 5).
12 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
texts on coins and medals. These inscriptions, of which
there are hundreds of thousands, are discovered on the site
of the ancient civilised settlements of the Graeco-Roman
world in its fullest extent, from the Rhine to the upper
course of the Nile, and from the Euphrates to Britain.
Inscriptions had been noted and studied in antiquity itself,
in the Middle Ages, and in the days of the Renaissance,}
and in the eighteenth century there was one scholar, Johann
Walch,? who pressed Greek inscriptions into the service of
New Testament exegesis. But the nineteenth century is
the first that really deserves to be called the age of
-epigraphy.
Two names stand forth before all others as personifying
epigraphical studies: August Béckh will always be associ-—
ated with the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, and Theodor
Mommsen with the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, The
great collection of Greek inscriptions has long ceased to
be up to date, and is gradually being replaced by newer
publications,’ but it was this first great attempt to collect
all the material that alone enabled Greek epigraphy to develop
so brilliantly as it has done. Great societies as well as

1 For the early history of Greek epigraphy see S. Chabert, Revue Archéo-
logique, quatr. série, t. 5 (1905) p. 274 ff. Further cf. Larfeld, Griech.
Epigraphik 3. ᾿
2. Joh. Ernst Imm. Walch, Observationes in Matthaeum ex graecis inscrip-
tionibus, Jena, 1779. This book is undoubtedly one of the best examples
of the many valuable “ Observations ’’ which that age produced, and from
which almost the whole of the philological matter in our New Testament
commentaries and lexicons is derived. Paul Jirges (postcard, Wiesbaden,
2 Oct., 1914) refers me to Fried. Minter, Observationum ex marmoribus graects
sacrarum specimen, Hafniae 1814. The author, who died in 1830 (Lutheran)
Bishop of Seeland, also uses inscriptions to explain the N.T. (cf. Larfeld 3,
Pp. 27). He is one of the series of “ epigraphic bishops,”’ the most epigraphic
of whom, according to Hiller von Gaertringen, was E. L. Hicks [the late
Bishop of Lincoln, 1843~1920]. Their patron saint is St. Paul of the
Areopagus.
® The first new Corpus was the Corpus Inscriptionum Altticarum. The
volumes have been numbered on a uniform plan so as to fit in with later
Corpora of Greek inscriptions in Europe still in course of publication (U. von
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff in the Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Preuss. Akademie
der Wissenschaften, 25 June 1903). The comprehensive title of the new
Corpora is Inscriptiones Graecae editae consilio et auctoritate Academiae
Regiae Borussicae (abbreviated I. G.). An admirable guide to these publica-
tions is Baron F. Hiller von Gaertringen, Stand der griechischen Inschriften-
corpora, Beitrage zur Alten Geschichte [Klio] 4 (1904) p. 252 ff.
 THE PROBLEM 13
independent archaeologists have added to the total number
of inscriptions known by carrying on systematic excavations,
typical examples being the work of the Germans at Olympia
and of the French at Delphi. New Testament scholars
will follow with interested eyes the discoveries made in
recent years by the English and Austrians on the site of
ancient Ephesus,! by British investigators in Asia Minor
in general,? by the Germans at Pergamum,? Magnesia on
the Maeander,* Priene,® Miletus,* and other places in Asia
1 J. T. Wood, Discoveries at Ephesus, London, 1877; The Collection of
Ancient Greek Inscriptions tn the British Museum, edited by Sir C. T. Newton :
Part III. Priene, Iasos and Ephesos, by E. L. Hicks, Oxford, 1890 (cf. n. 2
below). The provisional reports of the Austrians in the Beiblatt der Jahres-
hefte des Osterreichischen Archaeologischen Institutes in Wien, 1898 ff., are
being brought together and supplemented in the monumental Forschungen
in Ephesos veroffentlicht vom Osterreichischen Archaeologischen Institute, the
first volume of which appeared at Vienna, 1906, with prominent contributions
from Otto Benndorf, and under his auspices. Vol. II came out in 1912,
Vol. IIT in 1923.
2 I will only mention here,: since it appeals particularly to theological
students, the great work done by Sir William M. Ramsay and his pupils;
cf. for instance Studies in the History and Art of the Eastern Provinces of the
Roman Empire, Aberdeen, 1906, published in celebration of the Quater-
centenary of the University of Aberdeen, and valuable as a contribution to
early Church History. The name of Ramsay will always remain specially
connected with the exploration of the ancient Christian cities of Asia Minor;
from them he has gathered and published an extraordinarily rich collection
of inscriptions.—A valuable gift of the war years is The Collection of Ancient
Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part IV., Section II., Oxford, 1916,
edited by F. H. Marshall (cf. Hiller von Gaertringen, Berliner Philologische
Wochenschrift 1916 col. 1385 ff.), concluding this great publication (already
mentioned, n. 1 above). A survey of the contents of the whole work will be
found in Larfeld ὅ, p. 64.
8 K6nigliche Museen zu Berlin, Alterttimey von Pergamon herausgegeben im
Auftrage des K6niglich Preussischen Ministers der geistlichen, Unterrichts-
und Medicinal-Angelegenheiten, Vol. VIII.: Die Inschviften von Pergamon
unter Mitwirkung von Ernst Fabricius und Carl Schuchhardt herausgegeben
von Max Frankel, 1. Bis zum Ende dey Kénigszeit, Berlin, 1890; 2. Rémische
Zeit.—Inschriften auf Thon, Berlin, 1895.—Recent finds are generally pub-
lished in the Mitteilungen des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts,
Athenische Abteilung (Athenische Mitteilungen). Besides the great German
work on Pergamum there has appeared : Pergame, Restauration et Description
des Monuments de l’Acvopole. Restauration par Emmanuel Pontremoli.
Texte par Maxime Collignon, Paris, 1900.
4 K6nigliche Museen zu Berlin, Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Maeander
herausgegeben von Otto Kern, Berlin, 1890.
5 K6nigliche Museen zu Berlin, Priene. Ergebnisse dey Ausgrabungen und
Untersuchungen in den Jahven 1895-1898 von Theodor Wiegand und Hans
Schrader unter Mitwirkung von G. Kummer, W. Wilberg, H. Winnefeld,
[For continuation of notes see next page.
 “αὶ
14 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Minor,! in Thera,” Cos,? and other. islands, and in Syria and
Arabia,‘ by the French in Macedonia,’ at Didyma,® Delphi
1 I would mention specially: Karl Buresch, Aus Lydien, epigraphisch-
geographische Reisefriichte herausg. von Otto Ribbeck, Leipzig, 1898; Aler-
tiimer von Hievapolis herausgegeben von Carl Humann, Conrad Cichorius,
Walther Judeich, Franz Winter, Berlin, 1898 (Jahrbuch des Kais. Deutschen
Archdologischen Instituts IV. Erganzungsheft); the inscriptions, pp. 67-180,
are dealt with by Walther Judeich. Other epigraphical material in plenty
will be found in the serial publications in the Athenische Mitteilungen and
the various special journals.
3 Cf. the great work on Thera by Baron F. Hiller von Gaertringen, Berlin,
1899 ff., and the same scholar’s edition of the inscriptions from Thera in I.G.
(cf. above, p. 12, ἢ. 3) Vol. XII. fasc. III., Berlin, 1898.
8 Rudolf Herzog, Kotsche Forschungen und Funde, Leipzig, 1899. The
foundation was laid by W. R. Paton and E. L. Hicks, The Inscriptions of
Cos, Oxford, 1891.
4 Karl Humann and Otto Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien
. . . (text with atlas), Berlin, 1890; Rudolf Ernst Briinnow and Alfred von
Domaszewski, Die Provincia Avabia . .., 3 vols., Strassburg, 1904,. 1905,
1909. To these was added during the Great War the work of German
scholars for the protection of ancient monuments that were exposed to
special risks in the fighting areas; cf. the reports by Paul Clemen, Hans
Dragendorff (Macedonia), Georg Karo (Western Asia Minor), Theodor Wiegand
(Syria, Palestine, and Western Arabia), and Friedrich Sarre (Mesopotamia,
Eastern Anatolia, Persia, and Afghanistan), Zeitschrift fir bildende Kunst,
New Series 54 (1918-19) pp. 257-304 (repeated in Vol. II. of the great work,
Kunstschutz im Kriege, Leipzig, 1919). The work of the Turco-German
Detachment for the Protection of Ancient Monuments under the direction
[For continuation of notes see next page.

Continuation of notes to p. 13:—

R. Zahn, Berlin, 1904.—Inschriften von Priene unter Mitwirkung von Ὁ.
Fredrich, H. von Prott, H. Schrader, Th. Wiegand und H. Winnefeld heraus-
gegeben von F. Frhr. Hiller von Gaertringen, Berlin, 1906. Cf. A. Wilhelm,
Wiener Studien 29 (1908) pp. 1-25.
® Of the great work on Miletus four instalments have so far appeared
(Mtlet. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen seit dem Jahre 1899 :
Heft 1, Karte dey Milesischen Halbinsel, 1 : 50,000, mit erlauterndem Text
von Paul Wilski, Berlin, 1906; Heft 2, Das Rathaus von Milet von Hubert
Knackfuss mit Beitragen von Carl Fredrich, Theodor Wiegand, Hermann
Winnefeld, Berlin, 1908; Heft 3, Das Delphinion in Milet von Georg Kawerau
und Albert Rehm unter Mitwirkung von Friedrich Freiherr Hiller von Gaer-
tringen, Mark Lidzbarski, Theodor Wiegand, Erich Ziebarth, Berlin, 1914;
Heft 4, Dey Poseidonaltay bei Kap Monodendri von Armin von Gerkan, Berlin,
1915. Cf. also the provisional reports by R. Kekule von Stradonitz (I.)
and Theodor Wiegand (II.-V.) in the Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1900, 1901, 1904, 1905, 1906, and by
Theodor Wiegand in the Archdologischer Anzeiger, 1901, 1902, 1904, and
1906. Reports Nos. VI. and VII. (on Miletus and Didyma) by Wiegand
appeared in the appendix to the Abhandlungen der Kgl. Preussischen Akademie
der Wissenschaften vom Jahre 1908, ΙΟΙΙ.
 THE PROBLEM 15
and in Πεῖοβ, by the Russians on the north coast of the
Black Sea,? by the Belgians also on the Pontus Euxinus,?
by the Americans in Asia Minor‘ (of late particularly at
Sardis5), in Syria® and at Corinth.? There are moreover
1 Cf. chiefly the provisional publications in the Bulletin de Correspondance
Hellénique. In 1910 began the great French publication relating to Delos:
Exploration archéologique de Délos faite par l’Ecole francaise d’Athénes .. .
sous la direction de Th. Homolle et M. Holleaux, fasc. 1, 2, Paris, 1910;
fasc. 3, 1911. The inscriptions of Delos (with those of Myconos and Rheneia)
were to have been published by the Paris Academy as Vol. XI. of the Berlin
Inscriptiones Graecae (and those of Delphi as Vol. VIII.). Two important
inscriptions from the island-cemetery of the Delians, which throw light on
the history of the Septuagint and the Jewish Diaspora, are discussed in my
essay on ‘‘ Die Rachegebete von Rheneia,” Philologus 61 (1902) pp. 253-265,
reprinted as an appendix (No. I.) to the present work.
2 The chief publication is the great collection, Imscriptiones Antiquae Ovae
Septentrionalis Ponti Euxini Graecae et Latinae, ed. Basilius Latyschev, St.
Petersburg, 1885-1901.
8 Recueil des Inscriptions Grecques et Latines du Pont et de Τ᾿Arménte
publigées par J. G. C. Anderson, Franz Cumont, Henri Grégoire, Fasc. 1,
Bruxelles, 1910.
4 Cf. especially Vols. 2 and 3 of the Papers of the American School of
Classical Studies at Athens, Boston, 1888, with reports of two epigraphical
expeditions in Asia Minor by J. R. Sitlington Sterrett.
5 Under the direction of Howard Crosby Butler since 1910, cf. Cobern,
Ῥ. 565 ff.; reports in the American Journal of Archaeology, 2nd Series, from
vol. 14 onwards (1910 ff.), containing many inscriptions.
6 There are two great archaeological series: Publications of an American
Archaeological Expedition in Syria in 1899-1900 (including Vol. IJI.: Greek
: {For continuation of notes see next page.

Continuation of notes to p. 14 :—
of Theodor Wiegand has already led to a great series of ‘‘ Wissenschaftliche
Veréffentlichungen
’’: Heft 1, Sinai von Th. Wiegand, Berlin, 1920 (cf. my
Evangelischer Wochenbrief III., No. 47/55, late January 1921, pp. 144-147);
Heft 2, Die griechischen Inschriften der Palaestina Tertia westlich dey ‘Avaba
von A. Alt, 1921; Heft 3, Petra von W. Bachmann, C. Watzinger, Th.
Wiegand, K. Wulzinger; 1921; Heft 4, Damaskus. Die antike Stadt von
Carl Watzinger und Karl Wulzinger, 1921; Heft 6, Dte’Denkmdler u. In-
schviften an der Miindung des Nahr el-Kelb von F. H. Weissbach, 1922.
Heft 5 will deal with Mohammedan Damascus. These are supplemented by
the splendid illustrated work, Alte Denkmdler aus Syrien, Paldstina und
Westarabien, 100 plates with text, edited by Th. Wiegand, Berlin, 1918.
5 L, Heuzey and H. Daumet, Mission aychéologique de Macédoine, Paris,
1864-1877.
ὃ E, Pontremoli and B. Haussoullier, Didymes, Foutiles de 1895 et 1896,
Paris, 1904. For the inscriptions see the provisional publications in the
Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. Felix Sarteaux, Villes mortes d' Aste
Mineure, 1916, I know only from Cobern, p. 563. The first account of the
new German excavations was given by Theodor Wiegand in his VIth and
VIIth provisional Reports, see above, p. 13, n. 6.
16 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
plenty of native Greek archaeologists whose’ excellent work 1
vies with that of their foreign visitors.
1 Of many new discoveries let me mention only the inscriptions from
Epidaurus, which we owe to the excavations of Panagiotis Kavvadias (cf.
Larfeld 3, p. 82 f.). They are extraordinarily rich in material for the history
of language and religion, and I have not yet drawn upon their treasures.

Continuation of notes to page 15 :—

and Latin Inscriptions by William Kelly Prentice, New York, 1908), and
Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expedition to Syria
in 1904-1905 and 1909 (including Division III. : Greek and Latin Inscriptions
in Syria by Enno Littmann and William Kelly Prentice (later also David
Magie and Duane Reed Stuart), Leyden, 1907-1914 (cf. also Hiller von
Gaertringen, Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift 1916 col. 840 ff.). The great
majority of these inscriptions are Christian.
7 Cf. the inscriptions published by B. Powell in the American Journal of
Archaeology, 2nd Series, Vol. 7 (1903) No. 1; also Erich Wilisch, Zehn
Jahre amerikanischer Ausgrabung in Korinth, Neue Jahrbiicher fiir das

\PUSP HE
Fic. 3.—Door Inscription from Synagogue at Corinth, Imperial Period.
Now in Corinth Museum.

klassische Altertum, etc. 11 (1908) Bd. 21, Heft 6. Among the inscriptions
there is one (No. 40), no doubt the remains of an inscription over a door,
which is of interest in connexion with Acts xviii. 4: [ovva]ywyy ᾿Ἑβρ[αἰων),
‘ Synagogue of the Hebrews.” I reproduce it here from a rubbing taken
by me at the Corinth Museum, 12 May 1906 (Figure 3). The inscription is
18} inches long; the letters are from 2} to. 3} inches high. The writing
reminds one somewhat of the Jewish inscription in the theatre at Miletus,
published in Appendix VIII. of the present work. Baron Hiller von Gaer-
tringen very kindly gave me his épinion (in letters dated Berlin, 14 January
and 26 February, 1907) that the mason copied exactly the written characters
that were set before him; as extreme limits within which the inscription
must have been made the dates 100 B.c. and 200 A.D. might, with some
reservation, be assumed.—It is therefore a possibility seriously to be reckoned
with that we have here the inscription to the door of the Corinthian synagogue
mentioned in Acts xviii. 4, in which St. Paul first preached! The miserable
appearance of the inscription, which is without ornament of any kind, is
typical of the social position of the people whom St. Paul had before him
in that synagogue, many of whom certainly were included among the
Corinthian Christians that he afterwards described in 1 Cor. i. 26-31.—The
Corinthian inscription bears also on the interpretation of the expression
συναγωγὴ Aifpéwy which is found in an inscription at Rome (Schiirer, Geschichte
des judischen Volkes III. Ὁ. 46 (Eng. trs. by Sophia Taylor and Peter Christie,
Edinburgh, 1885, Div. II. Vol. II.? p. 248]; Schiele, The American Journal of
(For continuation of note see next page.
 THE PROBLEM 17
We await with most lively expectations the Greek volumes
of the new Corpus of the inscriptions of Asia Minor, Tituli
Asiae Minoris, now preparing at Vienna after important
preliminary expeditions by the Austrian archaeologists !
in search of new material. A large portion of the back-
ground of the Pauline cult of Christ, its propaganda. and
its church life will here be made accessible to us. Biblical
philologists are provided with a mine of information in
Wilhelm Dittenberger’s splendid Ovientis Graeci Inscriptiones
Selectae,? a comprehensive work distinguished by the accuracy
of its texts and the soundness of its commentary. Works
like this and the same author’s Sylloge Inscriptionum Graec-
arum,® and the collections of E. L. Hicks,4 E. 5. Roberts
1 Reisen im stidwestlichen Kleinasien, Vol. I. Reisen in Lykien und Karien
. . von Otto Benndorf und Georg Niemann, Wien, 1884; Vol. II. Recsen
in Lykien, Milyas und Kibyratis . . . von Eugen Petersen und Felix von
Luschan, Wien, 1889; Opvamoas. Inschriften vom Heroon zu Rhodiapolis . .
neu bearbeitet von Rudolf Heberdey, Wien, 1897; Stddte Pamphyliens und
Pisidiens ynter Mitwirkung von G. Niemann und E. Petersen herausgegeben
von Karl Grafen Lanckoronski, Vol. I. Pamphylien, Wien, 1890; Vol. II.
Pisidien, Wien, 1892; Rudolf Heberdey and Adolf Wilhelm, Reisen in
Kilikien ausgefiihrt 1891 und 1892, Denkschriften der Kaiserl. Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Wien, Philos.-hist. Klasse 44. Bd. (1896) 6. Abhandlung;
Rudolf Heberdey and Ernst Kalinka, Bevicht tiber zwet Reisen im siidwest-
lichen Kleinasien (1894 und 1895), ibid. 45. Bd. (1897) 1. Abhandlung; Josef
Keil and Anton von Premerstein, Bericht tiber eine Reise in Lydien und dey
stidlichen Aiolis, ausgefiihri 1906, ibid. 53. Bd. (1908) 2. Abhandlung; Bericht
tibey eine zwette Reise in Lydien, ausgefiihrt 1908, ibid. 54. Bd. (1909) 2.
Abhandlung; Bericht iiber eine driite Reise in Lydien und den angrenzenden
Gebieten Joniens, ausgefihrt 1911, ibid. 57. Bd. (1914) τ. Abhandlung.
2 2 vols., Leipzig, 1903 and 1905.
3 3 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1898-r90r. During the war there began to
appear—a precious gift for those hard times to bring—the completely revised
and greatly enlarged 3rd ed., the work of Baron Friedrich Hiller von Gaer-
tringen in conjunction with Johannes Kirchner, Johannes Pomtow, Erich
{For continuation of notes see next page.

Continuativn ot nuce to page 15 :—

Theology, 1905, p. 290 ff.). Idonot think that ‘EBpato. means Hebrew-speaking
Jews. They are more likely to be Aramaic-speaking Jews of Palestine, uniting
with their fellow-countrymen abroad. Cf.now my remarks in t Nikolaus Miller,
Die Inschriften der jidischen Katakombe am Monteverde zu Rom, edited by
N. A. Bees (BEH2), Leipzig, 1919, p. 24 (also pp. 58, 72, 98, 106f., 112
173).—Further reports of the American excavations at Corinth are given in
the American Journal of Archaeology, 2nd Series, Vol. 8 (1904) p. 433 ff.,
9-(1905) p. 44 ff., 10 (1906) p. 17 ff., and later volumes. Cf. also Cobern,
Pp. 493 ff., who refers further to the Journal of Hellenic Studies 1897-1914,
and A. S. Cooley in Records of the Past, 1902, pp. 33-88.
18 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
(and E. A. Gardner),! Charles Michel,? R. Cagnat,? and
others, are admirably adapted for use by theologians as
introductions to the special studies of the masters of Greek
epigraphy. When the Greek inscriptions of the Jews of
the Diaspora are made more accessible, particularly useful
results may be expected: Nikolaus Miiller’s posthumous
work ὅ is a valuable beginning.
I have already mentioned the studies by Walch and
Miinter, who, so far as I know, were the first to employ
Greek inscriptions in the elucidation of the New Testament.
Since then * their followers in this path have been chiefly
British 7 scholars, e.g. Bishop Lightfoot and Edwin Hatch
in many of their writings; E. L. Hicks,’ who has been already
1 An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, Cambridge, 1887 and 1905.
2 Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques, Bruxelles, 1900; Supplément, Fasc. 1,
1012.
3 Inscriptiones Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes, Paris, 1901 ff.
4 Indispensable is Wilhelm Larfeld’s Handbuch der griechischen Epigraphik,
planned on a great scale: Vol. I., Einleitungs- und Hilfsdisziplinen. Die
nichtattischen Inschriften, Leipzig, 1907; Vol. II., Die attischen Inschriften,
Leipzig, 1902; Vol. III. (subject index to the inscriptions) in preparation.
His outline in the Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft has been
already mentioned, p. 11, n. 3 above.
5 Die Inschriften der jiidischen Katakombe am Monteverde zu Rom enideckt
und erklart von Nikolaus Milley. Completed and edited after the author’s
death by Nikos A. Bees (BEH2), Leipzig, 1919. I was myself privileged to
take an active share in editing this work of my friend, whose early decease
we deplore.
* A complete bibliography is not aimed at, and would now be impossible
under the circumstances of the time. I refer, however, to my fourth report
on the linguistic study of the Greek Bible, Theologische Rundschau 15 (1912)
PP. 339-364. The international literature of the subject has increased greatly
in the last ten years.
7 Richard Adelbert Lipsius, the son who edited Karl Heinrich Adelbert
Lipsius’ Grammatische Untersuchungen δον die biblische Grdcitat, Leipzig,
1863, tells us (Preface, p. viii) that his father contemplated a large Grammar
of the Greek Bible, in which he would have availed himself of the discoveries
of modern epigraphy. He has in fact done so to some extent in the “ Unter-
suchungen,”
® “ On some Political Terms employed in the New Testament,” The Classical
Review, Vol. I. (1887) pp. 4 ff., 42 ff. I first heard of these excellent articles
through Sir W. M. Ramsay in 1898.

Continuation of notes to page 17 :—

Ziebarth, Hermann Diels, and Otto Weinreich (though not one of the six
names is on the title-page): Vol. 1, 1915; 2, 1917; 3, 1920; 4 (indices),
first half, 1920.
4 : A Manual
τὸς of Greek Historical
: Inscriptions, Oxford, 1882. New and
revised edition by E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Oxford, rgor.
 THE PROBLEM 19
mentioned as one of the editors of the inscriptions of Cos
and of the British Museum inscriptions; and most par-
ticularly Sir William Ramsay—who has himself done great
things for the epigraphy of Asia Minor—in a long series
of well-known works. A French Jesuit. father, Louis
Jalabert, has also displayed great mastery in his valuable
article on Epigraphy? and in other works. In Germany
E. Schiirer had, in his classical work, The History of the
Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, and elsewhere,
made the happiest and most profitable use of the inscrip-
tions? and their importance has not escaped the learning
of Theodor Zahn, Georg Heinrici,? Adolf Harnack, and others.
Paul Wilhelm Schmiedel, in his excellent adaptation of
Winer’s Grammar,* has drawn most freely on the inscrip-
tions in dealing with the accidence. They have been turned
to account for the philology of the Septuagint by Heinrich
Anz,° but most particularly by the authors of the first
Grammars of the Septuagint, Robert Helbing ὁ and Henry
St. John Thackeray’; also by Jean Psichari 8 and Richard
Meister.® Heinrich Reinhold? and Friedrich Rostalski,!!
1 Dictionnaive apologétique de la Fot catholique, I. col. 1404-1457, Paris,
τοῖο.
2 Important use is also made of the inscriptions (and papyri) in a kindred
work by a Frenchman: Jean Juster, Les Juifs dans l’'Empive Romain, 2
vols., Paris, 1914.
3 In his studies on the organisation of the Corinthian churches the inscrip-
tions were made use of.
4 Gottingen, 1894 ff.; cf. Theol. Rundschau, 1 (1897-1898) p. 465 ff.
5 Subsidia ad cognoscendum Graecorum sermonem vulgarem e-Pentateuchi
versione Alexandrina repetita, Dissertationes Philologicae Halenses Vol. 12,
Halis Sax., 1894, pp. 259-387; cf. Theol. Rundschau, 1 (1897-1898) p. 468 ff.
® Grammatik der Septuaginta, Laut- und Wortlehre, Géttingen, 1907. Cf.
the important corrections by Jacob Wackernagel, Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 33 (1908)
col. 635 ff.
7 A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint,
Vol. I., Cambridge, 1909.
5 Essai sur le Grec de la Sepiante. Extraite de la Revue des Etudes juives,
Avril 1908, Paris, 1908.
® Prolegomena zu einey Grammatik der Septuaginta, Wiener Studien 29,
(1907) 228-259; Beitrage zur Lautlehve dey LXX, offprint from the “ Tatig-
keitsbericht des Vereines klassischer Philologen an der Univ. Wien, 1909,”
Wien, 1909.
10 De graecitate Patrum Apostolicorum librorumque apocryphorum Novi
Testamenti quaestiones grammaticae, Diss. Phil. Hal. Vol. 14, Pars. 1, Halis
Sax., 1898, pp. 1-115; cf. Wochenschrift fir klassische Philologie, 1902,
col. 89 ff.
[For note 11 see next page.
20 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
following Anz, compared the inscriptions with the Greek
of the Apostolic Fathers and the New Testament Apocrypha.
In my “ Bible Studies ” 1 an attempt was made to show what
they will yield for the purposes of early Christian lexicography,
and the like -has been done by H. A. A. Kennedy.? In
“‘ New Bible Studies 5.1 examined particularly the inscrip-
tions of Pergamum and part of the inscriptions from the
islands of the Aegean, while at my suggestion Gottfried
Thieme 4 worked at the inscriptions of Magnesia on the
Maeander and Jean Rouffiac ὅ at those of Priene. Epigraphy
yields a rich harvest in Theodor Nageli’s study of the
language of St. Paul,® in the Grammar of New Testament
Greek by Friedrich Blass,’ and still richer in those by James
Hope Moulton ® and Ludwig Radermacher,® and in the
1 Bibelstudien : Beitrage, zumeist aus den Papyri und Inschriften, zur
Geschichte der Sprache, des Schrifttums und der Religion des hellenistischen
Judentums und des Urchristentums, Marburg, 1895. English translation
(together with the ‘“‘ Neue Bibelstudien”’) by A. Grieve, under the title
“* Bible Studies,’ Edinburgh, 1901; 2nd ed. 1903; 3rd ed. 1923.
2 Sources of New Testament Greek, Edinburgh, 1895; cf. Gott. gel. Anzeigen,
1896, p. 761 ff.
3 Neue Bibelstudien : sprachgeschichtliche Beitrage, zumeist aus den Papyri
und Inschriften, zur Erklarung des N. T., Marburg, 1897.
~ 4 Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Mdander und das Neue Testament:
eine sprachgeschichtliche Studie [Dissert. Heidelberg, 1905], Gottingen, 1906;
cf. Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 31 (1906) col. 231.
5 Recherches sur les cavactéves du grec dans le Nouveau Testament d'apres
les inscriptions de Priéne, Paris, 1911.
& Dev Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus: Beitrag zur sprachgeschichtlichen
Erforschung des N. T., Gottingen, 1905; cf. Theol, Lit.-Ztg. 31 (1906) col.
228 ff.
τ Grammatik des Neutestamentlithen Griechisch, Géttingen, 1896, 2nd ed.
-rg02; cf. Géttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1898, p. 120 ff., and Berl. Philol.
Wochenschrift 24 (1904) col. 212 ff. [Blass’s Grammar was translated into
English by H. St. J. Thackeray, London, 1898, 2nd ed. 1905. ΤῈ. Com-
pletely revised by Albert Debrunner for the 4th and 5th editions (1913,
1921), a veritable treasury of New Testament philology.
8. Grammar of New Testament Greek, Edinburgh, 1906, 2nd ed. the same
year, 3rd ed. 1908; cf. Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 31 (1906) col. 238 f., 32 (1907) col.
~ [For continuation of notes see next page.

Continuation of notes, to page 19.

11 Sprachliches zu den apokryphen Apostelgeschichten, two “' programs,”
essays accompanying the annual report of the Grammar School (“" Gymna-
sium ’’) of Myslowitz, Upper Silesia, 1910 and 1911; Die Sprache dey grie-
chischen Paulusakten mit Berticksichtigung thver lateinischen Ubersetzungen,
Myslowitz, 1913. 7
 THE PROBLEM 21
large Grammar by A. T. Robertson.1 New Testament
lexicographers in the past made but occasional use of the
inscriptions, and Hermann Cremer, when he did so, was at
times absolutely misleading in consequence of his peculiar
dogmatic attitude on the subject. The additions which
were made, chiefly by Adolf Schlatter, to Cremer’s last
edition of his Biblico-Theological Lexicon of New Testament
Greek® afford illustrations, in some important points, of
the knowledge which the lexicographer in particular may
gain from the inscriptions. In recent years, after a falling
off in the case of Erwin Preuschen’s Manual Lexicon,
an improvement has set in,’ and Moulton and Milligan’s
Vocabulary of the Greek Testament,* with its vast collection
of material ‘‘from the papyri and other non-literary
sources,” is also a promising new beginning by reason
of its comprehensive use of the inscriptions. Honour-
able mention has long been due to Hans Lietzmann and
Johannes Weiss for attention bestowed on the inscriptions,
by Lietzmann in his Commentaries on Romans and First
Corinthians 5 (excellent on the philological side), and by
Weiss in his substantial articles in Herzog and Hauck’s
1 4 Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research,
New York, 1914. A book of 1400 large octavo pages. A small predecessor
of this Grammar has appeared in several languages.
2 Biblisch-theologisches Wérterbuch der Neutestamentlichen Grdcitat, 9th ed.,
Gotha, 1902, p. 1119 f. The 1oth ed. (Gotha, 1911], in its way a very
meritorious revision by Julius Kégel, is an improvement also in this respect.
(Latest ed. of the Engl. trans. of Cremer is the 4th, Edinburgh, 1908. Tr.]
3 See on this subject Chapter V. of the present work.
4. At present six parts have appeared, London, 1914, 1915, 1919, 1920,
1924, 1927.
5 Handb. zum N. T. (III.), Tiibingen, 1906 f. The collaborators on Lietz-
mann’s ‘‘ Handbook ” (and those employed on Zahn’s ‘‘ Commentary ”’) have
also for their part shown a gratifying interest in the non-literary texts,

Continuation of note to page 20 :—

38 f. German translation of the 3rd ed., Eznleitung in die Sprache des Neuen
Testaments, Heidelberg, 1911. Since Moulton’s tragic death Wilbert Francis
‘Howard has continued the English edition of the Grammar, publishing two
parts of Vol. II. in 1919 and 1920.—Moulton’s inaugural lecture in the
University of Manchester, ‘‘ The Science of Language and the Study of the
New Testament,’’ Manchester, 1906, also deserves notice. [Reprinted in his
posthumous book, The Christian Religion in the Study and the Street, London,
1919, pp. 117-144. TR.]
® Neutestamentliche Grammatik, Tabingen, 1911; 71925.
22 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Realencyclopédie.1 Copious use of new material has also
been made by George Milligan in his Commentary on the
Epistles to the Thessalonians? by William H. P. Hatch,’
and by William Duncan Ferguson.4
We are further indebted for:most valuable enlightenment
to the philologists pure and simple who have extracted
grammatical and lexical material from the inscriptions, or
have compiled from the new texts complete grammars of
the universal Greek current from the death of Alexander
onwards into the Imperial age. Such are the special inves-
tigations of K. Meisterhans,5> Eduard Schweizer,* Wilhelm
Schulze,’ Ernst Nachmanson,® Jacob Wackernagel,® and in
a special degree the great works of ἃ. N. Hatzidakis,!° Karl
Dieterich," and Albert Thumb,” which are full of references
1 Realencyclopadie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche, 3rd ed.; see
especially the excellent article on “ Kleinasien.”’ ' 2 London, 1908.
5 Some Illustrations of New Testament Usage from Greek Inscriptions of
Asia Minor, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 27, Part 2, 1908, pp. 134-46.
The discovery of ἀγάπη, “‘ love,” in a pagan inscription of the Imperial period
from Tefeny in Pisiflia (Papers of the American School of Classical Studies
at Athens, 2, 57) would be important if the word ἀγά[πη]ν were here rightly
restored; we should then have a proof of the profane origin of the word,
which I have long suspected (Neue Bibelstudien, p. 27; Btble Studies, p. 199).
But it now seems to me more probable that we ought to read ἀγα[θόἠν, cf.
F. Heinevetter’s dissertation, Wirfel- und Buchstabenorakel in Griecheniand
und Kleinasien, Breslau, 1912, p. 10, and the parallels on p. 25. On ἀγάπη
see also p. 75, n. 3 below.
“ The Legal Terms common to the Macedonian Inscriptions and the N.T.,
Chicago, 1913.—For the rest it may be said, I think, of all the N.T. commentaries
and multifarious separate investigations of the last fifteen years (1908-23)
that they have drawn more and more exhaustively upon the non-literary sources
5 Grammatik dey attischen Inschriften, 3rd ed.revised by Eduard Schwyzer,
Berlin, 1900.
5. Grammatik dey pergamenischen Inschriften, Berlin, 1898; and (published
under the name of Schwyzer, which he assumed) Die Vulgdrsprache der
attischen Fluchtafeln, Neue Jahrbiicher fir das klass. Altertum, 5 (1900)
p. 244 ff.
τ Graeca Latina, Gottingen (Einladung zur akadem. Preisverkiindigung),
1901.
® Laute und Formen dev magnetischen Inschriften, Uppsala, 1903. And many
other works by Nachmanson, mostly appearing in ‘‘ Eranos”’ (Uppsala) or
as separate publications. ;
9 Hellenistica, Gottingen (Einladung zur akadem. Preisverkiindigung), 1907.
10 Einleitung in die neugriechische Grammatik (Bibliothek indogerm. Gram-
matiken, V.), Leipzig, 1892.
1 Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der griechischen Sprache von dev hellenis-
tischen Zeit bis zum 10. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (Byzantinisches Archiv, Heft 1),
Leipzig, 1898.
42 Die griechische Sprache im Zeitaltey des Hellenismus, Strassburg, 1901 ; cf.
Theol. Lit.-Ztg, 26 (1901) col. 684 ff.
 THE PROBLEM . 23
to usages in the language of the Greek Old and New
Testaments.!
Of the Christian inscriptions? and their direct value to
the scientific study of early Christianity I have not to speak;
but I wish at least to say that in one direction they promise
a greater harvest than many people might expect, viz. with
respect to the history of the text of Scripture and its use.
Already with the materials at present known to us quite a
large work could be written on the text of Scripture and its
use as illustrated by Biblical quotations in ancient Christian
(and Jewish) inscriptions.’ It is to be hoped that the Corpus
of Greek Christian inscriptions now planned in France will
not only put an end to the shameful neglect * with which
4 To the philologists add A. Meillet, Apergu d'une histoire de la langue grecque,
Paris, 1913, p. ix.
2 The most distinguished workers on this subject in recent years are Sir
William M. Ramsay, Franz Cumont, Gustave Lefebvre, Louis Jalabert, etc.
3 Single points have been treated by E. Bohl, Theol. Stud. und Kritiken,
1881, pp. 692-713, and E, Nestle, zbid., 1881, p. 692, and 1883, p. 153 f.; by
myself, Ein epigraphisches Denkmal des alexandrinischen A. T. (Die Bleitafel
von Hadrumetum), Bibelstudien, p. 21 ff. [Bible Studies, p. 269], Die Rachegebete
von Rheneia (p. 15, n. τ, above), and Verkannte Bibelzitate in syrischen und
mesopotamischen Inschriften, Philologus, 1905, p. 475 ff., reprinted in the
Appendix (No. X) to this book; by Baron F. Hiller von Gaertringen, Uber
eine jimgst auf Rhodos gefundene Bleirolle, enthaltend den 80. Psalm,
Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Preuss. Ak. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1898, p.
582 ff., cf. U. Wilcken, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 430f.; and by
P, Perdrizet, Bull. de Corr. hellén. 20 (1896), p. 394 ff., who comments on a
marble slab from Cyprus inscribed with the 15th Psalm, and refers to other
texts of Scripture preserved in inscriptions from Northern Syria, the Hauran,
and Southern Russia. Cf. also Ludwig Blau, Das altjiidische Zauberwesen
(Jahresbericht der Landes-Rabbinerschule in Budapest, 1897-8), Budapest,
1898, p. 95; and particularly Richard Winsch, Antike Fluchtafeln (Lietz-
mann’s Kleine Texte fiir theologische Vorlesungen und Ubungen, 20), Bonn,
1907 (of which a 2nd ed. has appeared); and Alfred Rahlfs, Septuaginta-
Studien 11., Géttingen, 1907, p. 14 ff. For the Latin inscriptions cf. Joachim
Gensichen, De Scripturae Sacrae vestigiis in inscriptionibus latinis christianis,
a doctoral dissertation, Greifswald, 1910. [The work will be facilitated by
E. Diehl’s collection of Inscriptiones Latinae Christianae Veteres, Berlin,
, 1923.—TR.]
* Sometimes they are not even recognised. £.g. the inscription from
Tehfah (Taphis) in Nubia, Corpus Inscriptiogum Graecarum, No. 8888, fac-
similed at the end of the volume and considered unintelligible by the editor,
is a fairly large fragment of the Septuagint, from Exodus xv. and Deuteronomy
xxxii. It-is all the more creditable of Adolph Wilhelm, therefore, to have
detected in a pagan inscription of the 2nd century 4.p. from Euboea echoes
of the Septuagint Deuteronomy xxviii. 22, 28 (Εφημερις Apxatodoyixn, 1892,
col, 173 ff.; Dittenberger, Sylloge,2 No 891; *No. 1240). This inscription is
one of the oldest of the records which have been influenced by the Greek
Bible. The assumption that it was composed by a proselyte is neither
 24 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
epigraphists have treated these memorials, but will also help
towards the completion of this task.
There is one circumstance which sometimes makes the
inscriptions less productive than might have been expected,
especially those that are more or less of the official kind.” The
style has often been polished up, and then they are formal,
artificial, cold as the marble that bears. them, and stiff as the
characters incised upon the unyielding stone. As a whole
the inscriptions are not so fresh and natural as the papyri,
and this second group, of which we are now to speak, is
therefore, linguistically 2 at any rate, the most important.
(ὃ) The Papyri. One of the most important writing
materials used by the ancients was the papyrus sheet.? It
necessary nor probable; it is more natural to assume that the composer simply
adopted a syncretic formula of cursing which had been influenced by the
Septuagint.
1 Cf. Neue Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 7{.; Bible Studies, p. 179; Thieme, Die In-
schriften von Magnesia am Maander und das Neue Testament, Ὁ. 4 f.
3 Lexically, however, the yield of the inscriptions is undoubtedly very
important.
3 In the following pages I have made use of my article on ‘‘ Papyri ”’ in the
Encyclopaedia Biblica, 111. col. 3556 ff., and the article on “‘ Papyrus und
Papyri’”’ (founded on the other) in Herzog and Hauck’s Realencyclopadie fiir
Theologie und Kirche, *X1IV.Ὁ. 667 ff. Cf. also an article intended for
theological readers by F. G. Kenyon on “ Papyri’’ in Hastings’ Dictionary of
the Bible, Suppl. Vol. p. 352 ff., and G. J. Pontier, De papyri en het N.T.,
Gereformeerd Theologisch Tijdschrift 1913 Sept., pp. 182-197. As introduc-
tions to papyrology the following are to be recommended: Ulrich Wilcken,
Die griechischen Papyrusurkunden, Berlin, 1897; Der heutige Stand der
Papyrusforschung, Neue Jahrbiicher fir das klass. Altertum, etc., 1901, p.
677 ff.; Ludwig Mitteis, dus den griechischen Papyrusurkunden, Leipzig,
1900; Karl Schmidt (Elberfeld), Aus der griechischen Papyrusforschung, Das
humanist. Gymnasium, 17 (1906) p. 33f. Specially important for legal
scholars: O. Gradenwitz, Einfihrung in die Papyruskunde, 1., Leipzig, 1900:
and Paul M. Meyer, Juristische Papyri. Evkidrung von Urkunden zur Einfuh-
* yung in die juristische Papyruskunde, Berlin, 1920.—Splendid guides to the
subject are Wilhelm Schubart’s Einfihrung in die Papyruskunde, Berlin, 1918,
and Papyri Graecae Bevolinenses, Bonnae, 1911 (well selected phototypes).
A popular introduction was provided by George Milligan, Heve and Theve
among the Papyri, London, 1922.—Bibliographies have been published by
C. Haberlin, Paul Viereck [thrge great reports in the Jahresbericht iiber die
Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, Vols. 98 (1898), 102 (1899),
131 (1906)], Carl Wessely, Seymour de Ricci, Pierre Jouguet, etc. Further
details will be found in Nicolas Hohlwein’s La Papyvologie Grecque : Biblio-
graphie raisonnée (Ouvrages publiés avant le ret janvier, Ἴ905), Louvain,
1905, a careful book enumerating even at that date 819 items. Cf. also as
brief guides Hohlwein’s essays, Les Papyrus Grecs d’Egypte (extrait du
Bibliographe moderne, 1906), Besancon, 1907, and Les Papyrus Grecs et
 THE PROBLEM 25
takes its name from the papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus L.,
Papyrus antiquorum Willd.). At the present day the plant
is found growing in the Sudan! and Central Africa,? in
Palestine,’ in Sicily (especially near Syracuse), and also in
Italy on the shores of Lake Trasimeno.4 It is probably
rEgypte, Province Romaine (extrait de la Revue Générale, Octobre 1908),
Bruxelles, 1908; also George Milligan, Some Recent Papyrological Pub-
lications, The Journal of Theological Studies, April 1908, p. 465 ff.; and J. H.
Moulton, From Egyptian Rubbish-Heaps, The London Quarterly Review,
April 1908, p. 212 ff. Under the same title one of Moulton’s latest works
appeared in the form of a small book, London, 1916.—Small collections for
first study: Hans Lietzmann, Griechische Papyri (Kleine Texte, 14), Bonn,
1905, 2nd. ed. 1910; George Milligan, Selections from the Greek Papyri, Cam-
bridge, 1910; Robert Helbing, Auswahl aus griechischen Papyri, Sammlung
Géschen, Berlin and Leipzig, 1912; Arthur Laudien, Griechische Papyri aus
Oxyrhynchos fir den Schulgebrauth ausgewahlt, Berlin, 1912.—Other popular
accounts need not be cited.—The central organ for the new science of papyr-
ology is the Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete, founded
and edited by Ulrich Wilcken, Leipzig, 1900 ff. Cf. also the Studien zur
Palaeographie und Papyruskunde, founded by Carl Wessely, Leipzig, 1901 ff.;
The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology (London); Revue Egyptologique
(Paris); Aegyptus (Milan). A very attractive book written for a very
general public is that by Adolf Erman and Fritz Krebs, Aus den Papyrus der
Koniglichen Museen (one of the illustrated handbooks issued by the authorities
of the Berlin Museums), Berlin, 1899. Corresponding to Dittenberger’s
Sylloge Inscriptionum we have in the great work of L. Mitteis and U. Wilcken,
Grundzige und Chrestomathte der Papyruskunde, 2 vols. in 4 half-vols., Leipzig,
1912, a book of papyri which collects together the results of earlier investiga-
tions and at the same time stimulates the new work of research. For all
further literature of the subject, not here mentioned, I refer to this book and
the periodicals.
1 B. de Montfaucon, Dissertation sur la plante appellée Papyrus, Mémoires
de l’Acad. royale des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, Vol. VI., Paris, 1729,
p- 592 ff.; Franz Woenig, Die Pflanzen im alten Agypten, ihre Heimat,
Geschichte, Kultur, Leipzig, 1886, p. 74 ff.; L. Borchardt, Die aegyptische
Pflanzensdule, Berlin, 1897, p. 25.
2 Albert Schweitzer, Zwischen Wasser und Urwald, Bern, 1921, p. 25 describes
the fields of papyrus in the Ogowe district in the virgin forest of Western
Equatorial Africa; H[enri] A[net] in Le Chrétien Belge 67 (1921) p. 253
describes them between Kitega and Kigali in Central Africa.
3 In Lake Hileh—" the waters of Merom ’’—and the Lake of Tiberias, also
near Nahr el-Falik and Antipatris, cf. K, Baedeker, Paldstina und Syrien’,
Leipzig, 1910, pp. xlix, 238, 242, 222; Paldstina-Jahrbuchsr916, p. 118.
4 J. Hoskyns-Abrahall, The Papyrus in Europe, The Academy, March 19,
1887, No. 776 (E. Nestle, Einfithrung in das Griechische N.T.,* Gottingen,
1899, p. 40; #1909, p. 48; [English translation, Textual Criticism of the Greek
Testament (Theological Translation Library, Vol. XIII.), by Edie and Menzies,
London, 1901, p. 42, ἢ. 3. TR.]).—I am told (18 October, 1922) by Pastor
Bruno Tromm (formerly of Valparaiso and Santiago de Chile) that the papyrus
plant grows well throughout Central Chile. My informant has himself made
sheets of papyrus according to the ancient rules from stems of the plant grown
in the botanical gardens of the Quinta Normal at Santiago de Chile.
26 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
cultivated in most botanical gardens, 6.5. at Berlin,’ Bonn
(Poppelsdorf),2 Breslau,? Heidelberg. It is doubtless
obtainable from all the leading nurserymen, and it was at
one time a very popular indoor plant in Germany: “ palm”
our mothers used to call it. As to its culture the firm of
J. C. Schmidt, Erfurt, wrote to me® as follows: ‘‘ Cyperus
papyrus has proved its suitability as a rapid-growing decora-
tive plant for large sheets of water, aquariums, etc. In
the open air it thrives here only in summer, and only in a
warm, sheltered position. It is propagated from seed or
from leaf-shoots; the latter are cut down to about half their
length and put in water.’’ A. Wiedemann ° gives the follow-
ing description of the plant: “A marsh plant, growing in
shallow water; root creeping, nearly as thick as a man’s arm,
with numerous root-fibres running downwards; several
smooth, straight, triangular stalks, 10 to 18 feet high, con-
taining a moist pith (whence the Hebrew name, from gama’,
‘to drink,’ ‘to sip up,’ and the phrase bibula papyrus in
Lucan IV. 136), and surmounted by an involucre with
brush-like plumes.”
The use of papyrus as a writing material goes back to
extreme antiquity. The oldest written papyrus known to
be in existence is, according to Kenyon,’ an account-sheet
belonging to the reign of the Egyptian king Assa, which is
conjecturally dated civca 2600 B.c.6 From these remote times
until well on in the Mohammedan occupation of Egypt
papyrus remains the standard writing material of that
marvellous country, so that the history of its use in antiquity
can be proved to extend over a period of about 3,500 years.
Brittle and perishable as it appears on a superficial view, it
is in reality as indestructible as the Pyramids and the obelisks.
The splendid resistant qualities of the papyrus on which they
1 As I was inforgged by the Director, by letter, 20 October, 1902.
* Ditto, 17 October, 1902.
3 Ditto, 21 October, 1902.
4 Personal information from the Director. 5 18 October, 1902.
® Guthe, Kurzes Bibelwovterbuch, p. 501.
7 The Palaecography of Greek Papyri, Oxford, 1899, p. 14.
5 I now follow the chronology of Eduard Meyer. [Assa was a king of the
5th dynasty, and used often to be dated civca 3360 B.c., or even earlier.
Dr. H. R. Hall, Ancient History of the Neay East,‘ London, 1919, pp. 26, 134, is
inclined to put Assa about 2800 B.c. TR.]
 THE PROBLEM 27
wrote have helped not a little to make the ancient Egyptians
live again in the present age.
The preparation of this material has been often wrongly
described. It is not correct to say, as even Gregory 1 once
did, that it was made from the “ bast” of the plant. The
process of manufacture was described for us by Pliny the
Elder,’ and to make his account still more intelligible existing
papyri have been examined by specialists. Kenyon 8
accordingly puts the matter thus :—The pith of the stem was
cut into thin strips, which were laid side by side perpendicu-
larly, in length and number sufficient to form a sheet. Upon
these another layer of strips was laid horizontally. The two
layers were then gummed together -with some adhesive
material, of which Nile water was one of the ingredients.
The resulting sheet was pressed, sun-dried, and made smooth
by polishing, after which it was ready for use.
The manufacture of papyrus sheets goes on in much the
same way even at the present day. In the autumn of 1902
my friend Adalbert Merx* met a lady in Sicily who had
learnt the art from her father and apparently still practised
it occasionally, It was probably the same lady that was
referred to in the following account of ‘‘ Modern Syracusan
Papyri ” in a German newspaper ὅ :—
“No visitor to Sicily who goes to Syracuse ever fails to take
a walk along the shore, in the shade of a trim-kept avenue of

1 Texthritik des Neuen Testaments, I., Leipzig, 1900, p. 7ζ. Gregory informed
me (postcard, Leipzig-Stétteritz, 29 June, 1908) that he had been perfectly
acquainted with the method of making papyrus for more than thirty. years,
and that the world ‘‘ bast’ was a mere slip of the pen. [The process is
accurately described in C. R. Gregory’s Canon and Text of the New Testament
(International Theological Library), Edinburgh, 1907, p. 301. ΤῈ]
2 Nat. Hist. 13, 11-13. Cf. Theodor Birt, Das antike Buchwesen, Berlin,
1882, p. 223 ff.; Karl Dziatzko, Untersuchungen tiber ausgewdhlte Kapitel des
antiken Buchwesens, Leipzig, 1900, p. 49 ff. Pliny’s statements have been
given popular currency in Georg Ebers’s romance Kaiser Hadrian. Cf. also
an article by Ebers, on ‘“‘ The Writing Material of Antiquity,” in the Cosmo-
politan Magazine, New York, November, 1893 (Nestle,? p. 40; [®p. 48;
Eng. trans. p. 42, n. 3]. Theodor Reil’s Leipzig dissertation, Beitydge zur
Kenntnis des Gewerbes im hellenistischen Agypten, Borna—Leipzig, 1913, Ὁ.
127 ff. deserves special attention.
® Palaeography, p. 15.
4 [The distinguished Orientalist (1838-1909) of Heidelberg.. TR.]
§ Frankfurter Zeitung, 12 April, 1906, No. 101, 2nd morning edition. The
article is signed “ὟΝ. F.”
28 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

pretty trees, to the Fountain of Arethusa. Here, transformed

into a bubbling spring, the daughter of Nereus and Doris con-
tinues her deathless existence, and one likes to make her
acquaintance in her watery element. But there is another
attraction for the traveller besides the nymph, viz. the papyrus
plants growing by the spring. The papyrus flourishes not only
here, but also in great abundance in the valley of the Anapo
near Syracuse! At the end of the 18th [Ὁ] century the plant
which has done such service to learning was introduced at
Syracuse from Alexandria and even employed industrially. In
the course of centuries, however, it seems that the plantations
in the Anapo valley ran waste, until at last a learned society at
Naples requested the Italian Government to take proper steps
for the preservation of the plant. The Government thereupon
instituted an inquiry and commissioned the Syracuse Chamber
of Commerce to report on the subject. From a translation of
this report in the Papierzeitung it appears that a citizen of Syra-
cuse, Francesco Saverio Landolina, began in the 18th century
to manufacture papyrus exactly according to the directions
given by the Roman scientist Pliny in the 13th Book of his
Natural History. After Landolina’s death the brothers Politi
continued the manufacture, and were followed by their sons,
and to-day there are only two persons in Syracuse, viz. Madame
de Haro and Professor G. Naro, descendants of the Politi family,
who know and practise the art of making papyrus. They receive
annually, with the consent of the Ministry for Education, 400
bundles of the plant, which they work up themselves, without
assistance. They use for their work a wooden mallet made
according to Pliny’s directions. The product is by no means so
fine, close-grained, and white as the ancient papyri. The 200
sheets produced every year measure 9% X 7% inches each. Two
bundles of the plant are required to make one of these sheets.
The papyrus sheets are sold exclusively to tourists. Those with
pictures of Syracusan architecture printed on them are the most
popular. A German resident at Syracuse sticks these pictures on
postcards and sells them to strangers. A sheet of papyrus costs
.from 1} to 2 live, and those with pictures are dearer,”’

In November 1913 Hugo Ibscher, the conservator of the

collection of papyri in the Berlin Museums, who has achieved
a wide reputation by his reconstructions of: tattered papyri,
1 On his return from a visit to Sicily (12 Oct., 1913) Paul Schubring informed
me that the papyrus was still growing in these two places, and brought me a
sheet of papyrus manufactured at Syracuse,
 THE PROBLEM 29
succeeded in making sheets of papyrus of extremely good
quality from a plant growing in the botanical garden at
Dahlem, Berlin.
It is interesting to note that a project has been put forward
more than once in recent years to revive the manufacture
and make it a Government monopoly with a view to using
papyrus as a material for banknotes that should defy
imitation.
The size of the’single sheet of papyrus was not constant in
ancient times, and there ought never to have been any
doubt of this fact. Kenyon? has collected some measure-
ments.. For most non-literary documents (letters, accounts,
receipts, etc.) a single sheet was sufficient; for longer texts,
especially literary ones, the necessary sheets were stuck
together and made into a roll.2 Rolls have been found
measuring as much as 20 and even 45 yards.
The regular format for ancient works of literature was the
papyrus roll. There is a large fragment of a papyrus roll
among the Leipzig fragments of the Psalter.4 It was usual to
write on that side of the sheet on which the fibres ran hori-
zontally (recto); the other side (verso) was used only excep-
tionally. When a sheet of papyrus bears writing on both
sides, in different hands, it may generally be assumed that
the writing on the vecio is the earlier of the two. Only in
exceptional cases was there writing on both sides of the
sheets of a papyrus roll. There seems to be an instance in
Ezekiel ii. 9, 10: “aroll of a book . . . written within and
without.”’ Nestle® refers to Revelation v. 1, where some
1 According to the Deutsche Tageszeitung (Berlin), 17 Nov., 1911, No. 586,
Georg Schmiedl (of Vienna) in the ‘‘ Dokumente des Fortschritts ’’ reported
on revived plantations of papyrus for industrial purposes in the delta of the
Nile. [English newspapers in 1921 reported that Belgians in the Congo region
and Norwegians in Zululand were trying to make paper from the papyrus which
grows there by the modern method of pulping. TR.]
2 Palaeography, p. 16 f.
3 Rolls were sometimes manufactured by the makers of papyrus, twenty
sheets being generally stuck together for the purpose. See L. Borchardt,
Zeitschr. f. die 4gyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 27 (1889), p. 120, and
U, Wilcken, Hermes, 28 (1893), p. 166 f.
4 Edited by G. Heinrici, Beitrage zur Geschichte und Evkldrung des N. T.,
IV., Leipzig, 1903.
5 U. Wilcken, Recto oder Verso, Hermes (22) 1887, p. 487 ff.
8 Einfihrung,? Ὁ. 41. [The English translation, 1901, p. 43, u. 2, says the
passage ‘‘ can no longer be cited in support of this practice, seeing we must
130 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
authorities read “a book written within and on the
back.”
In the later centuries of antiquity we find also the papyrus
book or codex, which finally triumphs over the roll. It is not
true that the transition from roll to book was the result of
the introduction of parchment. To give only a few instances,
the British Museum possesses a fragment of a papyrus codex
of the Iliad, probably of the 3rd century a.D.1| Among the
Oxyrhynchus Papyri there is a leaf from a codex of the gospels,
containing Matthew i. 1-9, 12, 14-20, of, the 3rd century,
besides other fragments of Biblical codices. The University
Library at Heidelberg possesses twenty-seven leaves from an
old codex of the Septuagint. And the sayings of Jesus -
found at Oxyrhynchus are also on a leaf from a codex.
When we consider the important part played by papyrus
in the life of the ancient world, it is by no means surprising to
find it mentioned in Scripture. The papyrus plant is spoken
of in Job viii. rr and Isaiah xxxv. 7; in the former passage
the translators of the Septuagint use the word papyrus, and
again in Job xl. 16 (21) and Isaiah xix. 6. The “ark of
bulrushes ” in which Moses was laid (Exodus ii. 3) was a small
”
papyrus boat,’ like the ‘‘ vessels of bulrushes”’ in Isaiah
xviii. 2.32 The writer of the Second Epistle of St. John
mentions papyrus as a writing material, for the chartes
referred to in verse 12 was doubtless a sheet of papyrus. So
too the “ books ” that Timothy was requested to bring with
him to St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 13) were no doubt made of papyrus,
for they are expressly distinguished from “ the parchments.”
We may now turn to the recent discoveries of papyri and
see what their value has been to scholarship in general.
The first recorded purchase of papyri by European visitors
to Egypt was in 1778. In that year a nameless dealer in
antiquities bought from some peasants a papyrus roll of
take καὶ ὄπισθεν with κατεσφραγισμένον.᾽" In the third German edition, however,
1909, p. 48, n. 1, Nestle still cited the passage, merely remarking that the
other way of construing it is perhaps more correct. It remains also in the edition
revised by E. von Dobschiitz, Géttingen, 1923, p. 33. Nestle died in 1913.
ΤΑ] But the original reading was probably different; cf. p. 35, n. 5 below.
1 Kenyon, Palaeography, p. 25.
2 Here Aquila translates παπυρεών.
8. See an ancient Egyptian picture in Guthe’s Kurzes Bibelwérterbuch, p. 502;
and cf. S. Witkowski, Eos 14 (1908), p. 13.
 THE PROBLEM 31
documents from the year 101-102 A.D., and looked on while
they set fire to fifty or so others simply to enjoy the aromatic
smoke that was produced.1 Since that date an enormous
quantity of inscribed papyri in all possible languages, of ages
varying from a thousand to nearly five thousand years, have
been recovered from the magic soil of the ancient seats of
civilisation in the Nile Valley. From about 1820 to 1840
the museums of Europe acquired quite a respectable number
of papyri from Memphis and Letopolis in Middle Egypt, and
from This, Panopolis, Thebes, Hermonthis, Elephantine, and
Syene in Upper Egypt. Not many scholars took any notice
of them at first, and only a very few read and profited by
them.
The next decisive event, apart from isolated finds, was the
discovery of papyri in the province of El-Fayim (Middle
Egypt) in 1877: To the north of the capital, Medinet el-
Fayim, lay a number of mounds of rubbish and debris,
marking the site of the ancient “ City of Crocodiles,” after-
wards called “‘ The City of the Arsinoites,” and these now
yielded up hundreds and thousands of precious sheets and
scraps. Since then there has been a rapid succession of big
finds, which have not ceased even yet : we are still in a period
of important discoveries. In the external history of the
discoveries the most noteworthy feature is that so many of
the papyri have been dug up with the spade from Egyptian
rubbish-heaps.? Antiquaries had set the example by ex-
cavating in search of the foundations of ancient temples
or fragments of prehistoric pottery, and now the excavators
seek papyri. The excavations carried out by Drs. Bernard
P, Grenfell? and Arthur S. Hunt rank with the most celebrated
archaeological excavations of modern times both in the
delicacy of their operations and in the value of their results.
1 Wilcken, Die griechischen Papyrusurkunden, p. 10; which see also for
what follows.—The first papyri known to have reached Europe were presented ᾿
to the library at Bale by the theologian Johann Jakob Grynaeus at the end of
the 16th cent.—one Greek and two Latin fragments, which long remained
neglected as ‘‘ Turkish ’’ texts. They were published by Ernst Rabel in the
Abhandlungen der Kgl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Géttingen, Phil.-
hist. Klasse, new series, 16 No. 3 (1917). ©
2 Including several that were written outside Egypt, cf. Archiv f. Papyrus-
forschung, 2, 138.
3 [Dr. Grenfell (born at Birmingham, 16 Dec., 1869) died17 May,1926. TR.}
32 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
The fact that so many of the papyri are found among the
dust-heaps of ancient cities is a valuable indication of their
general significance. The multitude of papyri from the
Fayim, from Oxyrhynchus-Behnesa, etc., do not, as was at
first supposed, represent the remains of certain great archives.
They have survived as part of the contents of ancient refuse-
heaps and rubbish-shoots. There the men of old cast out
their bundles of discarded documents, from offices public and
private, their worn-out books and parts of books; and there
these things reposed, tranquilly abiding their undreamt-of fate.
New hopes have been aroused by two discoveries made
within the last twenty years. The first was an unusually re-
markable find+ of pre-Christian Greek documents on parch-
ment? in Persian Kurdistan, the ancient kingdom of the
Arsacidae. About the year 1909 a native peasant found in a
cave on Kuh-i-S4l4n, one of the Avroman Mountains, an
hermetically sealed jar containing shrivelled grains of millet
and a number of documents. They went from hand to
hand among the Kurds, and some were lost. Only three
were preserved, and these were obtained after long efforts
and at some personal risk by a Persian physician, Dr. Mirza
Sa‘id Khan, who brought them to England.? In July ΙΟ14.
they were sold by auction in London and found their way
into the British Museum: two Greek parchments, one of
which has also five lines of Aramaic writing on the back, and
one parchment document in Aramaic writing. For the
1 Cf. my communication to the Archdologische Gesellschaft at Berlin on
6 Jan., 1914 (Archdologischer Anzeiger, 1914, 1) and my “ Evangelischer
Wochenbrief " (‘‘ Protestant Weekly Letter ἢ) No. 63, 12 Feb. 1916.
2 Strictly speaking, we ought to consider this find by itself, and not with
the papyri; but, since very ancient parchment fragments have been but rarely
met with hitherto, it seems hardly worth while to make them a special group
at present. It is probable, by the way, that the Avroman documents are the
oldest parchments hitherto known. The next oldest are of the 2nd cent.
A.D. (Minns, p. 24). Possibly, however, the material is not parchment, but
leather ;MSS. on leather are in existence of considerably earlier date.
8 Concerning the history of the discovery and the topography of the place
where the documents were found I have been favoured with detailed corre-
spondence by Dr. Mirza Sa‘fd Khan and Ernst Herzfeld, who was in Kurdistan
for some time during the war.
4 Mr. Minns informed me by letter (Cambridge, 15 March 1923) that “ A.
Cowley made out the third Avroman document as the first monument of
Pahlavi full of Aramaic words (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, April
1919, Ὁ. 147).”
 ΒΠΠΙΝ Ἢ SUIA ΠΥ JO uotssmused Ag ‘uwinasny Yst}Ig 911} UI MON,
Ε΄99 “ἜΠΙ)194 Jo Wopsuly oy} Ul stuedoy Wo
"ο΄ JUdWIYyoIeg ‘“pieAdUlA JO [91eq B 0} Surjejar apes jo yoerjuoQ—'h 51
 Aq -“urnesny Yysorte 9111 UE MON
ἼΒΤΙΤΙΙΤΛΙ “H SUA “AW 39 uotssiuiied A1Ie}Ipete H— Ὁ 9511
το} JUsUIYOIeT Ῥαβάϑττλ & 10 oseoy
‘O'a 12-τξ ‘eyed fo WoOpsuly 9112 Ul stuedoy
hig SINKS
 THE PROBLEM 33
publication of them in a model edition! we are greatly
indebted to Ellis H. Minns.
The first of the two Greek documents (Figure 4) is a con-
tract of sale relating to a parcel of vineyard drawn up in the
year 88 B.c. in the Parthian village of Kopanis (Under-
satrapy of Baiseira, post-station Baithabarta). It is witnessed
by three persons? and written in duplicate on one sheet.?
The other Greek document (Figure 5), drawn up in the
same Parthian village in 22-21 B.c., is a contract relating to
the letting of a vineyard on hereditary lease. It is also
witnessed by three persons 4 and written in duplicate,5 and
it is moreover a fine illustration of the parable of the vine-
yard let out to husbandmen,® which Jesus spoke some fifty
years later. When it came into the editor’s hands the upper
part of the document was still rolled up, and still bore some
seals,’
* Parchments of the Parthian Period from Avroman in Kurdistan, Journal
of Hellenic Studies 35 (1915), pp. 22-65 (with 3 plates). I received a copy of
this important article in August 1915 by the unchanging kindness of the author,
who had in 1913 sent me the text and supplied me with particulars. Cf. also
Mitteis, Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung 36 Pp. 425 ff., and Paul M. Meyer,
Juristische Papyri No. 36. Minns kindly informed me (23 March, 1922) that
new and improved facsimiles have appeared in the publications of the New
Palaeographical Society II. III. 51 and 52.
2 Cf. the ‘‘ three that bear record” in 1 John v. 7.
* On this custom of drawing up a document in two copies, one “ inner ”’
(“closed”’) and one “‘ outer ’”’ (‘open’), of which there are many instances
in Semitic and Greek antiquity, cf. Mitteis, Grundztige und Chrestomathie
II. 1, p. 77 ff., and Minns, p. 47. Our facsimiles (Figures 4 and 5) give the
‘inner ” text, which is on the upper portion of the sheet and was originally
rolled and sealed up. Figure 5 it is true also shows in the last two lines
the beginning of the ‘‘outer”’ text. It is, however, noteworthy that the
wording of the ‘‘ outer ’’ duplicate copy does not completely agree with that
of the “inner” original. The most striking difference is that the purchase-
money, for which a receipt is given in the first document, is stated as 30
drachmae in the original, while in the copy thivty has been subsequently
altered into forty. One would be tempted to think of the unjust steward:
“take thy bill, and sit down quickly, and write fifty’ (Luke xvi. 6), were it
not that external appearances make the suspicion of forgery improbable here
(cf. Minns, p. 49).
4 Cf. n. 2 above. 5 Cf. ἢ, 3 above.
“ Mark xii. 1-9, Matt. xxi. 33-41, Luke xx. 9-16. The word used here for
“Tet out” is ἐκδιδόναι, or, as in the Parthian parchment II. A 5, διδόναι
(Mark xii. 9, Luke xx. 16), In the parable a share ‘‘ of the fruits of the
vineyard "’ (ἀπὸ τῶν καρπῶν τοῦ ἀμπελῶνος) is to be given as rent; the
Parthian document fixes a money payment, but also payments in kind,
including two cotylae [about a pint] of wine.
7 See the diagramin Minns, p. 22..
34 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

In form and contents these Parthian texts are rich in

parallels to the legal documents that come to us from Egypt.
They symbolise the triumphant march of Western civilisation,
and prove that the Hellenisation of the Parthian kingdom
must have been greater than had hitherto been assumed.
The contracting parties and the witnesses are all (to judge
from the names) non-Greeks (no doubt Parthians) belonging
to a small village; the names of places and persons are of the
highest interest to students of Iranian etymology, but the
documents are of great value to the historian in general,
being dated by the reigns of Arsacidae and their consorts,
with the Seleucid era as basis.

I should like here to insert one observation!: this find in

Kurdistan, together with analogous documents among the papyri,
throws a surprising light on Jeremiah xxxii. 8-15.
At the bidding of Jahveh the prophet Jeremiah buys of
Hanameel, his uncle’s son, the field that isin Anathoth: “τὸ. And
I subscribed the deed, and sealed it, and called witnesses, and
weighed him the money (seventeen shekels of silver) in the
balances. 11. So I took the deed of the purchase, both that which
was sealed, the terms and conditions, and that which was open :
12. and I delivered the deed of the purchase unto Baruch...
13. and I charged Baruch . . . saying, 14. Thus saith the Lord
of hosts, the God of Israel: Take these deeds,? this deed of the
purchase, both that which is sealed, and this deed which is open,
and put them in an earthen vessel, that they may continue many
days. 15. For thus saith the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel:
Houses and fields and vineyards shall yet again be bought in this
land.” ᾿
What remarkable parallels to all the important details here
are found in the Parthian parchments, down to the preservation of
the document in an earthen jar!? I think, too, that it is now

1 I made it independently, and did not see until afterwards that the
editor's sister had already drawn attention to the passage, and that ancient
documents in duplicate had already been quoted in connexion with Jeremiah
by Leopold Fischer, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 30
(1910) p. 136 ff., and by L. Blau in Judaica, a festival volume for Hermann
Cohen’s seventieth birthday, Berlin, 1912, p. 207 ff.
3. On this plural see the remarks following.
5 There are other records showing that in antiquity documents and books
were preserved in earthen vessels; I will only refer to the discovery of a Greek
translation of the Old Testament ἐν πίθῳ (‘in a wine-jar ’’) by Origen at
Jericho (Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. VI. xvi. 3; other testimonies, from Epiphanius
 THE PROBLEM 35
possible to solve a much discussed textual problem relating to
the .passage in Jeremiah. The Massoretic text, after speaking of
one deed in verse 10, seems to assume two different deeds in verses
11 and 14. Wilhelm Rothstein! has conjectured that the two
deeds are due to a misunderstanding of s’pharim (verse 14), which
is to be understood in a singular sense as in 1 Kings xxi. 8 and
Isaiah xxxvii. 14. He cites (but with disapproval) Hitzig and
Stade, who considered that two portions of one and the same deed
of sale were intended. It seems to me beyond doubt that the
original text contemplated ome deed only, but that it was in two
portions, the upper text being rolled and sealed up, while the lower
text gave the “open” copy, readable at any time, as in the
Parthian parchments and many other documents.? The Septuagint
has preserved the correct text: “τὰ. And I took the deed of the
purchase, both that which was sealed . . . and that which was
read? ...14...... Take this deed of the purchase and the
deed that was read and put it‘ in an earthen vessel that it may
continue many days.”
I have no wish to enter into a detailed discussion, but I should
at least like to call attention to another greatly discussed passage,
Rev. v. r: ‘a book written within and without, close sealed
with seven 56415. ὃ Even by those who handed down the text
it was felt to be a crux and was therefore frequently altered, but
it can be explained without difficulty when we remember the
inside and outside writing of the ancient deed, and how it was
sealed.

“That it may continue many days,” says the prophet.

The vineyardmen of that Parthian village in the kingdom
etc., in Swete, An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, Cambridge, 1900,
p- 54). When I was staying at Konieh in March, 1909, I was told by my
Jewish dragoman, Calmus, that a Turkish peasant in the neighbourhood of
Eregli had, while ploughing, found an earthen pot, and in the pot a parchment
book. The khoja to whom he brought it bade him “ throw it into the water.’’
The peasant did so; but in summer, when the lake was drying up and the
waters receded, somebody else found the manuscript again. This time the
holy man ordered it ‘into the fire,” and so the old book was destroyed. The
story of the find-is not altogether incredible. Cf. also p. 36, n. 1 below.
1 In the textual notes to Kautzsch’s edition of the Bible (71896), p. 45.
-? Cf. p. 33, ἢ. 3 above.
3 καὶ τὸ ἀνεγνωσμένον according to NA; the participle “read ’’ must here
approximate to ‘‘readable.” Minns, Ὁ. 47, considers that ἀνεῳγμένον,
‘‘open(ed),”’ was perhaps the original reading.
4 αὐτό, singular, referring to one and the same sheet.
5 This text, βιβλίον γεγραμμένον ἔσωθεν καὶ ἔξωθεν κατεσφραγισμένον σφραγῖσιν ἑπτά,
I agree with Bousset (Meyer’s Commentary, XVI,* Gottingen, 1906, p. 254),
is the only one worth consideration.
36 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
of the Arsacidae have attained the like purpose with their
documents: in a climate essentially different from that of
Egypt, which is so extraordinarily favourable for the preser-
vation of ancient texts, those parchment sheets have lasted
more than two thousand years. Is it altogether unjusti-
fiable to expect that, outside the confines of Egypt, the
East will yet reward us with discoveries } similar to those
made by Origen, the Kurds of Avroman (and possibly the
peasant of Eregli) ?
Under other climatic conditions, more resembling those of
Egypt, such a hope has yet better foundation, as is proved by
a happy discovery made outside Egypt during the Great
War. A tomb in the ruined monastery church of Hafir
el-‘Audsha (south-west of Birseba, the ancient Beersheba,
in southern Palestine) was found to contain portions of two
papyrus documents? of the 6th century A.D. It appears,
therefore, not impossible that still more papyri may come to
light in Palestine. In the very dry climate of Salihiyeh, on
the Euphrates, ancient texts on parchment have lasted down
to the present day.®
The papyri are almost invariably non-literary in character.
For instance, they include legal documents of all possible
kinds: leases, bills and receipts, marriage-contracts, bills
of divorce, wills, decrees issued by authority, denunciations,
suings for the punishment of wrong-doers, minutes of judicial
proceedings, tax-papers in great numbers. Then there
are letters and notes, schoolboys’ exercise-books, magical
texts, horoscopes, diaries, etc. As regards their contents
these non-literary documents are as many-sided as life itself.
Those in Greek, several thousand in number, cover a period of
1 It is possible, for example, that sacred writings which had received
solemn burial will be rediscovered. Among the Jews at the present day
rolls of the Law (Torah) that have become worn-out are kept at first in the
Genizah (‘‘treasury’’), and are afterwards solemnly interred in earthen
vessels (cf. the ceremony at Jerusalem observed by L. Schneller, Der Bote aus
Zion, 10 (1894) p. 27 ff.), or in closed earthenware pipes (as at Prague,
January 1921), cf. R. Katz, Vossische Zeitung, No. 22,14 Jan. 1921. This
custom is certainly very old; according to Katz the interment at Prague in
1921 was the first for 532 years, 1.6. since 1389, It is not impossible that the
texts found by Origen were buried Scriptures.
2 Cf. W. Schubart in Whegane 8 Stnat, p. 110 ff., and my “ Evangelischer
Wochenbrief ”’ III. No. 47/55, end of January 1921, p. 147.
3 Cf, Franz Cumont in the periodical called Syria” 4 (1923) p. 45.
 THE PROBLEM 37
roughly a thousand years. The oldest go back to the early
Ptolemaic period, i.e. the 3rd or even the 4th century B.c.!;
the most recent bring us well into the Byzantine, period.
All the chequered history of Hellenised and Romanised Egypt
in that thousand years passes before our eyes on those tattered
sheets.
The Greek documents are supplemented by large numbers
of others in Aramaic,2? Demotic, Coptic,’ Arabic,‘ Latin,

1 A Greek literary papyrus of the 4th century B.c., viz. ‘‘ The Persians,” by
the poet Timotheus, was edited by U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Leipzig,
1903. According to F. Blass (Gétting. gel. Anzeigen, 1903, p. 655), Grenfell is
disposed to date the MS. between 330 and 280 B.c. Rubensohn found at
Elephantine bundles of papyri, among which was one dated with the regnal
year of Alexander’Aegus, the son of Alexander the Great, 311-310 B.c. That
would make it the oldest Greek papyrus document yet discovered.—It is
now No. 1 in the special publication Elephantine-Papyri bearbeitet von O.
Rubensohn, Berlin, 1907.
2 Extremely important are the Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan,
edited by A. H. Sayce with the assistance of A. E. Cowley and with appen-
dices by W. Spiegelberg and Seymour de Ricci, London, 1906. They consist
of ten large original documents (really from Elephantine), written in Aramaic
by Jews of Upper Egypt in the time of the Persian kings Xerxes, Artaxerxes,
and Darius, 471 or 470 to 411 B.c. Their eminent importance has been set
forth in its linguistic, religious, and legal aspects by Th. Néldeke, Zeitschr. f.
Assyriologie, 20, p. 130 ff.; Mark Lidzbarski, Deutsche Lit.-Ztg. 27 (1906)
col. 3205 ff.; E. Schiirer, Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 32 (1907) col. 1 ff.; U. Wilcken,
Archiv f. Papyrusforschung, 4, p. 228 ff.; Friedrich Schulthess, Géttingische
gelehrte Anzeigen, 1907, p. 181 ff.; and many others. There is a handy
edition by W. Staerk in Lietzmann’s Kleine Texte, Nos. 22, 23, Bonn, 1907,
71912, To these have now been added highly important new Aramaic docu-
ments from Elephantine, cf. Eduard Sachau, Drei aramdische Papyrus-
urkunden aus Elephantine, aus den Abhandlungen der Kgl. Preuss. Akademie
der Wissenschaften 1907, Berlin, 1907; and W. Staerk, Aramaeische Urkunden
zur Geschichte des Judentums im vi. und v. Jahrhundert vor Chr. sprachlich
und sachlich erklart, in Lietzmann’s Kleine Texte, No. 32, Bonn, 1908. Cf.
now the large edition by Ed. Sachau, Avamdische Papyrus und Ostraka aus
einer jtidischen Militavkolonie zu Elephantine, Leipzig, 1911; Eduard Meyer,
-Zu den aram. Papyri von Elephantine, Berliner Sitzungsberichte 1911,
p. 1026 ff., and the same author's popular work, Der Papyrusfund von Elephan-
tine, Leipzig 1912. Schiirer, shortly before his death, was able to give a
detailed appreciation of the discoveries in his Gesch. des jiid. Volkes III.‘ Ὁ.
24 ff. A considerable literature is there noted. [Cowley’s Avamaic Papyri
of.the Fifth Century B.C., comprising 811 the legible pre-Christian Aramaic
papyri known, was published at Oxford in 1923. TR.]
3 I merely refer to the large collections of Coptic letters and documents,
preserved at London, Vienna, Berlin, Strassburg, Heidelberg, etc. One of
the most important of the literary papyri is the Heidelberg MS. of the Acta
Pauli, discovered, pieced together with infinite pains and ingenuity, and then
edited by Carl Schmidt (of Berlin), Veréffentlichungen aus der Heidelberger
[For continuation of notes see next page.
38 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

Hebrew,! Persian [and even Gothic].2 Of the most ancient

hieroglyphic papyri we here say nothing, but there should
be no possibility of disagreement as to the value of those
we hav€ mentioned for the scientific study of antiquity in
the widest sense.2 They mean nothing less than the recon-
stitution of a large portion of the life lived by the ancients.
They tell their story of the past with a freshness, warmth,
and sincerity such as we can boast of in no ancient writer
and in but very few of the ancient inscriptions. The record
handed down by the ancient authors is always, even in the
1 The best known is the Nash Papyrus, a copy of the Decalogue and a part
of the Sh’ma [i.e. Deut. vi. 4 5.1 with a peculiar form of text, of the first or
second century A.D. Cf. Norbert Peters, Die dlteste Abschvift dev zehn Gebote,
der Papyrus Nash, untersucht, Freiburg i. B., 1905; and in connexion with
this, C. Steuernagel, Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 31 (1906) col. 489 f.
2 [Among the papyri from Antinoé acquired by the Giessen University
Library in 1908 was a small fragment of parchment (No. 651/20), part of a
double leaf from a codex (palimpsest), containing the mutilated remains of
Luke xxiii. 2-6, xxiv. 5-9 in Latin and Luke xxiii. 11-14, xxiv. 13-17 in the
4th cent. Gothic version of Wulfila (Ulfilas). This: proof of the existence
of a Latin-Gothic parallel book of the gospels was a remarkable confirmation
of Burkitt's theory of the Latin text of Codex Brixianus (Journal of Theological
Studies I (1900) pp. 129-134). The Latin handwriting of the Giessen
fragment is assigned to the early part of the 5th cent.; the Gothic, if of that
date, is the earliest MS. extant in any Germanic language. It is not to be
supposed that the MS. was written in Egypt; but readers of Kingsley’s
“ Hypatia ’”’ will remember that Gothic soldiers visited Egypt, and this one
find raises a faint hope that the rubbish-heaps may yield us yet more specimens
of Gothic,—the philological value of which is that it is the oldest extant repre-
sentative of the Germanic group of languages, to which our own English
belongs. See P. Glaue and K. Helm, Das gotisch-lateinische Bibelfragment
der Universitatsbibliothek zu Giessen, Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche
Wissenschaft 11 (1910) pp. 1-38, also separately in pamphlet form, Giessen,
1910; P. Glaue, Aus einer verlorenen Handschrift der Goten, Deutsche
Rundschau 143 (1910) pp. 240-253; F. C. Burkitt, Journal of Theological
Studies 11 (1910) p. 611 ff.; W. Streitberg, Die gotische Bibel, 2. Teil, Heidel-
terg, 1910, pp. ix-xiv. TR.]
3 Cf. H. Idris Bell’s finely appreciative lecture on ‘‘ The Historical Value
of Greek Papyri,’’ The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 6 (1920), p. 235 ff.

Continuation of notes to p. 37:—

Papyrus-Sammliung II., Leipzig, 1904 (a volume of text and a volume of
plates), with a supplementary volume, ‘' Zusatze,” Leipzig, 1905. A smaller
edition appeared at Leipzig, 1905; a new fragment in the Berliner Sitzungs-
berichte 1909, p. 216 ff.
‘ The Arabic papyri, especially those of the first century of Islam, have been
simply epoch-making as regards Islamic studies. Cf. C. H. Becker, Papyvi
Schott-Reinhardt 1. (Veréffentlichungen aus der Heidelberger Papyrus-Sammlung
111), Heidelberg, 1906, p. 1 ff., and Becker’s other publications.
 THE PROBLEM 39
best of cases, indirect, and has always been somehow or other
touched up or toned down. The inscriptions are often cold
and lifeless.1_ The papyrus sheet is far more living. We see
the handwriting, the irregular characters, we see men. We
gaze into the inmost recesses of individual lives.
Despite their unassuming simplicity the papyri have in-
fused new blood into the veins of learning. Legal history
in the first place, but afterwards the general history of cul-
ture, and notably the history of language, have benefited
thereby. And here, paradoxical-as it will seem to many, let
me say that the non-literary papyri are of greater value to
the historical inquirer than are the literary. We rejoice
by all means when ancient books, or fragments of them,
are recovered from the soilof Egypt, especially when they
are lost literary treasures. But scientifically speaking the
real treasure hidden in the field of Egypt is not so much of
ancient art and literature as there lies buried, but all the
ancient life, actual and tangible, that is waiting to be given
to the world once more. It is regrettable, therefore, to see
the merest scrap of an ancient. book treated as if it were
something sacred—immediately published with notes and
facsimile, evén if it be a fragment of some forgotten scribbler
who deserved his fate—while on the other hand the non-
literary items are often not even printed in full. Yet it
may well happen that a solitary lease of no intrinsic interest
contains the long-looked-for link completing the chain of
development from some early Hellenistic form down to its
representative in some dialect of modern Greek. Some-
thing which an editor, with his eye bent on a special subject
of interest to himself, perhaps suppressed as ‘“‘ unimportant,”
may mean a priceless discovery to another.
It cannot be my task here to recite the long list of papyrus
publications, great and small; I refer to the bibliographies
mentioned above.2 Every year, however, increases the
number of new editions. The name by which a papyrus is
known may refer either to the place where it is now preserved
1 Cf. p. 24 above.
2 For the black years 1914 ff. I recommend Wilcken’s copious reports in the
Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, and especially H. I. Bell’s careful ‘ Biblio-
graphy: Graeco-Roman Egypt A. Papyri 1914-15; 1915-19; 1919-20”
in the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 3 (1916), 6 (1920), 7 (1921).
 40 ‘ LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
(e.g. Berlin Documents; Cairo, London, Florence, Paris,
Bale, Geneva, Strassburg, Leipzig, Giessen, Hamburg,
Munich, Freiburg, Heidelberg, Chicago, etc. Papyri), the
person to whom it belongs! (e.g. the Archduke Rainer’s
Papyri, the Amherst Papyri, Reinach Papyri, εἰς), or to
the place where it was found (e.g. Oxyrhynchus Papyri,
Tebtunis Papyri, Hibeh Papyri, etc.). From the scientific
point of view it would certainly be best to name the papyri
after the place where found, and this will always be practicable
where a great number of papyri have been found in the same
place and kept in one collection. At any rate, when quoting 3
a particular papyrus one should never omit to state where and
when it was written. The special excellence of these texts
is due in no small degree to the fact that so many of them are
dated to the very year and day of the month, and that it is
neafly always certain where they came from. At some
time in the indefinite future a Corpus (or perhaps several
Corpora) Papyrorum may be called for. It would be im
possible at present to undertake such a collection, for the
discoveries show no signs of coming to a standstill. ’
The prevailing tendency being to overestimate the im-
portance of whatever is literary, it is no wonder that theo-
logians have congratulated themselves most of all on the
recovery of parts of the Bible and early Christian books.
We have, truly enough, every reason to be thankful that
sources, and textual authorities are still forthcoming from
such venerably early periods of:our faith. I have given

1 [Or belonged : the papyri collected by Lord Amherst of Hackney passed,

after his death (16 Jan. 1909), into the possession of Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan,
of New York, a few months or weeks before he died in 1913. The Archduke
Rainer died in 1913. TR.]
2 [The Flinders Petrie Papyri were edited by J. P. Mahaffy and J. G. Smyly,
.in three parts: Royal Irish Academy, Cunningham Memoirs, Nos. 8, 9, 11,
Dublin, 1891-1905. TR.]
5 Ulrich Wilcken (Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 1, oe 25 ff., 122 ἴ., 544 f.;
2, pp. 117, 385; 3, Pp. 113, 300) introduced a uniform system of abbrevia-
tions for indicating the various editions. There is a complete list of these
abbreviations in Edwin Mayser, Grammatih der griechischen Papyri aus dev
Ptolemderzeit, Leipzig, 1906, p. vii. ff.; and later in Mitteis and Wilcken,
Grundziige und Chrestomathie I. 1, p. xxv. ff. There all publications down
~ to 1912 are included. Later publications will be found in the Archiv fiir
Papyrusforschung, and in Paul M. Meyer, Juri3tische Papyri, Berlin, 1920,
p. vii. ff.
 THE PROBLEM 41
elsewhere ! a list of the most important Greek fragments
recovered down to 1903, including altogether about fifty
fragments, large and small. The more recent publications
enable us to add largely to the list. I will mention a few
particulars.? Since 1903 Grenfell and Hunt* have pub-
lished a second fragment of ‘‘ Logia,’’ and a fragment of a
new gospel,* which was followed by yet another fragment
of a gospel, of considerable size.5 Another fragment which
1 In the article mentioned which I contributed to the Realencyclopadte,3
XIV. p. 671 f. My Veréffentlichungen aus der Heidelberger Papyrus-Samm-
lung I., which were there quoted while still in the press, appeared in 1905
(not 1904 as was expected). Cf. also the article on ‘‘ Papyri’’ by Kenyon.
3 Cf. also Adolf Harnack, Die Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatuy bis
Eusebius 11., Leipzig, 1904, p. 179 ff., and the serial reports by Carl Schmidt
(of Berlin) in the Archiv fir Papyrusforschung. A creditable collection of
the oldest literary and non-literary Christian texts on papyri was contributed
to the Patrologia Orientalis, IV. 2, by Charles Wessely, ‘‘ Les plus anciens
monuments du Christianisme écrits sur papyrus textes grecs édités, traduits
et commentés,’’’ Paris [1907]. Cf. also A. Bludau, Biblische Zeitschrift, 4
(1906), p. 25 ff.; Hermann Miiller, 7b¢d. 6 (1908), p. 25 ff.; and Caspar René
Gregory, Die griechischen Handschriften des Neuen Testaments, Leipzig, 1908,
PP. 45-7.
8 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Part IV. No. 654; cf. my article “ Zur Text-
Rekonstruktion der neuesten Jesusworte aus Oxyrhynchos,” Supplement
No. 162 to the Allgemeine Zeitung (Munich), 18 July, 1904, translated as an
Appendix (No. II) to the present book; E. Preuschen, Antilegomena,? Gieszen,
1905, pp. 23 ff., 119 ff.; E. Klostermann, Apocrypha III., Bonn, 1904, p. 17 ff.;
J. H. A. Michelsen in Teyler’s Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1905, p. 160 f.—I
may be allowed one remark concerning the first ‘‘ Logia ’”’ fragment of 1897.
The last clause (‘colon’) of Logion No. 4, σχίσον τὸ ξύλον κἀγὼ ἐκεῖ εἰμί,
‘cleave the wood and I am there,” which has been so much discussed [and
has inspired poets: cf. Sir William Watson’s poem ‘‘ The Unknown God,”
and H. van Dyke's hymn, beginning ‘‘ They who tread the path of labour.’’
Tr.], has a remarkable parallel (not yet pointed out, I believe) in the Gospel
of Thomas, ch. x. The boy Jesus heals a wood-cutter whose axe had fallen
and severely injured his foot, and dismisses him with the words, ἀνάστα viv
oxile τὰ ξύλα καὶ μνημόνευέ μου, “ Arise now: cleave the pieces of wood and
remember Me.” ([Cf. M. R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford,
1924, pp. 27, 52. TR.] This parallel suggests that the Logion is a word of
consolation for those engaged in dangerous work. William A. Curtis gives a
different explanation in The Expositor, June 1913, p. 481 ff.
4 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Part IV. No. 655. Also published separately
by Grenfell and Hunt with the second “ Logia” fragment: New Sayings
of Jesus and Fragment of a Lost Gospel, London, 1904. See also Preuschen,
Antilegomena,? p. 26; Klostermann, Apocrypha III. p. 20; [Μ. R. James,
The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford, 1924, p. 28. TR.] Michelsen, op.
cit. p. 161 ff., successfully restores a portion of this hitherto unidentified
fragment.
5 Cf. the announcement in The Times, May 14, 1906. Grenfell and Hunt
very kindly showed me the original at Oxford (Oct. 1906). It is a parch-
42 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the two distinguished explorers also consider to be a portion
of a gospel,! is perhaps rather to be looked on as part of a
commentary or a sermon.? The Second Part of the Amherst
Papyri contains a large fragment of ‘‘ The Shepherd of
Hermas ” and several Septuagint fragments, one of which
has only been identified since the book appeared.? The
Fourth Part of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri gave us, besides
the texts mentioned above, a good-sized fragment of the
Septuagint Genesis,‘ and a still larger piece of the Epistle
to the Hebrews,5 which was found written on the back of
an Epitome of Livy. The Sixth Part also presented us
with new fragments,* and the abundance increased with

ment fragment from Oxyrhynchus, published in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri,

Part V. No. 840; and separately, Fragment of an Uncanonical Gospel from
Oxyrhynchus, London, 1908. The fragment has already called forth a copious
literature. Cf. Henry Barclay Swete, Zwei neue Evangelienfragmente, Bonn,
1908 (Lietzmann’s Kleine Texte, No. 31); E. Preuschen, Zeitschrift fi die
neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1908, p. 1 ff.; L. Blau, ibid., p. 204 ff.; A.
Marmorstein, ibid., 1914, p. 336 ff. ; [M. R. James, A pocryphal New Testament,
p. 29f. Tr.] Swete also prints the so-called Freer Logion, which has likewise
given rise to a whole literature. [A 4th or 5th century codex of the Gospels,
on vellum, was found in a tomb at Akhmim, the ancient Panopolis, in Upper
Egypt, in 1907, and acquired by Charles Lang Freer of Detroit, who afterwards
presented it to the University of Washington. The Logion forms part of the
reputed conclusion of St. Mark (between verses 14 and 15 of ch. xvi.); it is
extant in no other Greek MS., but the preliminary words of the apostles were
known from a quotation by Jerome in Latin. An English version will be
found in Dr. James Moffatt’s ‘‘ The New Testament: a new translation ” at
the right position in St. Mark; also in M. R. James, Apocryphal New Testa-
ment, p. 34. TR.] Besides the works of H. A. Sanders, A. Harnack, and
C. R. Gregory, mentioned by Swete, cf. among others Hugo Koch, Biblische
Zeitschrift 6 (1908) p. 266 ff.; [H. A. Sanders, The Washington Manuscript
of the Four Gospels, University of Michigan Studies, 1912].
1 Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes du Musée du.Caive, Vol. X.
(Nos. 10,001~10,869 Greek Papyri), Oxford, 1903, No. 10,735; Preuschen.
Antilegomena,? p. 114 f. ᾿
2 Cf. my article, ‘‘Das angebliche Evangelien-Fragment von Kairo,”
Archiv fir Religionswissenschaft, 7, p. 387, translated as an Appendix (No.
III) to this book.
3 Namely the fragment after No. 191, Ὁ. 201. It contains LXX Isaiah
lviii. 11-14. See the Supplement to the Allgemeine Zeitung (Munich),
No. 251, 31 October, rgor.
* No. 656; now cited as US by the editors of the great Cambridge Septua-
gint (Alan England Brooke and Norman McLean).
5 No. 657. ;
ὁ Fragments of the LXX Psalter (No. 845), LXX Amos (No. 846), St.
John’s Gospel (No. 847), Revelation (No. 848), the Acts of Peter (No. 849),
the Acts of John (No. 850); and a fragment not yet identified (No. 851).
 THE PROBLEM 43
each new volume of this wonderfully rich collection.! Other
Biblical fragments on papyrus, some of them very old, of
which I have received information by letter, remain un-
published, e.g. a large 4th-century MS. of Genesis obtained
by Carl Schmidt (of Berlin). Adolf Harnack has announced 3
the discovery of a fragment of Ignatius by the same Carl
Schmidt. For considerable fragments of Irenaeus preserved
at Jena we are indebted to Hans Lietzmann,* who has also
published a Jena fragment of the Psalter.5 Carl Schmidt
(of Berlin) has edited two important early Christian prayers δ
belonging to the Berlin Museum. Several ancient Christian
fragments in the Strassburg collection of papyri have been
published by O. Plasberg.? Anton Swoboda thinks he has
discovered in one of the papyri of the ‘“‘ Fayim Towns”
volume fragments of a Gnostic (Naassenic) psalm about
Christ’s descent into hell. P. Glaue and A. Rahlfs® have
published fragments of a Greek translation of the Samaritan
1 Part XV. (1922) reached me by the kindness of the Egypt Exploration
Society and the editors. The gem of this portion of the collection is No.1786,
the oldest known fragment of an early Christian hymn, temp. Diocletian, with
musical notation! [Part XVI appeared in 1924. TR.]
2 See the Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 33 (1908), col. 360.
3 Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 31 (1906), col. 596f.
4 Nachrichten der Kgl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Géttingen,
Phil.-hist. Klasse, 1912, p. 292 ff.
5 Neutestamentliche Studien Georg Heinvici dargebracht, Leipzig, 1914,
p. 60 ff.
6 Tbid.,Ὁ. 66 ff.
7 Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 2, p. 217 ff.: a piece with proverbs, not
yet identified, and probably quite new; a fragment of 2-Samuel xv. and xvi.,
Septuagint; a parchment fragment of the 5th century a.D. with remains
of a Greek translation, of Genesis xxv. 19-22 and xxvi. 3,4. This last piece,
quoted as A, in the great Cambridge Septuagint, is very important. It
presents a text remarkably at variance with the LXX but approximating
to the Hebrew—not, however, a Samaritan text, it would seem, cf. Rahlfs,
Nachrichten der Kgl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Géttingen, I9II,
p. 266—and its variants are remarkable for the occurrence four times over
of σπορά, a reading not hitherto recorded, instead of σπέρμα (xxvi. 3, 4). We
may conclude with great probability that this is a direct protest against
St. Paul’s celebrated insistence on the singular σπέρμα (Gal. iii. 16), and that
the papyrus is therefore the survival of a post-Christian, hitherto unknown
Jewish revision of the LXX or new translation. Graecus Venetus, a late
and probably Jewish writer (ed. O. Gebhardt, Lipsiae, 1875), has σπόρος in
most of the Messianic passages of Genesis; in xxvi. 3, 4 he has σπόρος three
times and σπέρμα once.
8. Cf. Wiener Studien 27 (1905), Part 2.
® Nachr. der Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften zu Géttingen, 1911, pp. 167 ff.
and 263 ff.
44 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Pentateuch (on parchment). I cannot, in the present state
of our libraries, attempt to enumerate the abundant dis-
coveries of the last few years; a precise bibliography of all
those relating to the Greek Bible and early Church history
remains, however, a pressing need.
Of great importance too are the Coptic fragments of
Biblical, Gnostic, and other early Christian writings, among
which I have already mentioned the Heidelberg ‘ Acta
Pauli.” 2 They are very numerous,’ and have lately been
reinforced by two extensive fragments of translations of the
first Epistle of Clement, now at Berlin’ and Strassburg,®
and by a beautifully preserved MS. of the Proverbs of Solo-
mon.® The conversations of Jesus with the disciples after
the Resurrection, contained in a Coptic papyrus, for which
we are mainly indebted to Carl Schmidt’ of Berlin, are his-
torically the most valuable of these discoveries. Graeco-
Sahidic fragments of the Psalms, of considerable extent,
have been published by Carl Wessely ὃ from the collection
of papyri belonging to the Archduke Rainer. An entirely
new field has been opened up by the discovery, also due to
1 There are excellent lists in Schubart, Einfiuhrung in die Papyruskunde,
Ῥ. 473 1., 475, 481. Cf. also ἐδίά., pp. 174-183. For the Sayings of Jesus
(Logia) I refer at least to the great edition by H. G. Evelyn White, The
Sayings of Jesus, Cambridge, 1920; cf. A. von Harnack, Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 46
(1921), col. 4f.
2 Page 37,n. 3 above.
3 I had no intention of enumerating all the earlier publications. Budge’s
publication, the omission of which was noticed by J. Leipoldt (Theologisches
Literaturblatt 29 [1908] col. 561) was not unknown to me.
4 Karl [= Carl] Schmidt, Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Preuss. Akademie der
Wissenschaften (Berlin), 1907, p. 154 ff., and his edition, Der erste Clemens-
brief in altkoptischer Ubersetzung (Texte und Untersuchungen, Dritte Reihe,
Zweiter Band, Heft 1), Leipzig, 1908.
5 Sitzungsberichte, 1907, p. 158 £.
6 Now at Berlin, tbid., p. 155.
1 Gesprdache Jesu mit seinen Jiingeyn nach dey Auferstehung. Ein katholisch-
apostolisches Sendschreiben des 2. Jahrh., Leipzig, 1919.
8 Sitzungsberichte der Kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien,
Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, Vol. 155, first article, Wien, 1907. [A
papyrus codex, written before 350 a.p., and containing Jonah .and large
portions of Deuteronomy and Acts, was "published by the British Museum,
Coptic Biblical Texts in the Dialect of Upper Egypt, 1912. It is a remarkably
early specimen of a Biblical MS. of such size. In 1923, Guy Brunton dis-
covered an early Coptic papyrus codex (6. 400 A.D.) of St. John’s Gospel, enclosed
in a jar (cf. p. 34, n. 3 above), in an old Christian cemetery at Qau-el-Kebir,
about 30 miles.south of Assiut. It was edited by Sir Herbert Thompson for
the British School of Archaeology in Egypt, 1924. Tr.]
 THE PROBLEM 45
Carl Schmidt (Berlin), of the first fragments of Christian
literature in the language of ancient Nubia.!
The non-literary papyri also contain much that is of
direct value in the study of Biblical and Christian antiquities.
In the first place we have the Aramaic and Greek documents
which from the 5th century B.c. until long after the estab-
lishment of the Empire make mention of Jewish inhabitants
in all parts of Egypt. These furnish statistics of that cos-
mopolitan Judaism ? which was such a help to the Christian
mission. Next come the papyri which enable us to fix
the chronology of the Egyptian Praefect Munatius Felix,
and thereby the chronology of an important treatise by
Justin Martyr, or which make it possible to determine the
site of hitherto uncertain Egyptian places mentioned in
early Christian texts. The discoveries have presented us
with precious original documents of the time of the Christian

1 Heinrich Schafer und Karl [= Carl] Schmidt, Sitzungsberichte der Kgl.

Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin), 1906, p. 774 ff., and 1907,
p. 602f. They are parchment fragments from Upper Egypt, but were no
doubt found together with papyri. It is nearly always so with Egyptian
parchment fragments. New writings in Nubian apart from these have
since come to light; cf. F. Ll. Griffith’s large and comprehensive treatise,
‘“ The Nubian Texts of the Christian Period,’’ Abhandlungen der Kgl. Preuss-
ischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, philos.-histor. Klasse, 1913, No. 8,
Berlin, 1913. I gave a specimen of these texts in German in a sketch entitled
“Die Kraft des Kreuzes, Altchristliche Enkomien,” in Die Hilfé, 1 April,
1915; in English, ‘‘ The Power of the Cross,’’ The Expository Times, Vol. 32,
No. 7, April 1921, p. 299 ff.
2 The Jewish papyri mentioned in my first list (No. 14) in the Realencyclo-
pddie® have been the subject of several investigations since I wrote about
‘them in the Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 23 (1898), col. 602 ff. I would refer especially
to E. von Dobschiitz, Jews and Antisemites in Ancient Alexandria, The
American’ Journal of Theology, 1904, p. 728 ff.; F. Stahelin, Dey Antisemi-
tismus des Altertums, Basel, 1905; Aug. Bludau, Juden und Judenverfol-
gungen im alten Alexandria, Mimster i. W., 1906; and most particularly to
U. Wilcken, Zum alexandrinischen Antisemitismus (Vol. XXVII. of the
Abhandlungen der phil.-hist. Klasse der Kgl. Sachs. Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften, No. XXIII.), Leipzig, 1909 (also Chrestomathie I. τ, Ὁ. 44 f.).
New texts of this kind are the Oxyrhynchus Papyri Nos. 1089 and 1242, on
which see the fruitful essays by Wilh. Weber, Hermes 50 (1915), pp. 47-92,
and A. von Premerstein, Hermes 57 (1922), pp. 266-316; also A. von Premer-
stein, ‘‘Zu den sogenannten alexandrinischen Martyrakten,” Philologus,
Supplementband 16, Heft 2, Leipzig, 1923. [H.I. Bell, Jews and Christians
in Egypt. The Jewish Troubles in Alexandria and the Athanasian Controversy
illustrated by texts from Greek Papyri in the British Museum, 1924. All but
one of the papyri are 4th century. Amony the correspondence of Pap(h)nutius
(cf. p. 47, ἢ. 3 below) there is a possible autograph of St. Athanasius. Tr.]
46 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
persecutions. We have numerous /ibelli (nearly 40, I should
now estimate) issued to Christian Jibellatici (or, as U. Wilcken
suggested to me in a letter of r March, 1902, in some cases
no doubt to falsely suspected pagans 1) at the time of the
Decian persecution,? and then there is the letter of the
Christian. presbyter Psenosiris in the Great Oasis to
the presbyter Apollo on behalf of a banished Christian
woman.2 Highly remarkable is a Christian original
1 Cf. also Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 3, p. 311. [Libelli were official
certificates of the satisfactory performance of pagan sacrifices by the certificate-
holders. TR.]
2 In 1909 I was only able to mention 5: No.1 published by Fr. Krebs,
Sitzungsberichte der Kgl.-Preuss. Ak. d. Wiss. (Berlin), 1893, pp. 1007-
1014; No. 2 published by K. Wessely, Anzeiger der Kaiserl. Ak. d. W. zu
Wien, Phil.-hist. Klasse, XX XI. 1894, pp. 3-9; for No. 3 cf. Seymour de
Ricci, Bulletin Papyrologique, Revue des Etudes Grecques, 1901, p. 203,
and U. Wilcken, Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 174; No. 4 published
by Grenfell and Hunt, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No. 658; No. 5 published
by Wessely in the Patrologia Orientalis, IV. 2, pp. 113-115. Cf. also G.
Milligan, The Expository Times, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Jan. 1909). A. Bludau’s
article in Der Katholik, 88, 9, I know only from the Deutsche Lit.-Ztg. 29
(1908), col. 2453. Since 1909 a number of new /ibelli have been discovered
and published. Paul M. Meyer, ‘‘ Die Libeili aus der Decianischen Christen-
verfolgung " (Appendix to the Abhandlungen der Berliner Ak. d. W., 1910),
Berlin, 1910, published 19 new /ibelli belonging to the Municipal Library
at Hamburg and reprinted those that were already known, making 24 in all.
In his work, Griechische Texte aus Agypten (I. Papyri des Neutest. Seminars
der Univ. Berlin, II. Ostraka der Sammlung Deissmann), Berlin, 1916, p. 75 ff.,
he added three more, which I had obtained for the New Testament Seminar
at Berlin. Some more /ibelli from the same find were acquired by the John
Rylands Library at Manchester through my agency; some of them have
been published in the Catalogue of the Greek Papyri in the John Rylands
Library, Vol. II.'(1915). Οὗ. also The Oxyrhynchus Papyri XII. No. 1464,
and Gerhard Plaumann in Amtliche Berichte aus den Kgl. Kunstsammlungen,
34 (1913), p. 117 f£.—A remarkable analogy to these Libelli is furnished by
the certificates of confession and profession given to Lutherans in the 17th
century, cf. Theol. Rundschau, 11 (1908), p. 430. (" Tokens’ were given
before the Reformation to persons after confession, empowering them to be
admitted to Communion, a practice continued in Scotland in the ‘‘ Com-
munion Tokens ” issued to church-members qualified to receive the Sacrament.
See the New English Dictionary, s.v. Token sb. 10, and Token-money. TR.] '
3 Papyrus 713 in the British Museum, edited with commentary in my
little book, Ein Original-Dokument aus dey Diocletianischen Christenver-
folgung, Tabingen und Leipzig, 1902; translated into English under the
title The Epistle of Psenosivis, London, 1902 (Cheap Edition, 1907). Cf.
also P. Franchi de’ Cavalieri, Una lettera del tempo della persecuzione Dio-
clezianéa, Nuovo Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana, 8 (1902), pp. 15-25.
The late Albrecht Dieterich proposed, in the Gétting. gel. Anz. 1903, pp. 550-
555, an interpretation of an important passage of the letter differing greatly
from my own, and to this I replied in a monthly periodical, Die Studierstube, 1
(1903), pp. 532-540. The whole problem received detailed treatment once
 THE PROBLEM 47
letter 1 sent from Rome to the Fayfim at some time during the
last thirty years of the 3rd century, which-is probably the
oldest original Christian letter at present known. There follows
a long series of Christian letters, from the 4th century
onwards, which have now been published some time, but
deserve, I think, more notice than they have yet received.
They are manifestos from those circles of Christendom
concerning which there are scarcely any other sources of
information available? The extensive correspondence of
Abinnaeus should be specially mentioned in this connexion.?
Even the legal documents of the Byzantine period, 6.6.
the church inventories, which are not yet all published,
contain many details of interest. Certain points, such as
the palaeographical history of the so-called monogram of
Christ, .£, receive fresh illumination from the papyri.4 In
an article entitled “‘ Pagan and Christian in Egypt,” > Ulrich
Wilcken published a number of new things, two of which
deserve special mention: an amulet with an interesting

more from August Merk, S.J., in the Zeitschr. fiir kathol. Theologie, 29 (1905),
PP. 724-737, due attention being given to the copious literature that had
appeared in the interval. Cf. Otto Bardenhewer, Geschichte der altkirch-
lichen Litevatur, I1., Freiburg i. B., 1903, p. 218 f., and Adolf Harnack, Die
Chronologie der altchristl. Lit. II. p. 180, both of whom treat of the letter as
part of Christian “‘ literature,” which strictly speaking is not correct; Pierre
Jouguet, Revue des Etudes Anciennes, 7 (1905), p. 254f.; U. Wilcken,
Archiv f. Papyrusforschung, 2 p. 166, 3 p. 125, 4 p. 204f.; F. Buecheler,
Rhein. Museum, New Series 61 (1906), p. 627; C. Wessely in the Patrologia
Orientalis, IV. 2, pp. 125-135; Paul Viereck, Jahresbericht iiber die Fort-
schritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, 131 (1906), p. 124 ff.; Wilcken,
Chrestomathie (Vol. I. 2 of the whole work), No. 127 (p. 154f., cf. p. vi.).
Text and facsimile of the letter will. be found in Chapter III. below (p. 213 ff.).
1 The Amherst Papyri,I. No. 3a, p. 28 ff. (facsimile II. plate 25); cf.
Adolf Harnack, Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Preuss. Ak. der Wissensch. zu
Berlin, 1900, p. 987 ff. In Chapter III. (p. 205 ff.) I give a facsimile of the
letter with an attempt to restore and interpret it.
2 Cf. now the fine collection of 44 early Christian letters by Giuseppe
Ghedini, Lettere Cristiane dai pupiri gvect del III e IV secolo, Milano, 1923.
3 Further particulars as to Abinnaeus in my edition of the ancient Christian
letter of Justinus to Papnuthius (cf. p. 45, n. 2 above), Verdffentlichungen
aus der Heidelberger Papyrus-Sammlung I. pp. 94-104, and in Chapter III.
(p. 216 ff.) below.
4 The theological importance of some of the papyrus publications is pointed
out in the Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 1896, col. 609 ff.; 1898, col. 628 ff.; 1go1, col.
69 ff.; 1903, col. 592 ff.; 1906, col. 547£.; Supplement to the Allg. Zeitung
(Munich) 1900, No. 250, and rgor, No. 251.
δ᾽ Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 396 ff.
48 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
text of the Lord’s Prayer,! and a petition of Appion, bishop
of Syene, to the Emperors Theodosius II. and Valentinian
III.2. This article, by the way, is a model example of the
sort of commentary that is called for by such texts. The
last publication to be mentioned here is that by Lietzmann ὃ
of a curious text which still presents many unsolved
riddles. -
It will be admitted that our knowledge of Christian an-
tiquity has been very considerably enriched by these literary
and non-literary Christian papyri from Egypt. Our subject,
however, is chiefly concerned with the non-Christian texts
and the great indirect value that they possess for Bible
students. The following chapters will pursue that subject
in detail. In these introductory observations, however, we
may remark that, at a time when Greek papyri were still
among the rare curiosities of a few museums, Heinrich
Wilhelm Josias Thiersch realised their value for Septuagint
philology. Even before him Friedrich Wilhelm Sturz >
had made use of the Charta Borgiana ὃ (a papyrus, prac-
tically the first,’ brought to Europe in 1778) in studying the
Alexandrian Old Testament, and had cited it, for instance,
to explain the word ἀπάτωρ, “ without father,” in Hebrews
vii. 3.8
Of late years the papyri have been used by almost all
the Biblical scholars whom I named above when speaking
of the inscriptions. Apart from the grammatical studies
incorporated later in his ‘‘ Grammar,” James Hope Moulton
made valuable lexical contributions,? which were afterwards
1 Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, I, p. 431 ff. Another text of the Lord’s
Prayer on papyrus: Papyri Iandanaz 1. (ed. E. Schaefer, Lipsiae, 1912),
No. 6. ‘
4 ae p. 398 ff. and 4, p. 172. Wilcken’s placing of this petition in the
reign of Theodosius II. and Valentinian III. is confirmed by the praescript
of the letter addressed by these Emperors to John of Antioch, Migne, Patro-
logia Graeca, 65, col. 880; there too Theodosius is placed first.
3 Papyrus Jenensis, No. 1, Zeitschrift fir wissenschaftliche Theologie,
50 (New Series 15), 1907, p. 149 ff.
4 De Pentateuchi versione Alexandrina libri tres, Exrlangae, 1841.
5 De Dialecto Macedonica et Alexandrina liber, Lipsiae, 1808.
5 Charta Papyvacea Graece scripta Musei Borgiani Velityis . . . edita a
Nicolao Schow, Romae, 1788.
7 Seep. 31, n. 1 above. 8 Op. cit., p. 1461.
® Notes from the Papyri, The Expositor, Apel 1go1, February 1903,
December 1903.
 THE PROBLEM 49
continued in collaboration with George Milligan. The
papyri have been successfully appealed to in linguistic
problems by J. de Zwaan in his article? on Mark xiv. 41,
and in his Dutch edition of Burton’s Syntax of New Testa-
ment Moods and Tenses,’ and Wilhelm Heitmiiller 4 did the
same before him. By means of the papyri J. Rendel Harris ὅ
has advanced the exegesis of the New Testament Epistles,
and H. Hauschildt ὁ the history of the title ““ presbyteros.”’
Hermann Miiller 7 and Alfred Wikenhauser 8 have also made
a beginning with such studies. Hans Lietzmann made
industrious use of the papyri in his Commentaries, already
mentioned, and made the Greek papyri available for theo-
logical class-work by publishing his little book of texts.°
Willoughby C. Allen did not neglect the papyri in his Com-
mentary on St. Matthew,!° and George Milligan has shown
their value with respect to the earliest history of the New
Testament in general."
As a matter of course, the Greek philologists above men-
tioned in connexion with the inscriptions often compare
1 Lexical Notes from the Papyri, The Expositor, January 1908 ff. The
great lexical work of the two collaborators has been mentioned above, p. 21,
n. 4.
2 The Text and Exegesis of Mark xiv. 41, and the Papyri, The Expositor,
December 1905.
3 Syntaxis der Wijzen en Tijden in het Grieksche Nieuwe Testament, Haarlem,
1906. The inscriptions are also used here and in Heitmiiller.
4 “Im Namen Jesu”: eine sprach- und religionsgeschichtliche Unter-
suchung zum N. T., speziell zur altchristlichen Taufe, Géttingen, 1903; cf.
Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 29 (1904), col. 199 ff.
5 A Study in Letter Writing, The Expositor, September 1898; Epaphro-
ditus, Scribe and Courier, ibid., December 1898; The Problem of the Address
in the Second Epistle of John, zbid., March 1gor.
8 Zeitschrift fiir die meutestementliche Wissenschaft, 4 (1903), p. 235 ff.;
cf. Max L. Strack, ibd., p. 213 ff., and before that my Bibelstudien, p. 153f.,
and Neue Bibelstudien, p. 60 ff. [= Bible Studies, pp. 154, 233].
7 Zum Pastor Hermae, Theologische Quartalschrift, 1908, Ὁ. 89 ff.
8. Ποταμοφόρητος Apk. 12, 15 u.a., Biblische Zeitschrift, 6 (1908), p. 171;
7 (1909), p. 48; ἐνώ κατενώπιον, ibid., 8 (1909), p. 263 ff.;
Zum Worterbuch der griechischen Bibel, zbid., 13 (1915), p. 221.
ἢ Griechische Papyri, No. 14 of the Kleine Texte fir theologische Vorles-
ungen und Ubungen, Bonn, 1905, #1910. 10 Edinburgh, 1907.
11 The New Testament Documents, theiy Origin and Early History, London,
1913. [Henry G. Meecham, Light from Ancient Letters: private correspond-
ence in the non-literary papyri of Oxyrhynchus of the first four centuries,
and its bearing on N.T. language and thought, London, 1923, is an attempt
to present in summary fashion the results of comparative study under the
headings of vocabulary, grammar, form, and subject matter. Tr.]
 50 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the Septuagint and the New Testament with the evidence
of the papyri whenever they happen to discuss the inter-
national Greek of the Imperial and earlier age. The most
important achievements with regard specially to papyrology
are those of Edwin Mayser ! and Wilhelm Crénert.2_ Mayser’s
work has now found a Biblical counterpart in R. Helbing’s
Septuagint Grammar. .

(c) The OstrRaca, constituting the third main group® of

texts, are closely allied to the papyri. We approach with
them a branch of learning that is still quite young, a branch
which to begin with relied on two men only for its main
support. One of them, Ulrich Wilcken, laid the founda-
tions with his brilliant work on Greek Ostraca from Egypt
“and Nubia*; the other, W. E. Crum, by the publication of
his great collection of Christian ostraca,> has added fresh
material. Addressed primarily to Coptologists, Crum’s book
1 Grammatik dev griechischen Papyri aus der Ptolemaerzeit mit Einschluss
der gleichzeitigen Ostraka und der in Agypten verfassten Inschriften; Laut-
und Wortlehre, Leipzig, 1906 (cf. Stanislaus Witkowski, Deutsche Literatur-
Zeitung, 30 [1909] col. 347 ff.). The Syntax is to follow later. Small
preliminary studies of Mayser’s had come earlier. Other papers by Wit-
kowski, Volker, Kuhring, etc., will be found noted in Hohlwein’s Bibliography
and in my summaries in the Theol. Rundschau, 1 (1897-8), p. 463 ff., 5 (1902),
p. 58 ff., 9 (1906), p. 210°ff., and 15 (1912), p. 339 ff. ᾿
2 Memoria Gvaeca Herculanensis cum titulorum Aegypti papyrorum
codicum denique testimoniis comparatam proposuit Guilelmus Crénert,
Lipsiae, 1903. ᾿
3 What is said of the inscriptions on stone, the papyri, and the ostraca,
applies also mutatis mutandis to the remaining smaller groups (wooden tablets,
wax tablets, etc.).
4 Griechische Ostraka aus Agypten und Nubien: ein Beitrag zur antiken
Wirtschaftsgeschichte, in two Books, Leipzig, 1899. Remarks additional to
the same by Paul Viereck, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 450 ff. The
scanty previous literature is noted by Wilcken, I. p. 56 f.
5 Coptic Ostraca from the Collections of the Egypt Explovation Fund, the
Caivo Museum, and others. Special extra publication of the Egypt Explora-
tion Fund, London, 1902. For the important theological aspects of the book
see especially the review by Erwin Preuschen, Byzantinische Zeitschrift,
1906, p. 641 ff. A further publication to be considered is H. R. Hall, Coptic
and Greek Texts of the Christian Period from Ostraca, Stelae, etc., in the British
Museum, London, 1905. Further information in the Archiv fir Papyrusfor-
schung, 4, p. 247 ff. Hieratic, demotic, Greek, and Coptic ostraca from
Egypt were published by Alan H. Gardiner, Herbert Thompson, and J. G.
Milne, Theban Ostvaca, Parts I.-IV., Oxford, 1913; cf. G. Méller, Deutsche
Literaturzeitung, 1914, No. 12, col. 731 £., who specially praises Thompson’s
treatment of the demotic ostraca, and ranks it beside Wilcken’s pioneer work
on the Greek ostraca.
 THE PROBLEM 51
is nevertheless of importance to Greek scholars and theo-
logians. More recently Paul M. Meyer} has among others
done masterly work in this field.
The question ‘‘ What are ostraca?” is easily answered.
They are pieces of broken pottery, on which something has
been written. “ Why were they so neglected in the past? ”’
is a more difficult question.2, I am reminded of a sentence
in one of Pastor von Bodelschwingh’s annual reports of a
scrap-collecting organisation for the support of the Bethel
charities near Bielefeld. ‘‘ Nothing is absolutely worth-
less,” he says, “‘ except bits of broken earthenware and the
fag-ends of cigars,” and the opinion seems to have been
shared by the peasants of Egypt, at least so far as bits of
pottery were concerned. They rummaged among ancient
ruins, and whenever they came across such pitiable objects
as bits of earthenware vessels, they threw them away at
once. Many a European with a scholar’s training must
have been quite convinced that ancient potsherds were
valueless, even when there was writing visible on them 4;
otherwise one cannot understand why they were to all
intents and purposes ignored by research for so long a time,
comparatively. After all, what can there be more pitiful
than an earthen potsherd? The prophet in his emphatic
irony could think of no image more apt to describe man’s
nothingness than that of a potsherd among potsherds.®
1 Griechische Texte aus Agypten. I. Papyri des Neutestamentlichen
Seminars der Universitat Berlin. II. Ostraka der Sammlung Deissmann,
Berlin, 1916. The benefactor of the Berlin New Testament Seminar who
helped to make this publication possible, and whom we were then not allowed
to name, was, as I am bound gratefully to acknowledge now after his decease,
our venerable colleague Professor Johann Imelmann, of Berlin.
2 In what follows I am making use of my notice of Wilcken’s Ostvaka in
the Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 26 (1901), col. 65 ff. Many details will be found there
which are not mentioned here.
8 Neunter Jahresbericht der Brockensammlung der Anstalt Bethel bei
Bielefeld. [Friedrich von Bodelschwingh, 1831-1910, was a kind of German
Dr. Barnardo. He was a member of the Prussian Diet, and received honorary
degrees from Halle and Miinster in 1884 and 1908 in recognition of his great
social work. TR.]
4 As late as 1819 an architect named Gau found ‘an innumerable
quantity ᾿ of inscribed ostraca at Dakkeh in Nubia. He made drawings
of several, kept two, and threw the rest away as needless ballast! Cf.
Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka, I. p. 20.
5 Isaiah xlv. 9: ‘‘,Woe unto him that striveth with his Maker! a potsherd
among the potsherds of the earth!” (R.V.)
52 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
In the time of the ancients potsherds were not thrown
away as useless for ever. From the rubbish-heaps they
not unfrequently made their way once more to the humble
homes of the proletariat, there to be used as writing material.
Few of us, however, realised this fact until Wilcken ‘pub-
lished his book on the subject. Of course in our schooldays
we had heard of the judgment of Clisthenes, but in such a
way that most of us, if asked, would have said that ostracism
was the Athenian statesman’s own invention, and that he
caused small tablets of earthenware to be made specially
for the people to record their votes. As a matter of fact,
many of the ostraca employed for voting have been dis-
covered at Athens,! and some at least of them are obviously
pieces of broken vessels.
Wilcken goes on to show most convincingly that the
habit of writing on ostraca must have been in force at Athens
in the sixth century B.c. at latest. The potsherd was in fact
highly popular as writing material throughout the ancient
Mediterranean world. We now possess an abundance of
very ancient ostraca inscribed with writing in ink. The
unity of the civilisation prevailing in East. and West in
ancient times is shown also in this, I will mention but a
few examples. The American excavations conducted by
George A. Reisner at Samaria have brought to light some
75, ostraca with short texts in ancient Hebrew 2 of the gth
century B.c. A large ostracon from Assur with a long
political letter in ancient Aramaic of the 7th century B.c.
has been published by Mark Lidzbarski.2 Among the
Jewish texts in Aramaic of the 5th century B.c. found at
Elephantine* there are also some ostraca. As _ regards
1 Wilcken, Ostraka, I. pp. 4f. and 820. More recently A. Brueckner has
reported the discovery of 44 new ostraca of the 5th century z.c. during his
excavations outside the Porta Sacra at Athens. They are now in the Dipylon
Museum. The writing seems in most cases to be scratched on the ostraca.
Cf. Sitzungsberichte der Archdolog. Gesellschaft zu Berlin No. 36 (1911),
p. 10 (also Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1911, No. 11, col. 686).
2 Cf. the provisional accounts by David G. Lyon, Harvard Theological
Review, Jan. 1911; R. Kittel, Theol. Lit.-Blatt rg11, No. 3; G. Hdlscher,
Mitteilungen und Nachrichten des Deutschen Protestanten-Vereins 1911,
No. 2, p. 22 ff. The texts are of unique importance, in spite of their apparently
scanty contents.
8 Ausgrabungen dey Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft in Assur, E.: Inschriften.
V.: Altaramdaische Urkunden, Leipzig, 1921, pp. 5-15.
4 Cf. p. 37, ἢ. 2 above.
 THE PROBLEM 53
later Jewish times Ludwig Blau 1 has given abundant examples
of interest showing that it was an everyday occurrence to
use an ostracon as writing material, especially for legal
documents.
The potsherd was also in use in the Hellenistic period.
This is proved firstly by the evidence of various authors,
and secondly by thousands of ostraca inscribed with Greek
which have been preserved all through the centuries in the
burning, rainless soil of Egypt. Like the papyri, which the
same agency has preserved to us in such numbers, the ostraca
are a mirror of the changes of nationality and civilisation
that occurred in the Nile Valley. All sorts of alphabets
are represented on the ostraca discovered in Egypt 2—the
hieratic and demotic scripts of the old Egyptian, besides
Greek, Latin, Aramaic, Coptic, and Arabic.
Of all the various kinds there can be little doubt that
the Greek are at present the most numerous. They range
from the time of the first Ptolemies down to the beginning
of the Arab occupation, 1.6. over a period of roughly a
thousand years. The texts with which they are inscribed
are of the most miscellaneous kind—receipts, letters, con-
tracts, bills, directions as to payments, decrees, and even
extracts from classical authors. On the whole we may say
that the texts met with on ostraca are similar in kind to
those of the papyri—which we have already seen to be so
astonishingly abundant—the only difference being that the
ostraca on account of their size generally have shorter texts
than the papyri. The great majority of the ostraca we
possess are certainly tax-receipts.
In the second book of his Greek Ostraca Wilcken published
1,624 specimens of these modest records of the past. No

1 Papyri und Talmud, p. 13 f., and in the 35th Jahresbericht der Landes-
Rabbinerschule in Budapest (1911-12), Budapest, 1912, p. 65 f.
2 It is not impossible for chance discoveries of ostracato be made even
in Northern Europe. In the Museum at Wiesbaden there is a fragment of
a jar (No. 15,527), found in the ground belonging to No. 29, Langgasse,
Wiesbaden, inscribed in ink with writing of the early Imperial period; it
exhibits probably (unlike most ostraca) the remains of an inscription de-
scribing the contents of the jar. It is remarkable that the writing has lasted
almost two thousand years in a layer of peaty soil. Wilhelm Unverzagt
refers me (2 May, 1922) to a publication by Ritterling, Annalen des Vereins
fiir Nassauische Altertumskunde und_Geschichteforschung 29 (1898).
54 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
less than 1,355 of these had never been published before:
they were hunted out with infinite pains by Wilcken in the
museums of Berlin, London, Paris, Rome, Turin, Leyden,
etc., and in private collections.1 The taskof decipherment
was one of extreme difficulty; the writing on the ostraca
is cursive, often running into grotesque eccentricities, with
a whole host of abbreviations and special signs. But the
masterly skill which Wilcken had shown as one of the de-
cipherers of the Berlin papyri was again most brilliantly
displayed.2, The result is that these humble texts are now
ready to the scholar’s hand, not indeed in a form that pre-
sents no problems and enigmas, but at least so edited as
to be studied without effort.
We are further indebted to Wilcken for a good deal of
the historical discussion of all this new material. His
Book I. constitutes a commentary on the grand scale, not
in the sense that each single one of the ostraca receives
separate interpretation. (brief notes are given to many of
them in Book II.), but in the form of a systematised dis-
cussion of the whole enormous miscellany. First comes a
detailed introduction on the ostraca as writing material,
including the provenance and various fortunes of the ostraca.
The formulae employed in receipts are next examined, and the
author then plunges into the minutiae of the Egyptian system
of taxes and duties in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.
Next come economic observations, and researches on topo-
graphy, metrology, chronology, and palaeography. Papyri,
inscriptions, and ancient authors are constantly quoted
in illustration and comparison. The book was dedicated
1 The number of ostraca in European museums and libraries has since
increased by thousands—U. Wilcken, Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 4,
p. 146. Entirely new collections, such as the one at Heidelberg, have been
formed. [The Strassburg collection is being edited by Paul Viereck and
Wilhelm Spiegelberg, Griechische und griechisch-demotische Ostraka der Univer-
sitats- und Landesbibliothek zu Strassburg im Elsass, Bd. I., Texte, Berlin,
1924. A second volunie, containing a commentary on the 812 ostraca here
published, is in preparation. Tr.]
2 Among the happiest recollections of my life as a scholar is the time at
Heidelberg when, having obtained a quantity of ostraca by the kind offices
of a friend, I was so fortunate as to have Wilcken with me as ξένος in the
house for a few days while I was unpacking the box from Egypt. Most of
the specimens he was able to read, date, and classify straight away as they
came out of the chaff, after a brief inspection.
 THE PROBLEM 55
to Theodor Mommsen, and no offering more worthy of the
great master’s acceptance could have been produced. It is
in every respect a monument of learning.
To theologians the ostraca are of no small value. They
add many new touches to our knowledge of the life of ancient
times. They throw light on large tracts of the civilisation
upon which the Greek Old Testament, many of the books
of the Apocrypha, the works of Philo and of the Egyptian
Christians were based. They show us the men of the age
of fulfilment} in their workaday clothes, and they afford
reliable evidence concerning the language spoken in the
Hellenised Mediterranean world at the time when the apostolic
mission became to ‘“‘ the Greeks”’ a Greek. In these facts
lies the great indirect value of the ostraca (as of the non-
.literary papyri) to the student of Greek Judaism and of
the first centuries of Christianity. Detailed proof of this
assertion will be offered in the following chapters.
Even more decidedly than the papyri, the ostraca are
documents belonging to the lower orders of the people.
The potsherd was in fact the cheapest writing material
there was, obtainable by every one gratis from the nearest
rubbish-heap. For this reason it was so admirably adapted
for recording the vote of the Demos in cases of ostracism.
The ostracon was beneath the dignity of the well-to-do.
As a proof of the poverty of Cleanthes the Stoic it is related
that he could not afford papyrus and therefore wrote on
ostraca or on leather.2 In the same way we find the writers
of Coptic potsherd letters even in Christian times apologising
now and then to their correspondents for having made use
of an ostracon in temporary lack of papyrus.? We, how-
ever, have cause to rejoice at the breach of etiquette. The
ostraca take us right to the heart of the class to which the
primitive Christians were most nearly related, and in which
the new faith struck root in the great world.
Direct information relating to the very oldest Christianity
1 [ When the fulness of the time was come,” Gal. iv. 4.. TR.]
2 Diog. Laert. vii. 173-4. <A similar story is told of Apollonius Dyscolus,
Wilcken, I. p. 6. (Apollonius “the Peevish,” grammarian of Alexandria,
2. 140 A.D. TR.]
3. Cf. Crum, Coptic Ostraca, p. 49. For example No. 129, p. 55: ‘‘ Excuse
me that I cannot find papyrus as J am in the country.”
 56 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
has not yet been yielded to us by the ostraca. The Coptic
potsherds, however, with their abundance of letters, frag-
ments of letters, and similar texts, are of quite unique value
for the light they throw on the religious and social history
of Christian Egypt; and they have been reinforced by Greek
ostraca of the Christian period.1 On the other hand, the
space available for writing being usually so small, we can
hardly expect to recover on ostraca any large remains of
early Christian literary texts.
The ostraca will restore to us no lost fathers of the Church
and no lost heretical writers. They have yielded hitherto-
only short quotations from classical authors, and those
probably schoolroom exercises. The writers of ostraca were
as arule quite innocent of literary interests. After the scanty
fragments discussed by Egger 3 there seemed but little hope
of recovering even Biblical quotations,? until R. Reitzenstein
published from a Strassburg ostracon of about the 6th century
a hymn to the Virgin * which showed decided marks of the
1 Cf. Frankfurter Zeitung, 12 July, 1907, 2nd morning edition: ‘It is
reported from Alexandria that the excavations in the ancient Christian town
that grew up round the tomb of St. Menas have brought to light amongst
other things a series of valuable ostraca. . . . Dr. H. I. Bell of the Manu-
script Department of the British Museum examined with Dr. Kenyon a
number of well-preserved specimens. ... Among these documents are
instructions for the payment of vine-dressers, wine-pressers (men who trod
the grapes with their feet), laundrymen, and other workmen, for services
rendered for the national sanctuary. Payment is made in money, in kind,
or in foéd, and disabled workmen are also provided for. Comparisons with
papyrus documents lead to the conclusion that the specimens hitherto de-
ciphered belong to the 5th century. The same date is indicated by the
. stratum in which they were found. More than 200 ostraca have been re-
covered so far.” They were published by E. Drerup, Rémische Quartalschrift
22 (1908), p.. 240 ff. Crum, Egypt Exploration Fund’s Report 1908-9,
p. 64, would assign them to the 7th, or at the earliest to the 6th century a.D.
2 Observations sur quelques fragments de poterie antique, Mémoires de
l’Académie des Inscriptions, t. XXI. 1, Paris, 1857, p. 377 ff.
3 The ‘fragment of earthenware’’ from Megara with the text of the
Lord’s Prayer, published by R. Knopf, Athenische Mitteilungen, 1900,
p.'313 ff., and Zeitschrift fiir die neutest. Wissenschaft, 2 (1901), p. 228 ff.,
is not a fragment of a broken vessel, not a true ostracon, but a tablet no
doubt made specially to receive the inscriptidn. The writing was scratched
on the soft clay and then made permanent by burning. I inspected the
tablet on 28 April, 1906, at Athens, and a plaster cast of it is in my possession.
* Zwei religionsgeschichtliche Fragen nach ungedvuckten griechischen Texten
dey Strassburger Bibliothek, Strassburg, 1901. Cf. the remarks by Anrich in
the Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 27 (1902), col. 304 f., and by U. Wilcken in the Archiv
fiir Papyrusforschung, 2, p. 140,
 THE PROBLEM 57
influence of Luke i. Since then Crum, in his Coptic Ostraca,
has given us ostraca with Greek quotations from the Bible,
while Pierre Jouguet and Gustave Lefebvre have published
a late ostracon from Thebes with a rude drawing of “ Saint
Peter the Evangelist ’’ and a few lines of Greek that have
not yet been identified.1 Besides this Lefebvre has made
known to us quite a series of gospel quotations in his Frag-
ments Grecs des Evangiles sur Ostraka.* This publication
alone enables us to fill an empty page in the history of the
New Testament. It gives us the text of 20 Greek ostraca,
large and small, inscribed with portions of our gospels.
They were purchased many years ago in Upper Egypt by
Bouriant, and are now a treasured possession of the French
Institute of Oriental Archaeology. The exact place and
circumstances of their discovery could not be ascertained,
but their authenticity is beyond question. Their age can
be conjectured from the style of the handwriting, and it
appears that they were written probably in the 7th century,
in the time of the Arab conquest.
They afford interesting materials for palaeography and the
history of the text * of the gospels which it is to be hoped
will not be neglected by scholars. They contain in the
handwriting of three different persons the text of Matt. xxvii.
1 Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 28 (1904), p. 205 f., 29 (1905),
p. 104. In any case the “evangelist Peter”’ is remarkable—no doubt a
reminiscence of the Gospel of Peter.
2 Bulletin de l’Institut francais d’archéologie orientale, t. IV., Le Caire,
1904; the separate reprint which lies before me consists of 15 pages quarto,
with 3 plates of facsimiles. I here make use of an article on ‘‘ Evangelien-
fragmente auf Agyptischen Tonscherben ” which I contributed to Die Christ-
liche Welt, 20 (1906), col. 19 ff. Cf. further A. Bludau, Griechische Evange-
lienfragmente auf Ostraka, Biblische Zeitschrift, 1906, p. 386 ff. Caspar
René Gregory, Die griechischen Handschvriften des Neuen Testaments, p. 43,
denotes these ostraca by the number 0153 in his list, and the above-mentioned
Lord’s Prayer from Megara by the number o152 (p. 42 f.).
3 Every ancient Bible-fragment that was certainly written in Egypt helps
us to answer the question, ‘‘ What text of the Bible was current in Egypt? ”’
Lefebvre examined the character of the text provisionally, and Bludau has
added further details. The chief result is to establish the relationship of this
text with the BNL etc. group, 7.e. with the group of authorities claimed by W.
Bousset for the text of Hesychius. This is a new proof of the correctness of
Bousset’s hypothesis, on which cf. my Verdffentlichungen aus der Heidelberger
Papyrus-Sammlung I. p. 84, and Bousset’s report on H. von Soden’s recon-
struction of the text of Hesychius, Theol. Lit.-Ztg. (1907) col. 71 ff. It would
be a valuable piece of research to examine all the N.T. fragments found in
Egypt with respect to this question, The material is not scanty.
58 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
31-32; Mark v. 40-41, ix. 17, 18, 22, xv. 21; Luke xii. 13-
15,1 15-16, xxii. 40-45, 45-49, 49-53, 53-54, 55-59, 59-60,
61, 61-64, 65-69, 70-71; Johni. 1-9, 14-17, xviii. 19-25, xix.
15-17.
Thanks to the editor’s kindness I am able to give here a
(reduced) facsimile of ostracon no. 16, containing Luke xxii.
70-71 (Figure 6).
The text runs thus :—
ειἰπαν δὲ παντες And they all said, Art Thou
συ ovy εἰοὺς Tov θυ then the Son of God? And
o δε pos avrous
ey ὑμεις 5 λεγετέ He said unto them, Ye say that
ὅ ore eyw εἰμι οι δε I am. And they said, What
εἰπαν τι eTt χρειαν further need have we witness
το ἐχομεν μαρτυριαν ᾿
~ avrot yap ἤκουσαμε 3 (sic)? for we ourselves have
απο Tov στοματος heard from . . . mouth.

Of the two characters running upwards in the left-hand

margin (read so by Lefebvre) the « is certainly a numeral
(= 10) denoting that this ostracon is the tenth in a con-
secutive series. The preceding ostraca with Luke xxii. 40-
69 do in fact bear the numbers 1-9. The ὃ however, which
occurs with different pointing on most of the older
members of this group, has not yet been explained. I
used to think it was the number of ἃ chapter according to
an old ecclesiastical division. In the copy of the gospel
from which the ostraca were made Luke xxii. 40 ff. would
then belong to the 7oth chapter of Luke, whereas in the usual |
ancient division into chapters 4 it belongs to chapter 78.
‘It will be seen at once that among the 20 specimens the
1 On the back of this ostracon (no. 5) there is the name Luke and two lines
which the editor could not account for. I print them in minuscules :—
στιλβοντί
ol. . Ἰναφεῖ
This is certainly a fragment of Mark ix. 3 :—
στιλβοντία λευκα Acar]
ofa γ]ναφεῖυς εἴς.
2 [The dots above v and ἡ (line 8) are characteristic of the writing of the
time. TR.]
3 (= ηκουσαμεν. TR.]
4 Hermann Freiherr von Soden, Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments in ihrer
altesten erveichbaven Textgestalt I., Berlin, 1902, p. 411.
 Fic. 6.—Ostracon from Upper Egypt, inscribed with Luke xxii, 70 f.,
7th cent. a.p. Now in the Institut francais d’Archéologie orientale, Cairo.
By permission of M. Gustave Lefebvre.
 THE PROBLEM 59
gospel of St. Luke is the most amply represented. Two
ostraca contain the consecutive text of Luke xii. 13-16, and
ten ostraca actually contain the complete text of Luke xxii.
40-71, 7.6. a large portion of the account of the Passion.
The fact that these ten ostraca belong together is marked
externally by the numerals 1-10 which, as mentioned above,
the writer affixed to them. The fragments from St. John
probably also belong to one and the same series. This
observation is important in two ways. On the one hand it
points to the fact that probably all these gospel ostraca
represent a single find. This is confirmed by the occurrence
of Mark ix. 3 on the back of one of the fragments of St. Luke,
as already pointed out. That passage occurs in the account
of the Transfiguration, which immediately precedes the
section from which ostracon no. 3 (Mark ix. 17, 18, 22) is
taken. On the other hand we now have an indication of the
nature of the whole collection, for light is thrown on the
question, “‘ For what purpose were they inscribed with texts
from the gospels? ”’
If the ostracon inscribed with Mark ix. 17 ff. were the only
one that had come down to us it would be easy to suppose
that the text was to be used as a curative amulet, in this
case as an amulet against demoniacal possession. The
Heidelberg University Library, for instance, possesses several
Biblical amulets of this kind on parchment and papyrus.
The editor of the ostraca tells us in fact that Perdrizet sug-
gested the amulet hypothesis! to him. But the series of
ten consecutive ostraca and the other series of which we
may conjecture demand another explanation than this.
It is inconceivable that anybody should have carried ten
ostraca about with him as an amulet, for the simple reason
that they would have been far too heavy. I have myself
tried the experiment, though with no thought of amulets
in my mind, for I have often carried ten or a dozen ostraca
1 There is an article on gospel amulets by E. Nestle in the Zeitschr. fir die
neutest. Wissenschaft, 6 (1906) p. 96. Cf. further Gerhard Kropatscheck, De
amuletorum apud antiquos usu, Diss. Gryphiae, 1907, p. 28 ff., and the list in
S. Eitrem and A. Fridrichsen, Ein christliches Amulett auf Papyrus, Kristiania,
1921, p. 16. [In Hastings and Selbie’s Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics
III. 392-472 (1911) the subject of “‘ Charms and Amulets ’’ is discussed by
various writers under headings which include Christian, Egyptian, Hebrew,
etc. TR.]
60 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
from my collection in my pockets to show to the audience
at a lecture. It was in many respects a pleasing burden,
but not in the least comfortable.
Lefebvre’s own theory was that the ostraca were written
to form a cheap gospel lectionary, a book (if we may use
the expression) for private or public reading consisting of
extracts (Pericopae) from the gospels or perhaps even a
continuous text. This theory we must accept unless, as now
seems to me more probable, the ostraca were copied out by
poor candidates for deacon’s orders at the command of their
bishop.1_ Whoever has realised the character of ostraca in
general will not be slow to perceive the real import of this
new find. Ostraca were as a rule the writing material used
by the poor 2; a potsherd was to be had for nothing, even
in the most straitened household, when some person or
persons unknown had been unkind enough to break the oil-
cruse or the kneading-pan. The person who wrote gospel
texts on ostraca was a poor person: a would-be deacon,
or perhaps a monk, a schoolboy, or a simple woman—some
soul forgotten among the myriads that perish.
So we might add this superscription to Lefebvre’s fascinat-
ing work: “ The gospels in the hands of the common people,
the gospel among the poor of Egypt at the time when the
deluge of Islam was approaching.’’ In the very selfsame
division of society which made them what they are, the
most democratic texts of all antiquity, we encounter once
again the gospels. Six centuries have passed, during which
they have been copied on papyrus, on parchment, yea even
on purple vellum with letters of gold, and thinkers and
potentates, rich men and renowned have read them. After
their long journeying through the world the gospels are at
home once more: on worthless castaway potsherds a poor
man writes the imperishable words that are the heritage
of the poor.

Our brief general description of the newly discovered texts

is ended. New Testament in hand, let us now betake our-
selves to the sites of excavations in the South and East
' Cf. the notes to the letter (No. 25) of the three candidates in Chapter III.
below (p. 222 f.). :
2. Cf. the references at p. 55 above.
Fic. 7.—Site of the Excavations in Delos. From a photograph by
Miss M. C. de Graffenried.
 THE PROBLEM 61
and endeavour to decipher the stone inscriptions from the
period which witnessed the great religious change. Or
if we must remain at home, let us at least open the Sacred
Book and compare it with the folio volumes of inscriptions,
papyri, and ostraca. The New Testament is an exile here in
the West, and we do well to restore it to its home in Anatolia.
It is right to set it once more in the company of the un-
learned, after it has made so long a stay amid the surround-
ings of modern culture. We have had hundreds of University
chairs for the exact, scientific interpretation of the little
Book—let us now listen while the homeland of the New
Testament yields up its own authentic witness to the inquiring
scholar.
1 An illustration offered itself unsought in a pretty little snapshot taken
by Miss M. C. de Graffenried, of Washington (Fig. 7). M. Holleaux, the
director of the French excavations, is seen explaining to us one of the two
Heliodorus inscriptions at Delos, 19 May, 1906. [Μ. Holleaux is pointing
with his stick. The stooping figure to his right is Professor Deissmann. The
tall figure seen against the fluted column is Professor von Duhn, of Heidel-
berg. The other two are F. Pfister (next to Professor Deissmann) and R.
Pagenstecher. See their names in Index V. TR.] This is the Heliodorus
of the Second Book of Maccabees and Raphael’s Stanza d’Eliodoro (cf. Bibel-
studien, p. 171 ff.; Bible Studies, p. 303).
 CHAPTER II

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT ILLUS-

TRATED FROM THE NEW TEXTS
1, AS we study the New Testament on the lines indicated |
at the close of the preceding chapter, the first great impres-
sion we receive is that the language to which we are accus-
tomed in the New Testament is on the whole just the kind
of Greek that simple, unlearned folk of the Roman Imperial
period were in the habit of using. The non-literary written
memorials of that age at length have opened our eyes to the
true linguistic position of the New Testament. That is the
first and most easily demonstrated of the services rendered
us by the new texts.3
A generation ago, when it began to be asserted with some
confidence that the isolation of ‘‘ New Testament " Greek
as a separate entity was impossible from the scientific point
of view, since it was practically identical with the popular
international Greek of the period, theologians? and philo-
logists received the statement with more or less active
dissent. One eminent Greek scholar? of the philological
school said it was the language of a naturalist rather than a
1 Earlier works of mine dealing with the subject of the following pages
are: Bibelstudien; Neue Bibelstudien; an address on ‘‘ Die sprachliche
Erforschung der griechischen Bibel,’’ Giessen, 1898; the article on ‘‘ Hellenis-
tisches Griechisch ’ in Herzog and Hauck, Realencylopddie,? VII. 627 ff.;
four reviews of literature in the Theologische Rundschau, 1 (1897-98) p. 463 ff.,
5 (1902) p. 58 ff., 9 (1906) p. 210 ff., 15 (1912) p. 339 ff.; and my Cambridge
lectures on ‘‘ The Philology of the Greek Bible,” published in The Expositor
October 1907 to January 1908, and afterwards in book form, London, 1908. I
endeavoured to sketch the historical results in a lecture delivered at Graz and
published under the title, Die Urgeschichte des Christentums im Lichte der
Sprachforschung, Tiibingen, 1910.
2 The question was gone into most in detail by Julius Boehmer, Das biblische
‘Im Namen,” Giessen, 1898, and Zwei wichtige Kapitel aus der biblischen
Hermeneutik, Beitrage zur Férderung christlicher Theologie, 5 (1901), Heft 6,
Giitersloh, 1902, p. 50 ff.; and cf. his remarks in Die Studierstube, 1 (1903)
Ῥ. 340 ff., 2 (1904) p. 324 ff., 6 (1908) Ὁ. 587 f.
"5 ΤΕ, Blass, reviewing Deissmann’s Bibelstudien in the Theologische Litera-
turzeitung, 20 (1895) col. 487. TR.]
; 62
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 63
theologian, and those familiar with the polemical literature
of that date will know what the reproach of naturalism then
meant in Germany.! Since then, however, the specialists
have changed their minds on this not unimportant point.
_New Testament philology has been revolutionised; and pro-
bably all the workers concerned in it both on the Continent
and in English-speaking countries are by this time agreed
that the starting-point for the philological investigation of the
New Testament must be the language of the non-literary
papyri, ostraca, and inscriptions. The theory scored a
complete victory in Albert Thumb’s valuable book on the
Greek Language in the Hellenistic age?; Stanislaus Wit-
kowski acknowledged his adherence in the critical reviews
which he gave (1904 ἀπά 1912) of recent literature dealing
with the Κοινή3 In a number of different articles,4 but
more especially in his recent Grammar of the New Testa-
ment, James Hope Moulton worked out the most important
of the details that result from the application of the
theory; while Theodor Nageli,® working by the same method,
exhibited very effectively the vocabulary of St. Paul.
Rudolf Knopf*® has more than once taken up the same
position. Not to mention others, the following philologists
of repute have signified their acceptance of the theory and
its results: firstly Jakob Wackernagel, in his article on the
Greek language contributed to Die Kultur der Gegenwart’;
1 [Conservative theologians accused their liberal colleagues of proceeding
on “ naturalistic ” lines in disregard or in defiance of Divine Revelation. TR.]
? Cf. p. 22 above; also the Theol. Rundschau, 5 (1902) p. 85 ff., and Archiv
fiir Papyrusforschung, 2, pp. 410 ff., 455 ff.
3 Bericht iiber die Literatur zur Koine aus den Jahren 1898-1902 (Jahres-
bericht iiber die Fortschritte der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Vol. 120
(1904 I.) pp. 153-256, especially p. 200 ff. The same 1903-1906, 7bid.,
Vol. 159 (1912 III.) pp. 1-279. The two reports are a veritable storehouse
of modern research on the Kou.
Cf. pp. 20f., 48 f. above, and Moulton’s ‘‘ New Testament Greek in the Light
of Modern Discovery ” in Essays on Some Biblical Questions of the Day, edited
by H. B. Swete, London, 1909, pp: 461-505. Of the many other works in
English I will only mention those of S. Angus, Harvard Theological Review,
2 (Oct. 1909) pp. 446-464, and Princeton Theological Review, 8 (1910) pp. 44-
92.
5 Cf. p. 20, n. 6 above. :
6 Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart I. col. 1128-1131, and Einfuhrung
in das N.T., Giessen, 1919, pp. I-19.
7 Die Kultur dey Gegenwart (edited by Paul Hinneberg), Part I. section viii.,
Berlin and Leipzig, 1905, p. 303 f.; #1907, p. 308 f.; *r912, p. 388 f.
64 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
secondly, Ludwig Radermacher,! in his New Testament
Grammar; thirdly Ὁ. C. Hesseling,? who at the same time
gave us the comforting assurance that no dogma of the Church
is threatened by the new method. There are also instances
of Catholic theologians both of the Western® and of the
Eastern * Church who have signified their approval.
What are the points concerned in judging of the language
of the New Testament ?
We may start from what is probably the average educated
person’s knowledge of the subject. He would say that
“the original language ”’ of the New Testament was Greek.
This statement, however, is really very vague.
It is true, certainly, that it is a Greek New Testament
which presents itself to the scholar for study, but within the
New Testament there are portions of which “ the original
language ’’ was not Greek, but Semitic. Jesus of Nazareth,
the Man whose personality was the decisive impulse, did not
speak Greek when He went about His public work. He
spoke the local idiom of His native Galilee, the language
which, in the night of betrayal, betrayed His disciple Peter
to be a Galilean. This language was Aramaic, a dialect
akin to Hebrew but not identical with it; and, to be quite
exact, it was Galilean Aramaic that our Lord spoke. In that
dialect the gospel was first preached. The ordinary reader
of the Bible even now hears the last echo of the original
when he comes upon such words as mammon, talitha cumi,
abba, or such names as Barabbas, Martha, etc., which are
all of them Aramaic, Moreover, the oldest record of the
words that Jesus spake, the record of His apostle Matthew,
was no doubt written in Aramaic for the Palestinian Christ-
ians who spoke that language. That most primitive version
of our Lord’s words has perished, unfortunately, so far as the
1 Cf. p. 20, n. 9 above.
2 De betekenis van het Nieuwgrieks voor de geschiedenis der Griekse taal en.
der Griekse letterkunde, Leiden, 1907, p. 17. ᾿
3 E.g. Josef Sickenberger, Zum ραροηνᾶτγι ρθη Stand der Erforschung des
Neuen Testamentes, in the Literary Supplement to the Kélnische Volkszeitung,
29 Nov. 1906, p. 379.
4 Cf. 5. J. Sobolewsky, Orthodoxe Theologische Encyklopddie herausg. von
N. N. Glubokowsky, Vol. 9, St. Petersburg, 1908, col. 603-754, a summary
especially valuable for its references to the literature of the subject. It has
been translated into Modern Greek by G. Papamichael, H Kown Ἑλληνικὴ
Γλωσσα, Alexandria, 1909.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 65
Aramaic original is concerned. What would we give if we
‘could recover but one papyrus book with a few leaves con-
taining genuine Aramaic sayings of Jesus! For those few
leaves we would, I think, part smilingly with the theological
output of a whole century.
But it is of little use to speak further of this “1. It
is more sensible to inquire why the words of Jesus are no
longer extant in their original Aramaic. The answer is that
Christianity, in becoming a world religion, gradually forgot
its oldest records—records that had originated far away
from the world and were unintelligible to the world—and so
they were lost. The Christian missionaries with an Aramaic
book of gospels in their hands would have been powerless
to make propaganda in what was in fact a Greek or rather
Hellenised world. An Aramaic gospel-book would have
condemned Christianity to remain a Palestinian sect. Ere
it could become a world religion it had to learn the language
of the world, and that is why the gospels put on the habit
of the world; for that reason St. Paul and others spoke
and wrote the international language, and the New Testa-
ment took final form as a Greek book. The handful of
earlier Aramaic copies vanished before the multitude of
Greek manuscripts of the gospels, which from the second
century onwards became more and more widely diffused.
Their fate was the same as that of our spelling-books and
copy-books. How many of the men who go down from the
university with boxes full of Latin and Greek books and lecture
notes will find still in existence at home the thumbed and
ragged pages from which they first learnt the A BC?
In the Roman Imperial period the language of the great
world was Greek, which numbered more speakers.then than
the Latin with its millions. The great military expeditions
of Alexander the Great had combined with the more peaceful
victories of commerce, art, literature, and science to produce,
just at the great turning-point in religious history, a more
or less complete Hellenisation of those portions of the
Mediterranean area which had been from time immemorial the
home of civilisation. In the south of Europe, in Asia Minor,?
1 Karl Holl, Das Fortleben der Volkssprachen in nachchristlicher Zeit,
Hermes, 43 (1908) p. 240, must however not be forgotten for its important
evidence as to Asia Minor.
 66 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Egypt, and other parts of northern Africa, the culture and
even the language was Greek, right down to the lower orders,
of urban society especially. Even among the residents of
Rome there were plenty who spoke Greek. We know,
for instance, that the Roman Jews of the period, a numerous
body, spoke Greek almost exclusively.
In this Hellenised world, however, men no longer spoke
local dialects of Greek. The world had become unified, and
men spoke no more the ancient Doric, or Holic, Ionic, or
Attic, but a single Greek international language, one common
tongue. The- precise origin of this international Greek,
which it is usual to refer to as the Κοινή (“ common”
language), has not been made out,! nor need it detain us
here. The fact remains that in the period which gave birth
to Christianity there was an international Greek language.
It was not indeed a uniform entity. Two main divisions
are recognisable, though the: boundary between them is
anything but fixed. Like every living language this inter-
national Greek possessed one form marked by greater free-
dom, and another marked by greater restraint. The one we
call colloquial, the other literary.
The colloquial language in its turn went off into various
shades of distinction, according to the refinement of the
speaker. It was natural, moreover, for the literary language
to display varieties of coloration. One influence was at
that time powerfully affecting it, namely, a romantic
enthusiasm for the great classics of the former age in Attic
Greek. People imitated their manner of writing in the
conviction that here once for all the standard of good Greek
had been set. The followers of this romantic movement are
called “ Atticists ᾿᾿ after the model they chose for imitation.
Their convention was all but binding on the cultured and
literary of that epoch, and has always remained one of
the great powers in the intellectual world, influencing our
humanistic studies even at the present day.2 We still
1 Good statements of the questions at present in dispute are given by
D. C. Hesseling, De Koine en de oude dialekten van Griekenland, Amsterdam,
1906; Mayser, Grammatik dey griech. Papyri aus dey Ptolemderzeit, p. 1 ff.;
aud Karl Krumbacher, Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 17 (1908) p. 577 ff.
? Not always for the good : it is partly responsible for the widespread lack
of appreciation among our scholarly classes of things pertaining to the common
people.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 67
possess works in plenty that were written by the ancient
Atticists, and we are well informed as to their theories.1
We do, moreover, possess memorials of the colloquial
language of culture in that period, since there were several
authors who paid little or no attention to the rules of the
Atticists.
Memorials of the popular colloquial language, on the
other hand, memorials of the spoken Greek of the people,
were scarcely known to the general run of scholars at a period
distant only some score or so of years from the present
day. The lower orders, in all their wide extent, who in the
time of the Roman Empire made up the bulk of the popula-
tion in the great cities of the Mediterranean coast and the
interior,—the non-literary people, whose vulgarisms and
expressive terms were scorned and tabooed by the Atticists
as weeds in the garden of language,—the classes of people
whom St. Paul at the end of 1 Cor. i. describes with all the
warmth of a blood relation—seemed, with their language,
to be buried for ever in oblivion.
And what judgment was usually formed of the language
of the New Testament, under these circumstances?
We may state the case thus: In many details due
emphasis was given to its relation with the contemporary
international Greek, but on the whole it was isolated by the
science of language, and raised to the rank of a separate
linguistic entity under the title of “‘ New Testament ” Greek.
Two circumstances more particularly helped to make this
isolative, dogmatic method prevail. From the point of
view of religion and theology the isolation of the New Testa-
ment was encouraged by the doctrine of mechanical in-
spiration, combining with a very lively conception of the
canon of the New Testament as a hard-and-fast boundary.
From the point of view of language and philology every
one with a classical training felt the strong contrast between
the language of Scripture and the Attic Greek he had learnt
at school. Enslaved by the immemorial prejudice of the
Atticists, that the Greek world ended with Alexander the
1 Of fundamental importance is the excellent work of Wilhelm Schmid (of
Tiibingen), Der Atticismus in seinen Hauptvertretern von Dionysius von Hali-
karnass bis auf den zweiten Philostratus, 4 vols. and index-vol., Stuttgart,
1887-1897. <
68 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Great (whereas it really began with him), many who read the
Greek New Testament never dreamt of taking up other
Greek texts of the Imperial (and post-Alexandrian) period.
The result was that for such readers there was a great gap
between their New Testament and the earlier stage of Greek
with which they were familiar, viz. the classical Attic of the
5th and 4th centuries B.c.1_ Not only the theologians were
at fault: philologists were in the same condemnation. So
recently as 1894 the great Greek scholar Friedrich Blass,?
of Halle, despite his marvellous knowledge of the whole
range of Greek literature, asserted that’ New Testament
Greek must be recognised “‘ as something peculiar, obeying
its own laws.”
We owe it to the newly discovered or at least newly
appreciated records that this isolative method of treatment
has been given up. Of the literary language, conventionalised
according to artificial rules, there were productions enough
extant already. Then came the inscribed stones, papyri,
and potsherds—themselves not absolutely free from the
tyranny of school and office usage #—and gave us a wealth
of documents representative of the colloquial language,
especially in its popular form, just as it had grown and was
still growing and running riot in a state of nature.> The
papyri and ostraca particularly furnished ample material
1 Much in the same way as people used to be fond of ignoring the period
between the coriclusion of the Hebrew Old Testament and the rise of Christi-
anity with reference to the history of religion.
* Theologische Literaturzeitung, 19 (1894) col. 338. Blass afterwards
changed his opinion on the subject. :
8 W. L. Lorimer, “‘ Deissmannism before Deissmann,” The Expository
Times, Vol. 32, No. 7, April 1921, p. 330, deserves thanks for pointing out that
the right view had occasionally been upheld at an earlier date. He refers to
Sir James Donaldson (1831-1915) and cites his article “ Greek Language
(Biblical) ” in the third edition of Kitto’s Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature
(ed. W. L, Alexander, 1862-66) Vol. II. (1864), pp. 169°-172%. It should not
be forgotten, however, that until the papyri etc. were systematically turned to
account, the wrong view was generally prevalent in Germany, even among
classical scholars. I have myself long ago called attention to certain correct
expressions of opinion in the earlier period (cf. p. 71 below).
ὁ On this point cf. especially Edwin Mayser, Grammatik der griechischen
Papyri aus der Ptolemderzeit, Ὁ. 3 f.
5 It was long since noticed that the Mishna and other old Jewish texts
contain considerable traces of popular Greek, but the subject does not come
within the scope of this book. Cf. Paul Fiebig, Das Griechisch der Mischna,
Zeitschrift fir die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 9 (1908), pp. 297-314.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 69
for comparative purposes, first as regards phonology and
accidence, and then as regards the meanings conveyed by
words. The inscriptions, however, also produced a sur-
prising harvest, principally of the lexical variety.

2. The work to be accomplished by the linguistic his-

torian on the New Testament includes great problems yet
unsolved, but one thing is clear already. The New Testa-
ment has been proved to be, as a whole, a monument of late
colloquial Greek, and in the great majority of its component
parts the monument of a more or less popular colloquial
language.
The most popular in tone are the synoptic gospels,1
especially when they are reporting the sayings of Jesus.
Even St. Luke, with his occasional striving after greater
correctness of expression, has not deprived them of their
simple beauty. The Epistle of St. James again ae
re-echoes the popular language of the gospels.
The Johannine writings, including the Revelation, are
also linguistically deep-rooted in the most popular colloquial
language.2- The Logos, occurring in the very first line of
1 It is admirably remarked by J. Wellhausen, Exnleitung in die dvet ersten
Evangelien, Berlin, 1905, p.9: ‘‘ In the gospels spoken Greek, and such Greek
as was spoken by the people, makes its entry into literature. Some theologians
have made vain endeavours to reduce it to the rules of the school grammar,
Professed Greek scholars have in the past generally looked upon it from a
narrow point of view only to despise it, but have lately,under the influence of
comparative and historical philology, begun to criticise it with an open mind.”’
In his own linguistic comments on the gospels, where it becomes necessary to
decide which phenomena are non-Greek, Wellhausen has, however, relied far
too much on the Attic standard of Greek. In many passages his book is a
testimony to the enormous influence which the orthodox doctrine of the
Atticists was still able to exert on an enlightened mind. Wellhausen says him-
self (p. 35), “‘ Greek being such an elastic and many-sided language, it may
well be that here and there a Semiticism may also prove to be a Greek vul-
garism ’’—and his words certainly applyin the great majority of the cases
he has put down as Semitic. ‘‘ There is not the slightest use,’’ he says im-
mediately afterwards, ‘‘in thrusting one’s head into the Greek thicket "᾿--
but are we on that account to bury our heads in the sands of Semiticismsἢ
The question is, What was customary within the sphere of the living Greek
language of the people in the Imperial period? And if I am to answer this
question I must purge myself of the leaven of the Atticists and study that
living language. That Aramaisms exist, I have never denied; only as to the
number of the ‘“‘ non-Greek’’ phenomena in the gospels I am of another
opinion than Wellhausen, because to me ‘‘non-Greek’”’ is not identical
with ‘‘ non-Attic.”
3. Cf, the remarks on the Johannine style below, p. 131 ff.
70 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the gospel, has blinded most critics to the essential character
of a book which, for all its share in the world’s history, is a
book of the people. ἱ
St. Paul too can command the terse pithiness of the homely
gospel speech, especially in his ethical exhortations as pastor.
These take shape naturally in clear-cut maxims such as the
people themselves use and treasure up. But even where
St. Paul is arguing to himself and thinking deeply, so that
he has recourse more to the language of contemplation and
speculation, even where he borrows wings of the priestly
fervour of the liturgist and the enthusiasm of the Psalmist,
his Greek never becomes literary. It is never disciplined,
say, by the canon of the Atticists, never tuned to the Asian
rhythm?!: it remains non-literary.2. Thickly studded with
rugged, forceful words taken from the popular idiom, it is
perhaps the most brilliant example of the artless though
not inartistic colloquial prose of a travelled city-resident of
the Roman Empire, its. wonderful flexibility making it just
the very Greek for use in a mission to all the world.
We are thus left with the total impression that the great
mass of the texts which make up the New Testament, form-
ing at the same time the most important part of the sacred
volume in point of contents, are popular in character. The
traces of literary language found in some few of the other
texts cannot do away with this impression. On the con-
trary, the contrast in which the Epistle to the Hebrews, for
instance, stands linguistically to the earlier texts of Primitive
Christianity, is peculiarly instructive to us. It points to
the fact that the Epistle to the Hebrews, with its more
definitely artistic, more literary language 3 (corresponding to
1 Friedrich Blass, Die Rhythmen der asianischen und vomischen Kunstprosa,
Leipzig, 1905, regards the Epistles of St. Paul as largely consisting of rhythmi-
cally elaborated artistic prose—a singular instance of the great scholar
having gone astray; cf. Theol. Lit.-Ztg., 31 (1906) col. 231 ff.
2 Tentirely agree with Nageli (cf. especially p. 13 of his work) in his opinion
of the apostle’s language.
% Nobody could appreciate this contrast more correctly or express it more
happily than Origen (quoted in Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. VI. xxv. 11) has done:
ὅτι ὁ χαρακτὴρ τῆς λέξεως τῆς πρὸς ‘EBpaious ἐπιγεγραμμένης ἐπιστολῆς οὐκ ἔχει τὸ ἐν
λόγῳ ἰδιωτικὸν τοῦ ἀποστόλου ὁμολογήσαντος ἑαυτὸν ἰδιώτην εἶναι τῷ λόγῳ τουτέστι
τῇ φράσει, ἀλλά ἐστιν ἡ ἐπιστολὴ συνθέσει τῆς λέξεως ᾿Ἑλληνικωτέρα, πᾶς ὃ ἐπιστά-
μενος κρίνειν φράσεων διαφορὰς ὁμολογήσαι dv-—' that the linguistic character of
the epistle entitled ‘ to the Hebrews ’ has none of that rudeness of speech which
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 71
its more theological subject-matter), constituted an epoch
in the history of the new religion. Christianity is beginning
to lay hands on the instruments of culture; the literary and
theological period has begun. There will be more to say
on this head in the next chapter.
The modern conception of New Testament Greek i® not
altogether a new thing: our advances in knowledge rarely
are. Under the late Roman Empire, when the old learning
and culture came into hostile collision with Christianity,
pagan controversialists spoke mockingly of the language of
the New Testament as a boatman’s idiom. The Christian
apologists accepted the taunt and made the despised simplicity
of that language their well-warranted boast.1_ The hopeless
attempt to prove the Bible as a whole and the New Testa-
ment in particular to be artistically perfect in its external
form was first made by Latin apologists.2 The same theory
reappeared many centuries later in the conflict between
the so-called Purists and Hebraists,? and was passionately
maintained and disputed by these two rival schools of Biblical
interpretation. To many it appeared as something perfectly
obvious that Holy Scripture must be clothed in language
at least as classical as that of Demosthenes or Plato, and
the apostle himself confessed when he said [2 Cor. xi. 6] he was rude of speech,
t.e.in expression, that on the contrary the epistle is more Greek in its stylistic
structure, will be admitted by everyone who is able to judge of differences of
style.” ᾿
1 For details see Eduard Norden, Die antike Kunstprosa, II. p. 512 ff.
3 Eduard Norden, II. p. 526 ff.
3 See especially the account in Winer and Schmiedel, ὃ 2, p. 4 ff.—The
latest phase of New Testament philology has sometimes been described as a
revival of the strife between the Hebraists and the Purists. That is, however,
not quite accurate. The primary dispute no longer concerns the fact of Hebrew
(or rather, Semitic) intrusions in the Greek of the New Testament: no one
denies the existence of Semiticisms; opinions are only divided with reference
‘to the relative proportion of these Semiticisms. On the other hand, there is.
now no assertion of the ‘‘ purity " of New Testament Greek in the sense of the
old disputants. The new tendency in the work now being done is to emphasise
the popular and non-literary element in the language of the apostles and to
protest against the dogmatic isolation of New Testament philology.—As early
as 1863 we find Bishop Lightfoot remarking with the keen vision of a seer in
one of his lectures: ‘‘. . . if we could only recover letters that ordinary
people wrote to each other without any thought of being literary, we should
have the greatest possible help for the understanding of the language of the
ΝΥ. generally.” (Note by the Rev. J. Pulliblank in J. H. Moulton’s Grammar,?
Ρ. 242.) Such letters (and other texts) have since then been made accessible
jn great abundance by the papyri and ostraca,
 72 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
assertions to the contrary were felt to be an outrage upon the.
Holy Ghost. We for our part are on the side of those who
see beauty in the wild rose-bush as well as in a Gloire de
Dijon. What is natural is also beautiful, and does not
cease to be beautiful until artificiality and pretence step in.!
Thus in our opinion the new method of philological treatment
brings out the peculiar beauty of the New Testament, by
establishing the popular simplicity of the language in which
it is written. The relation in which the language of the
people stands to the artificial language of literature reminds
us of the Master’s own words, when He said, ‘‘ Consider the
lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do
' they spin: and yet I say unto you, that even Solomon in
all his glory was not arrayed like one of these.”’

3. How truly valuable the newly. recorded documents are

in the study of the language of the New Testament can only
be realised by examples. In the following pages, therefore,
some characteristic examples have been selected from the
vast mass of available material. With regard, however, to
the first point to be illustrated; viz. the phonology and acci-
dence, there is no need to go into details here; a few remarks
of a general nature will suffice.?
A. The characteristic features of the living Greek language
that was in international use are most clearly seen in the
phonology and accidence. The assumption of a special New
Testament or Biblical Greek is hopelessly refuted by the
observations made in this field. All the hundreds of morpho-
logical details in the Biblical texts which strike a reader
accustomed to Plato and Xenophon will be found alsoin the
contemporary ‘‘ profane” records of international Greek,
especially in those texts which have come down to us in their
1 Analogies from other civilisations offer themselves in abundance. Tolstoy
used to read his stories before publication to his peasants and then get them
to re-tell the stories, so that he might avail himself of their alterations. ‘‘ What
a mighty flood of fresh images, thoughts, and words would find its way into
our petty, dried up, jargonised literature, ‘ cultivated ’ as it is to the degree
of impossibility, if other writers would do the same and would love and respect
the common people as Tolstoy does ” (Conversations with Tolstoy, Gesprache
mit Tolstoj, published by J. Teneromo, Berlin, 1911, p. 78).
2 In what follows I have made occasional use of my article on ‘’ Hellenis-
tisches Griechisch " in Herzog and Hauck, Realencyclopddie,® VII. p. 627 ff.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 73
original form without passing through the refining fires of
an Atticist purgatory. They occur in the inscriptions, but
most of all in the ostraca and papyri. P. W. Schmiedel’s
new edition of the Accidence of Winer’s Grammar of the
New Testament Idiom appeared before the most important
of the recently discovered paypri had been published, so that
no use could be made of this most instructive material, and
yet that book contains so many trustworthy observations as
to make it impossible any longer to ignore the morphological
identity of the supposed ‘‘ New Testament Idiom ”’ with the
Hellenistic colloquial language. The other recent New
Testament Grammars emphasised the fact still more, and,
from another point of view, so did Karl Dieterich’s Researches
on the History of the Greek Language from the Hellenistic
Period to the roth Cent. A.D.1 Here we see the value.of things
that are often loftily despised as philological trifles: the
overwhelming amount of small facts ascertained with absolute
certainty has brought New Testament philology into such
close connexion with the general study of late Greek as will
never again be broken. The Septuagint Grammars of Helbing
and Thackeray, and the works of Psichari and R. Meister,?
have established the same organic connexion between Septua-
gint philology and the wider subject.
B. We quote one example from the special department of
word-formation which may be called onomatology. The
word Panthera, used as a man’s name, is of great interest to
New Testament scholars, though it is not found in the Bible.
It appears in late traditions concerning the family of Jesus
of Nazareth, and plays a great part particularly in the Jewish
legends of the birth of Christ. A good many years ago Hackel’s
unsuccessful foray in the domain of New Testament research ὃ
made the name familiar to a large public. Many scholars
have bestowed their attention to it, and in almost every case
they have concluded it to be a nickname specially invented
for the purposes of Jewish polemics.4 The problem as to the
origin of this name can now be solved with certainty, thanks
particularly to Latin inscriptions. The name Panthera is
1 Cf. also Neue Bibelstudien, pp. 9-21; Bible Studies, pp. 181-193.
2 Cf. p. 19 above.
3 In The Riddle of the Universe (1899).
4 And derived either from πόρνος (fornicator) or παρθένος (virgin).
74 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
known in Attic inscriptions, but it occurs frequently in funeral
and other inscriptions of the Imperial period as a cognomen
of both men and women.!_ Most interesting of all, perhaps, is
the tombstone of Tiberius Julius Abdes® Pantera, of Sidon
in Phoenicia, a Roman archer at the very beginning of the
Imperial Period. It was found near Bingerbriick, and is
now in the museum at Kreuznach (Fig. 8). Taken in con-
junction with the other inscriptions, this epitaph * from the
German frontier of the Roman Empire * shows with absolute
certainty that Panthera was not an invention. of Jewish
scoffers, but a widespread name among the ancients.
C. Viewed in the light of the new documents the vocabulary
of the New Testament also displays features characteristic
of the Hellenistic colloquial language.
(a) With regard to the words themselves the proof of our
thesis cannot in all cases be made out with the same com-
pleteness as in the phonology and accidence; but there is
no need for absolute completeness here. It is obvious that
the vocabulary of the international language, recruited from
all the countries that had acknowledged the supremacy of
Greek, can never be completely known to us in all its fulness.
As a matter of fact words are constantly turning up in the

1 Detailed proofs will be found in my article ‘‘ Der Name Panthera’”’ in

Orientalische Studien (presentation volume to Theodor Néldeke), Gieszen,
1906, p. 871 ff. Cf. also the name Πάνθηρ Panther in a Fayim papyrus, 1o1—
102 A.D., which contains a number of Jewish names (Berliner Griechische
Urkunden, No. 715, 14). ᾿
2 Count Wolf Baudissin explained this Ebed name to me (by postcard,
dated Berlin, 29 January, 1907) as DN “Ia servant of Ists. This is not
the only example of Isis occurring among the Phoenicians, My attention was
called by the same authority to the soldier’s inscription at Ashmunén (Lidz-
barski, Ephemeris ἐὰν semitische Epigvaphik 2. p. 338), Κοττίων ᾿Αβδέους,
‘‘Cottio the son of Abdes”’ (‘Afd#s). Further discussion of the name by
Jno. MacCarthy in Notes and Queries, 11 S. vii. 381; viii. 109, 291, 340
(17 May, 9 Aug., 11, 25 Oct., 1913), to which my attention was called by
L. R. M. Strachan.
5. The complete inscription runs :—
Tib. Iul. Abdes. Pantera. Tiberius Julius Abdes Pantera,
Sidonia. ann. LXII. of Sidon, aged 62,
stipen. XX XX. miles. exs. a soldier of 40 years’ service,
coh. I. sagittariovum. of the 1st cohort of archers,
ἢ. 5. 6. lies here.
4 The cohort of archers in which the Sidonian served had come to the
Rhine in the year 9 Α.Ὁ.
 a
Fic. 8.—Tomb D 8 ο a oO &inlο Ε [5 a0o tape}a = a , early Imperial Period,
Now at TXreuznac h.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 75
newly discovered texts which one may seek in vain in the
dictionaries. It is equally natural that many words can
only be found a few times, sometimes only once, in the whole
body of the texts known to us. Nobody with common
sense will suppose that these were all coined by the writers
on the spur of the moment : they are little discoveries for the
lexicographer, it is true, but not inventions by the authors.!
Such little discoveries can be made,to a certain extent, in
the Greek Bible. The advocates of the theory of “‘ Biblical ”’
Greek have often made capital out of them. Cremer was
especially fond of distinguishing these erratics as “ Biblical ”
or ‘‘ New Testament ’’ words which were specially due to the
power of Christianity to mould language. Even Grimm, in
his edition of Wilke’s Clavis Novi Testamenti, was always
careful to mark the rarities as ‘‘ vox solum biblica,’’ ‘‘ vox
mere biblica,” ‘‘ vox profanis ignota,” thus creating every-
where the impression that “‘ Biblical Greek ”’ could after all
be discovered somehow by means of the lexicon.?
In quite a number of cases, however, there are intrinsic
reasons for saying at once: It is a mere accident of statistics
that this word has been found hitherto only in the Bible.
In other cases it is possible to prove directly from some
neglected or newly discovered author, from inscriptions,
ostraca, Or papyri, that the word does after all belong to
“ profane,” 1.6. general Hellenistic, Greek. Such is the ‘case,
for instance, with the following supposed “ Biblical’ or
‘“‘ New Testament ’’ words and combinations : ἀγάπη, ἀκατά-
1 In Greek phrase I should say that they are ἅπαξ εὑρημένα, not ἅπαξ εἰρημένα.
2 The English edition of Grimm’s Wilke by J. H. Thayer, the best New
Testament dictionary hitherto produced (corrected edition, New York, 1896),
is more cautious here in the text; cf. Gdttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1898,
. 922.
8 The example found by W. H. P. Hatch, p. 22, n. 3 above, is doubtful.
See however Neue Bibelstudien, p. 26f., Bible Studies, p. 198. (Philo); to
which add Epistle of Aristeas, 229. Wilhelm Crénert told me (postcards,
Gottingen, 26, 30 July, and 6 August, 1908) that he conjectured with great
probability ἀγάπη in a MS. of Philodemus (90-40 B.c.) among the Herculanean
rolls at Naples. Details were reserved by him for later. Since then, in his
new edition of Passow’s Lexicon (Passows Wérterbuch der griechischen Sprache,
vollig neu bearbeitet von W. Crénert, first instalment, Géttingen, 1912, col. 25),
he has given the reference: Philodem. παρρ. 13, δι᾿ ἀ[γ]άπης ἐϊναρ]γοῦς with
the note “" (certain?) ’ appended. Extraordinarily important instances of the
extra-Biblical use of ἀγάπη were furnished next by the great prayer to Isis
in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri XI No. 1380 (written early in the 2nd century A.D.,
γα. LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
γνωστος, ἀντιλήμπτωρ, Baiov, δειγματίζω, ἐχαιών, ἔναντι, ἐνώπιον,
εὐάρεστος, εὐΐλατος, ἱερατεύω, καθαρίξω, κυριακός, λειτουργικός,
λογεία, νεόφυτος, ὀφειλή, περιδέξιον, ἀπὸ πέρυσι, ποταμοφόρητος,
προσευχή, πυρράκης, σιτομέτριον, φρεναπάτης.ἷ
It will perhaps be objected, What are they among so
many? What is this secularisation of 21 “ Biblical ” or
“New Testament’ words in comparison with the large
number of cases in which no secular parallel has yet been
found to characteristic peculiarities of the Greek Bible or
New Testament? To this it must be replied that the number
of specifically New Testament words at any rate has been
enormously overestimated by all the statisticians.
The chief of those who have taken up this statistical
problem in recent years is H. A. A. Kennedy; but he himself,
as he tells me,? is no longer prepared to insist on his figures.
Out of 4,829 New Testament words (excluding proper names
and words derived therefrom) he formerly reckoned 580 3 or
in round numbers 550 ὁ to be “ Biblical,” 1.6. ‘‘ found either

but the text should be older): according to 1. 28 Isis was called ἀγάπ[η]
“Love” in the town of Thonis on the north coast of Egypt, and according
to 1. 109 ἀ[γά]πη θεῶν “ Love of the gods ἴῃ Italy. This is very remarkable
and instructive, even when taken in connexion with 1. 63, according to which
Isis was called ἀλήθια (ἀλήθεια ‘ Truth’) at Menuthis, a village in northern
Egypt. The Johannine parallels with ἀγάπη and ἀλήθεια at once suggest
themselves (1 John iv. 9, 16; John xiv. 9). The Isis texts seem altogether
to be specially valuable for the light they shed on the Johannine.—That the
examples of ἀγάπη in the Isis papyrus-‘may be regarded as trustworthy, although
the papyrus is injured in both places, is proved, I think, by the parallel as to
fact in 1. 94: at Dora (Tantura, near Caesarea, in Palestine) Isis was called
«φιλία. The two damaged ἀγάπη passages also afford each other mutual
support. [In the new Liddell and Scott, 1925, 5.0. ἀγάπη : ‘‘ doubtful in Berlin
Papyrus 9859 (2nd cent. B.c.); Philodemus, περὶ παρρησίας, ed. A. Olivieri,
Leipzig, 1914, p. 52; of the love of husband and wife, Scholia in Ptolemaei
Tetrabiblon, Basel, 1559, p. 52. TR.]
1 For ἔναντι and φρεναπάτης cf. Blass, Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen
Griechisch,* pp. 129, 71. [English translation,? pp. 128 ἢ. 1, 68 ῃ. 2. TR.] (In
his first edition Blass had also quoted φιλοπρωτεύω from an inscription, and
I unfortunately relied on this in my article in the Realencyclopadie,? but it
afterwards proved to be an error.) Quotations will be found for Batov and
δειγματίζω in Moulton and Milligan’s Vocabulary, for ποταμοφόρητος in
Wikenhauser (see p. 49 above), and for the remaining words in my Bibelstudien
and Neue Bibelstudien (= Bible Studies).
2 Letter, Toronto, 13 October, 1908.
3 Sources of New Testament Greek : or the Influence of the Septuagint on
the Vocabulary of the New Testament, Edinburgh, 1895, p. 62.
4 Page 93.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 77
in the New Testament alone, or, besides, only in the Septua-
gint.” These figures were-no doubt obtained from the lists
in Thayer’s Lexicon. At the end of that volume we find,
among other statistical information, a list of ‘ Biblical, 1.6.
New Testament” words, 767 in number. From these,
however, Thayer himself excepted 76 words as “ late” (i.e.
known to be used.elsewhere) and 89 as doubtful, leaving 602.
But if we subtract from 767 the total number of words (some
218) in the list which Thayer himself notes as occurring in
Polybius, Plutarch, and elsewhere, there remain only 549.
That is approximately Kennedy’s number, and is certainly
a considerable amount. ;
But we must examine more closely. Among the 550
remaining words we find first a number of proper names, then
a quantity of Semitic and Latin transcriptions or borrowed
words, then a series of numerals.!_ Finally, however, if we
consult the excellent articles in the Lexicon itself, we shall
find in the case of many of the words still remaining that there
are quotations given from Josephus, Plutarch, Marcus Aurelius,
etc. Thus, for example, out of 150 words enumerated by
Kennedy * as occurring “only ᾿᾿ in the Septuagint and the
New Testament, 67 are quoted by Thayer himself from pagan
authors. The only explanation that I can see for the inaccur-
acy in these old statistics is that most of the authors quoted
for the 67 words are later in date than the New Testament.
But are we to regard words as specifically ‘‘ New Testament ”
words because they happen to make their first appearance”
there? Did Plutarch, for instance, borrow words from the
Bible? That is altogether improbable. The Bible and
Plutarch borrow from a common source, viz. the vocabulary
of late Greek.?
Other and much lower statistics can be obtained from
Grimm’s edition of Wilke’s Clavis Novi Testamenti : he notes
253 words as “ Biblical.” 4 But even this census may be
considered out of date.
1 E.g. δεκαδύο, δεκατέσσαρες, δεκαπέντε, δεκαέξ, δεκαοκτώ.
2 Page 88 ff. ᾿
3 Cf. Géttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1896, p. 766. I there mentioned the
following words occurring in Plutarch : ἀποκάλυψις, γνώστης, ὁλοκληρία, πρόσκομμα,
σαγήνη, ψιθυρισμός, μίσθιος, ταπεινόφρων, ἐνταφιάζω, ἐξυπνίζω, μακροθυμέω.
4 According to Wikenhauser, Bibl. Zeitschrift 8 (1910) p. 271.
78 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
That there are such things as specifically “ Biblical ᾿᾿ and
specifically ‘‘ New Testament ” (or rather, “‘ early Christian ’’)
words, I have never denied. No lengthy statistical investiga-
tions as to usage are necessary in order to recognise these
special words: a glance is sufficient. But when a word is
not recognisable at sight as a Jewish or Christian new forma-
tion, we must consider it as an ordinary Greek word until the
contrary is proved.1_ The number of really new-coined words
is in the oldest (New Testament) period very small. I esti-
mate that in the whole New Testament vocabulary of nearly
5,000 words not many more than 50—fewer than that, more
likely—will prove to be “‘ Christian’ or “ Biblical’ Greek
words.” The great enriching of the Greek lexicon by Christ-
ianity did not take place till the later, ecclesiastical period,
with its enormous development and differentiation of dogmatic,
liturgical, and legal concepts. In the religiously creative
period which came first of all the power of Christianity to
form new words was not nearly so large as its effect in trans-
forming the meaning of the old words.
As we have said, a close examination of the ancient literary
texts 5 alone leads to the secularisation of many words in
1 ἐπιούσιος is a case in point, in my opinion, notwithstanding the. well-
known remark of Origen. Asa rule little reliance is to be placed on observa-
tions of the Fathers with regard to the statistics of language. Jerome, for
example, in commenting on Gal. i. 12, was quite wrong in saying that ἀποκάλυψις
was a Biblical word, never employed by any of the world’s wise men. Cf.
R. C. Trench, Synonyms of the New Testament, 7th ed., London, 1871, p. 333
(§ xciv). émovotos has all the appearance of a word that originated in the
trade and traffic of the everyday life of the people (cf. my hints in New#esta-
mentliche Studien Georg Heinvict dargebracht, Leipzig, 1914, p. 118f.). [The
opinion here expressed has been confirmed by A. Debrunner’s discovery -
(Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 1925, col. 119) of ἐπιούσιος in an ancient housekeeping-book,
Flinders Petrie, Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoe, London, 1889, p. 34 (No. 35)
1, 20 = Preisigke, Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Agypten, Strassburg,
1915, No. 5224.
2 [ therefore estimate the total of ‘‘ Biblical ’’ words in the New Testament
as (at the utmost) 1 per cent. of the whole vocabulary. According to Grimm
it should be estimated at 5} per cent., according to Kennedy (p. 93) at 12 per
cent.
3 The medical, astrological and legal writers especially have not yet been
thoroughly examined, and will prove very productive. Quite astonishing
lexical parallels to the Bible are found, for instance, in a writer of whom I
make repeated use later on in these pages, the astrologer Vettius Valens of
Antioch, who wrote in the 2nd century a.p. Cf. Guilelmus Kroll, Mantissa
Observationum Vettianarum (Excerptum ex Catalogo codicum astvologorum
graecorum, t. V. p. ii.), Bruxelles, 1906, p. 152 ff.; and G. Warning, De Veitit
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 79
Thayer’s “ Biblical’ list, when it is agreed to drop the petty
quibble that pagan authors of, say, the second century A.D.
do not come into account. It is a weak point in Cremer’s
Lexicon especially that ‘‘ late ᾿᾿ pagan parallels to New Testa-
ment words are apt to be treated with a certain.contempt
whereas in reality the “‘ late ” parallels to the New Testament,
which is itself ‘‘ late,” are much more instructive than those
from Homer or Plato.
The number of “ Biblical’’ words shrinks, however, still
further if we pursue the search among our non-literary texts.
From the immemorial homes of Greek culture in Hellas and
the islands, from the country towns of Asia Minor and the
villages of Egypt no less than from the great centres of com-
merce on the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, year after
year brings us new illustrations. Non-Christian texts are
found containing words that were formerly—although “‘ the
kingdom of God is not in word ’’—thought to pertain exclu-
sively to Primitive Christianity or the Old and New Greek
Testaments.
In proof that the list given above 1 can already be largely
increased I will here give a number of examples, beginning
with τὸ words which would assert their secularity at first
glance, even if no quotations were forthcoming from extra-
Biblical sources.

(x1) The word ἀλλογενής, “οἱ another race, a stranger,

foreigner,” found frequently in the Septuagint and once in
the New Testament (Luke xvii. 18), is said by Cremer ? and
the other lexicographers to be ‘‘ confined to Biblical and
patristic Greek.” The Roman authorities? however, in

Valentis sermone, Diss. Minster i. W., 1909. On Kroll’s edition of Vettius

Valens (Vettit Valentis Anthologiarum libri, Berlin, 1908) cf. J. L. Heiberg,
Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 29 (1908) col. 1764 ff. As to the medical writers, a
distinguished authority, Johannes Ilberg (letter, Leipzig, 31 Aug., 1909),
expressly confirms my statement. [For the new edition of Liddell and Scott’s
Lexicon, publication of which ‘began in 1925, all the extant remains of Greek
medical literature have been read—but not, of course, from this special
point of view. TR.]
1 Page 75 f. 2 °Page 247.
3 Theodor Mommsen, Rémische Geschichte, V.,4 Berlin, 1894, p. 513, was of
opinion that the ‘‘ tablets ” were not put up by the Jewish kings but by the
Roman government. So too Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscviptiones
Selectae, II. p. 295.
80 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
placing inscriptions on the marble barriers of the inner courts
of the Temple at Jerusalem, thought differently of the word,
or they would not have employed it in a notice intended to
be read by Gentiles, who were thereby threatened. with death
as the penalty for entering. One of these inscriptions was
discovered by Clermont-Ganneau in 1871. The stone on
which it is cut—a substantial block,! on which the eyes of
Jesus and St. Paul? may often have rested—is now in the
Imperial New Museum at Constantinople (Figure 9). The
inscription 3 is as follows :—
Μηθένα ἀλλογενῆ εἰσπο- Let no foreigner enter within
pever Gan * ἐντὸς τοῦ πε-
Ν XN ἃ » 7 Ν
the screen and enclosure sur-
*

epee ks τρυφᾶκτου καὶ rounding the sanctuary. Who-

περιβόλου. ὃς δ᾽ ἂν λη- ; τ ἀν κα
Brae pe Uae are soever is taken so doing will
φθῆ, ἑαυτῶι αἴτιος ἔσ- : -
ταὶ διὰ τὸ ἐξοκόλου: be the cause that death over-
θεῖν®θάνωτον: ] taketh him. ᾿

It isremarkable that Josephus, in mentioning this ordinance,

does not use our word, but two others. He does, however,
employ the word (Bell. Jud. 2, 417) in another connexion.
1 One reads generally of a “‘ tablet’; but it is a limestone block, 22} inches
high, 33} inches long, and 14} inches thick. The letters are more than
τῇ inch high. I inspected the stone on 1o and 11 April, 1906 (it was then
in Chinili Kiosk), and it seemed to me that I could detect signs of the letters
having been formerly painted. ‘‘ If the tablet really bears the marks of blows
from an axe, they must have been done by the soldiers of Titus ’’—this con-
jecture of Mommsen’s, p. 513, seems to me very improbable.
2 It will be remembered that in consequence of an alleged breach of this
regulation by St. Paul, who had taken Trophimus into the inner precincts, a
tumult arose, and the apostle was then arrested, Acts xxi. 28 f.
3 It has often been printed, most recently by Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci
Inscriptiones Selectae, II. No. 598; references to previous literature will be
found there and in Schiirer, II. p. 272 1. [Jewish People in the Time of Jesus
Christ, translated by Sophia Taylor and Peter Christie, Div. II., Vol. I’,
Edinburgh, 1885, p. 265 ff.] Cf. also Moulton and Milligan, The Expositor,
February 1908, p. 179. There is a squeeze of it in the New Testament
Seminar, Berlin.
4 The imperatival infinitive is common in edicts and notices (as-in German).
Cf. Bibelstudien, p. 260; Bible Studies, p. 344; and E. L. Hicks, The Collection
of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part III. p. 176. j
5 ἐξακολουθέω is one of the words counted as ‘‘ Biblical’ by Thayer in his
list, although in his text he gives quotations for it from Polybius, Plutarch,
etc.
ὁ ἀλλόφυλος and ἀλλοεθνής. The passages are Collected by Dittenberger,
op. cit. p. 295 (Bell. Jud. 5,193; 6,124; Antt. 15, 417). Further quotations
in Schirer, II.* p. 272 [Eng. trans., Div. II., Vol. 15, p. 265.]
 a warning
Fic. 9.—Limestone Block from the Temple of Herod at Jerusalem, inscribed with
notice. Early Imperial Period. Now in the Imperial New Museum at Constantinople.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 81
If we suppose the warning notice owed its phrasing to the
Jewish authorities, that would prove nothing against the view
I have taken of this word. There is nothing whatever
specifically Jewish about it either in sense or form.!
(2) One can scarcely repress a smile on discovering in
Thayer’s ‘‘ Biblical’’ list the word ὀνεκός, “ of or belonging
to an ass,” which seems anything but “ Biblical” or
“ Christian,” though it is true that oxen and asses are animals
mentioned in the Bible, and the word was only known in
Matt. xviii. 6 and Mark ix. 42 in the expression for “a mill-
stone turned by an ass.”” We find the word, however, exactly
in the time of Christ in a Fayim contract for the loan of an
ass, dated 8 February, 33 A.D.,2 and again exactly in the time
when the gospels were being written, in another Egyptian
document relating to the sale of an ass, dated 5 February,
70 A.D.2 Moreover, in the scale of taxes at Palmyra, recorded
on stone in 136-137 A.D.,‘ there is twice mention of a tax on
an ass’s burden of goods. The gospel word is thus given both
a southern and an eastern setting, and is doubtless to be
regarded as belonging to the colloquial language of every-day
life. It survives in the Middle Greek τὸ (6)m«ov, which is
still in dialectal use, for instance in the island of Carpathus.*®
(3) βροχή, “a wetting, rain,” is described by Thayer
in his article as a late® word, but nevertheless isolated
in his “ Biblical” list. A lease among the Oxyrhynchus
Papyri (No. 280;), of the year 88-89 A.D., uses it to mean
irrigation by the overflowing of the Nile.” This one quotation
1 It is the opposite of αὐθιγενής, which is a similar formation and good
Greek.
2 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 9122, τὰ ὀνικὰ κτήνη, “ the asses,”
referring to an ass and her foal.
3 Les Papyrus de Genéve transcrits et publiés par Jules Nicole, Genéve, 1896
and 1900, No. 23st, ἀπὸ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων ἡμῖν ὀνικῶν κτηνῶν ὄνον ἕνα pudxpour,
“ of the asses belonging to us, one mouse-coloured ass.””
4 Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae No. 629.945 yopou
ὀνικοῦ.
5 Hesseling, Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 8 (1899) p. 149.
86 [It is not even late. It is found in writers as early as Theophrastus
(4th cent. B.c.) and Democritus (5th cent. B.c.). See the new edition of
Liddell and Scott’s Greek Lexicon, Part 2, Oxford, 1926. TR.]
? The document mentions βροχαὶ τέσσαρες, ‘‘ four waterings " of a piece of
land. Cf. H. van Herwerden, Lexicon Graecum Suppletorium et Dialecticum,
Lugduni Batavorum, 1902, p. 163. Further details in Moulton and Milligan,
Vocabulary, p. 118.
82 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
is enough to show that the word formed part of the living
language. It is therefore quite justifiable to refer to its
existence in Modern Greek.1 The present-day language has
not taken the word from the Bible, but the Bible and Modern
Greek have both drawn from one common source—the
ancient colloquial language.
(4) κόκκινος, “ scarlet,’ an adjective frequently occurring
in the Greek Old and New Testaments, is included in Thayer’s
list of “‘ Biblical’’ words, though a good deal of ingenuity
would be needed to say why the Biblical language required
this special expression. Thayer himself, however, gives
quotations for the word from Plutarch and Epictetus ?; he must
have placed it in his exclusive list because he considered these
two authors to be late, and almost post-Biblical. The occur-
rence of the word, therefore, in the papyri* and in an older
contemporary of the Septuagint that the papyri have restored
to us, Herondas (vi. 19),4 is not without importance.
(5) In astonishment at finding in Thayer’s list of “‘ Biblical ’’
words ἐνδιδύσκω, “I put on,” which, though it occurs in the
Septuagint and the New Testament, is a perfectly colourless
expression, in no way deserving this sacred isolation,’ we turn
to Thayer’s article on the word and find at least one quotation
from Josephus. As Josephus, however, was a Jew, and may
therefore seem to border on the “‘ Biblical,’ ὁ we welcome an
undoubted quotation from a profane source,’ and yet con-
temporary with the Septuagint, viz. an inscription from
Delphi, civca 156-151 B.c.8
(6) ἱματίξω, “I clothe,’ seems no less worldly than the
1 Kennedy, Sources, p. 153; Thumb, Die griechische Sprache, p. 226.
2 To these must be added Martial, a contemporary of the New Testament,
who uses coccina (Epigr. ii. 39, etc.) for ‘‘ scarlet garments.”
3 Examples in P. M. Meyer, Griechische Papyrusurkunden dey Hamburger
Stadtbibliothek, I. (1911) p. 40.
4 Herondae Mimiambi iterum edidit Otto Crusius, Leipzig, 1894, p. 47, τὸν
κόκκινον βαυβῶνα. Further details in Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary,
Ρ. 352.
5 Cf. ἱματίζω, no. 6 below.
6 Philologically this statement could only be accepted with great reserva-
tions.
7 Van Herwerden, Lexicon, pp. 270 and 271.
8 Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-Inschviften, herausgegeben von H.
Collitz, II., Géttingen, 1899, No. 1899,, = Dittenberger, Syiloge,? No. 85713
ἐνδυδισκόμενος (sic; a stonemason’s error), ‘‘ clothed.” The statement of
Johannes Baunack, in Collitz, that ἐνδιδύσκω in the New Testament means
‘“‘ make to put on ” is not correct. :
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 83
last word, which indeed it resembles in meaning; hut because
it was only known to occur in Mark v. 15 and Luke viii. 35
it appears in Thayer’s “‘ Biblical” list. The Primitive
Christians, however, had no call to invent new terms con-
nected with dress, and so this word is of course secular in
origin. It is found in one of the pre-Christian Serapeum
documents, 163 B.c.?; again later,? a welcome parallel to the
New “Testament,” it occurs among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri‘*
in the testament of a man who could not write his own name,
Dionysius the son of Harpocration, 117 a.D., clearly in
formular phraseology,’ which comes again in similar form in
an instrument of adoption from Hermupolis, 31 December,
381 A.D.§
(7) ὀπτάνομαι, “1 am seen, I let myself be seen,” Acts i. 3,
is in Thayer’s list of “ Biblical” words, although E. A.
‘Sophocles ? had quoted it from the so-called Hermes Trisme-
gistus.§ More important are the examples now known from
two much older Ptolemaic papyri® (Paris No. 40.3, circa
160 Β.0.19; and Tebtunis No. 24;, 117 B.C.),4 which prove that
the word was at any rate current in Egypt and explain the
Septuagint usage (1 Kings viii. 8; Tobit xii. 19) in the most
direct manner.

1 χ Peter iii. 3, 4.
2 Greek Papyvi in the British Museum, ed. F. G. Kenyon,.No. 24,,, Vol. I.
P- 32, ἱματιεῖ αὐτήν, ‘ will clothe her.’ Iam indebted to Mayser’s Grammar -
of the Papyri, pp. 93, 465, for this passage.
3 Cf. van Herwerden, Appendix, p. 107.
4 No. 4899 and 17-
5 The children of a female slave are twice mentioned as having been ‘‘ fed
and clothed ” by the testator’s wife, ἐκγόνων τρεφομένων καὶ ἱματιζομέϊνων] ὑπ᾽
αὐτῆς (line 17).
6 Archiv fair Papyrusforschung, 3, p. 17416 (a Leipzig papyrus, published
by L. Mitteis), θρέψω καὶ ἱματίζω εὐγενῶς καὶ γνησίως ὡς υἱὸν γνήσιον καὶ φυσικόν,
“Το will feed and clothe him nobly and properly as a proper and natural son.”
The passage is noted by van Herwerden in the Mélanges Nicole, Genéve, 1905,
p. 250. Further details in Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary, p. 304.
7 Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods, New York and Leipzig,
1888.
8 Poemander 31,15.
® Pointed out by Mayser, p. 404; cf. also J. H. Moulton, The Expositor,
February 1903, p. 117. ;
10 Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque impériale, Vol. 18,
Part 2, Paris, 1865, p. 320. The papyrus, which is of a very vulgar type, has
ὀπτάεται (510). :
11 The date 114 in Mayser is an error. The text is mutilated, but μηδαμῶς
ὀπτανομένων is clear.
84 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
(8) ἐλλογέω, “I put down to someone’s account, I reckon,
impute,”’ Philemon 18, Romans v. 13, is one of those words
that have as worldly a look as possible. Thayer, however, in
his ‘‘ Biblical’’ list separates it off from all other Greek,
although in his article on the word he quotes pagan inscrip-
tions! containing it. A new 3 and earlier reference is supplied
by a military diploma (imperial letter) on papyrus, written at
Alexandria (?) in the time of Hadrian.’
(9) In defiance of the note “ Inscr.”” appended to the word,
περισσεία, “ abundance, superfluity, surplus,” also figures
in Thayer’s “ Biblical” list. But the Thesaurus Graecae
Linguae had already cited a supposed contemporary of the
New Testament, “‘ Moschion the physician ” 4 and an inscrip-
tion of the Imperial period from Sparta,* which is also referred
to by Grimm and Thayer. If we are now obliged to delete
here “‘ Moschion the physician’’® there comes as a new
addition an inscription of 329 A.D. from Rakhlé in Syria.’
(10) ‘‘ Never in profane writers,” say Grimm ® and others
of ἀναστατόω, “1 incite to tumult, stir up to sedition,
unsettle,” another, Septuagint and New Testament word
1 Inscription from Daulis, 118 a.D., Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum,
No. 1732a3;; and the edict of Diocletian, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum,
III. p. 836.
2 Cf. van Herwerden, Lexicon, p. 260.
3 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 14037. It is now so dated by
Wilcken, Hermes, 37 (1902) p. 84 ff. The Emperor writes οὐχ ἕνεκα τοῦ δοκεῖν
με αὐτοῖς ἐνλογεῖν, which Theodor Mommsen (in Bruns, Fontes turis Romani,®
pp. 381, 382) translated ‘‘ non ut iis imputare videar ’’ (as I was informed by
Wilcken, in a letter dated Leipzig, 5 May, 1907). The Emperor wishes to
avoid the appearance of imposing an obligation, or debiting the soldiers with
the beneficium granted them. Cf. also Wikenhauser, Biblische Zeitschrift 8
(1910) p. 272, and Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary, p. 204.
4 De pass. mul. p. 47,, referring to excess of nourishment. (But see note 6.)
5 Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 1378, concerning a certain president
of the games, who “ handed over to the city the whole surplus of the money
belonging to the presidents of the games,” τὴν περισσείαν ἀποδοὺς πᾶσαν τῇ πόλει
τῶν ἀγωνοθετικῶν χρημάτων.
6 I owe to Johannes Ilberg (letter, Leipzig, 31 Aug., 1909) the information
that this text is not ancient, but a late medieval translation of a Middle Latin
book for midwives by one ‘‘ Muscio.” The ancient original that he followed,
a physician named Soranus (c. 100 A.D.), has πλείονος τροφῆς παράθεσις
(p. 283, 1 Rose). ,
7 Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 21 (1897) p. 65, ἐκ περισειῶν (sic),
"' from superfluous (money).”” The inscription, which was no new discovery in
1897, is not Christian.
8. Clavis,‘ Ὁ. 28.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 85
which at first sight certainly has nothing Biblical or Christian
about it, but seems altogether profane. Cremer, however,
gives from the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae at least one quota-
tion from Harpocration, a profane writer of the fourth3
century A.D. But, as Nageli® pointed out, we find at any
rate the word ἐξαναστατόω in a fragment of an anthology
written about I00 B.c. (Tebtunis Papyri No. 2). Still more
valuable is a passage in an Egyptian letter of 4 August, 41 A.D.
(Berliner Griechische Papyrusurkunden, No. 1079594), where
the word probably means the same as in the bad boy’s letter
among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (No. 119:0), of the second
or third century A.D.5 The Paris Magical Papyrus 1. 2243 f.
also contains the word, in a good sense.* We are therefore
undoubtedly entitled to reckon it as part of the general
secular vocabulary.’
I now add to these examples 22 words (nos. 11-32) which
in some, way or other approach more. closely to the domain
of religion and ethics, so that it was at least not impossible
from the first that they might be peculiar to the Bible.
(II) ἀφιλάργυρος, “not covetous”’ (1 Tim. iii. 3; Hebrews
xiii. 5), has been stated to be a ‘‘ New Testament word only,”
and one might suppose it to be really Christian when one
remembers how the Gospel is always antagonistic to mammon.
But Nageli® has already quoted (besides certain authors
that had been overlooked) an inscription from Athens,
36-35 B.c.,2 another from Istropolis, first century B.c.,1°
1 9Page 515.
2 Eduard Norden (letter, Gross-Lichterfelde W., 3 September, 1908) dates
Harpocration earlier.
3 Page 48.
4 μὴ ἵνα ἀναστατώσῃς ἡμᾶς.
5 ἀναστατοῖ με, “ he drives me out of my senses,” Nageli, p. 47; or ‘‘he upsets
me,” Blass, Hermes, 34 (1899) p. 314. Cf. Chapter III. below, letter No. 19
(p. 202). For both papyri cf. also Moulton and Milligan, The Expositor,
“March 1908, p. 268 f. ;
6 Edited by C. Wessely, Denkschriften der philosophisch-historischen Classe
der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vol. 36, Wien, 1888, Ὁ. ror :
χαῖρε, ἱερὰ αὐγή, ἐκ σκότους εἰλημμένη, ἀναστατοῦσα πάντα, “hail! sacred
radiance, thou that art taken out of darkness and causest all things to rise
up.” Cf. Nageli, p. 47. =
7 Further examples in Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary, p. 38.
8 Page 31. ᾿
® Michel, Recueil, No. 973g; = Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 732, 8110425.
10 Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No, 325, 7081.
86 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
and a papyrus (Oxyrhynchus No. 33 verso, 11.) of the second
century A.D., in which either ἀφιλάργυρος or ἀφιλαργύρως
occurs.! To these may now be added Soranus ? the physician
(ctyca 100 A.D.) and a considerably earlier quotation for the
adjective from an inscription at Priene (No. 137;), probably
‘of the second century B.c.
(12) wAnpodopéw, “I carry full, make full, fulfil,”
according to Cremer ὃ found “only in Biblical and teases
Greek; elsewhere not till very late.” The earliest example
hitherto discovered is in the Septuagint, Ecclesiastes viii. 11.
The papyri,* however, show that this word, which occurs
frequently in the New Testament, was at any rate used in
Egypt at the same period and immediately afterwards. The
earliest passages are: a letter from the Faytiim, now at
Berlin, first century A.D.5; an Amherst papyrus, of 124 A.D.§;
a Berlin papyrus, of 139 A.D.?; an Oxyrhynchus papyrus,
of the end of the second century a.p.® If these Egyptian
quotations are not sufficient, the astrologer Vettius Valens
of Antioch, a contemporary of the last two, can help to
increase the statistics. Considering the undoubted rarity
1 It is there said of the Emperor Antoninus Pius : τὸ μὲν πρῶτον ἦ[ν] φιλόσοφος,
τὸ δεύτερον adiddpyupos, τ[ὸ] τρίτον φιλάγαθος, ‘he was first a friend of
wisdom, secondly not a friend of money, thirdly a friend of the good.” Asin -
1 Tim. iii. 3, the word occurs in a sort of list of virtues.
2 In his description of the ideal midwife (p. 174, 22 Rose). 1 owe the
reference to Johannes Ilberg (letter, Leipzig, 31 Aug., 1909).
3 9Page 882.
4 Cf. Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 28 (1903), col. 593; J. H. Moulton, The Expositor,
February 1903, p. 118 f., December 1903, p. 436; Nageli, p. 60; Lietzmann on
Romans iv. 21 (the Wessely papyrus there cited is identical with the London
papyrus afterwards referred to). Lietzmann states the semasiological problem
well. [Liddell and Scott refer to Ctesias (ff. c. 398 B.c.), Pers. 39 ap. Photium;
but in the opinion of Lightfoot (on Col. iv. 12) ‘‘ the passage from Ctesias in
Photius (Bibl. 72) πολλοῖς λόγοις καὶ ὅρκοις πληροφορήσαντες Μεγάβυζον is not
quoted with verbal exactness.”’ Tr.]
5 Berliner Griechische Urkunden No. 665 II,, ἐπληροφόρησα αὐτόν. The
meaning is not certain; either ‘‘ I have convinced him,” or “ paid him.” ἢ
6 The Amherst Papyri No. 66 IIgs, ἵνα δὲ καὶ viv πληροφορήσω, “ but in order
to'settle the matter thoroughly.” Moulton gives a similar explanation of the
passage; the editors, Grenfell and Hunt, ‘‘ but now also to give you full
satisfaction.”
7 Berliner Griechische Urkunden No. 747 Tes; αἰ[τ]οὐύμ[εἸνο[ς] πίλ]η[ρ]οφορε[1]ν,
“asking them to settle the matter (?).”
8 Oxyrhynchus Papyri No. 509,0, τυγίχάϊνω δὲ πεπληροφορημένος τοῖς ὀφειλο-
μένοις μοι, “1 ἃτὴ completely satisfied with regard to what was owing to me.”
® I. p. 43,, of Kroll’s edition. Before the book appeared the editor very
 LANGUAGE: OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 87
of the word a later quotation in a “ profane’’ context is
also worthy of note: in an inscription of the eighth century
A.D. from Nicaea in Bithynia! the verb is used of the com-
pletion of a tower.
(13) συναντιλαμβάνομαι, “1 take interest in (a thing)
along with (others), take my share in, assist jointly,’ was
first known to occur in the Septuagint. It occurs twice
also in the New Testament, Luke x. 40 and Romans viii. 26,
in the latter passage referring to the mediation of the Holy
Spirit. Though it is used by the pre-Christian writer
Diodorus of Sicily, and by Josephus,? it is included by
Thayer in his “ Biblical” list, with the note “ Inscr.”’
appended, but without any quotation from inscriptions.
We can trace the word, however, throughout the whole
extent of the Hellenistic world of the Mediterranean. An
inscription of the year 270 B.c. on the retaining-wall of the
temple of Apollo at Delphi? construes it with the genitive,
an inscription of Pergamum between 263 and 241 B.c.4
with εἰς, a papyrus letter from Hibeh in Egypt circa 238 B.c.
with περί 5 Then comes the Septuagint, with various
constructions ὁ; the Sicilian follows, with the genitive,’
while St. Luke and St. Paul use the word with the dative.
These statistics are absolutely comprehensive geographically.
Thus the word which, in the absence of proper evidence, was
consigned to isolation, but which is in fact known to have
been used at Delphi, in Asia, in Egypt, and by a Sicilian

kindly sent me the passage in Greek and German (letter dated Minster,
(5 April, 1907) : iva διὰ τῆς κατοχῆς ταύτης τὸ τῆς συνοχῆς σχῆμα πληροφορηθῇ, “ἴῃ
order that the συνοχή (predicted by the whole constellation) may fulfil itself
(come to fulfilment) in this way.”
1 Athenische Mitteilungen, 24 (1899) p. 406, ἐπληρω[φόρη]σεν (sic), as read
and interpreted by A. Koerte.
2° Antt. IV. viti.4; the word is, however, struck out in this passage by Niese.
3 Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 250, 5412, συναντιλήψεσθαι τῶν τῆι πόλει συμφερόν-
των, “to help in things profitable unto the city.” Van Herwerden’s citation of
this inscription, Lexicon, p. 780, is misleading.
4 Frankel, No. 182¢t., τοὺς εἰς ταῦτα συναντιλαμβανομένους, “᾿ those helping in
this.”
5 The Hibeh Papyri No. 82,,%, καλῶς οὖν [π]οιήσεις συναν[τι]λ[α]μβανόμενος
προθύμως περὶ τῶν εἰς ταῦτᾳ συγκυρόντων, ‘‘ thou wilt therefore do well to take
part zealously in the things relating thereto.”
6 Sometimes with the genitive, sometimes with the dative; cf. Hatch and
Redpath’s Concordance. ᾿
1 Diod. xiv. 8.
88 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
writer, might now serve as a school example of the unity and
uniformity of the international Greek vocabulary.
(14) St. Paul in Philippians ii. 30 testifies of Epaphroditus
that he had for the sake of the work of Christ come nigh
unto death, having daringly exposed himself.1 The verb
παραβολεύομαι, “1 expose myself,” here usedin the aorist
participle, has not been found in other writers, and was even
in ancient times such a rare word that some copyists have
altered it.2 Nevertheless, though placed by Thayer in his
list, it is not a “ Biblical ’’ peculiarity. An inscription at
Olbia on the Black Sea, probablyof the 2nd cent. a.p.,3
in honour of a certain Carzoazus the son of Attalus, employs
exactly the same participle in a similar context, and helps
to elucidate the passage in Philippians, while itself receiving
illumination from the New Testament..
(15) In x Tim. ii. 12 the woman is forbidden to “ have
dominion over’’ the man. The word αὐθεντέω appears
here for the first time in Greek literature, nor does it occur
again except in ecclesiastical writers. Of course, therefore,
1 Literally: ‘‘ having offered himself with his soul.” [The R.V. has
‘‘hazarding his life.” Moffatt translates ‘‘ by risking his life.’’ Tr.]
2 Instead of παραβολευσάμενος they write παραβουλευσάμενος. [= the A.V.
‘‘ not regarding his life.’ Tr.]
3 Inscriptiones Antiquae Ovae Septentrionalis Ponti Euxini Graecae et
Latinae ed. Basilius Latyschev, I., Petropoli, 1885, No. 2124-93, ἀλλὰ καὶ (μέχρι)
περάτων γῆς ἐμαρτυρήθη. τοὺς ὑπὲρ φιλίας κινδύνους μέχρι Σεβαστῶν συμμαχίᾳ
παραβολευσάμενος. Latyschev considers this a very obscure text (p. 54). I find
not the least difficulty, if μέχρι (€ws?) περάτων is right: ‘‘ but also to the ends
of the world it was witnessed of him that in the interests of friendship he had
exposed himself to dangers as an advocate in (legal) strife (by taking his clients’
causes even) up to emperors.” παραβολευσάμενος governs the accusative τοὺς
κινδύνους (cf. παραβάλλεσθαι τὸν κίνδυνον, Thuc. iii. 14, quoted in Pape’s
Lexicon) and the dative συμμαχίᾳ (cf. τῇ ψυχῇ in the passage from St. Paul,
and ψυχῇ καὶ σ[ὠ]ματι παραβαλλόμενος, inscription from the coast of the Black
Sea, civca 48 a.D., Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 342, ®7623,; literary passages for
παραβάλλομαι inThayer, 5.0. παραβολεύομαι, απὰ J.H. Moulton, Grammar, I. Ὁ. 64).
Hence, “‘ by his advocacy he exposed himself to dangers.” The whole passage
has a very “‘ New Testament’ ring. The ancient phrase πέρατα τῆς γῆς is also
familiar to us from the Greek Bible. For the actual hyperbole itself cf. for
instance the amiable exaggeration in Romans i. 8 and the emphatic expres-
sions in Romans xv. 19.. The use of μαρτυρέομαι is quite as in the New
Testament (Neue Bibelstudien, p. 93; Bible Studies, p. 265).—In the Theo-
logische Rundschau, 9 (1906) p. 223, I quoted the inscription from van
Herwerden, Lexicon, p. 622, unfortunately with his error in the reference:
II. (instead of 1). For the ending -e¥w cf. Modern Greek βολεύω, which
Hatzidakis, ᾽Αθηνᾶ 20, p. 102 f. (cf. Kretschmer, Glotta 2, p. 339), traces
back to εὐβολεύω.
 ͵

LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 89

it has been described as “only Biblical and patristic.” 1
Now, as: Nageli? points out, the word is twice used in a
non-literary text, viz. a Christian papyrus letter of the 6th
or 7th cent. A.D., No. 103 among the Berlin documents.
A superficial observer will say this is a new proof that the
verb is Christian. As a matter of fact its occurrence in the
letter is much rather an indication of its popular character.
And all doubt is removed by Moeris,* one of the late lexi-
cographers among the ancients, who gives αὐτοδικεῖν as
the Attic and αὐθεντεῖν as the corresponding Hellenistic
word (in the Kow7). In the same way Thomas Magister 5
warns against the use of αὐθεντεῖν as vulgar, and recom-
mends αὐτοδικεῖν instead. It is therefore probably a
mere statistical accident that αὐθεντέω has not been met with
earlier than in the New Testament; any day may bring
us an ancient ‘“‘ profane’’ quotation.’
(16) διαταγή, ‘disposition, ordinance’”’ (Ezra iv. 11;
Rom. xiii. 2; ‘Acts vii. 53) is said to be “ purely ” Biblical
and patristic: the ‘‘ Greeks ” use instead διάταξις.8 Never-
theless E. A. Sophocles® noted the word in Ruphus of
Ephesus, a physician who flourished about 100 A.D. (so
that he may well have been a contemporary of the physician
1 Grimm, Thayer, etc., s.v. 2 Page 49.
3 The precise meaning is not completely clear, but the general idea of
ἐκ being master ” seems to me to be decisive in this passage also.
4 Page 58 of J. Pierson’s edition, quoted by Nageli, p. 50.
5 Page 18, 8 of Ritschl’s edition, quoted by Nageli, p. 49 f. This is not the
medieval lexicographer’s own wisdom, but borrowed from his predecessors.
6 Cf.-Moulton and Milligan, The Expositor, October 1908, p. 374; Jean
Psichari, Efendi, Extrait des Mélanges de philologie et de linguistique offerts ἃ
M. Louis Havet, Paris, 1908, p. 412 ff.; L. Gernet, Addévrns, Revue des études
grecques, Janv.-Févr. 1909; Ernst Fraenkel, Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende
Sprachforschung 43, p. 214; and especially P. Kretschmer, Glotta 3, p. 289 ff.;
also Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary, p. 91.
? [This expectation is now fulfilled. The. new Liddell and Scott, Part 2
1926, cites αὐθεντέω πρός twa from the Berliner Griechische Urkunden,
No. 1208,, (first cent. B.c.). In 1 Tim. ii. 12 the construction isd. τινός. TR.]
* Grimm and Thayer, s.v. Thayer certainly gives the note “" Inscr.” on
Pp. 694.
9. Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods.
10 In the Collectanea Medicinalia of the physician Oribasius, edited by
Bussemaker and Daremberg, I. p. 5446, μόνον δὲ χρὴ τῇ ἐφεξῆς διαταγῇ τὸ σῶμα
ἀνακομίζειν εἰς τὴν ἰδίαν τάξιν, “it is only necessary by a subsequent ordered
way of living to bring back the body into proper order.’’ The French editors
translate régime, qa.6. “ diet.’”’ The word has here already undergone a change
of meaning.
90 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
St. Luke). That this pagan physician should have picked
up the word from the Christians is, I think, more improbable
than that St. Paul and the Christian physician St. Luke
knew it from its use among their medical contemporaries—
if it was not known to them naturally apart from that.
And in all probability it was so Known to them. The word
is not merely a technical term in medicine: the astrologer
Vettius Valens of Antioch, of the 2nd cent. A.D., also uses 1{.1
The inscriptions and papyri add their light. Nageli?
quotes inscriptions from Sardis? (Roman period), and
Pergamum‘ (date uncertain), and documents from the
Oxyrhynchus Papyri dated respectively 335(?) a.D.6 and
362 A.D. To these we may add (beginning with the latest)
a letter of 343-344(?) A.D.’ from the Fayim, an inscription
from Irbid in the Hauran (238-239 a.D.),8 an inscription
from Hierapolis® (2nd? cent. a.D.), and an inscription
from Oenoanda in the south-west of Asia Minor (Imperial
period).1° Of still greater importance, if rightly restored, is
an inscription from ‘Antiphellus “ in Lycia (2nd ? cent. A.D.),
1 Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum, V. 2 Pp. 51,46, κατὰ τὴν τοῦ
κελεύοντος διαταγήν, ‘‘ according to the disposition of the person commanding.”
I am indebted for the reference to W. Kroll (letter, Miinster, 5 April, 1907).
2 Page 38.
3 Corpus Inscriptionum Sica, No. 3465, a votive inscription, ἐκ τῆς
διαταγῆς.
4 No. 358, a votive inscription, [ἐκ] διαταγῆς.
5 No. 92, order for payment of wine, ἐκ διαταγ(ῆς).
8 No. 93, order for payment of corn, ἐκ διαταγῆς. From these four passages
we may conclude that ἐκ διαταγῆς, ‘‘ by order,” was a regular formula.
τ Fayam Towns and theiy Papyri, No. 133, ἵνα τὴν διαταγὴν τῆς τρύγης
ποιήσηται (I take this as equivalent to ποιήσητε), “ that ye may make disposi-
tion concerning the harvest.”
8 American Journal of Archaeology, 10 (1906) p. 290, διαταγῆ PA. Οὐήρου
(or [Σε]ουήρου) ἐκ δημοσίου, ‘‘ by order of Flavius Verus (or Severus) from
public money.”
9 Altertiimer von Hievapolis [see above, p. 14, ἢ. 1], p. 100, No. 78, εἴ τις
παρὰ τὴν διαταγὴν τὴν ἐμὴν ποιήσι, “16 anyone doeth contrary to my ordinance.”
Walther Judeich (ibd. p. 110) points out that in this and related inscriptions-
from Asia Minor διατάσσεσθαι, διάταξις, διάταγμα, and διαταγή display the
specialised meaning of ‘‘ determine by testamentary disposition,” etc., just like
διατίθεσθαι, etc. This use was also known to St. Paul: his ἐπιδιατάσσεσθαι
(Gal. ili. 15) also refers to a testament.
10 Reisen im stidwestlichen Kleinasien [see above, p. 17, n. 1], II. p. 180,
No. 231, κατὰ τὴν Σειγηλάσεος (510) διαταγήν, “ by order of Seigelasis.”
™ Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 4300,, with the reading on p. 1128:
[ὑπ]εύθυνος ἔσται τοῖς διὰ τῶν θείων δια[ταγ]ῶν ὡρισμένοις, “ΗΘ will be liable
to the (penalties) appointed by the divine ordinances.”
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT gi
in which G. Hirschfeld (rightly, I think) explains τῶν θείων
δια[ταγ]ῶν as “imperial ordinances.” 1 This would be a
most exact parallel to the celebrated passage in the
Epistle to the Romans, which also refers to the Roman
authorities.
As we review the statistics? we repeat the observation
already hinted above: we see unity and uniformity prevailing
in the use of words wherever the international language was
written. A supposed Biblical word can be traced in the
Imperial period from one stage to another through the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean : from Pergamum,
Sardis, Ephesus, Hierapolis, by way of Oenoanda, Lycia,
and Cilicia (St. Paul), to Antioch, the Hauran, and the little
country towns of Egypt. And in Egypt we found what is
at present the oldest example of all, the Septuagint
Ezra iv. 11.
(17) πρωτότοκος, “ firstborn,” occurs frequently in the
Septuagint and in important religious utterances of the
New Testament. Thayer quotes it twice from the Anthology,
but nevertheless leaves it in his list of ‘‘ Biblical”’ words.
It is of some importance therefore to find in Trachonitis,
on the undated tomb of a pagan “ high priest ᾿᾿ and “ friend
of the gods,” a metrical inscription, mutilated indeed, but
plainly showing this word.* It is noteworthy that we have
here, as in the Anthology, a poetical text. Another metrical
epitaph from Rome,‘ Christian, and not much later than
1 Further details in Judeich, who does not accept this explanation, but
thinks rather of some private document left by the owner of the tomb. But in
that case how is θείων to be explained? θεῖος, ‘‘ divine,’ has in countless
passages the meaning of ‘‘imperial,” just like the Latin divinus. See
Chapter IV. below, p. 347. Cf" διατάσσομαι, Acts xviii. 2, with reference to
the edict of Claudius. :
2 Ludwig Mitteis (letter, Leipzig, 21 May, 1908) refers me further to the
Leipzig Papyrus No. 97 III;, Xs, XIII,, XVII,, (in his edition). More
details in Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary, p. 155.
3 Epigrammata Graeca ex lapidibus collecta ed. Georgius Kaibel, Berolini,
1878, No. 460, tpeds γάρ εἰμι πρωτοτόκων ἐκ τελεθ[ ὧν 1](=7eAer dv] ?), ‘‘ for lam
a priest by the rites of the firstborn.’’ Kaibel thinks that in the family of the
' deceased the firstborn always exercised the office of priest. Cf. van Herwerden,
Lexicon, p. 710. (Cf. Pindar, Ol. x. (xi.) 63, ἐν πρωτογόνῳ τελετᾷ mapéoray .. .
Μοῖραι. TR.]
4 Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 9727 = Epigrammata ed. Kaibel,
No. 730. For the word cf. also Wikenhauser, Biblische Zeitschrift 8 (1910),
Ῥ' 273.
 92 LIGHT FROM, THE ANCIENT EAST
the second (?) or third century, uses the word with reference
to a firstborn “sun-child”’ (1.6. child born on a Sunday)
who died at the age of two years.
(18) συγκληρονόμος, “ fellow-heir,” is “ unknown in pro-
fane Greek ’”’ according to Cremer.! He has just quoted
Philo the Jew, who uses the word once, so we must suppose
Cremer to be as broad-minded as the early Church in
approximating Philo to Christianity. But even in quite
pagan surroundings we encounter this word, the origin of
which ‘in the legal terminology of the day is patent on the
face of it. In an Ephesian inscription of the Imperial
period? one C. Umphuleius Bassus mentions ‘“ Eutychis
as fellow-heir.”’ If this woman was his wife, as is probable,
this example is a specially fine illustration of 1 Peter iii. 7,
where the wife is honoured as being (spiritually) a fellow-heir
with her husband. Similarly an inscription? on a sarco-
phagus from Thessalonica (Imperial period) speaks of
“ fellow-heirs.”’
(19) The word δεκαιοκρισία “is found only in ecclesiastical
and Biblical Greek, and that rarely,” says Cremer. This
time it is interesting to notice that Cremer‘ has tolerantly
admitted to Biblical (or ecclesiastical?) precincts the Testa-
ments of the Twelve Patriarchs, in which the word twice
occurs.5 Now on the fourth of the month Phamenoth, in
the year 303 A.D., a certain Aurelius Demetrius Nilus, a
former arch-priest of Arsinoé and undoubtedly a heathen,
caused a petition to be written (for he could not write him-
self §!) to the Praefect of Egypt, Clodius Culcianus, who is
known to us from the time of the Diocletian persecution.
1 *Page 584. e
2 The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, III.
No. 633 (p. 249), Edruyidos . . . . σ[υγ]κληρονόϊμου αὐτ]οῦ.
8. Athenische Mitteilungen 21 (1896) p. 98: συνκληρ(ονόμ)ων.
4 9Page 339. 5 Test. Levi 3 and 15.
5. Cf. line 11 of the petition, διὰ τὸ ἀγράμματόν pe εἶναι, “ because I cannot
write.” [Cf. also p. 166, n..7, and p. 222 below. But allowance must some-
times be made for the mock-modesty of the ‘‘ unlearned.” Does not Jordanes, °
the 6th cent. historian of the Goths, say of himself ‘‘ Ego item, quamvis
agrammatus, Iordanis ante conversionem meam notarius ‘fui’ (Getica 50)?
In Old English charters the signatures are not autographs of the witnesses.
This fact, however, and even the celebrated “ ignorantia literarum” of
King Wihtred of Kent in the 8th cent. (J. Earle, Land Charters, p. 333) is
no proof of their general inability to write. Tr.]
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 93
The petitioner appealed confidently, ‘‘ being of good hope
to obtain righteous judgment from thy Magnificence.’”?
In this passage the word δικαιοκρισία stands really for
that which is the outcome of just judgment, viz. ‘‘a just
sentence.” In Romans ii. 5 the radical meaning, ‘ just
Jjudgment,” 2 suffices, and Cremer’s discrimination between
“judgment which does justice’ and “ judgment in accord-
ance with justice’ is doubtless too fine.
(20) The word κατήγωρ, “ accuser’ (which also occurs as
a borrowed word in the Talmud), is probably still regarded
by most commentators on Rev. xii. 10 as a Biblical speciality
traceable to a Hebrew? or Aramaic* adaptation of the
Greek κατήγορος. The question why κάτήγορος is always
used elsewhere in the New Testament is either not raised
at all or tacitly answered by reference to the supposed
strongly Hebrew character of the Revelation. We find
the word, however, in a very vulgar magical formula in a
British Museum papyrus (No. 124) of the fourth or fifth
century A.D., where it refers not to the devil, as in the
Biblical passage, but to human enemies. The papyrus
itself is late; the formula, however, to judge by the analogy
of other magical prescriptions, is older; and, in spite of the
' strongly syncretic character of the papyrus, there is nothing
which points to a Jewish or Christian origin for this formula.®
1 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri No. 71 1,, εὔελπις ὧν τῆς ἀπὸ σοῦ μεγέθους
δικαιοκρισίας τυχεῖν. The passage is referred to by Nageli, p. 48, and by
Lietzmann on Romans ii. 5. The scribe who drew up this petition knew the
word from official usage, not from the Bible. Further details in Moulton
and Milligan, Vocabulary, p. 161.
2 Cf. 2 Thess. i. 5, τῆς δικαίας κρίσεως; John vii. 24, τὴν δικαίαν κρίσιν κρίνατε.
3 ΨΥ. Bousset on the passage in Meyer’s Commentary, XVI,® Gottingen,
1906, p. 342.
* P. W. Schmiedel, in his new edition of Winer’s Grammar, Gottingen, 1894,
ὃ 8, 13 (p. 85 f.).
5 Greek Papyri in the British Museum, ed. F. G. Kenyon (Vol. I.), London,
1893, Pp. 122, θυμοκάτοχον πρὸς πάντας ποιῶν" ποιεῖ yap πρὸς ἐχθροὺς καὶ κατήγορας
καὶ λῃστῶν (καὶ) φόβους καὶ φαντασμοὺς ὀνείρων, “ἃ charm to bind the senses,
effective against everybody: for it works against enemies and accusers and
fears of robbers and dream-spectres.”’ θυμοκάτοχον, which often occurs as a
title to magical prescriptions, I take-(in the sense which κατέχω often has,
cf. Chapter IV below, p. 306, n. 4) to mean that the enemy’s senses will be
paralysed. [Eduard Norden, letter, Gross-Lichterfelde W., 3 September, 1908,
makes the excellent suggestion to delete the third καί. The translation thus
becomes “‘ fears of robbers” instead of ‘‘ robbers and terrors.’’] ©
® The formula next following has been influenced by Judaeo-Christian
conceptions of angels.
 94 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
The only thing that can be ascertained with certainty is
the vulgar character of the formula, and the word κατήγωρ
is also—as in the vulgar Greek Revelation of St. John—a
vulgarism.!
The philologists who have discussed the word recently ?
are doubtless on the right track: κατήγωρ is a vulgar ‘‘ back
formation’ from the genitive plural κατηγόρων, on the
analogy of ῥητόρων. Nearly all of them quote, among
numerous vulgar formations of the same kind, the word
διάκων (= διάκονος), and refer to the Charta Borgiana
(191-192 A.D.) for the earliest example of .its use. The
phenomenon in general is very old,* and in this- special
case a much earlier example can be quoted: a papyrus letter
from the Fayim, dated 4 December, 75 A.D., and now at
Berlin, has the dative τῶι διάκωνι.5 It is therefore impos-
sible to call διάκων “ late,”’ as Blass even did δ; or at least
it is impossible in a New Testament Grammar, for this
example is no doubt older than the Revelation.
(21) With regard to κατάκρισις, “condemnation,” Cremer?
expresses himself somewhat more cautiously: “a word
that appears to be found only in Biblical and ecclesiastical
Greek.”” The appearance, however, was deceptive. Chris-
tianity had no more need of a special word for ‘‘ condemna-
tion ’’® than it has call to be jealous in claiming the sole
possession of words for “‘a curse,” ‘‘ to curse,’’ and “‘cursed.’’®
1 Blau, Papyvi und Talmud, p. 17, suggests convincingly that the borrowed
word sanegoy ‘‘defender, advocate,” in the Talmud is derived from a vulgar
form συνήγωρῤ.
2 Wilhelm Schmid, Géttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1895, p. 42; Wochen-
schrift fiir klassische Philologie, 16 (1899) col. 541 f., 18 (1901) col. 602;
A. Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im Zeitaliey des Hellenismus, p. 126;
P. Wendland, Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 11 (1902) p. 189; L. Radermacher,
Rheinisches Museum fiir Philologie, New Series 57 (1902) p. 148; Neutesta-
mentliche Grammatik, p. 15.
3 Even Schmiedel, in spite of his other statement.
4 Wilhelm Schmid, Wochenschrift fiir klassische Philologie, 18 (1901)
col. 602.
5 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 597,. The iota adscript in the article
and elsewhere in the letter shows that the writer wished to be elegant; he
no doubt considered the word διάκων to be good Greek. F. Rostalski (letter,
Myslowitz, 13 Dec., 1911) refers me to Acta Johannis II. 1, p. 209.4, where
there is MS. authority for διάκονες.
5 Grammatik des Neutestamenilichen Griechisch,* p. 30; [Eng. trans.,? p. 29,
n. 2].
7 Page 610. 8 John 11]. 17. ® Cf. the following nos, 22, 23.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 95
The ‘ Biblical” word! κατάκρισις is found more than once
in the astrologer Vettius Valens of Antioch (second century
A.D.).?
(22) ἀναθεματίξω, “I curse,’’ literally “1 devote (to the
lower world) ’’ 3—there was surely no reason for the Bible
religion to be particularly proud of having invented such a
word, and yet according to Cremer‘ and other lexicographers
it is found “only in Biblical and ecclesiastical Greek.”
Among the ancient lead tablets published and discussed
by Richard Wiinsch in the preface to his collection of Attic
cursing-tablets 5 we find, however, one of the first or second
century A.D., a heathen curse from Megara, now in the
State Museum at Berlin, which throws a new light on the
words ἀνάθεμα and ἀναθεματίζω. At the end of the whole
formula there is a separate line of large letters® making
up the word ANE@EMA, which is obviously a form of con-
clusion—“ curse!” We find further in line 5 f. ἀναθεμα-
τίζ[ομ]εν αὐτούς, in line 8 f. τούτους ἀναθεμα[τἤξομεν, and
on the back, line 8 f., ἀναθεματί[ξ]ομεν τούτο[υς]: ‘‘ we
curse them,” three times over. We must therefore say that
ἀνάθεμα, meaning “curse,” belonged also to the pagan
vocabulary, and that ἀναθεματίξω will have to be removed
from the list of merely “ Biblical’ or ‘‘ ecclesiastical ”’
words. We may still reckon with the remote possibility
1 Thayer, in his list.
2 Iam indebted for the references to the kindness of W. Kroll (letter dated
Minster, 5 April, 1907): Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum, V. 2,
P. 7334, here Valens speaks περὶ δεσμῶν καὶ συνοχῶν καὶ ἀποκρύφων πραγμάτων
καὶ κατακρίσεως καὶ ἀτιμίας, “‘ about bonds and distresses and secret difficulties
and condemnation and dishonour ”’; and in Kroll’s edition, I. 11735, he speaks
of φθονικαὶ (Kroll: φονικαὶ 3) κατακρίσεις, ‘‘ condemnations for envy (murder ?).”’
3 For what follows cf. Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 2
(1901) p. 342; also Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary, p. 33.
4 Page 1003.
5 Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum, Appendix (= Inscriptiones Graecae, 111.
2) p. xiii f., and now accessible also in Wiinsch’s Antike Fluchtafeln, p. 4 ff.
for in A. Audollent, Defixtonum Tabellae quotquot innotuerunt, Paris, 1904,
. 4B. Tr.J
° Cf. the facsimile, Joc. cit. p. xiii. aveBeya = ἀνάθεμα. The weakening of
the accented a to ε is probably not without analogies. Nageli, p. 49, following
a hint of Wackernagel’s, looks upon it as an example of vulgar Greek misplaced
extension of the augment to a derivative; so also Wiinsch, Antike Fluch--
tafeln, p. 5, and Nachmanson, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der altgriechischen
Volkssprache, Upsala, 1910, p. 57, Rostalski (letter, 13 Dec., 1911) on
the other hand notes ἐκαθέρισεν in Acta Andreae et Matthiae, II. 1, p. 77.
96 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
that the verb was first coined by Greek Jews: technical
expressions in magic are of all places the most likely in
which to assume that the international language had been
influenced by Judaism.
(23) The classical Greek for ‘“‘ cursed ” is dpatos, ἐπάρατος,
or κατάρατος. In the Septuagint we find κατάρατος rarely,
but a fourth word, ἐπικατάρατος, occurs frequently. As it
was met with elsewhere ‘“‘ only” in the New Testament,
it has been reckoned among the words that are “ only”
Biblical and ecclesiastical,—as though Christianity had
any need to plume itself on the possession of this special
word. But why the secular ‘words were not sufficient,
and how far a “ Biblical ’’ distinction was secured by the
ἐπί prefixed, these questions have never been raised. From
the point of view of historical grammar the correct thing
would have been to assume ἐπικαταράομαι and ἐπικατάρατος
to be instances of those double compounds or ““ decom-
posites ’’? which become more and more common in later
Greek, and to regard ἐπί, therefore, as a late Greek, not a
Biblical, feature. We are therefore not surprised to find
the adjective used in a pagan inscription from Euboea 3
of the second century a.D.4 The inscription must be pagan,
for the Erinyes, Charis, and Hygeia are named in it as
goddesses. If it should be thought, on account of the
Septuagint formulae occurring in this inscription,’ that
Septuagint influence might account for ἐπικατάρατος, we
can refer to a pagan inscription from Halicarnassus, of the
second or third century A.D., now in the British Museum.’
1 Grimm and Thayer, s.v.
2 Cf. Wilhelm Schmid, Der Atticismus, IV. p. 708 ff.; Mayser, Grammatik
dev griechischen Papyri, p. 497 ff.; Arnold Steubing, Dey paulinische Begriff
“ Christusleiden,”’ a Heidelberg Dissertation, Darmstadt, 1905, Ὁ. 9.
5 Εφημερις Αρχαιολογικη, 1892, col. 173 ff.; Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 891.
Cf. above, p..23, ἢ. 4.
4 ᾿Επικατάρατος ὅστις μὴ φείδοιτο κατὰ τόνδε τὸν χῶρον τοῦδε τοῦ ἔργου, " cursed
whoever doth not spare this place with this work” (viz. a monument on a
tomb).
5 Cf. above, p. 23, nm. 4.
® Nageli, who quotes this inscription (p. 60), is so cautious as to make this
suggestion. It must be noted, however, that the extremely numerous
ἐπικατάρατος passages in the Septuagint never employ the formula of the
inscription, ἐπικατάρατος ὅστις. If the word were taken over from the
Septuagint we should expect in this case the construction also to be borrowed.
1. Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 2664 = The Collection of Ancient
 ΤΑΝΟΌΑΘΕ OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 97
(24) vexpow, “1 make dead, mortify,” is one of the
“ Biblical’ words that Thayer even in his list secularises
by reference to Plutarch, the Anthology, and inscriptions.
In his article on the word he adds to these Epictetus and
Marcus Aurelius, but he nowhere actually cites an inscrip-
tion. He may have been thinking of the metrical epitaph
of one M. Aurelius Eutychus (Athens, Roman period),}
which employs the phrase “‘ body deceased’’ or “ dead
body ” and thus furnishes an excellent parallel to Rom. iv. 19.
(25) ἀναξάω, “I live again, revive,’ which occurs several
times in the New Testament, is regarded by Grimm, Thayer,?
and Cremer as specifically a New Testament and ecclesiastical
word. Cremer ὃ even explains why Christianity had to invent
the word: ‘the ἀναβιῶναιν of profane Greek does not suit
the soteriological sense of the Biblical ζωή."
Without raising the question why, if that were so, it was
not necessary to find a substitute for the secular substantive
ζωή, we are able in the first place to quote from Nicander,*
a poet of the second century B.c., at least the verb ἀναζώω,
which the lexicons describe as a poetical form of dvafdw.
We find the Biblical word, however, in Sotion,® a narrator
of marvels who possibly belongs to the first century a.D.,®
and again in Artemidorus,’ an interpreter of dreams in the
Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, IV. 1, No. 918, ef τις δὲ (the same
collocation as in 1 Cor. viii. 2, Cod. 37; frequent also in the inscriptions
of Hierapolis, cf. Altertiimer von Hievapolis, p. 201) ἐπιχειρήσι λίθον ἄραι ἢ
λῦσαι αὐτό, ἤτω ἐπικατάρατος ταῖς προγεγραμμέναις ἀραῖς, ‘‘ but if anyone shall
attempt to take away a stone or to destroy the monument, let him be cursed
with the imprecations written above.”
1 Inscriptiones Graecae, 111. 2, No. 1355, “AvOpwme . . . μή μου παρέλθῃς σῶμα
τὸ νεν[εἸκρ[ω]μένον, ‘‘man! pass not (unheeding) by my body dead!” Cf.
van Herwerden, Lexicon, p. 555. ;
2 In his list of ‘‘ Biblical ’’ words Thayer adds to dvafaw the note “ Inscr,’’"—
another of these remarkable contradictions in so exact a writer.
3 9Page 464.
4 Fragment in Athenaeus, IV. 11, 133 D, θερμοῖς δ᾽ ἰκμανθεῖσαι ἀναζώουσ᾽
ὑδάτεσσιν, “ Till that the warm rains fall, and moistened therewith they revive
. them.”
5 Παραδοξογραφοι Scriptores Rerum Mirvabilium Graeci ed. Antonius Wester-
mann, Brunsvigae, 1839, p. 183, mapa Κιλικίᾳ φασὶν ὕδατος εἶναί τι σύστημα, ἐν ᾧ
τὰ πεπνιγμένα τῶν ὀρνέων καὶ τῶν ἀλόγων ζῴων ἐμβραχέντα ἀναζῆν, ‘they say
that in the neighbourhood of Cilicia there is a body of water, in which
strangled birds and irrational creatures, if plunged therein, come to life.”
6. Westermann, Praefatio (p. L).
7 iv. 82, according to the reading of the Codex Laurentianus, preferred by
the editor, J. G. Reiff, Leipzig, 1805. Here again the subject is the return to
98 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

second century A.D. A Cretan inscription 1 of unascertained

date, which moreover requires restoration, was referred to
by Nageli2 In the fifth century we still find the word
avatdw used in a physical sense, as in the above-quoted
passages, by the Christian writer Nilus*; and the late
lexicographers of antiquity, quoted by Nageli, now supple-
mented by the newly discovered fragment of Photius,‘ give
it as a synonym for ἀναβιώσκομαι and ἀναβιόω.
Our conclusion, therefore, must be this :. avafdw, “1 live
again,” is an international Greek word, and its radical
(physical) meaning, which can be traced through many
centuries, has been hallowed and given ‘an ethical content
by Christianity. Cremer’s theory would reverse all this,
and we should have to deplore the profanation of a “‘ Chris-
tian” word.
(26) εὐπροσωπέω, “I look well, makea fair show” (Gal. vi.
12; and as a variant in the hexaplaric text 5 of Psalm cxl.
[cxli.] 6), is described by Cremer ® as ‘‘ not discoverable in
profane Greek.’’ We find it, however, in the letter of the
Egyptian Polemon to his “ brother’? Menches (114 B.c.),’
clearly used no longer in the physical sense,® but (as by
life of one supposed to be dead. R. Hercher inserts the reading ἀναβιοῦν
in the text of his edition, Leipzig, 1864.
1 Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 2566 = Sammlung der griechischen
Dialekt-Inschriften, edited by H. Collitz and F. Bechtel, III. 2, Géttingen
1905, No. 4959, edited by F. Blass. A woman, ’Apyovixa, fulfils a vow to
Artemis which she had made “ on coming to life again,” ἀναζῶσα. The text is
not quite clear. Hiller von Gaertringen pointed out to me (letter, Berlin,
Μεγαλοσάββατον [7.e., the Saturday before Easter, 30 March], 1907) that Blass
has forgotten to print εὐχάν at the end.
2 Page 47.
3 In Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 5135, (quoted from the Thesaurus Graecae
Linguae), of γὰρ κόκκοι μετὰ τὴν ἐκ σήψεως νέκρωσιν καὶ φθορὰν ἀναζῶσι, ‘‘ for the
seeds come to life again after death and destruction by decay.”
4 Der Anfang des Lexikons des Photios, edited by R. Reitzenstein, Leipzig
and Berlin, 1907, p. 107: ἀναβιώσκεσθαι' ἀναζῆν.
5 Ovigenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt conc. F. Field, t. II., Oxonii, 1875,
Pp. 297, notes an ἄλλος who has εὐπροσωπίσθησαν and the variant εὐπροσώπησὰν.
The Thesaurus Graecae Linguae (with false reference to ‘‘ Proverb.’’) describes
εὐπροσωπίσθησαν, with doubtful correctness, as a contamination.
8 *Page 765. _ :
7 The Tebtunis Papyri No. 19..., ὅπως εὐπροσωπῶμεν, “50 that we may
make « fair appearance.”” J. H. Moulton, The Expositor, February 1903,
p. 114, called attention to this passage.
8. The physical meaning is of course the original one. We may imagine it
so used by physicians. W. Pape’s Handworterbuch (2nd ed., 4th reprint,
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 99

St. Paul) with reference to winning the good opinion of one’s

neighbours.
(27) When St. Paul preached as a missionary in Athens
he was suspected by Stoic and Epicurean opponents of being
“a setter forth of strange gods: because he preached Jesus
and Anastasis”” (Acts xvii. 18). The word καταγγελεύς
“ proclaimer, herald, setter forth,” here placed in the mouth
of the pagan philosophers, is according to Cremer 3 and others
only found in this passage “ and in ecclesiastical Greek.”
Even if no quotations were forthcoming from profane sources,
this isolation of the word would for intrinsic reasons be highly
questionable; for although the sentence containing it is in
the Bible, it is not a “ Biblical’? but a pagan utterance,
emanating from the pagan opposition, and of its authenticity
Cremer can have had no doubt. A less hasty examination
would have led to the recognition of the word as pagan on
internal grounds. As a matter of fact it is found on a marble
stele recording a decree of the Mytilenaeans in honour of the
Emperor Augustus (between 27 and II B.C.).?
(28) In the First Epistle of St. Peter v. 3f. we read’:
. . making yourselves ensamples to the flock. And when
the chief Shepherd shall appear, ye shall receive the crown of |
glory that fadeth not away.”
The “ chief Shepherd ” of course is Jesus; the correspond-
_ing Greek word, ἀρχεποίμην, ἰ5 according to Cremer* unknown
except in this passage. One is tempted to regard it as a
Christian invention; some people, I daresay, detect a sort
of official ring in the word. It is possible, however, to show
that the apostle, far from inventing the word, was merely
borrowing. A slip of wood (Figure 10) that once hung round
Braunschweig, 1866, p. 982) 5.0. refers to ‘‘ Galen,” ¢.e. the physician Galen of
the 2nd century 4.D., but this is only by a cheerful misunderstanding of some
preceding dictionary, probably Passow’s, which rightly refers to ‘‘ ep. Gal. 6,
12.” ‘Gal.’ it is true does also stand for ‘‘Galen’’ in Passow. Thus the
Epistle to the Galatians has been turned into an epistle of Galen’s! There
is some right instinct after all in the mistake, for the word was probably a
medical expression to begin with.
1 Page 32.
2 Dittenberger, Ovientis Graect Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 456,9=Inscrip-
tiones Graecae, XII. 2, No. 58,9, καταγγελεῖς τῶν πρώτων ἀ(χ)θησο[μένων
ἀγώνων), ‘‘ heralds of the first games that shall be held.”
3. On this subject cf. Die Christliche Welt, 18 (1904) col. 77 f.
4 *Page 906.
100 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the neck of an Egyptian mummy, of the Roman period, has
been found with the following Greek inscription, designed to
establish the identity of the deceased :—
Πλῆνις ? νεώ- Plenis the younger, chief
Tepos ἀρχιποί- shepherd’s. Lived ... years.
μενος. ἐβίω-
σεν ἐτῶν...

The genitive here, “ chief shepherd’s,” is probably ἃ mere

slip in writing,4 but the occurrence of such a slip is of some
interest. Had the deceased been a person of distinction
the inscription would have been more carefully executed.
This label was hurriedly written for a man of the people, for
an Egyptian peasant who had served as overseer of, let us
say, two or three shepherds, or perhaps even half a dozen.5
If a reading of Carl Wessely’s ®°may be trusted, we have the
same title again on another mummy-label;’ but I believe
from the facsimile that the word is not really there. A
Leipzig papyrus, however, of the year 338 a.D. also contains
the word,® and the two undoubted examples are sufficient:
they show “ chief shepherd ” to have been a title in genuine
use among the people. Moreover, the Thesaurus Graecae
Linguae had already quoted the word from the Testaments
of the Twelve Patriarchs,? and Symmachus (c. 200 A.D.) uses
1 Cf. E. Le Blant, Revue Archéologique, 28 (1874) p. 249; the facsimile
(see our Fig. 10) is in Plate 23, fig.14. I do not know where the tablet now is.
2 On the name cf. a hint in the Deutsche Literaturzeitung 1916, No. 31,
col. 1399.
8 N. Bees in his edition of Nikolaus Miiller’s Inschriften vom Monteverde,
p. 124, rightly explains this peculiar construction, of which there are other
examples, as arising from contamination. In the present text he proposes
to read erw v, ‘50 years’’; ἐτῶ would be equivalent to ἐτῶν (with loss of
final v). Not impossible, but in my opinion improbable.
4 Prof. Kénnecke (letter, Braunschweig, 29 Aug., 1913) poco. that the
original draft may have read ἀρχιποίμην ὃς ἐβίωσεν.
5 Wilcken (note on proof-sheets of the first edition of this book) ‘thinks he
may have been the master of a guild of shepherds; ; for something similar see
Wilcken, Ostraka, I. p. 332.
6 Mittheilungen aus dey Sammlung dey Papyrus Evzherzog Rainer, V.,
Wien, 1892, p. 17. Wessely reads ἀρχιποίμ(ην).
7 Also in Le Blant, p. 248; facsimile, Plate 21, fig. 9.
8 Ludwig Mitteis (letter, Leipzig, 21 May, 1908) referred me to the passage,
No. 97 XI (in his edition).
9 Testamentum Judae, c. 8. The occurrence of the word has no bearing
on the question of the Christian origin of this work.—At the present day the
 Cees
SS
Sa

Fic. 10.—Wooden Mummy-label from Egypt, Imperial Period.

By permission of M. Ernest Leroux, of Paris.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT τοὶ
it in his version of 2 Kings iii. 4. The Christians called their
Saviour “‘ the chief Shepherd,” but this was not crowning
Him with jewelled diadem of gold: it was more like plaiting
a wreath of simple green leaves to adorn His brow.
(29) προσκυνητής, “a worshipper,” is according to Cremer?
“ unknown in pre-Christian Greek, and very rare afterwards,
e.g. in inscriptions.” Which inscriptions are meant is not
stated. The plural “ inscriptions ” is no doubt traceable to
Passow or Pape s.v., where “ Inscr.” certainly means “ In-
scriptiones,” though the plural must not be pressed. As a
matter of fact the only inscription of which these lexico-
graphers could have had knowledge must have been one of the
third century A.D. from Baetocaece, near Apamea in Syria,
reprinted from Chandler in the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum
(No. 447451), so that Cremer’s statement would seem to be
about right.
In the addenda,? however, he informs us that “‘ the word
was not entirely unknown in pre-Christian Greek,’’ and quotes
an inscription (Waddington 3, 2720a) from the same place
in Syria containing a decree? drawn up in the interests of
“the worshippers that come up’’4 and communicated to
the Emperor Augustus.
This inscription, however, is identical with the one referred
to above; it has been repeatedly-discussed of late.5 Though
carved in the third century this example of the use of
προσκυνητής is really pre-Christian; the inscription in fact
includes older documents: a letter of a King Antiochus, and
the old decree that was sent to Augustus.
Other examples are at present unknown to me. I know
no foundation for van Herwerden’s statement,® that the word
is frequent in inscriptions and papyri.

Chélingas, the hereditary leaders of the pastoral Vlachs, are called ἀρχιποίμην
by the Greeks (K. Baedeker, Greece,* Leipzig, 1905, p. xlix.). How old this
title is, I cannot say.—The remark of the lexicographer Hesychius, that among
the Cretans dpyiAAas was the name for the ἀρχιποίμην, shows that the word was
in use at any rate in the time of Hesychius.
1 *Page 616. 2 Page 1120,
3 Cremer says “ petition.”
4 Τοῖς ἀνιοῦσει (sic; Cremer has ἀνιοῦσι) προσκυνηταῖς.
5 E.g. Dittenberger, Orientis Graecit Inscrviptiones Selectae, No. 262; Hans
Lucas, Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 14 (1905) p. 21 ff.
® Lexicon, p. 702.
 102 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
(30) προσκαρτέρησις, “ perseverance, constancy,”’ which
the lexicons hitherto have quoted only from Eph. vi. 18, is
strangely enough described by Cremer not as Biblical but
as a ‘‘late’’ Greek word. This is because he here follows
Pape, who marks the word as “ late” though he certainly can
have known no example of its use outside the Bible. Thayer
includes the word in his “ Biblical” list. It can now be
- quoted from two Jewish manumissions recorded in inscrip-
tions at Panticapaeum on the Black Sea, one ? belonging to
the year 81 A.D., and the other nearly as old. These inscrip-
tions, I admit, will not do more than disprove the supposed
“ Biblical” peculiarity of the word. There is perhaps still
the possibility that προσκαρτέρησις was a Jewish coinage of
the Diaspora, although I can see no obvious intrinsic reason
for its being so.
(31) The Greek word used for the veil or curtain that
separated the Holy Place from the Holy of Holies in the
Temple at Jerusalem is καταπέτασμα, literally “that which is
spread out downwards, that which hangs down.’”’ That this
word should be found in Thayer’s ‘ Biblical” list is not in
itself surprising, for the idea before us is a technical one,
connected with the apparatus of worship. The occurrence of
the word in the Epistle of Aristeas, in Philo and Josephus,
would not affect the case, for these writers knew the word
from the Septuagint. Nevertheless it cannot be that we
have here to do with a Biblical or Judaeo-Christian ‘ speciality,
created by the Septuagint. An inscription from Samos,
346-5 B.c.,> cataloguing the furniture of the temple of Hera,
1 Page 570. .
2 Inscriptiones Antiquae Ovae Septentrionalis Ponti Euxini Graecae et
Latinae ed. Basilius Latyschev, II., Petropoli, 1890, No. 5215-15, χωρὶς ts τίἢ]ν
προ[σ]ευχὴν θωπείας τε καὶ προσκα[ρτερ]ήσεως, ‘ besides reverence and constancy
towards the place of prayer’ (9wzeia, which generally means “' flattery,” is
here used in the good sense of ‘‘ reverence’). Schiirer, Geschichte des jiidischen
Volkes, 111.8 Ὁ. 53, points to the analogy between this inscription and the
striking usage in the New Testament of combining the verb προσκαρτερέω
regularly with προσευχή (meaning ‘‘ prayer ’’: it could hardly be ‘‘ place of
prayer ’”’). With regard to this verb cf. P. M. Meyer on Pap. Hamb. I. (1911)
No. 4, p. 16 f.
\3 Op. cit. No. 53, with the same formula as in No. 52, which we may there-
fore take to have been a standing expression.
4 That is the opinion of Kennedy, Sources, p. 113.
5 In Otto Hoffmann, Die Griechischen Dialehte, 111., Géttingen, 1898, p. 72
(from Ath. Mitt. 7, p. 367ff.; cf. van Herwerden, Lexicon, pp. 433, 717);
καταπέτασμα τῆς τραπέζης, ‘‘ table-cover.”
 Tic. 11.—Stele with Decree of Honour from Syme, 2nd cent. B.c. Now in
the chapel of St. Michael Tharrinos, Syme. By permission of the Austrian
Archaeological Institute.
 LANGUAGE OF THE. NEW TESTAMENT το3
furnishes an example which is a century earlier, and par-
ticularly valuable because it shows the word employed in a
religious context and incidentally corrects the description
© Alexandrian ”’ 1 with which the lexicons had mechanically
labelled it.
(32) ἐπισυναγω γή, found only in 2 Macc. ii. 7, 2 Thess. ii.1,
and Heb. x. 25, where it denotes various senses of the word
“assembly,’”’ is according to Cremer 2 “‘ unknown in profane
Greek.” As συναγωγή itself was originally a profane word,
one is inclined to ask why ἐπισυναγωγή should be different,
especially as the profane συναγωγή became among the Jews
(and occasionally among the Christians) the technical expres-
sion for the (assembled) congregation and the house in which
they met. As a matter of fact a mere statistical accident
was the cause of error here, and a second accident has very
happily corrected the first. In the island of Syme, off the
coast of Caria, there has been discovered, built into the altar
of the chapelof St. Michael Tharrinos, the upper portion of a
stele inscribed with a decree in honour of a deserving citizen.®
The writing is considered to be not later than 100 B.C., so
that the inscription is probably older than the Second Book
of Maccabees. By the kind permission of the Austrian
Archaeological Institute I am able to reproduce here (Figure 11)
a facsimile of the whole stele (including the lower portion,
which was discovered earlier).
On the upper fragment of this stele we find our word in
the general meaning of ‘“‘collection’’*; the difference
between it and the common συναγωγή is scarcely greater than
between, say, the English ‘‘collecting’’ and “ collecting
together ’’5: the longer Greek word was probably more to
the taste of the later period.
1 Even Thayer says, s.v. καταπέτασμα, that it is an Alexandrian Greek word,
for which ‘' other ’’ Greeks used παραπέτασμα. But in the identical inventory
mentioned above, containing the καταπέτασμα τῆς τραπέζης, we find παραπε-
rdopara noted immediately afterwards. The two words therefore do not
coincide. 2 *Page 79.
3 Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archdologischen Institutes in Wien, 7
(1904) p. 81 ff. (with facsimile, p. 84) = Inscriptiones Graecae, XII. 3 Suppl.
No*1270.
4 Lines 11 and 12: τᾶς δὲ émovvayw/yas τοῦ διαφόρου γινομένας πολυχρονίου,
“ the collection, however, of the (sum to defray) expenses proving a matter of
long time ” (the translation was sent me by the editor, Hiller von Gaertringen,
in a letter, Berlin, 18 July, 1905).
5 [In German Sammlung and Ansammlung. Tr.]
104 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
The stone which has established the secular character of
this Bible word—-the heathen stone of Syme built into the
altar of the Christian chapel of St. Michael—may be taken as
symbolical. It will remind us that in the vocabulary of our
sacred Book there is embedded material derived from the
language of the surrounding world.
Even without the stone we could have learnt the. special
lesson, for the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae had already
registered the word in the geographer Ptolemy and in the
title of the third book of Artemidorus, the interpreter of
dreams, both of the 2nd century A.D., and laterin Proclus.
Such “ post-Christian ’ ‘‘ late’ passages, however, generally
fail to impress the followers of Cremer’s method, and there-
fore the pre-Christian, and (if importance be attached to the
book) pre-Maccabean inscription is very welcome.

In the above examples it has often happened that the

secularisation of a ‘ Biblical” word has been effected by
more than one solitary quotation, e.g. from a papyrus; again
and again we have seen such words occurring outside the
Bible in secular uses both in Egypt and also in Asia Minor.?
This uniformity (or we might say, these real Κοινή character-
istics) in the vocabulary of the Kowyj—an observation of
some importance to our total estimate of international
Greek—may now in conclusion receive further illustration
from certain new discoveries relating to the curious word
Novela (Aoyia),? ‘a (charitable) collection,” which I have
already dealt with elsewhere.?
This word, occurring “‘ only ” in I Cor. xvi. I, 2, has been
given a false etymology * and has sometimes even been
regarded as an invention of St. Paul’s.5 The etymology,
1 Another typical example is σιτομέτριον, used in Luke xii. 42 for ‘a portion
of corn.’ In Bibelstudien, p. 156 [Bible Studies, p. 158], I was only able to
quote it from Egypt (cf. also Mayser, Grammatik dey griechischen Papyri,
p. 431). We now find it in an Opramoas inscription of 149 A.D. at Rhodiapolis
in Lycia, with the spelling σειτομέτριον (Heberdey, Opramoas, p. 50, xix Ag);
its exact meaning here is not clear to me.
2 This second spelling has also been found now in the new texts, e.g. in fhe
Thebes ostracon given on Ὁ. 105 below.
3 Bibelstudien, p. 139 ff.; Neue Bibelstudien, p. 46 £. [Bible Studies, pp. 142,
219]. Cf. also Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary, p. 377.
ὁ From λέγω.
5 Cf, Bibelstudien, p. 139 [Bible Studies, p. 142].
 Fic. 12.—-Ostracon, Thebes, 4 August, 63 Α.Ὁ. Receipt for Isis Collection.
Now in the Berlin Museum. By permission of the Directors of the State
Museums.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 105
however, is now definitely ascertained: it comes from
λογεύω, “ I collect,’”’ a verb which, like the derivate, was found
for the first time comparatively recently in papyri, ostraca,
and inscriptions! from Egypt and elsewhere. We find it
used chiefly of religious? collections for a god, a temple, etc.,
just as St. Paul uses it of his collection of money for the
“saints ’’’ at Jerusalem. Out of the large number of new
examples from Egypt‘ I select an ostracon which comes
very near in date to the First Epistle to the Corinthians. It
was written on 4 August, 63 A.D., discovered at Thebes in
Egypt,® and-is now in the Berlin Museum.® For the photo-
graph (Figure 12) I am indebted to the kind offices of Wilhelm
Schubart.
The little document 7 runs as follows :—
Wevapodvis Πεκύσιος Psenamunis, the son of Pecysis,
a phennésis,}* to the homologos 14
φεννήσιος"ο ὁμο ὃ Πιβούχι Pibuchis, the son of Pateésis,
Πατεήσιος χε, ἀπέχω πα- greeting. I have received from
λ .
, 108 32,11 ΩΣ j thee 4 drachmae 1 obol, bein
pe σοῦ 5:20 Shon τὴν
Ἴσιδος περὶ τῶν δημοσίων λογίαν the soils of Isis on behalf
of the public works. In the
ι. 12 ἐνάτου Νέρωνος τοῦ κυρίου
Μεσορὴ τᾶ. year nine of Nero the lord,15
Mesore 11th.
1 Cf. A, Wilhelm, Athenische Mitteilungen, 23 (1898) p. 416 f.; Wilcken,
Griechische Ostraka, I. p. 255, etc.
? As shown especially by the ostraca, Wilcken, Griechische Ostvaka, 1.
Pp. 253 fi. :
3 A most grotesque theory was put forward as late as 1897 by Linke in the
Festschrift fiir Professor D. Fricke (cf. Theol. Literaturblatt, 19 [1898] col.
121). Hesuggests that the “ great logia”’ in the field of St. Paul’s missionary
labours was not a collection of money but a determination of the forms of
doctrine and liturgical formulations that had arisen within the churches
through special gifts of the Spirit. St. Paul, he thinks, wishes to obtain the
results of the thought and prayer, revelations and spiritual hymns of each
single church in the course of an ecclesiastical year. The parallel to the
modern German system of church returns is so close that one wonders almost
at the omission of statistics of mixed marriages !
* Cf. especially Wilcken, Griechische Ostvaka, I. p.. 253 ff.; J. H. Moulton,
The Expositor, February 1903, p. 116, December 1903, p. 434; Mayser,
Grammatik dev griechischen Papyri, Ὁ. 417.
5 Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka, II. No. 413. ® No. 4317.
7 For explanation of the contents cf. the commentary in Wilcken, Griechische
Ostraka, 11. p. 253 ff., and Archiv, 4, p. 267.
8 2,6. ὁμο(λόγῳ). 9. t.e. χ(αίρειν). 10 {,6. δραχμάς.
11 fe, ὀβολ(όν). 12 Te. ἔτους.
[For notes 13 to 15 see next page.
τοῦ LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Beyond the numerous instances of the use of the word
in Egypt, the only witness for the word in Asia Minor was
St. Paul. Inscriptions now forthcoming from Asia Minor
are therefore a very welcome addition to the statistics. A
marble tablet of about the first century A.D., found at Smyrna,}
enumerates among the votive gifts presented by a benefactor
of the god and the city “a gilded and . . . key for the collec-
tion and procession of the gods.’ In this instance, not far
removed in date from the First Epistle to the Corinthians,
the word is used in a sacred connexion, but the oldest example
from Asia Minor hitherto known no doubt refers to secular
matters.2, A limestone slab, found at Magnesia on the
Maeander, and now at Berlin, is inscribed with the award of
the people of Magnesia in a dispute between Hierapytna and
Itanus in the year 138 or 132 B.c.3 By the kind permission
of the Museum authorities at Berlin I am enabled to give
here a reduced reproduction of Kern’s facsimile‘ (Figure 13).
1 Dittenberger, Sylloge,2 No. 58326, ΝΟ. 99626, κλεῖν κεχρυσωμένην καὶ.
ἐμπεφιασμένην (the meaning of this word is doubtful) πρὸς τὴν λογήαν (sic) καὶ
πομπὴν τῶν θεῶν. The reference seems to be to a procession on the occasion of
which money contributions were expected from the spectators.
2 The sentence is mutilated. G. Thieme, Die Inschriften von Magnesia am
Mdaander und das Neue Testament, p. 17, who noted the inscription and fully
appreciated its importance as a proof of the unity of the Koj, thinks it refers
to the collecting together of supplies of corn for warlike purposes.—Cf. more-
over the inscriptions of Priene 1953, (¢c. 200 B.c.) and 82,4 (6. 200 B.c.), where
the editors conjecture the word.
3 Die Inschvriften von Magnesia am Mdander, edited by Otto Kern, No.
1057, = Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 929,99, ὃ No. 685199, λογείαις τε σιτικαῖς,
“ collections of corn.”
4 Plate VI. No. 105.

Continuation of notes to p. 105 :--

13 Hellenised Egyptian title, ‘‘ priest of Isis.”’
14 Homologos is a technical term for a country labourer working under a
contract. (Cf. the labourers in the vineyard, Matt. xx. and 1 Cor. ix. 7.] The
same man contributed in the same year and on the same day to another
collection called λογεία τοῦ θεοῦ, “ collection of the god,’’ Wilcken, Griechische
Ostraka, 11. No. 414; the sum was 4 drachmae 2 obols. Other receipts for
contributions by the same man in other years are extant (ostraca Nos. 402,
412, 415, 416, 417, 418, 420). As arule they are for 4 drachmae and a few
obols. They are interesting evidence of the extent of the financial claims
made upon persons of no great means for religious purposes in the period
which saw the rise of Christianity. Cf.on the subject Walter Otto, Priester
und Tempel im hellenistischen Agypten I. (Leipzig, 1905), p. 359. ff.
15 On this expression cf. Chapter IV. below, p. 349 ff.
 Fic. 13,—Limestone Slab, Magnesia on the Maeander, 138 or 132 B.c. Judicial
Award by the Magnesians, lines 52-80. Now in the Berlin Museum. By permission of the
Directors of the State Museums.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT τοῦ
Taken together with the poor Egyptian potsherd given as a
receipt to the country labourer Pibuchis, this official inscrip-
tion from Magnesia (a duplicate of which has been found in
Crete 1) shows, like the inscription from Smyrna, that the
remarkable word used by St. Paul in corresponding with the
Corinthian Christians was common to all grades of the inter-
national language.

A considerable number ? of ‘‘ Biblical’ words having thus

been brought into proper historical alignment, it is scarcely
necessary to enter into proofs that many words in the New
Testament hitherto described as ‘‘rare’’ are authenticated
by the new texts. The harvest here ‘is of course equally
great in proportion, and obtained with less trouble than in
the first group.

(b) As regards the meanings of words our knowledge has

also been largely increased. I have already remarked (p. 78
above) that the influence of Primitive Christianity was far
more powerful to transform words, 1.6. to create new mean-
ings, than to create new words. But here again there has
often been great exaggeration in the statement of the facts.
Cremer especially had a tendency to increase as much as
possible the number of specifically “ Biblical ” or “‘ New
Testament ’’ meanings of words common to all Greek; and
in exegetical literature, when dogmatic positions of the schools
are to be defended, a favourite device is to assume “‘ Biblical ”’
or “New Testament ’’ meanings. The texts that are now
forthcoming from the world contemporary with the New
Testament serve, however, to generalise not a few of these
specialities, e.g. the use of ἀδελφός (‘‘ brother ᾽᾽) for the mem-
bers of a community, ἀναστρέφομαι (“1 live’’) and ἀναστροφή
(“manner of life”; ‘conversation,’ A.V.) in an ethical
sense,! ἀντίλημψις (“ help ’’), λειτουργέω (“I act in the public
service ’’) and λειτουργία (“ public service ’’) in a sacral sense,

1 But unfortunately mutilated, with loss of the λογεία passage.

2 Cf. also πάροδος, p. 295, 0. 3 below.
3 Numerous references in my Bibelstudien and Neue Bibelstudien (= Bubie
Studies) and in the works of J. H. Moulton and Thieme,
‘ Cf. Chapter IV. below, p. 311 f.
108 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
ἐπιθυμητής (“ desiring”’) ina bad sense, λούω (“1 wash’)
in a sacral sense, πάροικος ( sojourner ’’), etc., etc.1
But there are other ways in which not unfrequently the
familiar words of the New Testament acquire a new light.
A new choice of meanings presents itself, changing, it may be,
the inner meaning of the sacred text more or less decidedly,
disclosing the manifold interpretations of the gospel that were
possible to the men of old, illuminating in both directions,
backward and forward, the history of the meaning of words.
Let us look at a few examples.
(1) When Jesus sent forth His apostles for the first time
He said to them ? (Matt. x. 8 ff.) :-—
“ Freely ye received, freely give. Get you no gold, nor
silver, nor brass in your purses (margin: girdles) : no wallet
for your journey .. .” (R.V.).
Or, as it is reported by St. Mark (vi. 8) :—
“ He charged them that they should take nothing for their
journey, save a staff only; no bread, no wallet, no money.
(margin: brass) in their purse (margin. girdle)’ (R.V.).
And thus in St. Luke (ix. 3; cf. x. 4 and xxii. 35 1.) :—
“ Take nothing for your journey, neither staff, nor wallet,
nor bread, nor money. . . .”’ (R.V.).
One of the characteristic utterances of Jesus has here
been handed down, not without variations, but still in such
form that the original can be discerned beneath them: the
apostles were told to take with them for their journey only
the barest necessaries? among which was to be reckoned
neither money nor bread. According to St. Matthew they
were further forbidden even to earn money on their way, as
they might have doné by working miracles of healing, etc.
The meaning of the “ wallet” (A.V. “ scrip”) has seldom
been questioned, because it seems so obvious: most com-
mentators probably think of it as a travelling-bag,? or, more

1 References in Bibelstudien and Neue Bibelstudien (= Bible Studies).

2 Cf. Die Christliche Welt, 17 (1903) col. 242 f.; and Alphons Steinmann,
Die Welt des Paulus im Zeichen des Verkehvs, Braunsberg, 1915, p. 64 ff. His
remarks on the equipment of the apostles in general are particularly worthy
of attention.
3 The one point on which the authorities leave us in doubt is whether the
staff was one of them.
4 In that case construing “ wallet ” with “ for your journey.”
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 109
precisely defined, as a bread-bag. The word in the original
Greek, πήρα, is capable of either meaning, according to
circumstances. In the context “ travelling-bag ’’ would do
very well; “ bread-bag ” not so well, being superfluous after
the mention of “ bread,” and tautology seems out of place
in these brief, pointed commands given by Jesus. But there
is a special meaning, suggested by one of the monuments,
which suits the context at least as well as the more general
sense of “bag” or “ travelling-bag.”” The monument in
question was erected in the Roman Imperial period at Kefr-
Hauar in Syria by a person who calls himself, in the Greek
inscription, a “‘ slave’ of the Syrian goddess. ‘“‘ Sent by the
lady,” as he says himself, this heathen apostle tells of the
journeys on which he went begging for the “lady” and
boasts triumphantly that ‘‘ each journey brought in seventy
bags.”’ 1 The word here employed is πήρα. Of course it has
nothing to do with well-filled provision-bags for the journey :
it clearly means the beggar’s collecting-bag.2 The same
special meaning makes excellent sense in our text, particu-
larly in St. Matthew’s version: there is to be ng earning,
and also no begging of money. With this possible explanation
of the word πήρα the divine simplicity of Jesus/stands out
afresh against the background suggested by the heathen
inscription. While Christianity was still young the beggar-
priest was making his rounds in the land of Syria on behalf of
the national goddess. The caravan conveying the pious
robber’s booty to the shrine lengthens as he passes from village
1 Published by Ch. Fossey, Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 21 (1897)
Pp. 60, ἀ(π)οφόρησε ἑκάστη ἀγωγὴ πήρας o’—Eberhard Nestle (postcard, Maul-
bronn, 13 March, 1903) called my attention to the punning observation in
the Didascalia=Const. Apost. 3, 6, about the itinerant widows, who were so
ready to receive that they were not so much χῆραι as πῆραι (which we may
' perhaps imitate in English by saying that though spouse-less they were by no
means pouch-less). , The late Hermann Diels, + June 1922, wrote to me from
Berlin W., 22 July, 1908: “‘ Does not the beggar’s bag form part of the
equipment of the mendicant friar of antiquity, 1.6. the Cynic? Crates the
Cynic wrote a poem called Πήρα (fragm. in my Poetae philosophi, fr. 4, Ὁ. 218).""
2 [Wallet, then, is just the right word in English. Cf. Shakespeare, Troilus
and Cressida, III. iii. 145, “ Time hath, my lord, a wallet at his back, Wherein
he puts alms for oblivion.” A ‘writer in Notes and Queries, 7th Ser., iv. 78,
points out that the triangular piece of stuff, like a bag, which hangs from
behind the left shoulder of a junior barrister’s gown was originally a wallet
to receive fees.—There is an illustration of the ancient wallet in Anthony
Rich’s Dict. of Roman and Greek Antiquities, s.v.‘‘ Pera.’ ΤᾺ]
 ΤΙῸ LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
to village, and assuredly the lady will not forget her slave.
In the same age and country One who had not where to lay
His head sent forth His apostles, saying :—
“ Freely ye received, freely give. Get you no gold, nor
silver, nor brass in your purses: no wallet for your
journey.”
(2) Among the sayings of our Lord we find thrice repeated
the phrase ‘“‘ They have their reward,” 6.5. in Matt. vi.-2
of the hypocrites who sound a trumpet before them when they
do their alms. The Greek word translated “ have’ (A.V.),
or preferably (with the Revisers) “ have received,” is ἀπέχω,
“‘T have or receive in full,” “1 have got.’”’ Reward is spoken
of in the passage immediately preceding, but there the simple
verb éyw is used. I long ago suggested? that the word
ἀπέχω is explainable by the papyri and ostraca. In countless
instances we find the word in these texts ? in a meaning that
suits admirably our Lord’s saying about rewards, viz. “I
have received ’’; it is, that is to say, a technical expression
regularly employed in drawing up a receipt. Compare, for
instance, two ostraca from Thebes figured in this book, one
(p. 166 below) a receipt for rent in the Ptolemaic period, the
other (p. 105 above) a receipt for the Isis collection, 4 August,
63 A.D. Still nearer in date to the gospel passage is an
ostracon of very vulgar type in my collection,® a receipt for
alien tax paid at Thebes, 32-33 A.D., of which I here give a
full-sized reproduction (Figure 14).

1 Neue Bibelstudien, p. 56; Bible Studies, p. 229. Cf. also Moulton and
Milligan, The Expositor, July 1908, p. 91.
2 The importance of this seeming trifle, both intrinsically and from the
point of view of historical grammar, has already received due recognition
from Heinrich Erman, who discussed the subject in an article on ‘‘ Die ‘ Habe ’-
Quittung bei den Griechen,” Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 77 ff. His
objections to the translation ‘‘ I have received ” are waived by A. Thumb,
Prinzipienfragen der Koine-Forschung, Neuve Jahrbiicher fiir das klassische
Altertum, 1906, p. 255: ‘‘ ἀπέχουσι is, by reason of the nature of the action
expressed, identical with ἔλαβον or ἔσχον, 1.6. it is an aorist-present.” Cf. also
J. H. Moulton, Grammar,’ p. 247, and Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary,
Ρ. 571. Further references in Mayser, Grammatik der griech. Papyri, Ὁ. 487;
Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka, I. p. 86; and Paul M. Meyer, Griech. Texte aus
Agypten, p. 115.
3 No. 31. We possess another, somewhat later, ostracon by the same writer
Pamaris, No. 32 in my collection (Paul M. Meyer, p. 148 f.); the same vulgar-
isms and mistakes are noticeable there as in No, 31.
Fic. 14.—Ostracon, Thebes, 32-33 A.D. Receipt for Alien Tax. Now in the Author’s collectic |
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT © 111
I now give the text according to the edition of my ostraca
by Paul M. Meyer 3 :—
Tlapapis 'Ἑρμοδώρου Pamaris the son of Hermodorus
᾿Αβῶς. ἀπέχων"5 παρὰ σοῦ to Abos. I have receiving (sic)
τόλες"ο 8ἐπιξένου Θώυθ from thee alien tax 5 (for the
καὶ Φαῶφι $2 B. L414 months) Thoyth and Phaophi
TiBepiov Καίσαρος 2 drachmae. In the year 19 of
Σεβαστός. Tiberius Caesar Augustus.
Σ(εσ)η(μείωμαιμ). T have noted.
This technical ἀπέχω, however, was in use not only in
Egypt but elsewhere in the Hellenistic world, as shown by
inscriptions at Delphi recording manumissions at the begin-
ning ὁ and end of the second century B.c., and again in the
first century A.D.” An inscription from Orchomenus of the
third or fourth century Β.0.8 shows the expression in use even
then in the Aeolic dialect; it is closein date to the oldest
papyrus reference I know of, viz. Hibeh Papyri No. 97;
(279-278 or 282-281 B.C.).
I think we may say, therefore, that this technical meaning
of ἀπέχω, which must have been known to every Greek-
speaking person, down to the meanest labourer, applies well
to the stern text about the hypocrites: ‘‘ they have received
their reward in full,” 7.e. it is as though they had already given a
receipt, and they have absolutely no further claim to reward.
This added touch of quiet irony makes the text more life-like
and pointed. From the same technical use J. de Zwaan ®
1 Griechische Texte aus Agypten, Berlin, 1916, Part 2: Ostraca in the
Deissmann Collection, No. 31, p. 148. !
2 = τέλος, “ toll, custom,’’ as in Matt. xvii. 25, Rom. xiii. 7.
3 2,6. δραχμάς. 4 7,6. ἔτους.
5 On this alien tax cf. Wilcken, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 153
(where other quotations for the word ἐπίξενος, ‘‘stranger,’’ are given besides
Clement of Alexandria, I. 977 A, which is the only example in E. A. Sophocles’
Lexicon) and Paul M. Meyer’s commentary, p.147 f. At present this ostracon
seems to be the earliest evidence of the tax.
® Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 845,, τὰν τιμὰν ἀπέχει, ‘the price he hath
received.” Cf. p. 323 below.
7 Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 22 (1898), e.g. Ὁ. 58, καὶ τὰν τειμὰν
ἀπέχω πᾶσαν, “and I have received’ the whole price”; first century A.D.,
¢.8. pp. 116, 120.
8 The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum,
Part II. No. 1584, ἀπέχι πάντα, ‘‘ he hath received all things.”
9 The Text and Exegesis of Mark xiv. 41, and the Papyri, The Expositor,
December 1905, p. 459 ff. He takes the betrayer, who is mentioned imme-
diately in the next verse. to be the suhiect
 112 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
has attempted to explain the enigmatical ἀπέχει in Mark
xiv. 41, and it is not improbable that St. Paul is alluding to
it in a gently humorous way in Phil. iv. 18.1
(3) The first scattered congregations of Greek-speaking
Christians up and down the Roman Empire spoke of them-
selves as a ‘‘ (convened) assembly’; at first each single
congregation was so called, and afterwards the whole body
of Christians everywhere was spoken of collectively as “ the
(convened) assembly.’”” That is. the most literal translation
of the Greek word ἐκκλησία." This self-bestowed name rested
on the certain conviction that God had separated from the
world His “ saints’’ in Christ, and had “ called”’ or “ con-
vened ”’ them to an assembly, which was ‘‘ God’s assembly,”
‘* God’s muster,” because God was the convener.®
It is one of the characteristic but little-considered facts in
the history of the early Christian missions that the Latin-
speaking people of the West, to whom Christianity came,
did not translate the Greek word ἐκκλησία (as they did many
other technical terms) but simply borrowed it. Why was
this? There was no lack of words for “ assembly ” in Latin,
and as a matter of fact contio or comitia was often translated
by ἐκκλησία. There must have been some special reason for
borrowing the Greek word, and it lay doubtless in the subtle
feeling that Latin possessed no word exactly equivalent to
the Greek ἐκκλησία. There is evidence of this feeling even in
non-Christian usage. Pliny the Younger employs the Latin-
ised word ecclesia in one of his letters to Trajan.5 Some years
ago a bilingual inscription of the year 103-4 Α.}.6 came to
1 Asa matter of fact, ἀπέχω is frequently combined with πάντα in receipts;
cf. the Orchomenus inscription quoted in the last note but one.
2 For what follows cf. Die Christliche Welt, 18 (1904) col. 200 f.
3 I pointed out in Die Christliche Welt, 13 (1899) col. 701, that an excellent
analogy to the Primitive Christian use of ἐκκλησία is afforded by the members
of so-called “ Pietistic ’’ congregations in the valley of the Dill (a tributary of
the Lahn, a little below Giessen) in their use of the word ‘‘ Versammlung ”’ for
“congregation.” ([Cf. the English “ meeting ’’ and ‘‘ meeting-house " as used
by Quakers, Methodists, and other Nonconformists. TRr.]
4 David Magie, De Romanorum iuris publict sacrique vocabulis sollemnibus
in Graecum sermonem conversis, Lipsiae, 1905, p. 17 etc. (see the index).
5 Epist. x. 111, ‘‘ bule et ecclesia consentiente.’’ βουλή has also been
adopted. With regard to the antécedents of “ Biblical’’ Latinity cf. also
Appendix VII, p. 447 ff. ᾿
® Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archdologischen Institutes, 2 (1899),
Supplement p. 43 f.; now with facsimile in Forschungen in Ephesos, Vol. 2,
p. 147 ff. Cf. p. 13, 0. I.
 ῃ

LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 113

light at Ephesus, which furnishes a still more interesting
example. It was found in the theatre, the building so
familiar to readers of Acts xix., one of the best preserved
ruins in the ancient city. A distinguished Roman official,
C. Vibius Salutaris, had presented a silver image of Diana
(we are reminded at once of the silver shrines of Diana made
by Demetrius, Acts xix. 24) and other statues “that they
might be set up in every ἐκκλησία in the theatre upon the
pedestals.” 1 The parallel Latin text has, ita ut [om]n[# e]ccle-
sia supra bases ponerentur. The Greek word was therefore
simply transcribed. Here we have a truly classical example
(classical in its age and in its origin) of the instinctive feeling
of Latin speakers of the West which afterwards showed itself
among the Western Christians : ἐκκλησία cannot be translated,
it must be taken over.
The word which thus penetrated into the West is one of
the indelible marks of the origin of Christianity. Just as the
words amen, abba, etc. are the Semitic birthmarks, so
the word ecclesia (and many others besides) points for all time
to the fact that the beginnings of Christianity must be sought
also in the Greek East.
(4) For the word ἁμαρτωλός, “ sinning, sinful,’ Cremer ?
quotes but one passage from Aristotle and one from Plutarch :
“ besides these passages only, it seems, in Biblical and ecclesi- -
astical Greek.’’ In the Appendix,? however, comes this
very necessary correction: ‘‘ The word is found not only in
the two passages quoted but also in inscriptions, and so often
that it must be described as quite a usual word, at least in
Syria, to designate a sinner in the religious sense.’”’ There is
only one more correction to make: here, and in the epi-
graphical references which Cremer proceeds to give, we must
read not ‘Syria ’”’ but ‘‘ Lycia.”’ 4
The subject had already been treated in detail by G.
Hirschfeld,> and more recently L. Deubner® published a
1 ta τίθηνται κατ᾽ ἐκκλησίαν (for this formula cf. Acts xiv. 23). ἐν τῶ (sic)
θεάτρω (sic) ἐπὶ τῶν βάσεων. This is also a confirmation of Acts xix. 32, 41,
according to which the ἐκκλησίαι at Ephesus took place in the theatre.
2 Page 151. 3 °Page 1110. ;
4 Cremer probably misread the handwriting of Schlatter, to whom he no
doubt was indebted for this important correction.
5 K6nigsberger Studien, 1 (1887) p. 83 ff.
5 Athenische Mitteilungen, 27 (1902) p. 262; cf. also G. Mendel, Bulletin de
Corresnandanea Hallénianna a. fennat = ---
[14 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

collection of passages from inscriptions, which is almost

identical with Cremer’s. The inscriptions are of a class very
common in the south-west of Asia Minor—epitaphs con-
taining a threat- against anyone who shall desecrate the
tomb, ἁμαρτωλὸς ἔστω θεοῖς (κατα)χθονίοις, “ let him be as a
sinner before the (sub)terranean gods.” In the same district,
however, we find the words ἐπάρατος, “ cursed,’’? and
ἔνοχος, “guilty,” employed in exactly the same way:
[ἔνοχος ἔστω πᾶσι θεοῖς, “let him be guilty before all the
gods,”’? This parallelism between ἁμαρτωλός and ἔνοχος seems
to me to afford a solution of a grammatical puzzle which has
cues caused me difficulties, viz. the use ‘of the genitive after
ἔνοχος,3 especially in the important passage I Cor. xi. 27, to
which I have long sought a parallel in inscriptions and papyri,
but in vain, despite the frequent occurrence of the word.
We find, however, the parallel ἁμαρτωλός with the genitive
of the authority offended in an inscription from Telmessus
in Lycia, 240 B.C., 4 and in a similar pre-Christian inscription
from Myra in Lycia.5 We also find the synonyms ἄδικος,
“unjust,” and ἀσεβής,“ impious,’’ ” in inscriptions from the
Delphinium at Miletus both before and after the Christian
era.6 Thus we have sufficient parallels to account for the

1 Reisen im stidwestlichen Kleinasien [cf. p. 17, n. 1, above], II. p. 159,

No. 187.
2 Ibid. p. 166, No. 193.
3 Ὁ, Wilcken has also been struck by the New Testament genitive in
Matt. xxvi. 66, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 170, although this genitive
of the punishment is surely not without parallel. Nachmanson, Eranos
II (1912) p. 232, sees no difficulty in the genitive. The peculiar thing to me
is, however, not the genitive as such, of which there are frequent instances
in the form of genitive of the crime or genitive of the punishment, but that
we should have a genitive of the authority offended. J. Wellhausen, Ein-
leitung in die dvei ersten Evangelien, p. 34, says that ἔνοχον εἶναι τῇ κρίσει,
Matt. v. 21 f., is not Greek—why, I do not know.
“ Dittenberger, Ovientis Graect Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 553. (= Michel,
Recueil, No. 547312.), ἁμαρτωλοὶ ἔστωσαν [θεῶ]ν πάντων, ‘let them be as
sinners before all the gods.”
5 Reisen im stidwestlichen Kleinasien, ΤΙ. p. 36, No. 58, ἁμαρτωλὸς ἔστω θεῶν
πάντων, “ let him be as a sinner before all the gods.”
§ Milet, Ergebnisse, Heft 3, Inschriften, No. 1494, (182 B.C. ?) ἀδίκους τε εἶναι
αὐτοὺς τῶν θεῶν ods ὁμωμόκασιν ;No. 150195 (180 B.C. ?) ἄδικοί re ἔστωσαν τῶν θεῶν
ots @pocav; No. 134255. (Ist cent. A.D.) τὸν δὲ ψηφισάμενον ἄρχοντα ἀσεβῆ καὶ ἄδικον
ὑπάρχειν τῶν προγεγραμμένων θεῶν. The sense is exactly parallel to that of the
aforementioned Lycian texts.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT [115
peculiar use of the synonymous évoyos by St. Paul the
Cilician 1 in the First Epistle to the Corinthians.
(5) The Hebrew name for the Feast of Tabernacles is hag
hassukkoth, ‘‘ feast of booths.” To have been quite literal,
the Greek translators of the Old Testament must have
rendered this ἑορτὴ (τῶν) σκηνῶν, as is actually found in the
Septuagint, Lev. xxiii. 34, Deut. xvi. 13, 2 Chron. viii. 13,
Ezra iii. 4, 2 Macc.-x. 6. In the majority of passages, how-
ever, in which the feast is mentioned (Deut. xvi. τό, Xxxi. IO,
Zech. xiv. 16, 18, 19, I Esdras v. 51, I Macc. x. 21, 2 Macc. i.
9, 18) we find the more cumbrous expression ἑορτὴ (τῆς)
σκηνοπηγίας, “feast of booth-making,” which has found its
way into the Greek used by Jews of the Diaspora,? the New
‘Testament (John vii. 2), and Josephus, and was therefore
no doubt the most usual.3 The reason for the choice of this
cumbrous expression is not discoverable in the Hebrew. It
lies rather in the fact that the verb σκηνοπηγεῖσθαι already bore.
a technical religious sense in the world which spoke the
language of the Septuagint. There is a long inscription 4
from the island of Cos, probably of the 2nd century B.c.,
which records the arrangements for sacrifices and enumerates
the acts of religion to which the worshippers were obliged.
They had to offer sacrifice and they had to “ erect a booth ”
(cxavorayetcOwv),® on the occasion of a great panegyry or
solemn assembly, ‘‘ which was probably held only once a
year.’ ® It is well known that Plutarch regarded the Jewish
1 Possibly it was a provincialismvof S.W. Asia Minor. For earlier treatment
of the supposed “‘ Cilicisms ” in the New Testament, see Winer and Schmiedel,
8.3, 26 (p. 23). But I prefer to assume that the usage, obviously a religious
one, occurring in certain formulae, was fairly widely spread, and that St. Paul
knew it as such. i
2 Cf. the long Jewish inscription from Berenice in Cyrenaica (13 B.c.), in
Schirer, Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes, III.4p. 79. (Eng. trs., Div. II., vol. 2,
p. 246.]
3 Winer and Schmiedel, § 3, 2 6 (p. 23), reckon oxyvornyia among the words
that were certainly coined by the Greek Jews. But it is found in Aristotle. |
4 Athenische Mitteilungen, 16 (1891) p. 406 ff.
5 This formula is many times repeated.
6 According to the editor, Johannes Toepffer, p. 415, who refers to the
Jewish Feast of Tabernacles and gives a number of pagan examples of the
custom of erecting booths for religious festivals. Theodor Wiegand writes
(postcard, Miletus,22 May, 1908): “‘ We have found in the market-place of
Priene, near the altar in the middle of the square, stones marked with letters
and perforated to receive wooden supports. They are evidently relics of
116 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

Feast of Tabernacles as a festival of Dionysus+; the Sep-

tuagint translators, with other motives, did much the same
thing : by choosing a secular name for their feast they brought
it more into touch with the religious usages of the world
around them. This is one more factor in the great adaptive
process for which the Septuagint Bible stands in general in
the history of religion.”

(c) Standing phrases and fixed formulae have often found

their way from the contemporary language into the New
Testament.® ;
(1) The phrase δέδωμι ἐργασίαν, “I give diligence, take
pains’ (Luke xii. 58), explained in all the grammars as a
Latinism,4 and not known elsewhere except in Hermogenes ὅ
(2nd century A.D.), is nevertheless.found in an inscription
recording a decree of the Senate concerning the affairs of
Stratonicia in Caria (81 B.c.).6 It is possible, of course, to
maintain that the phrase is here imitated from the Latin
original,’ but a letter of vulgar type among the Oxyrhynchus
Papyri, dated 2 B.c., has it in the imperative 8 just as in St.
Luke, and shows it (also as St. Luke does) in living use among
the people, who no longer felt that it was a “ Latinism.” I
am informed by Wilcken that the phrase occurs again in a
letter, civca 118 A.D., among the Bremen Papyri (No. 18).
(2) In the same context in St. Luke (xii. 57) we have the
the custom of erecting tents at festivals.” L. Martens (letter, Duisburg,
18 May, 1910) refers to Thucydides i. 133, where a suppliant erects a tent in
the sacred precinct.-
1 Sympos. iv. 6, 2.
2 Cf, the appendix (I). at the end of this book on the Jewish prayers for
vengeance found at Rheneia, and my little work Die Hellenisiervung des semtti-
schen Monotheismus, Leipzig, 1903, reprinted from the Neue Jahtbiicher
fiir das klassische Altertum, 1903.
3. Numerous examples have already been given in my Bible Studies and in
Moulton and Thieme.
4 = operam do.
5 De invent. iii. 5, 7.
τ Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 44119, φροντίζωσιν
᾿διδῶσίν τε ἐργασίαν, ‘‘may they take heed and give diligence.” Ditten-
berger (p. 23) criticises this phrase severely.
7 So Paulus Viereck, Sermo Gvraecus quo senatus populusque Romanus
magistratusque populi Romani usque ad Tiberii Caesaris aetatem in scriptis
publicis usi sunt, Gottingae, 1888, p. 83.
8 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri No. 742n,., δὸς ἐργασίαν, “‘ give diligence.”
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 117
expression κρίνω τὸ δίκαιον, literally “1 judge the right,”
which used to be regarded as unique, and which Bernhard
Weiss! explains to mean deciding about that which God
demands from us. It is made clearer, however, by a prayer
for vengeance addressed to Demeter which was found inscribed
on a tablet of lead at Amorgus.? There the goddess is implored
to give right judgment. So Jesus advises those who would go
to law with one another not to wait for the judge to speak but
to become reconciled beforehand and thus put an end to the
dispute by pronouncing “‘ just judgment ”’ themselves.
(3) Another gospel phrase, cvvaipw λόγον, “1 compare
accounts, make a reckoning” (Matt. xviii. 23 f., xxv. 10),
is said by Grimm and Thayer not to occur in “ Greek ”’ writers.
Moulton,? however, has pointed out that it occurs in two
letters of the 2nd century A.D., one from Oxyrhynchus 4 and
the other in the Berlin collection,®> while an ostracon from
Dakkeh in Nubia, dated 6 March, 214 a.D., contains the
corresponding substantival phrase.® j
(4) Speaking of the devoted couple Aquila and Priscilla,
in Rom. xvi. 4, St. Paul uses the words: ‘‘ who for my life
laid down their own necks.’”’? Many commentators have
taken this phrase literally, as if Aquila and his wife had laid
their heads on the block to save the apostle after he had been
condemned to death by the executioner’s axe. The majority,
however, explain it figuratively: “to lay down one’s own
neck ’’ is the same as “ to risk one’s own life.’’ This inter-
pretation is undoubtedly confirmed by a passage in one of
our new texts. At the destruction of the cities of Herculan-
eum and Pompeii in the year 79 A.D. the citizens’ libraries
1 Kyritisch Exegetischer Kommentar von H. A. W. Meyer, I. 27, Géttingen,
1885, p. 482.
? Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 25 (1901) p. 416, ἐπάκουσον, θεά,
καὶ κρῖναι τὸ δίκαιον, “‘ hear, goddess, and give right judgment.’’ The editor,
Th. Homolle, translates ‘‘ prononce la juste sentence.”
3 The Expositor, April 1901, p. 274 f.
* The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 113.1, ἵνα συνάρωμαι αὐτῶι λόγον, “ that I may
make a reckoning with him.”
5 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 775ι8ι., dxpys (sic) ἂν γένομε (sic) ἐκῖ
(ste) καὶ συνάρωμεν λόγον,“ until I come there and we make a reckoning.”
ὁ Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka, No. 1135, ἄχρι λόγου συνάρσεως, ‘‘ till the
teckoning of the account.”
7 οἵτινες ὑπὲρ ris ψυχῆς μου τὸν ἑαυτῶν τράχηλον ὑπέθηκαν. For what follows
ci. Die Christliche Welt, 17 (1903) col. 611 £,
 118 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
were of course buried along with the rest of their household
furniture. Remains of these domestic libraries have been
discovered in the course of excavations, and means have also
been found to make the badly charred rolls in part at least
legible again. One of the rolls from Herculaneum (No,
1044), for the decipherment of which we are indebted to the
ingenuity and learning of Wilhelm Crénert, contains a bio-
graphy of the Epicurean Philonides, who flourished about
175-150 B.c. The biographer’s name is unknown; but he
must have written after 150 B.c. and of course before the year
in which Herculaneum was destroyed, that is to say either in,
or at any rate not long before, the age of St. Paul. In this
biography there occurs the following passage, mutilated at
the beginning, but for our purpose sufficiently clear!:
“ [For(?)] the most beloved of his relatives or friends he would
readily stake his neck.”
Here we have the same phrase as in the Epistle to the
Romans, only with another verb,* and it is reasonable to
suppose that in the Greek world “ to lay down, or to stake
one’s neck for somebody”’ was as current a phrase 3 as, say,
“to go through fire and water for somebody ” is with us.
Originating, no doubt, in the phraseology of the law,‘ the
phrase was probably in the time of the Epistle to the Romans
no longer understood literally. The merit ofthe apostle’s
devoted friends is in no way diminished by this observation :
it must certainly have been an unusually great sacrifice of the
personal kind that Aquila and Priscilla had dared for St.
Paul. We may adopt the words of the pagan roll that was
buried under the lava of Vesuvius some twenty years after
the Epistle to the Romans was written, and say it was some-
thing that one would dare only “for the most beloved of
one’s relatives or friends.”’
1 Sitzungsberichte der Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1900, Ρ. 9 51, [ὑπὲρ ?] τοῦ μάλιστ᾽ ἀγαπωμένου τῶν ἀναγκαίων ἢ τῶν φίλων παραβάλοι
ἂν ἑτοίμως τὸν τράχηλον. Thé thought is somewhat parallel to Romans v. 7.
This, and the other passage about Aquila and Priscilla,—what perspectives
they open up for critics who are fond of tracing ‘‘ influences.”
2 St. Paul uses ὑποτίθημι, the text from Herculaneum παραβάλλω τὸν
τράχηλον.
3 Cf. above, p. 88, παραβολεύομαι.
‘ The original idea is either that someone suffers himself to be put to death
in the place of another, or that he pledges his neck and goes bail for the other.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT τιο.
(5) St. Paul’s fondness for legal expressions has been often
observed in other cases,! and will meet with further confir-
mation in these pages. In Phil. iv. 3 we have another
curious écho of the language of the documents: “ whose
names (are) in the book of life” 3 sounds like the formula
‘‘ whose names are shown in the little book,” 4 which occurs
in a document of the year 190 a.D.5 The coincidence might
be accidental, and I would not quote it here were it not that
the phrase ὧν τὰ ὀνόματα, “‘ whose names,” is certainly
demonstrable as a characteristic documentary formula, often
occurring in the Berlin papyri, 6.5. No. 181,, (57 A.D.) and
No. 72%, (191 A.D.). In No. 344, (second or third century
A.D.) it is even found, as in Mark xiv. 32 forsinstance, without
a verb, and it is certainly not a Hebraism there.®

D. The Syntax of the New Testament has hitherto been

least of all regarded in the light of the new texts. For
instance, one of the greatest weaknesses of Blass’s Grammar
is that in the syntactical portions the New Testament is far
too much isolated, and phenomena that might be easily 7
illustrated from the pagan inscriptions, papyri, and ostraca,
are frequently explained as Hebraisms.* One typical example
is the phrase just mentioned, “‘ whose names,” used without
any verb. And yet, at the present day, there is so much new
solid knowledge to be gained !
(1) To take one example : in the period of the new religious
1 Cf. Bibelstudien, p. 103 [Bible Studies, p. 107], and two excellent articles
by Otto Eger: ‘“‘ Rechtswérter und Rechtsbilder in den paulinischen Briefen,’’
Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 18 (1917) pp. 84-108, and
Rechtsgeschichtliches zum N.T., a rectorial address, Basel, 1919.
2 Cf. for instance Chapter IV., section 8, below (pp. 318-338) : influences of
the contemporary legal life of the people. |
3 ὧν τὰ ὀνόματα ἐν βίβλῳ ζωῆς. ‘
4 Some document is thus referred to.
5 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 432 IIs, ὧν τὰ ὀνόματα τῷ βιβλιδίῳ
δεδήλωται. ‘
6 Blass, Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Griechisch,? p. .77 [English
translation,? p. 74], says that καὶ τὸ ὄνομα αὐτῆς is “ still more Hebraic ᾿ than οὗ
τὸ ὄνομα, thus making this latter also a Hebraism.—Ludwig Mitteis (letter,
Leipzig, 21 May, 1908) refers further to the Oxyrhynchus Papyri No. 4853,
and Berliner Griechische Urkunden No. 888,,.
7 Though not so easily as the lexical points, because the indices, when there
are any, often take no account of syntax. There is nothing for it but to read
the texts.
8 Here
Dehrunner’s
tan revision constitutes a great advance.
 120 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST |
movement the colloquial language of the Mediterranean area
exhibits specially interesting changes and additions with
regard to prepositional usages.1_ How are we to understand
the passages, so important from the point of view ofreligious
history, in which St. Paul and others employ the prepositions
ὑπέρ and ἀντί, unless we pay attention to the contemporary
“‘ profane ”’ uses?
The phrase βλέπειν ἀπό, “ to beware of,” is explained by
Blass 2? as Hebrew, by Wellhausen * as Semitic; and yet it is
used in a papyrus letter of strongly vulgar type, 4 August, 41
A.D., by a writer who was not a Jew, but a merchant of
Alexandria ¢ : “ and thou, do thou beware thee of the Jews.” ὅ
The combination of εἶναι and similar verbs with εἰς, which
is after a Hebrew model according to Blass ὁ and like Lamed
according to Wellhausen,’ occurs in inscriptions and papyri.®
I have found especially valuable® examples among the
inscriptions of Priene, of about the second century B.c.,1° and
1 Cf. A. Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im Zettaltey des Hellenismus, p. 128,
and my hints in the Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift, 24 (1904) col. 212 f.
Praiseworthy beginnings have been made towards the study of the prepositions
in the papyri: Gualtherus Kuhring, De praepositionum-Graecarum in chartis
Aegyptiis usu quaestiones selectae (a doctoral dissertation), Bonn, 1906; and
Conradus Rossberg, De praepos. Graec. in chartis Aegypt. Ptolemaeorum aetatis
usu (doctoral dissertation), Jena, 1909.
2 Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Griechisch,* p. 127 [Eng. trs.,? p, 126].
3 Einlectung in die drei ersten Evangelien, p. 32.
4 Cf. Wilcken, Zum alexandrinischen Antisemitismus [cf. p. 45, n. 2 above]
p. 790. Blau’s remarks should not be overlooked, Papyri und Talmud,
p. 81. ‘
5 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 1079, καὶ od βλέπε σατὸν (sic) ἀπὸ τῶν
Ἰουδαίων. Here we have also the supposed ‘‘non-Greek ” phrase, βλέπειν
αὐτόν. See also Moulton and Milligan, The Expositor, October 1908, p. 380 f.
6 Grammatik, p. 88 [Eng. trs.,2 p. 85]. See also Jean Psichari, Essai suy le
Grec de la Septante, p. 201 f. ᾿
7 Einlettung, p. 32. But ὃ is not the exact equivalent of εἰς. If? were to
be imitated we should expect some other preposition, e.g. ἐπί.
8 J. H. Moulton, Grammar, p. 71f.; Radermacher, Neutestamentliche
Grammattk, Ὁ. 16 f.
® Because old, and occurring not in vulgar texts but actually in official
documents.
10 No. 5039, [τ]αῦτα δὲ εἶναι εἰς φυλακὴν
τῆς πόλεως, ‘‘ but that this was for
the safeguard of the city.” Thecity of Erythrae has resolved to have a judge
from Priene. That the phrase was a regular formula at Erythrae is shown
by an inscription from Erythrae published by Georgios I. Zolotas, Χιακων και
Ἐρυθραΐκων ἐπιγραφων συναγωγη, Athens, 1908, p. 231 f., τ[αῦ]τα [δ᾽ εἶ]ναι εἰς
φ[υ]λα[κ]ὴν τῆς πόλεως. The Priene inscription No. 5941, (ctvca 200 B.c.) is to
the same effect : εἶναι δὲ τὸ ψήφισμα τοῦτο ἐπὶ σωτηρίαι τῆς πόλεως, ‘‘ but that this
decree is for the salvation of the city.”
Fic. 15.—Ostracon, Thebes, znd cent. a.p. Transfer Order for Wheat.
Now in the Author’s collection.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 121

among those from the Delphinium at Miletus,’ of the Ist

cent. A.D.
What light has been shed on the formula eis τὸ ὄνομα
‘in the name,” by the inscriptions, papyri, and not least by
the ostraca! To the previous examples? of this, a legal
formula 3 current in the Hellenistic world, I can now add from
my own collection an ostracon (No. 56) from Thebes, of the
second century A.D., which is important also in other respects
(Figure 15). It is an order to an official of a State granary
to transfer wheat to another person’s account. As deciphered
by Wilcken and edited by Paul M. Meyer ὁ it reads :—
Kpeioros® Na..a.[.] 8 Crispus® to Na.. [a] .. (9)
F aks . Transfer to the name 15 (for the
διάστεϊλον εἰς ὅνο south-west quacter) of ‘Vestidia
εἰς Νότου Secunda (9), represented by 15
Odcor® Yexodda( 2) 10 διὰ Πολλία Pollia Maria thé younger, the
Μαρία 11 νεωτ 12 τὰς τοῦ two and a half and a third and ἃ
πυροῦ ἀρτάβ 18 δύο 7- ἢ twenty-fourth artabae™ of
μισυ τρίτον τετρακικοστ 14 wheat
(Here the ostracon breaks off.)
' No. 134s, ταῦτα δὲ εἶναι εἰς edocBeralv] τῶν τε θεῶν καὶ τῶν Σεβαστῶν καὶ
διαμονὴν τῆς πόλεως, “‘ but that this was for the devout worship of the gods
and of the Augusti and for the abiding of the city.”’
2 Bibelstudien, p. 143 ff.; Neue Bibelstudien, p.25; Bible Studies, pp. 146,
197; Theologische Literaturzeitung, 25 (1900) col. 73 f.; and most particularly
Wilhelm Heitmiiller, ‘‘ Im Namen Jesu,’’ Gottingen, 1903, p. 100 ff.; and
Friedrich Preisigke, Givowesen im griechischen Agypten, Strassburg i. E., 1910,
Pp. 149 ff.
4 It is possible, perhaps, that the formula found its way into Greek legal
phraseology at a very early period through Semitic influence. Cf. the OW of
the Aramaic papyri of Assuan and the observations by Mark Lidzbarski,
Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 27 (1906) col. 3213. But this is no reason for
regarding it as a Semiticism felt as such in the Imperial period; it had been
amalgamated long before. Cf. also Heitmiiller, p. 104,. Jean Psichari,
Essat sur le Grec de la Septante, p. 202 f., must not be neglected.
4 Griechische Texte aus Agypten, p. 175 ff.
5 Occurs as the name of a Jew in r Cor. i. 14, Acts xviii. 8.
§ OrNe..a@.([.], Wilcken. Ng... . (Meyer).
7 4.6. εἰς dvou(a). The formula is so common that it is abbreviated.
8 4.4. εἰς Νότου Λ(ιβός); on the quarters of the city of Thebes see Wilcken,
Griechische Ostvaka, I. p. 713.
§ 2,6. Odeor(iSia?). The use of the cases (nominative for genitive) is
vulgar, as in the Revelation of St. John.
10 The reading is doubtful, Wilcken. It would = Σεκοῦ(ν)δα.
11 It is significant that the Hellenised form of the name, Μαρία, occurs also
here. It seems to have been the more popular, while Μαριάμη or Μαριάμμη
rv-~ --~tinuation of notes see next page.
 122 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
As the ostracon contains the name “ Maria ” it constitutes
a new document in the history of the Jewish 1 Diaspora in
Egypt, and more particularly in Thebes.? To claim it on that
account as a proof of the genuine ‘‘ Judaeo-Greek”’ character
of our formula would be trivial, in view of the numerous and
early pagan examples that are already known.
(2) According to Mark vi. 7 Jesus sent forth His disciples
δύο δύο,“ by two and two.” A distributive numeral relation
is here expressed in the Greek by repeating the cardinal
number. Wellhausen 3 says this is not truly Greek, but 4 it is
found in Aeschylus5 and Sophocles.¢ These examples
would be sufficient to account for the same use in the Sep-
tuagint and in the New Testament; it agrees with the
1 It is not very probable that this Maria was a Christian.
2 Cf. previous examples in Schiirer, Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes, III.8
p. 19 ff. [the Jew Danoilos mentioned on p. 23 must be struck out, for the
papyrus passage in question is now read differently by Wilcken; cf. Epistulae
Privatae Graecae ed. S. Witkowski, p. 84,2 p. 109]; and Wilcken, Griechische
Ostraka, I. pp. 281 ff., 523 f. [the persons here mehtioned with the name of
Simon need not allbe Jews; cf. Bibelstudien, p. 184; Bible Studies, p. 315,
πῃ. 2], 535.
8. Das Evangelium Marci tibersetzt und evklart, Berlin, 1903, p. 52.
4 Cf. Theologische Literaturzeitung, 23 (1898) col. 630 f.
5 Pers. 981, μυρία μυρία, ‘‘ by myriads.”
6 From the lost drama called Eris the Antiatticist [an anonymous lexico-
grapher of late date, edited by Bekker; see W. Schmid, Dery Aiticismus, I. p..
208, etc. TR.] quoted μίαν μίαν in the sense of κατὰ μίαν; this was first
pointed out by Thumb, Die griechische Sprache, p. 128. Blass, Grammatik
des Neutestamentlichen Griechisch,? p. 146 (Engl. ed.? pp. 145, 330], rightly
inferred from this that the Atticists opposed this form of expression, which
they therefore must have found present in the vernacular, ‘‘ and it was not
merely Jewish Greek.””

Continuation of notes to page 121 :—

(Josephus; ot Mariamne ἢ was the more affected and coquettish. These
forms well illustrate the various ways of secularising a Hebrew name: by the
omission or addition of a letter a Greek ending is obtained.
12 ¢.¢, vewr(épa), abbreviated like our ‘'jun.” or.“ jr.”
13 26, ἀρτάβ(ας). The “ artaba ’’ was a measure of corn.
14 As to this form (Meyer’s reading) cf. something similar in Mayser, Gram-
matth dev griechischen Papyri, Ὁ. 318.
415 ζ,6.. ‘ to the account of.”
16 This use of the preposition διά, occurring also in the papyri (cf. L. Wenger,
Die Stelivertretung im Rechte der Papyvi, Leipzig, 1906, p. 9 ff.), is of important
bearing on the interpretation of the formula ‘‘ through Christ’ and the
conception of the Paraclete; cf. Adolph Schettler, Die paulinische Formel
“* Durch Christus,’ Tabingen, 1907, p. 28 ad fin,
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW ΤΕΒΤΑΜΕΝΤ 123

Semitic use,! it is true, but it is good popular Greek for all

that. It has been shown by Karl Dieterich*® to exist in
Middle Greek, and has remained in Modern Greek down to
the present day. We can trace this use, therefore, through
a period of two thousand five hundred years. A welcome
new link in the long chain of witnesses from Aeschylus to the
Bible and from the Bible till to-day was added by a letter of
the 3rd century A.D., among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (No.
121), in which a certain Isidorus writes to one Aurelius to
‘bind the branches by three and three in bundles.’”’4 Still
more recently there has come in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri
(No. 886,9:.) a magical formula of the 3rd cent. A.D., which
exhibits a curious mixture of this and a prepositional con-
struction.
(3) In the next place we may select from the abundance
of new syntactical observations an example which has lately
met with fairly general recognition, viz. the peculiar“‘nomina-
tive” πλήρης in the prologue to St. John (i. 14), which
touches on a celebrated problem of this gospel. If I am not

1 We have here one of the numerous coincidences between the popular

phraseology of different languages. Cf. the popular distributive zwei und zwei
in German; in English “two and two.” A curious case of an analogous
idiom (which, had it come down to us in a Greek literary work, would certainly
have been reckoned as a Semiticism) is the duplication of ‘‘ between,”
(zwischen) which may often be observed in the German of writers and spzech-
makers, 6.6. “ between the Lutherans and between the Calvinists ’’ instead
of ‘‘ between the Lutherans and the Calvinists.’’ [One would expect this
anomalous use of zwischen, which might be due to the desire for emphasis, to
be extremely rare. But is ‘‘ between the Lutherans” much more absurd
than “‘ between each stroke ’’ in the idiomatic English phrase, ‘‘ he paused
between each stroke? ’’ (An example occurs in the English of this book:
“‘ between every word,’’ p. 230.) In any case the suggested analogy with two
and two seems remote. TR.]
3 Untersuchungen zur Geschichte dev griechischen Sprache, p. 188.
3 Cf. Jean Psichari, Essai sur le Grec de la Septante, p. 183 1.
4 iva (sic) δήσῃ τρία pia. Cf. δήσατε δεσμὰς δεομάς, “bind, them in
bundles,” which Blass,? p. 146 [Engl. ed.? p. 145], considers to have been the
original reading in Matt. xiii. 30. Ὁ
5 foe [ = αἶρε] κατὰ δύο δύο, “‘ take them up by two and two.”—In the Oxy-
thynchus Papyri No. 940, (letter, 5th cent. A.D.) μίαν μίαν is used, so the editors
(Grenfell and Hunt) think, in the sense of una = “ together ”’ἴδε: VI. 1908,
Ρ. 310).
6 ὡς μονογενοῦς παρὰ πατρὸς πλήρης [Codex D πλήρη] χάριτος καὶ ἀληθείας.
This πλήρης occurs also in other passages of the New Testament and the
Septuagint.
 124 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
mistaken,! this ‘‘ nominative ” has been regarded by a pious
Silesian commentator of our own day as a peculiarly fine
dogmatic distinction of the inspired sacred text. In matters
linguistic, however, the commentator’s piety is not enough.
I agree, mutatis mutandis, with Hans Thoma,? who once told
the Protestant clergy of Baden that it would be more desirable
‘o have a sinner painting good pictures than to have a saint
painting bad ones. The present case, therefore, must be
decided by cold philological considerations, and philology
tells us, on the evidence of papyri,* ostraca, and wooden
tablets, that πλήρης as used by the people had often shrunk
and become indeclinable. The oldest example hitherto
known 5 is in the dreams of the twin-sisters and Ptolemaeus, é
160 B.c., contemporary, therefore, with the Septuagint usage.
Another pre-Johannine example is afforded by.an Egyptian
wooden tablet, probably of the reign of Augustus.” Next
come a number of quotations from papyri, and, as might have
been expected, the statistics have been further enriched by
the ostraca,® also by popular literature such as the Acts of
Thomas. Moulton * is quite right in saying that a Greek
1 I could not lay my hand on the passage in 1908, but since the edition of
1909 it has been found for me by Wilh. Michaelis. In the Evangelische
Kirchenzeitung, No. 47, of το Nov., 1893, p. 770, ὟΝ. Koelling wrote: ‘‘ The
Holy Ghost suffered the apostle to write the nominative instead of the genitive,
because the Lord Jesus is always our Nominative. He is the Name, Nomen,
that is above allnames. We are only His Genitive.”
2 (The painter, ὃ. 1839, ὦ. 1924. He was the holder of two honorary
degrees of the University of Heidelberg, Dr. phil. and D. theol., the latter
conferred in October, 1909. TR.]
3 Bericht tiber die Tatigkeit des Wissenschaftlichen Predigervereins der
evangelischen Geistlichkeit Badens im Jahre 1906, Karlsruhe, 1907, p. 10.
4 Cf. Blass, Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Griechisch,? Ὁ. 84 and even
1p. 81 (Engl. ed. p. 81]. Hermann Diels (letter, Berlin W., 22 July, 1908)
refers further to A. Brinkmann, Rheinisches Museum, 54, p. 94, and Berl.
Philol. Wochenschrift, 1900, col. 252.
5 Cf. J. H. Moulton, Grammar,* p. 50, and Mayser, Grammatik dey griechi-
schen Papyri, p.63. All other needful references will be found there.
'® Somnia Gemellarum et Ptolemaei, Leyden Papyrus, C Il,, (Papyri
Gracci Musei . . . Lugduni-Batavi, ed. C. Leemans, t. I. [1843] p. 118).
7 Revue Archéologique, 29 (1875) p. 233 £. ἔδωκα αὐτῶ (sic) τὰ ναῦλα πλήρης
καὶ τὰς δαπάνας, “1 have given him his full fare and money to spend.”
§ Wilcken, Griechische Ostvaka, No. 1071, Thebes, 16 February, 185 A.D.;
probably also No. 1222, Thebes, Roman period.
® Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha ed. Bonnet, II. 2, p. 212,, and also 118,0.
(Reference sent by F. Rostalski, in a letter dated Myslowitz, 13 Dec., 1911).
10 Grammar,’ p. 50. ‘
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW ΤΕΘΒΤΑΜΕῈΝΤ 125
with a literary training would not have used the shrunken
form. But he goes too far in assuming that it was first
introduced into the Gospel of St. John by a copyist. The
copyists worked as a rule quite mechanically, like our com-
positors; when they made linguistic changesin the text of
the New Testament they did so under the orders of trained
theologians—men who generally must have been under the
influence of Atticism and opposed to the vernacular.1_ Where
the textual authorities show variations, then, in the gospels
and in St. Paul popular forms have always a fair claim to
preference. There is no reason for regarding πλήρης in St.
John as not original. The vulgar form occurring in the
lapidary style of the prologue—a field anemone amid the
marble blocks—is in fact a clear token of the popular character
which even this gospel bears. The scholar: whose instinct
may have been misled by the word Logos in the first line is
brought back to the right road by this undoubtedly vulgar
form.
4. At the end of these syntactic examples I place a line
from the gospel,? which, owing to the history of its inter-
pretation, is of singular interest in sacred philology. One of
the sayings of Jesus, containing no dogma and therefore for
some people insignificant,’ but radiant with warm light to
the sympathetic observer of the story of the Passion, has been
fated, in spite of its having been quite correctly rendered
intuitively in the earliest Bible translations, to be mis-
interpreted, nay mishandled, under the influence of the
lifeless normalising of the Atticists. On the night of the
betrayal, after Judas had greeted and kissed the Master,
Jesus said to him, according to Matthew xxvi. 50, ἑταῖρε,
ἐφ᾽ ὃ πάρει; “Friend, wherefore art thou come?”’ To anyone

1 The whole problem, as it affects the gospels, has been investigated by

Wilhelm Michaelis in a dissertation forthe Berlin degree of Licentiate in
Theology, ‘‘ Der Attizismus und das Neuve Testament,” Zeitschrift fiir die
neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1923, p. 91 ff.
. 3 [This section, which is one of the additions to the fourth edition, appeared:
in shortened form in The Expository Times 33 (August 1922) pp. 491-3,
“ Friend, wherefore art thou come? ” translated by Rev. Clarence Craig. TR.]
3 [It is omitted, for instance, in Charles Foster Kent’s Shorter Bible: The
New Testament, London [1918], p. 49, though that work aims “to single
out... those parts of the Bible which are of vital interest and practical
value to the present age “’ (p. v.). TR.)
 126 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
reading them with the eye of an old-time Hellenist these
simple words cause as little difficulty as that other similar
line from the gospel in the fragmentary 1 parable of a wedding
(Matthew xxii. 12), ‘‘ Friend, how camest thou in hither?’ ?
Linguistically there is no difficulty.
Both ἐπί with the accusative and the verb πάρειμι. are
completely free from ambiguity. For the combination of
the two we find exact parallels in profane literature: Plato,
Gorgias 447 ἐπ᾽ αὐτό ye τοῦτο πάρεσμεν, “that is why
we are here,’ and, still more apt, because interrogative,
Aristophanes, Lysistrata 1101 ἐπὶ τί πάρεστε δεῦρο; “ why
are ye here present? ’’ Such ‘“ why here? ” questions must
have been put in this form times without number in actual
daily life. .
The words addressed to Judas are also a “‘ why here?”
question. The use of the relative ὅς as an interrogative is
by no means rare in late Greek, although grammarians of note
thought it incredible before the-late texts had been system--
atically worked through. It has its analogies in other
languages and its counterpart in the frequent use of the
interrogative τίς as a relative.? I have collected together in
a footnote * some examples of the interrogative ὅς that had
been noticed by other grammarians (Jannaris, Radermacher,
A. T. Robertson, Blass and Debrunner). It is worth remark-
1 The beginning-of the parable is lost; only the conclusion is presérved,
beginning with Matt. xxii.11. What precedes is another parable of a wedding,
concluding with verse 1o. :
2 ἑταῖρε, πῶς εἰσῆλθες ὧδε;
5 Moulton, Einleitung in die Sprache des N.T., Heidelberg, 1911, p. 149
(A Grammar of New Testament Greek, i. (Prolegomena),® p. 93), gives good
examples from the LXX, papyri, and inscriptions. Cf. also Blass-Debrunner,®
§ 298, 4. Iadd LXX Lev. xxi. 17 (cf. Karl Huber, Untersuchungen tiber den
Sprachchavakter des gviechischen Leviticus, Giessen, 1916, p. 69). The same
‘thing is found also in vulgar Latin (F. Pfister, Rheinisches Museum, 67 (1912)
p. 203 f.).
4 Pseudo(?)-Justin, Cohortatio ad Gentiles V. 78 (Migne, Patrologia Graeca 6,
col. 253 A) δι’ ἣν αἰτίαν... προσέχεις Ὁμήρῳ; Eusebius, Praeparatio
Evangelica vi. 7 (Gaisford p. 257 d) dv δὲ ἕνεκα ταῦτα προσήνεγκα τῷ
λόγῳ; Apophthegmata Patrum, Migne, Patrologia Graeca 65, col. 105 C
᾿Αρσένιε, δι’ ὃ ἐξῆλθες; Usener, Der heilige Tychon, Leipzig, 1907, p. 50
refers also to the interrogative formulae ἀνθ᾽ ὅτου (in Cyril of Alexandria, and
perhaps already in Julian the Apostate), ὅτου χάριν (in Sophronius), οὗ χάριν
(in the biography of St. Tycho by Johannes Eleemon), and μέχρις οὗ ποτέ
in the “ Spiritual Meadow ’”’ of Johannes Moschi; exact references will be
found in Usener, loc. cit.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW ΤΕΒΤΑΜΕΝΤ᾽ 127
ing that our gospel passage is at present the earliest instance
found in literature.
The earliest translators of the New Testament understood
the interrogative sense of the sentence perfectly. We must
not think of these men as scholars who spoke one single
language and had learnt others at school, in order to translate
line for line with all the apparatus of learning. Much rather
were they, like the translators of the sayings of Jesus, polyglot
Christians who from childhood had spoken two or three
languages. How often do we find this same type even to-day
in the modern East! Of course they spoke the living
languages with their corruptions, and Greek regardless of
Atticist affectations. In translating they were guided
simply by unsophisticated linguistic instinct, and we can
be sure that they but seldom went astray. Hence the
earliest translations, the Old Latin (Vetus Itala) and the Old
Syriac, which are generally cited only as authorities for the
text, are not only important sources for the history of exegesis,
but also a mine of information for the modern expositor.
Now the Vetus Itala and the Syriac (Sinaitic) version both
understood the words addressed to Judas as a ‘‘ why here? ”’
question; and many other translations, ancient and modern,
have followed them on this right path.!
Misinterpretations of the passage began early. They are
all based upon failure to recognise the interrogative meaning
of the 6. As early as 812 A.D. the Codex Armachanus, which
is a representative of the Hibernian text,? reads “‘ amice, fac
ad quod venisti,”’ thus restoringthe relative sense by violence :
“friend, do that for which thou art come.” Eight hundred
years later, when the official Papal editions of the Vulgate,
the Sixtine and the Clementine, print “ ad quid venisti? ”’
1T select a few: the Latin Vulgate; Luther; Johannes Piscator, the
Calvinist, in his work on the Bible (German, Herborn, 1604; Latin, Herborn,
1613); the English Authorised Version of 1611, ‘‘ friend, wherefore art thou
come?” (and its predecessors, Tyndale, 1526; Wycliffe, 1389; and the
toth cent. Old English version, Tr.]; the Dutch “ Statenbijbel’’ [Bible
translated and published by authority of the States-General, 1637. ΤᾺ];
the translation into popular Greek by Maximos Kalliupolita (Geneva, 1638),
ὦ φίλε, διατὲ ἦλθες ἐδῶ; as also the edition published by Queen Olga
(Athens, 1900), φίλε, διατί ἦλθες; the French translations by David Martin
and by J. F. Ostervald; the Italian (Roma, 1892); the versions in German
by Weizsicker and by Schlégl.
3 Nouum Testamentum Latine ed. White (1911), p. vii.
128 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
instead of Jerome’s “ δά quod 1 venisti? ” the interrogative
sense is fortunately not done away with, but the text is, at
least in form, made more elegant. That Euthymius (12th
cent.), a Byzantine expositor, trained and working under
strong Atticist influence, should expressly reject the interro-
gative meaning of 6,2 is not to be wondered at : that is dictated
by the same feeling as the ‘‘ fac ad quod venisti’”’ of the Irish
codex. But for that reason Euthymius should not be cited
as an authority in those cases in which Atticist linguistic
instinct conflicts with the living spoken language.
The influence of these Atticist misinterpretations has been
very strong down to the present day. The majority of modern
commentators, being at the mercy of the older and to some
extent obsolete grammars, and generally powerless to criticise
them, are suspicious of the interrogative 6. It is ‘therefore
not surprising that the English Revised Version of 1881, for
instance, altered the correct translation of the Authorised
Version of 1611, “ friend, wherefore art thou come?” into
“friend, do that for which thou art come’’—exactly the
text of the Book of Armagh.‘
Two other recent attempts are yet more open to objection,
in spite of the high reputation of their authors. Julius
Wellhausen,® with the approval of E. Klostermann,® explains
the sentence as abbreviated: ‘‘ [dost thou kiss me for the
purpose] for which, as we see, thou art come?” He thinks
there was no need to say ‘‘ dost thou kiss me,” because the
kissing was just being enacted at the moment. Klostermann
1 This ad quod is a Latin vulgarism, exactly corresponding to the Greek
ἐφ᾽ 6, doubtless no mere imitation of the Greek original by the translator.
Cf. the usage of Gregory of Tours (F. Pfister, Rheinisches Museum, 67 (1912)
Pp. 203). Ν
2 Cf. Ε. Klostermann (in Lietzmann’s Handbuch) on Matt. xxvi. 50;
he follows the authority of Euthymius.
3 It has been remarked fairly frequently that Old Irish Biblical scholarship
was strongly influenced by the Greek; cf. for instance my article, “ Hisperica
Famina in einem Evangelienkodex,” Deutsche Literaturzeitung 34 (1913) col.
(325 ff,
4 [So ‘‘ The Twentieth Century New Testament, published by the Sunday
School Union, London (preface dated Sept. 1904) says, “‘ Friend, do what
you have come for”; R. F. Weymouth, The New Testament in Modern
Speech (1903), ‘‘ Friend, carry out your intention’; James Moffatt, The New
Testament: a New Translation, ‘‘My man, do your errand.’ Tr.]
5 Das Evangelium Matthaei erkldrt, Berlin, 1904, p. 140.
® Loc. cit., p. 3374.
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 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT τ29
translates stil! more strangely: ‘‘ [dost thou abuse the kiss]
for the purpose for which thou art here?’’! I have the
feeling here that the reference to “ enacting ᾿᾿ disposes of this
interpretation. The evangelist is not trying to describe a
mimic performance in a passion play, in which the action
of one player and the words of another are nicely calculated
to coincide and match one another, but a fragment of tragic
reality. Imagine those words of Jesus as they were spoken
in the reality of the night of betrayal, and no one with feelings
unperverted can understand them thus.
Friedrich Blass 2 on the other hand, in whom the Atticist
dislike of an interrogative 6 is more easily intelligible, has no
compunction in taking strong measures with the clearly
established text. He thinks ἑταῖρε must be a corruption
of αἶρε or ἑταῖρε alpe, “ take,” or “ friend, take [that] for
which thou art come.” Thus is sacrificed to Atticism one of
the most authentic, most wondrous of the Redeemer’s
sayings, an unintentioned self-revelation of the Betrayed
that shines forth into the darkness of the betrayer’s infamy.
Though he has sunk so low, still He calls him ‘‘ companion,
comrade, friend.’’ How could the.gospel of the Passion ever
surrender its claim to this human, this more than human
utterance, except under dire necessity ? -
There is no necessity. Anyone who, distrustful of the
historical method in Biblical’ philology, demands a special
illustrative quotation for each single passage, can be satisfied
in this instance. A Greek motto found on Syrian glasses of
the gospel period teaches us that this very question ἐφ᾽ ὃ πάρει ;
was current coin in the language of the people. In the
collection of my friend Theodor Wiegand there is a glass
goblet,4 obtained by him in the Crimea. Inscribed on it
externally, and running completely round it like a band or
ring, we find the inscription which is reproduced ὅ in Figure 16.
1 These interpretations are akin to the older one by Curt Stage, Das Neue
Testament iibersetat in die Sprache dev Gegenwart, Leipzig (published by Reclam),
[1896], p. 67: ‘‘ (Do not dissemble with your kiss, but do) what you are here
for.” 2 Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Griechisch (1896), p. 172.
8. No doubt Matthew has the primary tradition here; the parallel passage
in Luke xxii. 48 isworded more in the style appropriate to the cult.
4 [Now in the possession of Dr. Rendel Harris, Birmingham. TR.]
5 Our facsimile gives the inscription in the size of the original, but of course
without indication of the ring-like arrangement. It is not improbable that
the goblet came from Syria.
130 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST ©
To Wiegand I am indebted for a drawing of the inscription,
while to him and to Georg Méller (whose premature death we
deplore) I owe my knowledge of the existence of other speci-
mens. Wiegand assigns the writing to the first century A.D.
He has of course examined it minutely and describes it thus :
The inscription is in two halves, one on each half of the
goblet, which is pressed out of two half-moulds, and the
spacing is such that one cannot see where the motto begins.
I have no doubt that it begins with the question ἐφ᾽ ὃ πάρει ;
and that εὐφραίνου is the answer. The inscription on the
goblet and the text in the gospel afford each other mutual
support.! If, with ample security in popular Greek usage,
we are compelled by intrinsic reasons to regard the sentence
in the story of the Passion as a question, then from the
Syrian goblet comes also a question, the merry question.
““why here? ᾿᾿ addressed to the guest, followed by the equally
merry answer.”
The Berlin Museum possesses other similar glasses: one
is No. 11,866 in the catalogue, the other is No. 212 in the
Von Gans collection. Both display the orthographic variant
ἐφ᾽ ᾧ instead of ἐφ᾽ 8.3 -Goblet No. 11,866 has before and
after εὐφραίνου a vertical line caused by moulding, so that,
as in Wiegand’s specimen, which is without a line, the begin-
ning and end of the motto are not at once recognisable. The
Von Gans goblet No. 212 on’ the other hand has a vertical

1 In itself εὐφραίνου ἐφ᾽ ὃ πάρει would also be possible. But what would.
be the sense of saying ‘‘ rejoice for that thou art here’? It would be an
extremely feeble motto. The proposal to translate thus was made to me by
someone who was influenced by having naturally taken ὅ first of all as a relative.
An alternative suggestion from the same quarter was, “ rejoice so long as
thou art here,” 1.6. ‘‘ while thou art alive.’’ This version is also very little
convincing, and it is grammatically harsh.
3 Cf. Psalm ciii. (οἷν) 15, οἶνος εὐφραίνει καρδίαν ἀνθρώπου, ‘ wine
maketh glad the heart of man,’’ and the frequent inscription on black-
figured drinking vessels from Attica, χαῖρε καὶ πίει. (On the form πίει and
' the interpretation of the whole line cf. Otto Lagercrantz, Eranos, vol. 14, p.
171 ff.) [In the N.T. Luke xii. 19; xv. 23, 24, 29, 32, etc. TR.]
3 For the same variant (ἐφ᾽ & instead of ἐφ᾽ 3) furnished by a minority of the
MSS. in Matt. xxvi. 50 the Syrian glasses afford, therefore, an instructive
parallel. -The variant can hardly be based on any objective consideration,
but probably points to the fact that at an early date o and w were no longer
distinguished in pronunciation. The writers and copyists of the New Testa-
ment therefore had the same chance of varying the spelling as the unknown
persons who provided the motto for the Syrian glassmakers,
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT _ 131
moulding-line only after εὐφραίνου, which might therefore
mark the end and the beginning of the motto. Since other
vessels of similar kind with mottoes are also extant elsewhere,}
it is allowable to assume that this type with motto was
widespread and generally known. I do not wish to hint that
the translator of the Aramaic of Jesus with his ἐφ᾽ ὃ πάρει was
influenced by the motto; but I assume that he, no less than
the motto itself, drew this usage of the interrogative 6 from
the language of the people.

E. We pass now to consider briefly, in conclusion, the style

of the New Testament in the light of the profane texts.?
Let us take as our example the Johannine writings. It has
become an inviolable tradition with commentators to repre-
sent the Johannine style as particularly Semitic, chiefly on
account of its preference for paratactic constructions,
especially ‘‘and ... and,” which occurs so frequently.
So recent a writer as E. von Dobschiitz,? who distinguishes
an original and an adaptation in the First Epistle of St. John,
has these observations on the style of the original, conveyed,
it may be remarked, in a highly paratactic style of his own :—
1 Cf. (as I am informed by Th. Wiegand, 28 July, 1921) G. Sangiorgi,
Collezione di vetyi antichi, Milano-Roma, 1914, p. 33 (Plate 19): a Syrian
glass, found in the province of Cremona, is inscribed with our motto (ἐφ᾽ @
πάρει; εὐφραίνου. The editor has reversed the two halves of the motto.
If we once begin to give heed to this type of vessel, we shall probably be able
to discover yet more examples.—So I conjectured when preparing my MS.
for the fourth edition, and before the printing was complete I heard from
Wiegand of a glass goblet in the collection of Mr. Thomas E. H. Curtis, of
Plainfield (New Jersey). The editor, Gisela M. A. Richter, ‘‘ Art in America,”
vol. 2 (1914),Ῥ- 85, gives the text thus: Εὐφραίνου ἐφ᾽ [sic] ὦ Πάρις, and
translates: ‘‘‘ Rejoice in that in which Paris rejoiced’’; that is, in the
beauty of women,’ There must be either a misreading here or an error in the
making of the vessel. The facsimile of the goblet (Plate 17, No. 14) unfortu-
nately shows only the εὐυφραινου side. [W. M. Calder, Classical Review, 38
(1924) p. 30, points out that πάρις18 for πάρεις; the use of the Epic and
Ionic form εἷς for ef can be paralleled from Hellenistic inscriptions. Tr.]
2 Cf. the general observations above, p. 69 ff.
3“ Johanneische Studien,” Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissen-
schaft und die Kunde des Urchristentums, 8 (1907) p. 7. Wilhelm Heitmiiller
in the Gegenwartsbibel (Die Schriften des N. T. . . ., herausg. von Johannes
Weiss), II., Géttingen, 1907, 3, p. 175, pronounced a similar judgment, and
even ventured from the structure of the sentences and their connexion to draw
conclusions as to the birth-certificate of the writer: ‘‘ They betray beyond
doubt the Jewish origin of the evangelist.”
132 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT. EAST
“Thesis stands beside thesis, sentence opposes sentence;
there are none of the delicate connecting particles, appropriate
to every gradation in the thought, which are so abundant in
classical Greek. These are no doubt greatly diminished in the
colloquial language of the Hellenistic period. But a style such
as we have here is really not Greek. It is Semitic thinking that
is here displayed. Only in the Septuagint is there anything
like it to be found.”

Even apart from our new texts, we could appeal to the facts
of Indo-Germanic philology in refutation of this branding of
parataxis as ‘not Greek.” Parataxis appears to be not
Greek only from the orthodox point of view of the Atticists,
who laid it down that the periodic structure with hypotaxis
was good, beautiful, and Greek pay excellence. As a matter
of fact, parataxis is the original form of every primitive speech,
including the Greek ; it survived continuously in the language
of the people, and even found its way into literature when the
ordinary conversation of the people was imitated. The facts
are admirably stated by Karl Brugmann !:—
“It is beyond doubt that the language of Homer exhibits on
the whole far more of the original paratactic structure than the
language of Herodotus and the Attic prose writers, such as
Thucydides, Plato, Demosthenes. . . . This is not because the
language of Homer is older and closer to the primitive Indo-
Germanic type of language, but rather because the epic is less
detached than the later literature from the natural soil of lan-
1 Griechische Grammatik® (Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft,
II. 14), Miinchen, 1900, p. 555 f. (4{Thumb], p. 640). Eduard Norden in his
great work, Agnostos Theos, Leipzig and Berlin, 1913, p. 367 ff., controverting
my view of the xai-sentences which are piled up as it were in series in Luke,
defends them as Semitic. I think we have here a special case of what I have
already touched on at p. 4 above—radical difference of opinion as to the
concept “Greek.” Of course it is certain that artistic Attic prose prefers
hypotaxis to parataxis. But the texts on stone and papyrus, written by
people who were not Semites, prove that parataxis was as natural to the
popular language of unconventionalised Greek as to the Semites. If we
possessed more texts from Greece of the classical period of
direct popular origin,
we should probably find parataxis in living use even there. But Brugmann’s
indirect examples are sutticient. The fact was clearly recognised already in
Alexander Buttmann’s Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Spvrachgebrauchs,
Berlin, 1859, p. 248. Cf. further Radermacher, Wiener Studien 31 .(1909),
p. 8f.; Lagercrantz, Eranos 14 p. 171 ff.; F. Pfister, Die parataktische
Darstellungsform in der volkstiimlichen Erzdhlung, Wochenschrift fir
klassische Philologie 28 (1911) col. 809 ff.; Witkowski, Glotta 6 p. 22f.;
Otto Weinreich, Neue Urkunden zur Sarapis-Religion, Tiibingen, 1919, p. 14.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW ΤΕΒΤΑΜΕΝΤ 133
guage. Wherever in the Indo-Germanic sphere a genuine popular
dialect is found to exist side by side with a more highly developed
literary language, we see that the popular dialect makes far
more use of the paratactic form of expression than the literary
language. If a work of later date, say, for example, of the 3rd
century B.C., were preserved, presenting to us as true a specimen
of popular sentence-construction as the Homeric poems, the
language of Homer would probably in this respect appear scarcely
more archaic. There is in fact no very great difference to be
detected between Homeric Greek and the Modern Greek dialects
in this particular. When, in the age of literary practice and
scholastic training, we find authors using paratactic construc-
tions where they might have employed hypotactic forms, such
being in general use in the cultivated language, we may generally
assume that there has been an upward borrowing from the forms
of the language of every-day life.”

Brugmann illustrates this last remark by examples from

the Greek Comedy and from Demosthenes; in both cases
there is conscious imitation of the popular 7 style.?
If we have once recognised the popular character of the
Johannine style—not the result, this, of conscious imitation,
but in large measure a wild, natural growth—then we have
solved the riddle which our Atticist commentators with their
censorial attitude are always discovering. St. John is
popular in style both when he is narrating. something, or
making reflections of his own, and when he reproduces the
sayings of Christ. It is easy to find instances to prove this—
both of-the popular narrative style, with its short paratactic
sentences and its “and... and,” and of the stately style,
impressive by the very simplicity of its popular appeal, in
1 This is obvious, of course, in the case of Comedy. (Cf. D. B. Durham,
The Vocabulary of Menandey considered in its relation to the Koine, Diss.,
Princeton, 1913, p. 35 ff.,and the Latin parallels in F. Pfister, Rheinisches
Museum, New Series 67 [1912] p. 197.) We have here the reason why the
«vocabulary of Comedy finds such frequent echoes in the New Testament.
It is not because the apostles were regular attendants at the theatre or
readers of Comedy, but Comedy and New Testament both draw from the
popular colloquial language as from a common spring.
2 The examples in Wilhelm Schmid, Dey Atticismus, I. p. 422, II. p. 299,
III. p. 326, are also very well worth noting. Cf. also Eduard Schwyzer,
Neugriechische Syntax und altgriechische, Neue Jahrbiicher fir das klassische
Altertum, etc., 1908, 1 Abteilung, 21 Band, p. 500; and Jean Psichari, Essai
suy le Grec de la Septante, p. 186.
134 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST.
which Divinity manifests itself in the first person to strangers
and devotees.
One of the most vivid examples of popular narrative style
is the report by an Egyptian named Ptolemaeus to Damo-
xenus, in the year 160 B.c. concerning his dreams * (Paris
Papyri, No. 51). I should have liked to reprint this extra-
ordinarily interesting text here, but it is advisable to await
the appearance of Wilcken’s edition of the papyri of the
Ptolemaic period.”
Another good example is the letter of consolation written
by Irene, an Egyptian woman of the second century A.D.,
and found at Oxyrhynchus. This letter will be discussed
in a later chapter.’
Here is the story told by two “ pig-merchants,’”’ about
ΓΙ

171 A.D., in their letter of complaint to the Strategus, found

at Euhemeria (Kasr el-Banat) in the Fayam4:—
. ἐχθὲς ἥτις ἦν ιθ τοῦ [ὄϊντος ... Yesterday, which was
μηνὸς O86 ἀνερχομένων ἡμῶν ὅ ἀπὸ the 19th of the present month
Thoth, as we were returning
κώμης Θεαδελφείας Θεμίστου μερίδος
about daybreak from the village
ὑπὸ τὸν ὄρθρον ἐπῆλθαν ἡμεῖν
of Theadelphia in the division
κακοῦργοί τινες ἀνὰ [μ]έσον Iodv- | of Themistes, certain male-
Sevxias καὶ τῆς Θεαδελφείας καὶ | factors came upon us between
ἔδησαν ἡμᾶς σὺν καὶ ὁτῷ paySwdro- |Polydeucia and Theadelphia,
φύλακι καὶ πληγαῖς ἡμᾶς πλίσταις and bound us, with the guard
of the tower also, and assaulted
ἥκισαν κ[αὶ] τραυματιαῖον ἐποίησαν
: τ _ | us with very many stripes, and
τὸν [Πασίω]να καὶ eioavijpaly ἡμ]ῶν |wounded Pasion, and robbed
χοιρίδι[ον] u καὶ ἐβάσ[ταξαν τὸν τοῦ |us of τ pig, and carried off
Πασίωνος κιτῶνα. .. καί. «. Pasion’s coat... and... .
T Notices et Extraits, 18, 2, p. 323 f.
2 Wilcken has given us the text provisionally, by way of ἀρῥαβών, in the
Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung 6, p. 204 ff.
3 Cf. p. 176, below.
4 Faytm Towns and their Papyri, No. 108.
5 This ‘‘ incorrect” genitive absolute with a following dative occurs in™
exactly the same way in John iv. 51, and many other New Testament passages.
For parallels in vulgar Latin see F. Pfister, Rheinisches Museum 67 (1912)
p. 206 f.
6 For this pleonastic σὺν καί cf. μετὰ καί in Phil. iv. 3, and see Neue Bibel-
studien, p. 93, Bible Studies, PP- 64, 265 1.
7 Cf. the parallel descriptive details of the robber scene in the parable of
the Good Samaritan, Luke x. 30: mention of the road on which the outrage
took place (‘‘ from Jerusalem to Jericho ”’), the stripes (‘‘ beat him,” R.V.),
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW ΤΕΘΒΤΑΜΕΝΤ 135
How firmly this “and . . . and”’ style was rooted in the
language of the people is shown by a much later bill of com-
plaint of a Christian Egyptian woman who had been ill-
treated by her husband (Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No. 903, 4th
century A.D.).
The parallelism of the style comes out most clearly if we
compare texts of similar content. For instance we might
take these sentences from the story of the man born blind
(John ix. 7, 11) :—
7. Καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ « ὕπαγε νίψαι
K ‘ > > ας ΄ as
7. And said unto him, Go,
εἰς τὴν κολυμβήθραν τοῦ Σιλωάμ (ὃ wash in the pool of Siloam
(which is by interpretation,
ἑρμηνεύεται ἀπεσταλμένος). ἀπῆλθεν
Sent). He went away there-
οὖν καὶ ἐνίψατο καὶ ἦλθεν βλέπων. fore, and washed, and came
II. ἀπεκρίθη ἐκεῖνος - ὃ ἄνθρωπος ὃ seeing. 31. He answered, The
, » a N >
λεγόμενος Ἰησοῦς πηλὸν ἐποίησεν
,
man that is called Jesus made
καὶ ἐπέχρισέν μον τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς clay, and anointed mine eyes,
and said unto me, Go to
καὶ εἶπέν μοι ὅτι ὕπαγε εἰς τὸν
x “᾿- ΄ Lg 7 > Ν

Siloam, and wash: so I went

Σιλωὰμ καὶ νίψαι. ἀπελθὼν οὖν καὶ
away and washed, and I re-
νιψάμενος ἀνέβλεψα. ceived sight. (R.V.)

Compare with these sentences one of four records of cures in-

scribed on a marble tablet some time after 138 a.D., probably
at the temple of Asclepius on the island in the Tiber at
Rome 1 :—
Οὐαλερίῳ "Arpw στρατιώτῃ τυφλῷ To Valerius Aper, ἃ blind
ἐχρημάτισεν 2 ὃ θεὸς ἐλθεῖν 5 καὶ soldier, the god revealed ? that
λαβεῖν αἷμα ἐξ ἀλεκτρυῶνος λευκοῦ he should go% and take blood
of a white cock, together with
μετὰ μέλιτος καὶ κολλύριο[ν] ὁ συν-
honey, and rub them into an
τρῖψαι καὶ ἐπὶ τρεῖς ἡμέρας ἐπι- eyesalve * and anoint ὅ his eyes
χρεῖσαιδ ἐπὶ τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς. καὶ three days. And he received
ἀνέβλεψεν ὃ καὶ ἐλήλυθεν ἴ καὶ ndxa- his sight,® and came” and gave
ρίστησεν "δημοσίᾳ
ἔστησεν ® δημοσίᾳ 9 τῷτῷ θεᾷ
θεῷ.10 thanks 8 publicly ® to the god.1°
the theft of clothing. It is clear that the parable was successful in hitting the
popular tone. The papyri and inscriptions furnish good contempgrary illus-
trations of the same kind to other of our Lord’s parables, 6.6. the importunate
widow (Luke xviii. 1 ff.) Tauetis of the village of Socnopaei Nesus (Berliner
Griechische Urkunden, No. 522, Fayiim, 2nd century a.p.), or the prodigal
son Antonis Longus with his confession of sins to his mother Nilus (Berliner
Griechische Urkunden, No. 846, Fayim, 2nd century a.p.; see below, pp.
187 ff.) and ‘‘ Parable ” in Index IV.
(For notes 1 to ro see next page.
#
136 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
This text is, if possible, even more paratactic (‘‘ Semitic,”
people would say, if it were a quotation from the New Testa-
ment) than the corresponding passage in St. John.
Most striking of all, however, is the similarity between the
utterances of the Johannine Christ in the first person, spoken
with the solemnity proper to a cult, and certain ancient
examples of the same style as we find it in widespread. use
for the purposes of non-Christian and pre-Christian religion.
An inscription in honour of Isis at Nysa in “ Arabia,’’ pre-
served by Diodorus of Sicily, and an Isis inscription in the
island of Ios, may convey to us an impression of this “ cult ”’
style; we hear its echo still in texts of post-Johannine date.
In the case of the second inscription there is another 1 of those
delightful accidents to be recorded which serve to recompense
all who are wearied by the toil of compiling the statistics of
language. This inscription, highly important also in respect
of its contents, is now in the church of St. John the Divine,
Ios, written on a portion of fluted column which now serves to
support the altar: St. John the Divine has rescued this
venerable document of a prose akin to his own. The first
editor of the inscription, R. Weil,? considered it, strangely
1 Cf. p. 103 f. above for the similar preservation of the ἐπισυναγωγή
inscription.
2 Athenische Mitteilungen, 2 (1877) p. 81.

Notes to p. 135 :—
1 Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 5980,5" = Dittenberger, Sylloge,?
No. 807169, (No. 117315,). Apart from the mere words the parallelism is of ~
course remarkable. Similarities both formal and actual occur also in the three
other records and in numerous tablets of the same kind from Epidaurus. For
a perfectly simple narrative style, consisting almost entirely of participial
constructions and sentences connected by καί, cf. the long inscription recording
the ‘‘Acts of Heracles,” Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 5984. The
word πράξεις is here used as in the title of St. Luke’s and other ‘ Acts of
‘the Apostles.”
2 So used frequently in the Greek Bible in the sense of divine warning
or revelation [e.g. LXX Jer. xxxii. (xxv.) 30, xxxvii. (xxx.) 2, xliii. (xxxvi.) 2, 4;
Matt. ii. 12, 22; Luke ii. 26; Acts x. 22; Heb. viii. 5, xi. 7, xii. 25].
3 Corresponding to the direct imperative ‘‘Go” in St. John.
4 Cf. the clay made of earth and spittle in St. John.
> The word is employed exactly as by St. John, who also construes it with ἐπί
. (ix. 6). ® Asin St. John.
7 As in John ix. 7. ® As often in the New Testament.
® Asin the Acts [xvi. 37, xviii. 28, xx. 20]. :
10 Cf. the grateful Samaritan, Luke xvii. 15 f.
“
LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 137
enough, to be an imperial edict or letter of the period of
the Christian persecutions. Its true character was after-
wards pointed out to him by Evstratiadis.1 It has re-
peatedly engaged the attention of scholars, and has been
published by Baron F. Hiller von Gaertringen,? who assigns
the writing to the (second or) third century A.D. By his
kind agency I am enabled to reproduce here (Figure 17), with
the permission of the Epigraphical Commission of the Prussian
Academy of Sciences, a carefully prepared facsimile of this
uncommonly interesting text by Alfred Schiff. In spite of
the late writing the text itself, as shown by the parallel text
from Nysa in our pre-Christian authority Diodorus, is old_in
the main, and probably much older than the Gospel of St.
John.
In order not to break the historical continuity I give first of
all the text from Nysa, then that from Ios,’ thirdly a Johan-
1 Athenische Mitteilungen, 2 (1877) p. 189 f.
2 Inscriptiones Graecae, XII. V. 1 No. 14, cf. p. 217; most recently in
Dittenberger, Sylloge? No. 1267. For an unimportant new fragment see
Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 28 (1904) p. 330. I afterwards dis-
covered that Adolf Erman, Die dgyptische Religion, Berlin, 1905, p. 245, also
translates the inscription (in part), and takes the same view of itasIdo. It
shows, he says, ‘‘ what the more simple souls thought of Isis.”
3 Among pre-Johannine texts we might also mention the “ Praise of
Wisdom,” in Ecclesiasticus xxiv., where the first personal pronoun is used at
least four times in the solemn manner. This style can undoubtedly be traced
still further back: cf. the solemn ‘‘ I am”’ of Jahveh in the Old Testament,
and the “1 used by the kings in ancient Oriental inscriptions, an echo of
which is found in the late inscription of Silco, a 6th cent. Christian King of
Nubia (Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 201).. The
parataxis in this inscription, which is sufficiently barbaric in other respects, is
exactly paralleled in the Isis inscriptions of Nysa and Ios. The best parallels
to the use of the first personal pronoun are to be found in Egyptian sacred
texts. Cf. for instance the texts in Albrecht Dieterich’s Eine Mithrasliturgie
erlauteri, Leipzig, 1903, p. 194 f., and the same scholar’s references to the Ley-
den magical papyrus V. in the Jahrbiicher fir classische Philologie herausg.
von Alfred Fleckeisen, 16. Supplementband, Leipzig, 1888, p. 773. E.g., in
the same papyrus, VII,,, we have ἐγώ εἰμι “Oorpis ὃ καλούμενος ὕδωρ, ἐγώ εἰμι Ἶσις
ἡ καλουμένη δρόσος, “1 am Osiris, who am called ‘ Water’; I am Isis, who am
called ‘Dew.’’’ Formal and actual parallels are also found in the London
magical papyrus No. 462¢ and 1214g¢¢, (Kenyon, I. pp. 72, 100) and particularly
in Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 11.5. Further details in Pfister, Wochenschrift
f. klass. Philol. 1911, col. 809 f. To one of his references, Acta Thomae
(Bonnet) II. 2 p. 148 f., Rostalski (letter, 25 Dec., 1912) adds another, Acta
Thomae 11. 2 Ὁ. 271. [M.R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford,
1924, pp. 379 f., 434; and cf. pp. 411-415. TrR.] A curious late after-effect
of the “1 ’-style is found in the sacred writings of the Yezidis, cf. the Qasidas
 138 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
nine text of similar form, and lastly an example of the sacral
use of the first person singular that is no doubt later than St.
John.

I
Diodorus of Sicily (t 27 B.c.) says in his History } that he
was acquainted with writers who had described the tombs
of Isis and Osiris at Nysa in ‘“‘ Arabia.’”’2 The tombstone of
each deity bore an inscription in “sacred characters,’”’ the
greater part of which had been already destroyed by time.
The still legible portion of the Isis inscription he gives as
follows :—
Ἐγὼ "lots εἰμι ἡ βασίλισσα I am Isis, the queen of every
πάσης
, ,
χώρας
€
vi] παιδευθεῖσα
- ε 4,
πὍυπὸο land, taught by Hermes, and
ε
Ἑρμοῦ,
a
καὶ
1 @
ὅσα
Pee)
ἐγὼ
΄
ἐνομοθέτησα, whatsoever things I have or-
dained, no one is able to loose.
οὐδεὶς αὐτὰ δύναται λῦσαι. Ἐγώ
them. I am the eldest daugh-
εἶμι ἡ τοῦ νεωτάτου Κρόνου θεοῦ
? € μὴ Ἂν , an

ter of Cronos, the youngest

Ouyar
yoTnp πρεσβυτάτη.
πρ μ Ἐγώ
γ εἰμι
μ god. I am wife and sister of
γυνὴ καὶ ἀδελφὴ ᾿Οσίριδος βασιλέως. King Osiris. I am the first
᾿Εγώ εἰμι ἡ πρώτη καρπὸν ἀνθρώποις that devised fruit for men.
I am mother of Horus the
spores: TBS wie μὲ τώρ" Opse eas King. I am she that riseth
βασιλέως. ᾿Εγώ εἰμι
ἡἐντῷ ἄστρῳ | in the dog-star. For me was
τῷ ἐν τῷ κυνὶ ἐτιτέλλουσα. ᾿Βμοὶ |the city of Bubastis built.
BovBacros ἡ πόλις φκοδομήθη. |Rejoice, rejoice? Egypt, that
Χαῖρε, χαῖρε Αἴγυπτε ἡ θρέψασά pe. nourished me.

Diodorus also gives a fragment of the Osiris inscription.

Like the other it consists of brief statements by Osiris about
himself, but the word “1 15 not so conspicuous as in the Isis
text.
(‘‘ elegies,’’ long poems) of the Sheikh ‘Adi (12th cent. a.p.) in R. Frank,
Scheich ‘Adi, dev gvosse Hetlige dey Jezidis, Diss., Erlangen, 1911, p. 111 ff.—
On the whole question the abundant material offered by E. Norden, Agnostos
Theos, pp. 186 ff., 207 ff., 220 ff. must now be considered. The great lines are
there clearly drawn by the historian of religion.
1 I. 27. I quote from the edition by F. Vogel, Leipzig, 1888.
? This statement must be regarded with suspicion. The text came pro-.
bably, as Wilcken conjectures, from Bubastis. Nysa is a fabulous place.
(Thanks to Diodorus ‘‘ Nysa’s isle ’’ has left traces in Milton, Paradise Lost,
, iv. 275-279, and Wordsworth, the poem called ‘‘ The Brownie’s Cell,” beginning
‘To barren heath.” Tr]
3 Or “ Hail, hail!”
 [ ΝΟ BIA
KA HEICILEPWELANI
HT. JoLTIALH?EK OR A)
ETIAJASZOHNY LED MOY TOE
5
ETO,EAT JO It
A E A L T
PAM AT
Γ
10

5 EW

20 CIAEPTAEYPAED WT OA
AC NN
HOA BTW ry NAIKAKAIANAP
ΕΓΝΓΎΝΑΙΞΙΔΕ KAMHNONBRE POLE ea
ONE! ΓΦΙΛΟΓΤΟΡΓΕ
᾿
NWNI
TONEIEIAIA
ΕΝ ἐς ETATO! CALTOPrOIC ETWME TA
vs KEIMENOICTEIMWPIANETTEOHKA
ΑΔ ΕΑ ΟΥΟΓΕΙ ΕΟΓΙΑΓΑΝΘΡΗΠο OAT IALETTAYT®
ΕΓΝΜΥΗΓΕΙΓΑΝ ΔΕ
ΘΝ ΠΟΙΓΑΝΕΔΕΙΛΑ
ΘΕΙΜΝΤΗΜΆΝΕΔΙΔᾺ ZAET MTEMENHOEWNEIAPYEA
ΜῊΝ ET WTYPAN NAPA PACK ATEAYCA ἘΠΥΓΓΕΙ͂ΓΕ
ALD,ETWJOAI
vo LOAITNNKALYTTANAPKINHNANK
ROTEPON XPY LOY KAIAPLY PIOYETIO!
KMONEICXY
HUD EFLITOAAHOELK AAONENOMOeETHEA
NOMIZEZOAIETLIC YN [PAGACTAMIKATEYP.,
TENE KTOYEEAAHEI KAIBAPR APOILAETOZA
᾿ ane ΤΠ o y KANTOAICXFONAIATEIN WkEL
AEE Oe
: , ἣ EW oY Oy

Fic. 17.—Isis Inscription from Ios. Writing of the (2nd or) ) 3rd cent. A.D.
Contents pre-Christian. Now in the church of St. John the Divine, Ios.
By permission of the Epigraphical Commission of the Prussian Academy of
Sciences. :
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT _ 139

II
That the Nysa inscription was no fiction, but a permanent
constituent in liturgical texts of the Isis cult, is proved by the
later record from Ios (Fig. 17), which is longer, but in no other
respect discordant. I print it here without preserving the
original division into lines, only marking (for convenience in
referring to the facsimile) the point where every fifth line
begins.
[Ὁ δεῖνα ἀνέθηκεν Ἐἤσι[δι Ν. Ν. dedicated this to Isis,
Σεράπ]ι [δ]. ᾿Ανούβιδι Κα[ρποκρά]τη. Serapis, Anubis, and Carpo-
᾽ Fae .» ε , ros crates. I am Isis, the mis-
Εἶσις ἐγώ 1 εἰμι ἡ τ[ύρανν]ος πάσης
hes. : .., , | tress of every land,? and was
χόρας καὶ (°) ἐπαιδ[ εὐθην ὑπὸ Ἑρμοῦ taught by Hermes, and devised
καὶ γράμματα εὗρον μετὰ Ἑρμοῦ |with Hermes the demotic?
τὰ δημόσια, ἵνα μὴ τοῖς αὐτοῖς πάντα letters, that all things might
γράφηται. ᾿Εγὼ νόμους ἀνθρώποις not be written with the same
(letters). I gave and ordained
ἐθέμην
μη καὶ ἐνομο-(1θ)θέτησα,
ΔῸΣ σα, ἃ οὐδεὶς
laws 4 unto men, which no one
δύναται μεταθεῖναι. ᾿Εγώ εἰμι Kpé- |is able to change. I am eldest
vou θυγάτηρ πρεσβυτάτη. “᾿Εγώ εἰμι |daughter of Cronos. I am
γυνὴ καὶ ἀδελφὴ Ὀσείρεος βασι- wife and sister of King Osiris.
λῶν "Eyed εἶμε θεοῖν Κυμὲς ἄκερῷ I am she that riseth in the star
seirtiCASer 18) Wek hae 3 of the Dog god. I am she that
ἐπιτέλζλλονσα. (0) Βγώ εἰμι ἦ ᾿ς called goddess by women.
παρὰ γυναιξὶ θεὸς καλουμένη.- ᾿Ε[μ]οὲ |For me was the city of Bubastis
Βούβαστις πόλις οἰκοδομήθη. Ἐγὼ. built.6 I divided the earth
ἐχώρισα γῆν ἀπ' οὐρανοῦ. Ἐγὼ. from the heaven. I showed
the paths of the stars.? I
ἄστ[ρ]ων ὁδοὺς ἔδειξα. Ἐγὼ ἡλίου
ordered the course of the sun
καὶ σελήνης πορείαν συνέταξα. Ἐγὼ |and moon.® I devised busi-
Oardo-(?)ora ἔργα edpa. ᾿Εγὼ τὸ |ness in the sea.® I made
ΤΊ was at one time not quite sure whether these two words were rightly
taken together. The anaphoric ἐγώ in the following lines leads us to expect
that the first sentence should also begin with ἐγώ. But the (metrical) Isis
inscription from Andros, Inscriptiones Graecae, XII. V. 1, No. 739, of the age
of Augustus, also has Ἶσις ἐγώ... several times.
3 Cf. Ecclus. xxiv. 6.
° As distinguished from the hieroglyphics.
4 Cf. the idea of divine legislation in the Old Testament.
® Cf. LXX Psalm cxxi. [cxxii.] 3, 4; Ecclus. xxiv. 11.
® Cf. LXX Gen. i. 7-10.
ΤΟΙ. LXX Gen. i. 16 f.; Job. ix. 7 ff.; xxxviii. 31 f.
5. Cf. LXX Gen. i. 16 f.; Job ix. 7 ff.; xxxviii. 31 1.
® Cf. Wisdom xiv. 3 ff.
 140 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Ἐγὼ
- δίκαϊον ἰσχυρὸν ἐποίησα. strong the right.1 I brought
γυναῖκα καὶ ἄνδρα συνήγαγα. Ἐγὼ together woman and man.?
γυναιξὶ δεκάμηνον βρέφος ἐνέταξα.
I appointed unto women the
new-born babe in the tenth
"Ey ὑπὸ τέκνων γονεῖς φιλοστοργεῖ-
month? 1 ordained that
σθαι ἐνομοθέτησα. Ἐγὼ τοῖς ἀστόρ-
parents should be loved by
yous ‘ γονεῖσι
5 25 ,
δια-(Ξ5)κειμένοις τειμω- children. I laid punishment
ρίαν ἐπέθηκα. Ἐγὼ μετὰ τοῦ upon those disposed ‘without
ἀδελφοῦ ᾿Οσείρεος τὰς ἀνθρωποφα- natural affection towards their |
ylas ἔπαυσα.
, Μ
Ἐγὼ μυήσεις ἀνθρώ- parents.® I made. with my
3 Ν ΄ + 4

ποις ἀνέδειξα. Ἐγὼ ἀγάλματα θεῶν © brother Osiris an end of the

eating of men.® I showed
τειμᾶν ἐδίδαξα. Ἐγὼ τεμένη θεῶν
mysteries unto men. I taught
εἱδρυσάμην. ΄ ᾿Εγὼ τυράννω[ν] ἀρχὰς to honour images of the gods.
κατέλυσα. ᾿Εγὼ στέργε-(ϑ)σθαι I consecrated the precincts of
γυναῖκας ὑπ’ ἀνδρῶν ἠνάνκασα. Ἐγὼ ‘the gods. I broke down the
τὸ δίκαιον εἰσχυρότερον χρυσίου καὶ | governments of tyrants.’ I
ἀργυρίου ἐποίησα. ᾿Εγὼ τὸ ἀληθὲς compelled women to be loved
by men. I made the right
καλὸν ἑνομοθέτησα νομίζ[εσ]θαι.
to be stronger than gold and
Ἐγὼ συνγραφὰς γαμικὰΪ-ς] εὗἷρα. silver.® I ordained that the
᾿Ἐγὼ [δ]ιαλέκτους Ἕλλησι καὶ | true should be thought good.
βαρβάροις διεταξά-(3ὅ)μην. Ἐγὼ τὸ I devised marriage contracts.!°
καλὸν καὶ τὸ αἰσχρὸν διαγεινώσκεσθαι I assigned to Greeks and bar- °
barians their languages! I
[ὑπ]ὸ τῆς φύσεως ἐποίησα. “Ἐγὼ
made the beautiful and the ill-
ὅρκου φόβον 12 [ἐπέβαλο]ν ἐπ[ὶ΄. .. favoured to be distinguished by
Jv ἀδίκως ey (Or eo) . nature. I laid (?) fear (?)
of an oath upon... un-
justly...

It may seem surprising that in this case of.a religious text

of really Egyptian origin the parallels I have given (in the
footnotes) are taken from the Septuagint and not from other
Egyptian texts. But there is good reason for this: in
1 Cf. LXX Psalm xxxvi.[xxxvii.] 17, 39. 2 Cf. LXX Gen. i. 28, ii. 22.
3 Cf. Wisdom vii. 1, 2. 4 Cf. LXX Exod. xx. 12; Deut. v. 16, etc.
5 Cf. Exod. xxi. 15, 16, etc. ® Cf, Wisdom xii. 3-5.
7 Cf. LXX Psalm cxxxiv. [cxxxv.] το, 11; cxxxv. [cxxxv.] aie
8 Cf. LXX Gen. ii. 24; Mal. ii. 15, 16.
9 Cf. LXX Psalm xxxvi. [xxxvii.] 16; cxviii. [cxix.] 127.
10 Cf, LX X Mal. ii. 14; (Tobit vii. 14.)
11 Cf. LXX Gen. xi. 7, 9 12 φόβον is more likely than φόρον.
13 It would have been easy to find them there. Cf. for instance O. Gruppe,
Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte II., Miinchen, 1906, p. 1563 ff.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 141
anticipation of the problem which will engage our attention in.
Chapter IV. I was anxious te show how close the resemblance
can be between the Hellenised Old Testament and Hellenised
Egyptian religion. The actual relationship of ideas being
so close, how easy must it have been for Hellenistic Judaism
and Christianity to adopt the remarkable and simple style
of expression in the first person singular.?

ΠῚ
John x. 7-14 :--
Ἐγώ εἰμι ἡ θύρα τῶν προβάτων. I am the door of the sheep.
πάντες ὅσοι ἦλθον πρὸ ἐμοῦ κλέπται All that came before Me are
εἰσὶν καὶ λῃσταί, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἤκουσαν thievés and robbers: but the
sheep did not hear them. Iam
αὐτῶν τὰ πρόβατα. ᾿Εγώ εἰμι ἡ
the door: by Me if any man
θύρα: δ ἐμοῦ ἐάν τις εἰσέλθῃ,
, ν > , ν
enter in, he shall be saved, and
σωθήσεται, και εἰσελεύσεται και'
shall go in and go out, and shall
ἐξελεύσεται καὶ νομὴν εὑρήσει. ‘O.| find pasture. The thief cometh
κλέπτης οὐκ ἔρχεται εἰ μὴ ἵνα κλέψῃ | not, but that he may steal,
καὶ θύσῃ καὶ ἀπολέσῃ. ᾿Εγὼ ἦλθον | and kill, and destroy: I came
iva ζωὴν ἔχωσιν καὶ περισσὸν ἔχωσιν.
LA νΝ wy
that they may have life, and
Ν x a

Ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ποιμὴν ὁ καλός’ ὁ may have abundance. I am

the good shepherd: the good
ποιμὴν ὃ καλὸς τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ
he « μ᾿ x ἧς = ~

shepherd layeth down His life

τίθησιν ὑπὲρ τῶν προβάτων. ‘O
* 4 €

for the sheep. He that is a

μισθωτὸς καὶ οὐκ ὧν ποιμήν, ob | hireling, and not a shepherd,
οὐκ ἔστιν τὰ πρόβατα ἴδια, θεωρεῖ whose own the sheep are not,
τὸν λύκον ἐρχόμενον καὶ ἀφίησιν beholdeth the wolf coming,
τὰ πρόβατα καὶ φεύγει (καὶ ὁ λύκος and leaveth the sheep, and
ἁρπάζει αὐτὰ καὶ σκορπίζει) "΄ ὅτι fleeth (and the wolf snatcheth
and scattereth them), because
μισθωτός ἐστιν καὶ οὐ μέλει αὐτῷ
ἡδ > x > , ; eeae

he is a hireling, and careth not

περὶ τῶν προβάτων. Ἐγώ εἶμι ὃἼ
: for the sheep. I am the good
ποιμὴν ὃ Kahds, - shepherd.: (R.V., adapted.)
a

—A wonderful example of the worshippers’ congregational prayer with Thou

in answer to the liturgical epiphany of the divinity with J is the prayer to
Isis in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri XI. No. 1380 (written early in the 2nd cent.
A.D.). It isa very mine of discovery for researchers studying the great epoch of
religious change.
1 At Ephesus, to which the Johannine texts point, there was a cult of
Isis.—In the inscription in Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum,
III. No. 722, the reading Eiceov does not seem to me to be certain, but there
are other sure epigraphical proofs elsewhere. Cf. Adolfus Rusch, De Serapide
et Iside in Graecia cultis, Diss., Berolini, 1906, p. 72 f.
142 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

IV
In spite of distortion caused by the would-be wizardry the
features of the old style are recognisable in the following
passage from the London magical papyrus No. 46454, which
was written in the 4th century 4.0. Similar examples would
not be difficult to find in other magical texts.?

Ἐγώ εἰμι ὃ ἀκέφαλος δαίμων, ἐν I am the headless 8daemon,

-
τοις
ἢ
ποσιν
ὧδ
EXWVY
\
Τὴν
ὧν
ορᾶσιν,
? Pow
ἰσχυρὸς,
having eyes in my feet, the
πον σὰ: es ake im, >. «| Strong one, the deathless fire.
τὸ πῦρ TO ἀθάνατον. Ἐγώ εἰμι ἢ I am the truth, who hateth
ἀλήθεια
ὃ μεισῶν ἀδικήματα γείνεσθαι that evil deeds are in the
ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ. ᾿Εγώ εἰμι ὁ ἀστράπτων |world. I am he that lighteneth
[magic words inserted here] [here follow certain magic words]
and thundereth. I am _ he
καὶ βροντῶν. ᾿Εγώ εἰμι οὗ ἐστὶν
whose sweat is a shower falling
ὁ ἱδρὼς ὄμβρος ἐπιπείπτων ἐπὶ τὴν |upon the earth to make it
γῆν ἵνα ὀχεύῃ. ᾿Εγώ εἰμι οὗ τὸ fruitful. I am he whose mouth
στόμα καίεται δι’ dAov. Ἐγώ εἰμι burneth altogether. I am he
. PARE Oe . w«, , | that begetteth and begetteth
ὁ γεννῶν καὶ ἀπογεννῶν. ‘Eye εἰμι again. I am the grace of the
ἡ χάρις τοῦ αἰῶνος. aeon.

The entire simplicity of the style of this solemn monotone

is seen all the more clearly if we compare it with metrical
paraphrases. This we can do inthe case both of the Isis
inscription and of the Johannine texts. There is an in-
scription of the age of Augustus in the island of Andros,
consisting of a hymn to Isis in hexameters, and based evi-
dently on the old formulae known to us from the inscriptions
of Nysa and Ios. For comparison with the Gospel of St.
1 Greek Papyvi in the British Museum, ed. F. G. Kenyon, I. p. 69 f.
2 It was part of the proper procedure in ancient sorcery for the enchanter
to identify himself with powerful and terrible deities in order to impress
the demons who were to be overcome. Cf. Bibelstudien, p.271; Bible Studies,
PP. 355, 360. ς
5 Cf. Franz Boll, Sphaeva: Neue griechische Texte and Untersuchungen
zur Geschichte der Sternbilder, Leipzig, 1903, pp. 221 f., 433, 438.
* Hermann Diels (letter, Berlin W., 22 July, 1908) considers it possible that
the verb here means destroy. (So also the new edition of Liddell and Scott,
1926. TR.]
5 Epigrammata Graeca, ed. G. Kaibel, No. 1028; most recently in the
Inscriptiones Graecae, XII. V. 1, No. 739.
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 143
John we have the pompous hexameters of Nonnus. Con-
trasted with their originals these verses sound something
like the rhyming paraphrase of the Psalms by Dr. Am-
brosius Lobwasser (anglice Praisewater), Professor of Law and
Assessor to the Royal Court of Justice at Kénigsberg, achieved
in 1573.

“ Zu Gott wir unser Zuflucht haben,

Wann uns schon Ungliick thut antraben ’᾿---

so the good man begins the Psalm? out of which Luther

had quarried the granite for his ‘‘ Feste Burg.’’ The
“watered praises ’’ of Lobwasser’s Psalter are about equal in .
merit, perhaps even superior, to the hexameters into which
Nonnus ? and the author of the Andros hymn diluted the old
lines couched in homely, vigorous “I ’’-style.

4. From whatever side the New Testament may be regarded

by the Greek scholar, the verdict of historical philology, based
on the contemporary texts of the world surrounding the New
Testament, will never waver. For the most part, the pages
of our sacred Book are so many recordsof popular Greek,
in its various grades; taken as a whole the New Testament
is a Book of the people. Therefore we say that Luther, in
taking the New Testament from the doctors and presenting
it to the people, was only giving back to the people their own.
We enter, perhaps, an attic-room in one of our large cities,
and if we find there some poor old body reading her Testa-
ment beside the few fuchsias and geraniums on the window-
sill, then we feel that the old Book is in a position to which
its very nature entitles it. Think too of the Japanese New
Testament found by a Red Cross sister in a wounded man’s
knapsack during the war between Russia and Japan: that
was also a grateful resting-place for the old Book. We will
go further, and say: this great Book of the people ought
1 [Psalm xlvi. Lobwasser might be thus imitated: “Τὸ God for refuge
each one flieth When to o’erride us trouble trieth.” ' Luther’s celebrated
“ Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott " is best represented in Carlyle’s version, “‘ A
safe stronghold our God is still, A trusty shield and weapon,” etc. ΤᾺ.
2 Tycho Mommsen long ago, with fine appreciation of St. John, pronounced
judgment against Nonnus (Bettvdge zu der Lehve von den griechischen Pra-
positionen, 2. und 3. Heft, Frankfurt a. M., 1887, p. 254).
144 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
really never to be published in sumptuous editions with costly
engravings and expensive binding. The Egyptian potsherds
with Gospel fragments,! the Paternoster from Megara,’ the
Biblia Pauperum 58 and the Stuttgart Groschenbibél,* are in
their externals more in keeping with the character of the
New Testament than modern éditions de luxe bought by rich
German godfathers for Confirmation presents. The plainer
the cover, the more modest the type, the coarser the paper,
the nearer the pictures come to the style of Diirer or Rem-
brandt, the more fitly will the great Book of the people be
arrayed.
The Book of the people has become, in the course of cen-
turies the Book of all mankind. At the present day no book
in the world is printed so often and-in so many languages as
the New Testament.® From the people to mankind at large :
historical philology establishes the causal connexion under-
lying this development. The New Testament was not a
product of the colourless refinement of an upper class that had
nothing left to hope for, whose classical period lay, irre-
trievable, in the past. On the contrary, it was, humanly
speaking, a product of the force that came unimpaired, and
strengthened by the Divine Presence, from the lower class
(Matt. xi. 25 f.; τ Cor. i. 26-31). This reason alone enabled
it to become the Book of all mankind.
And so the simple texts on stone, papyrus, and earthenware
have helped us, firstly, to a knowledge of the sacred Volume
1 Cf. above, pp.. 57-60.
2 Cf. above, p. 56, n. 3.
3 My friend Carl Neumann, the art-critic, in a latter dated Kiel, 17 May,
1908, objects to this estimate of the Biblia Pauperum. [No doubt the author
was thinking not so much of the actual artistic merit or cost of production of
the block-books and their MS. predecessors, as of the contrast between them
and elaborately written (and illuminated) complete Bibles of the same date or
earlier. TR.] ;
‘ Cf. my article on the Groschenbibel in Die Hilfe, 1898, No. 16. [On the
publication of the first German ‘“ penny Testament” by the Wiirttemberg
Bible Institute, following the example of the British and Foreign Bible Society.
TR.) ‘
5 The British and Foreign Bible Society alone had, down to June 1925,
printed the whole or portions of the New Testament in 576 languages. See
specimens of all these translations in The Gospel in Many Tongues, published
by the Society, London, 1925—an impressive little book despite its small
size. [The Rev. R. Kilgour, Superintendent of the translating and editorial
department, kindly gave me the latest figures, as above, in Feb., 1926. TR.)
 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT — 145
on its linguistic side, and then, by that means, to no small
understanding of its most. distinguishing characteristic. A
new ray of light falls on its history among the nations.}
The New Testament has become the Book of the Peoples
because it began by being the Book of the People.
1 On this subject cf. my little work, Die Urgeschichte des Christentums im
Lichte der Sprachforschung, Tiibingen, 1910.
 CHAPTER III

THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE,

ILLUSTRATED BY THE NEW TEXTS
I. Our estimate of the New Testament will be much the
same as we have just stated if we now approach it from the
point of view of literary history. Here again it is the records
of the world contemporary with the New Testament that have
supplied us with the right standard of criticism.
In saying this we may seem at first to be preparing diffi-
culties for ourselves. We have insisted more than once that
the records referred to are to a great extent non-literary,
yet now we claim that they throw light on literary questions.
This seems to be self-contradictory; and I can well imagine
that some readers will be astonished to hear me say that these
poor scraps of papyrus, or potsherds inscribed with fragments
of letters from unknown Egyptians, have taught me to under-
stand the true nature of St. Paul’s Epistles and, ultimately,
the course by which Primitive Christianity developed on
the literary side. But I'ask the incredulous to give me a
patient hearing.?
The mention of the literary side of Primitive Christianity
brings us to a branch of inquiry the importance of which
1 For what follows cf. the ‘‘ Prolegomena td the Biblical Letters and
Epistles ”’ in Bibelstudien, 1895, pp. 187-252 [Bible Studies, pp. 1-59], and the
article ‘‘ Epistolary Literature’ in the Encyclopaedia Biblica, II., London,
1901, col. 1323 ff.; also the outline in Beitydge zur Weiteventwicklung der
christlichen Religion, Minchen, 1905, p. 119 ff. These sources have been
made occasional use of here.—K. Dziatzko, article ‘‘ Brief ’’ in Pauly’s Real-
Encyclopadte dev classischen Altertumswissenschaft, new edition by G. Wissowa,
III., Stuttgart, 1899, col. 836 ff., takes the same view as regards the main
questions. Cf. also R. Ὁ, Kukula, Briefe des jiingeren Plinius*, Leipzig, 1909,
and the literature there quoted. Criticisms of my theory in P. Wendland,
Die urchristlichen Literaturformen?'’, Tibingen, 1912 (Handbuch zum N.T. I.
3); Joh. Weiss, art. ‘‘ Literaturgeschichte des N.T.,” in the encyclopaedic
work Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart; V. Hepp, De vorm der
nieuw-testamentische brieven volgen Deissmann en zijn school, Gereformeerd
Theologisch Tijdschrift, March and April 1916.
146
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 147
is still all too little recognised. Whole libraries, it is true,
have been written concerning the growth of the New Testa-
ment and the origin of its several parts, but the fact remains
that it has not yet sufficiently been viewed, as the literary
historian would view it, in relation to the history of ancient
literature. Formerly none but a few scholars felt the need
of studying Primitive Christianity with the strictness of the
literary historian. Then came Franz Overbeck, whose im-
portant study ‘‘ On the Beginnings of Patristic Literature,” 1
published in 1882, proved extremely stimulating. But
even to-day there are many who fail to treat this whole
problem as it should be treated, viz. by a strict application
of principle. People approach the New Testament with
the preconceived idea that the Primitive Christian texts
which owe their preservation to their inclusion in that book
were themselves without exception “ books ’’ and works of
literature.
But this preconceived idea must be given up. If we were
to regard the New Testament merely as an assemblage of
little worksof literature and treat it accordingly in our studies,
we should commit the same mistake as an art-critic who
proposed to treat a collection of fossils and ancient sculpture
as if it contained nothing but works of art. We must not
assume that the New Testament is literature from cover to

! Historische Zeitschrift, 48, New Series 12 (1882) p. 429 ff. Views have
been expressed on the problem by Heinrici (Das Neue Testament und die
urchvistliche Uberlieferung; Theol. Abhandlungen C. Weizsaecker gewidmet,
Freiburg i. B., 1892, pp. 321-352; Die Entstehung des Neuen Testaments,
Leipzig, 1899; Der literavische Charakter der neutestamentlichen Schriften,
Leipzig, 1908) and Gustav Kriiger (Die Entstehung des Neuen Testaments,?
Freiburg i. B. u. Leipzig, 1896; Das Dogma vom Neuen Testament, Giessen,
1896). After them Wendland in his work, Die urchristlichen Litevaturformen ;
cf. also M. Albertz, Ev. Kirchenblatt fiir Schlesien 24 (1921) p. 326 ff. Valu-
able with respect to method in dealing with. the problem of the Epistles:
H. Jordan, Geschichte dey altchvistlichen Literatur, Leipzig, 1911, p. 123 ff.
Indirectly instructive: G. Misch, Geschichte dey Autobiographie I., Leipzig,
1907. In recent discussions concerning genre-research the questions raised
by Overbeck and by my Bible Studies should not have been ignored. My
study of a genve that appeared in 1895 certainly did not receive its “impulse”
from Gunkel {as Windisch, Theologisch Tijdschrift 1919, p. 371, seems to
assume). The actual impulse came to me rather curiously on a carriage
drive, I think in 1893, when I suddenly caught the word “ epistolography,”
without any context, let fall by a South German friend who was riding on the
box.
148 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
cover. Whether it began as literature in its single parts is a
question to be inquired about. The inquiry resolves itself
into these questions: Did Primitive Christianity begin by
being literary? When did it become so? What were the
stages it went through in the process?

2. These questions, I think, have more than a purely

academic interest : they contribute to a thorough apprecia-
tion of what Primitive Christianity really was. But in
order to answer them we must come to an understanding
about the meaning of our term “ literature ’’ and about the
various forms in which literature may find expression.
The service here rendered us by the inscriptions, papyri,
and ostraca is incalculable. Being themselves non-literary
texts they teach us—what was to be seen even without
their aid—that a thing is not necessarily literature because
it has been committed to writing and preserved in written
form. Being also popular texts they accustom us, when
we come to literature, to distinguish the popular from the
artistic.
What then is literature? Literature is something written
for the public (or at least for a public) and cast in a definite
artistic form.
A man, however, who draws up a lease or an application
to some public official, or who writes a receipt or a letter
is not engaged in literature. Lease, application, receipt,
letter, and a host of similar documents, are non-literary.
They are the products not of art but of life; their destiny
is not for the public and posterity but for the passing moment
in a workaday world. This it is that makes the host of
non-literary texts, on stone, papyrus, or pottery, such
delightful reading. In large measure they are records of life,
not works of art : records testifying of work, joy, and sorrow,
and never intended for us, though a bountiful fate, willing
that we after-comers should enter into pure human contact
with the past, has made them ours.
There is one special class of these records of human life
and work which the new discoveries have brought to light
again in astonishing plenty and most delightful freshness.
These are ancient non-literary letters, exchanged by private
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE τ49
persons on terms of intimacy, and preserved not in late
copies but in their originals, on lead, papyrus, parchment,}
or earthenware fragment. What would have been im-
possible in the seventies and eighties of the last century
is possible now, and a history of ancient letter-writing might
be written. Conceived most comprehensively, it would
cover a period of several thousand years; restricted to
ancient letter-writing in Greek and Latin it would yet run
to more than one thousand.?
To think of “literature” or to speak of “ epistolary c

literature’ in connexion with these hundreds of ancient

original letters would be utterly perverse 8 (or only possible
if we were to employ the word “ literature ” in a secondary
and colourless. sense with regard to non-literary writing).
The epistolary literature of antiquity is something altogether
different. That is represented by the literary letter, the
artistic letter, the epistle,4 of which we shall have to speak
later on. On the contrary, we must banish all thought of
literature, of conscious artistic prose, when we turn the pages
of the letters that have come down to us. They are texts
from which we can learn what is non-literary and pre-literary.
And that is precisely what we must learn if we are to under-
stand the New Testament historically.

3. Let us then from this abundance select a few specimens

characteristic of the thousand years between Alexander the
Great and Mohammed, beginning with the oldest Greek letter
in existence and coming down to the letters of Egyptian
Christians in the time before Islam.
The little collection 5 will make admirably clear to us the
1 Letters of the ancient period on parchment are certainly very rare. I
know only the letter of Soéris in the Papyri Iandanae ΤΊ (Lipsiae, 1913) No. 12.
® For long periods of the history of other peoples such documents are practi-
cally non-existent. In that case every chance find is therefore valuable;
cf. for instance Jiidische Privatbriefe aus dem Jahre 1619, herausg. von A.
Landau und B. Wachstein, Wien, 1910.
5 R. Reitzenstein, Hellenistische Wundererzahlungen, Leipzig, 1906, p. 98 £.,
protests, with great justice, against the vagueness of the modern terms em-
ployed to discriminate between literary genres.
4 I employ this word technically to distinguish the artistic letter from the
real letter. See p. 229.
5 Cf. also the collection of letters in Bibelstudien, p. 208 ff. (a different
selection in Bible Studies, p. 21 ff.); Paul Viereck, Aus der hinterlassenen
 150. ὃ LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
essential nature of the letter and the forms it assumed in
antiquity. The illustrations will give some idea of the
inimitable individuality of each single original. We should
give a false picture if we selected only the choicest specimens,
so we have been careful to include some unimportant examples
of average letters.
The collection has moreover a secondary purpose, as will
appear in the fourth chapter. It is to bring home to us certain
types of the ancient soul. :

I
Letter from Mnesiergus, an Athenian, to his housemates, beginning
of the 4th century B.c., leaden tablet from Chaidari, near
Athens, now in the Berlin Museum, discovered by R. Wiinsch,
. deciphered by him and A. Wilhelm (Figures 18 and 19).
This letter is the oldest Greek letter hitherto known, and
of the greatest importance especially for the history of
epistolary forms. We are indebted for this valuable specimen
to the careful labours of Richard Wiinsch!; it was defi-
nitively deciphered and explained in masterly fashion by
Adolf Wilhelm.2, By permission of the Austrian Archaeo-
Privatkorrespondenz der alten Agypter, Vossische Zeitung, 3 January, 1895
first supplement; Erman and Krebs, Aus den Papyrus dev Kéniglichen Museen,
p. 209 ff. (also 90 ff., etc); R. Cagnat, Indiscrétions archéologiques sur les
Egyptiens de l’époque romaine, Comptes rendus de 1’Académie des Inscrip-
tions et Belles-Lettres, 1901, p. 784 ff.; Léon Lafoscade, De epistulis (alitsque
titulis) imperatorum magistvatuumque Romanorum quas ab aetate Augusti
usque ad Constantinum Gyraece scriptas lapides papyvive servaverunt, Thesis,
Paris, 1902; Friedrich Preisigke, Familienbriefe aus alter Zeit, Preussische
Jahrbicher, 108 (April to June 1902) p. 88 ff.; E. Breccia, Spigolature papi-
racee, Atene e Roma, 5 (1902) col. 575 ff.; Epistulae privatae Graecae quae in
papyris aetatis Lagidarum servantur, ed. Stanislaus Witkowski, Lipsiae, 1907+
£1911; Milligan, Selections; Helbing, Auswahl; Laudien, Griech. Papyrt;
Wilcken, Chrestomathie; especially too the choice little work of Wilhelm
Schubart, Ein Jahvtausend am Nil. Briefe aus dem Altertum, verdeutscht und
erklavt, Berlin, 1912; G. Ghedini, Letteve Cristiane dai papiri greci del IITe IV
secolo, Milano, 1923; F. X. J. Exler, The Form of the Ancient Greek Letter :
a Study in Greek Epistolography, Washington, D.C., Catholic University of
America, 1923.
1 Inscriptiones Graecae, III. Pars III. Appendix inscriptionum Atticarum :
defixionum tabellae in Attica regione repertae, 1897, p. ii. f.
4 Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archdologischen Institutes in Wien, 7°
(1904) p. 94 ff. Cf. also W. Crénert, Rheinisches Museum 65 (1910) p. 157£.;
Witkowski? p. 135 f.; Schubart, Ein Jahvtausend p. 31 f.; and Dittenberger,
Sylloge 1118 No. 1259 (Ziebarth), where, however, ἐπέστελε should be read in
1. 2.
 Fig. 18. Pre: 19.

The Oldest Greek Letter yet discovered, Address (Fig. 18) and Text (Fig. 19):
Mnesiergus of Athens to his Housemates. Leaden tablet, 4th cent. B.c. Now in the
Berlin Museum, By permission of the Austrian Archaeological Institute.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS ΤΙΤΕΒΑΤΌΚΕ- 151
logical Institute I am enabled to reproduce ‘here from its
publications a facsimile of the same size as the original. The
tablet was originally folded together and perhaps fastened
with string and seal. On the outside of the tablet is the
address (Figure 18), which was written after the lead had been
folded :—
Bépev! is τὸν κέραμ- To be taken to the potter's
ov τὸγ χυτρικόν᾽ working-house; 3 to be delivered
drodévatt δὲ Ναυσίαι to Nausias or to Thrasycles or -
ἢ Θρασυκλῆι ἢ θ᾽ διῶι. to his son.

On the inside, and with the lines running in the opposite

direction, is the praescript ? and the text of the letter proper
(Figure 19). It seems that Mnesiergus was in the country
and had probably been surprised by a sudden frost :—
Μνησίεργος Mnesiergus sendeth to them
ἐπέστελε τοῖς οἴκοι | that are at his house greeting
χαίρεν καὶ ὑγιαίνεν4 and health and he saith it is
καὶ αὐτὸς οὕτως ἔφασ[κ]ε [ἔχεν]. | so with him. (5) If® ye be
5 στέγασμα > τι βόλεστε willing, send me some covering,
ἀποπέμψαι ἢ das ἢ διφθέρας either sheepskins or ροδίϑκίηβ,
ὡς εὐτελεστάζτα)ς καὶ py | as plain as ye have, and not
σισυρωτὰς ᾿ broidered with fur, and shoe-
καὶ κατύματα' τυχὸν ὃἀποδώσω. | soles: upon occasion I will
return them.
1 On the infinitive absolute cf. p. 80, n. 4 above.
2 So Crénert and Ziebarth, who have more to say about the persons men-
tioned.
3 In the commentaries on the letters of St. Paul the praescript which serves
as introduction to the body of the letter is generally spoken of as the address.
That is not correct : the address, as shown bythis letter, the oldest that has
come down to us, was written on the outside or on the cover of the folded
letter, and in St. Paul’s case was no doubt much shorter than the praescript.
Not one of St. Paul’s letters preserves it. —On the ancient form of praescript
used in this letter (and on the praescripts generally) cf. Gustav Adolf Gerhard,
Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des griechischen Briefes. Erstes Heft, Die
Anfangsformel, Diss. Heidelberg, Tiibingen, 1903, p. 32.
4 These two verbs occur in salutations in 2 Macc. i. 10, ix. 19.
5 The sentence with εἰ is probably not, as Wilhelm supposes, the protasis to
the concluding words, τυχὸν ἀποδώσω, but a request made into an independent
sentence by aposiopesis, as vivid and colloquial as the well authenticated
request in Luke xxii. 42, Πάτερ, εἰ βούλει παρενέγκαι͵ τοῦτο τὸ ποτήριον ἀπ᾽ ἐμοῦ,
‘Father, if Thou wouldest remove this cup from Me!” [Professor Deiss-
mann, it will be observed, deletes the comma before remove. It seems possible
{For continuation of notes see next page.
152 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
The contents of this letter, the earliest that we possess, are
not particularly striking, it is true; but whoever thinks them
trivial must also regard as trivial St. Paul’s request for the
cloak that he left at Troas with Carpus (2 Tim. iv. 13).

Letter from Zoilus, a servant of Sarapis, to Apollonius, an Egyptian

minister of finance, Alexandria, 258-257 B.C., papyrus from
the correspondence of Zeno, found at Philadelphia (Fayim),
now in the Cairo Museum, edited by G. Vitelli? (Figures
20 and 21).
᾿Απολλωνίωι 3 χαίρειν Ζωίλος ᾿Αφτέν[δ]ιος τ[ῶν ..... eee eee ees Pel
ὃς καὶ διασυνεστάθη ἃ σοι ὑπὸ τῶν τοῦ βασιλέως Pidwv.® ἐμοὶ συμβέβηκεν
θεραπεύοντι τὸν θεὸν Σάραπιν περὶ τῆς σῆς ὑγιείας καὶ εὐ[ηἹμερίᾳς τῆς
πρὸς top βασιλέα Πτολεμαῖον τὸν Σάραπίμ μοι χρημα[τίζει]ν τλε-
[ον]φε[]:
1 There is at Petrograd another letter on lead of the 4th cent. B.c., found at
Olbia, of similar contents. The text is given by Crénert, Rheinisches Museum
65 (1910) p. 158 ff., and Dittenberger, Sylloge 1118 No. 1260.
2 Pubblicazioni della Societa Italiana per la ricerca det Papiri grect ὁ latini in
Egitto : Papiri greci e latini [= P.S.1.], Vol. IV, Firenze, 1917, No. 435. Cf. the
important new reading by C. C. Edgar, Annales du Service des Antiquités
de l’Egypte, t. 18, No. 7, p. 173 ff., and the review by Wilcken, Archiv f.
Papyrusforschung 6, p. 394f. Jam indebted to Wilcken for kindly enlighten-
ment concerning the text, and for a translation which has been of great service
to me.
9 On the respectful prefixing of the name of the addressee, cf. Bibelstudien,
Ῥ. 209 (not in Bible Studies).
4 For διασυνεστάθην.
5 On this court title see Bibelstudien, p. 159 ff., Bible Studies, Ὁ. 167 ff.
§ Wilcken thinks it a case of “ incubation ’’"—that Zoilus had slept in the
temple for the purpose of obtaining an oracular dream. For the expression
cf. LXX Judith xi. 17, θεραπεύουσα νυκτὸς καὶ ἡμέρας τὸν θεὸν τοῦ οὐρανοῦ,
‘* serving the God of heaven day and night.”

Continuation of notes to page 151 :— ;

however, without assuming an aposiopesis, to take παρενέγκαι or ἀποπέμψαι as
an infinitive absolute = imperative (cf. φέρεν, dwodévar in the address of this
letter), and to regard it as the apodosis. I have therefore ventured to har-
monise the translation of the letter with the A.V. and R.V. of Luke xxii.
42. TR.
* This brief colloquial use of τυχόν, for which there are other examples,
occurs also in 1 Cor. xvi. 6, with the meaning “ it may be.”
7 {So Deissmann, according to Wilhelm’s interpretation. It would also
seem possible to translate : ‘' either sheepskins or leathern garments, be they
never so shabby and with no more haironthem.” Tr.]
 Fic. 20.—Letter from Zoilus, a servant of Sarapis, to Apollonius, an Egyptian minister
of finance, Alexandria, 258-257 B.c. Papyrus from Philadelphia (Faytim). Size of the
original, 30 % 31°5 centimetres. Now in the Cairo Museum. Facsimile kindly obtained by
C. C. Edgar.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 153
5 ἐν τοῖς ὕπνοις, ὅπως ἂν διαπλεύσω πρὸς σὲ καὶ ἐμ[φανίσω σοι τοῦτ]. [ν]
τὸ[ν] ΄ ᾿
χρηματισμόν, ὅτι δεῖ συντελεσθῆναι αὐτ[ῶι ὑπὸ σοῦ Σαραπιεῖόν τε] 3
καὶ τέμενος ἐν τῆι Ἑλληνικῆι πρὸς τῶι λιμέν[ι] κα[ὶ] ἱ[ερέα] ἐπιστατεῖν
κ[αὴ
ἐπιβωμίζειν ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν.3 ἐμοῦ δὲ π[α]ρ[ακαλέσαντος τὸν θεὸν Σάραπιν, 4
ὅπως ἄμ με παραλύσηι τοῦ ἐνταῦθᾳ [ἔργο]ν, εἰς ἀρρῳσ[τ]ίᾳ[ν] ple
πε]ριέβᾳλεν
IO μεγάλην ὥστε καὶ κινδυνεῦσᾳί [με]. προσευξάμενος δ] αὐΓτῶι,
‘lo μὴ
31.7

ὑγιάσηι, διότι ὑπομενῶ ὅ τὴν ληιτο[υργ]ίαν καὶ ποιή[σει]ν τὸ ὑφ᾽ αὑτοῦ

,ὔ

προστασσόμενον. ἐπεὶ δὲ τάχιστα ὑγιάσθην, παρεγένετό τις ἐκ Κνίδου,

ὃς ἐνεχείρησεν οἰκοδομεῖν Σαραπιεῖον ἐν τῶι τόπωι τούτωι καὶ προσ-
, 4 .2 δὲ ὅπεϊ a a x NS > n 24
αγηγόχει λίθους" ὕστερον δὲ ἀπεῖπεν αὐτῶι ὁ θεὸς μὴ οἰκοδομεῖν κἀκεῖνος
I5 ἀπηλλάγη. ἐμοῦ δὲ παραγενομένου εἰς ᾿Αλεξάνδρειαν καὶ ὀκνοῦντός σοι
περὶ τούτων ἐντυχεῖν," ἀλλὰ περὶ πραγματείας ἧς καὶ ὡμολογήκεις μοι,
΄ ε , a , 5 ὃ ,..
πάλιν ὑπετροπάσθην μῆνας τέσσερας" διὸ οὐκὁ ἠδυνάμην
κα , “22
εὐθέως παραγε-
νέσθαι πρὸς σέ. καλῶς οὖν ἔχει, ᾿Απολλώνιε, ἐπακολουθῆσαί σε τοῖς
“ > an a

ὑπὸ τοῦ
εοῦ προστάγμασιν, ὅπως ἂν εὐίλατός ἴσοι ὑπάρχων ὃ Σάραπις πολλῶισε
6 - te μὲ a > ir. , 7 ε t ς “ -“

,
20 μείζω παρὰN τῶι
rn
βασιλεῖa καὶVosἐνδοξότερον
΄
μετὰΗ͂ τῆς a
τοῦa σώματος
, ε ,
ὑγιείας
σὺ οὖν
ποιήσηι. μὴ καταπλαγῆις [[.]] τὸ ἀνήλωμα ὡς ἀπὸ μεγάλης σοι δαπάνης
2 , 8 ἀλλ᾽ Z ὁ πὸ rene X dod 4 ᾿ς ΩΣ
ἐσομένης, ἀλλ᾽ ἔσται σοι ἀπὸ πάνυ λυσιτελοῦντος *. συνεπιστατήσω 9 γὰρ
ἐγὼ πᾶσι
τούτοις.
a
εὐτυχεῖ.

1 Used of the responsum divinum, as in Rom. xi. 4 and elsewhere frequently.

2 A convincing restoration of Wilcken’s. I think that instead of αὐτ[ῶι ἡ
we might read αὐτόθι, ‘‘ here.” τ
8 The sacrifices would be for Apollonius as founder, xriorys™(Wilcken).
‘ This (or some other similar) restoration seems to me to be necessary,
because the subject of the following sentences can only be Sarapis, and must
therefore be named beforehand. παρακαλεῖν is the technical term, 2 Cor.
xii. 8; cf. the prayer of M. Julius Apellas, p. 308 below.
5 Wilcken rightly makes the accent perispomenon.
® Cf. Bibelstudien, p. 118, Bible Studies, p. 121 f.
7 Cf. Bibelstudien, p. 119, Neue Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 86, Bible Studies, p.122. The
examples could be greatly increased.
8 For ἐσόμενον (Wilcken).
® Cf. 1 Esdras vii.z. The governor of Coelesyria and Phoenicia and others,
carrying out the command of Darius to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem, ‘‘ did
very carefully oversee the holy works, assisting the elders of the Jews and
rulers of the temple”’ (ἐπεστάτουν τῶν ἱερῶν ἔργων ἐπιμελέστερον συνεργοῦντες τοῖς
πρεσβυτέροις τῶν ᾿Ιουδαίων καὶ ἱεροστάταις).
 154 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

Endorsed :

Note of receipt (in another

hand) : Address :
Ζωίλου περὶ Σαράπιος. ᾿Απολλωνίωι..
Lyn, Αὐδναίου θ,
ἐν τῶι Βερενίκης
> »" 4

ὅρμωι.

To Apollonius greeting [from] Zoilus the Aspendian, . . . of

the . . . , who also was presented unto thee by the king’s friends.
It happened unto me, while I was serving the god Sarapis for thy
health and success with king Ptolemy, that Sarapis warned me
many a time (5) in sleep that I should sail over to thee and signify
to thee this answer: That there must be made for him?! by
thee a temple of Sarapis and a grove in the Greek quarter by the
haven, and a priest must oversee it and sacrifice at the altar for
you. And when I had besought the god Sarapis that he would
set me free from the work here,? he cast me into a great sickness,
(10) insomuch that I stood also in jeopardy. But having prayed:
to him, if he would heal me, I said that I would endure my ministry
and do that which was commanded by him. Now when I was
very quickly healed, there came a certain man from Cnidus, who
took in hand to build a temple of Sarapis in this place and had
brought stones. But afterward the god forbade him to build
and he (15) departed. But when I was come unto Alexandria,
and delayed to make intercession with thee concerning these
things, save of the affair which thou hadst also promised unto me,
again I relapsed four months; wherefore I could not straightway
* come unto thee. It is therefore well, O Apollonius, that thou
follow the command by the god, that Sarapis may be favourable
unto thee and make thee much (20) greater with the king and more
glorious, together with the health of thy body.. Be not stricken
with terror of the expense, as being of great cost to thee; nay,
it shall be to thee of great profit, for I will together oversee 3 all
these things. 7
Farewell.
1 Or ‘‘ here.”
2 That is, from the building of the temple, which was to be paid for by
Apollonius, but superintended, of course, by Zoilus.
3 Zoilus is not looking on the building of the temple as secular work, but as
a sacred ministry, a priestly office; for the expression cf, line 7.
Fic. 21.—Letter from Zoilus to Apollonius: Writing on the Verso.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 155
Endorsed :
Note of receipt (in another Address :
hand): From Zoilus, concerning | To Apollonius.
Sarapis. In the year 28, on
the goth of Audnaeus, at the
Port of Berenice.1

The text, which I regard as specially important with refer-

ence to our problem of letters and epistles, and which for its
own sake has been described by Wilcken as perhaps the crown
of the whole fourth volume of the Pubblicazioni, is in all the
main essentials intelligible. The style is somewhat forced,
and an attempt has been made to imitate this in the trans-
lation.
We must put ourselves back in the year 258-257 B.c., the
time, we may say, when the earliest pages of the Septuagint
Bible were being written in Egypt.
Zoilus, a citizen of Aspendus in Pamphylia, who is closely
connected with the cult of Sarapis and has been vouchsafed
special revelations by the god, is for the time being at
Alexandria. Where his usual residence was we cannot at
present ascertain ;? but no doubt it was a coast town some-
where in the eastern Mediterranean, not purely Greek,
and perhaps at that time under the dominion of King
Ptolemy II., Philadelphus.
In this town Zoilus had had an experience in the cult of
his god which ultimately drove him to Egypt. As he served
before Sarapis he had remembered in his prayers a distant
patron, Apollonius, a financial minister of Ptolemy’s, to whom
he had stood in relations since his introduction to the power-
ful official by members of Egyptian court society. It is
probable that the cult of Sarapis had established the link
between them. The prayer for the rich man was answered
by the god in singular fashion: he commanded his devotee
to convey personally to Apollonius the injunction that in
1 It is not certain where this place was. Edgar (Annales 18, p. 174) thought
it might be on the coast of the Red Sea; but he has withdrawn the conjecture
(Annales 19,.p. 81). 7
2 Michael Rostovtzeff, A Large Estate in Egypt in the Third Century B.C.,
Madison, 1922, p. 38 (cf. p. 192) believes that this Zoilus is identical with
Zoilus, an agent of Apollonius in Syria, P.S.I. No. 330. Vitelli (p. 161) also
reckons with this possibility.
156 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the town where Zoilus lived (where probably until then there
had only been an obscure cult of Sarapis, perhaps in a hired
apartment 4) he must build a temple of Sarapis, with a grove
and a priest of its own, near the harbour in the Greek quarter.
A great business! Though in itself wholly in accordance
with his own most ardent wish, this commission from his god
lies heavily on the soul of the devotee, and he begs to be
excused. But Sarapis enlightens him as to the seriousness of
his command by causing the recalcitrant to fall sick unto
death. Then Zoilus in his prayers for recovery promises
unconditional obedience. And the business becomes yet
more pressing: a servant of Sarapis from Cnidus had taken
the opportunity, while the resident representative of the cult
was ill, to procure on his own account stones for the building
of a temple of Sarapis. But when he begins to build he is
obliged to leave the town, for Sarapis has laid him under an
injunction not to build. The god does not want just any sort
of temple, he wants a temple from Apollonius! Apollonius
can do more than the anonymous man of Cnidus.
So Zoilus, having recovered, takes ship for Egypt. And
yet, on his arrival in Alexandria, he cannot summon up the
necessary enthusiasm to beg of the great man, who is bur-
dened with other spiritual affairs as well,? an audience with
reference to the matter of the temple. He only discusses
with Apollonius another affair altogether, in which there were
no difficulties to be feared. Then once more does the angry
god cause the hesitant to feel the weightof his hand: the
sickness returns again and confines Zoilus to his bed for four
months. How gladly would he have hastened to Apollonius
the moment the first signs of a relapse set in; but the com-
plaint had taken too hard a hold on him. Meanwhile the
1 So Wilcken, Archiv 6, p. 395, who refers attractively to a case in Delos,
about 200 B.c. (Inscriptiones Graecae XI. 4, No. 1299), where Sarapis also
appears in a dream and demands the erection of a temple to take the place of
an apartment hired for the purpose of the cult. Cf. Otto Weinreich, Neue
Urkunden zuy Savapis-Religion, Tiibingen, 1919, pp. 19 ff. and 31 ff. It is
worth noting that in Delos too the god simply says Sei: ‘‘ there must be
built”!
2 Spiritual affairs that find their way to ministers of state are generally also
affairs involving finance. Thus in the same year the priests of Aphrodite also .
apply to Apollonius (P.S.I. IV. No. 328; cf. Wilcken, Archiv. 6, p. 386), again
with the same do μὲ des sort of piety which I describe below, pp. 160 f.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 157
minister has started on an official journey, and can only be
reached by letter. ᾿
Accordingly Zoilus writes to Apollonius from Alexandria
and tells the whole story in all its gravity : the epiphanies of
the god, his wrath, and the risk that an obscure man of
Cnidus might have secured the stock of merit. Never-
theless nothing has yet been lost; there is certainly no time
to spare, but the mighty lord can yet be satisfied, and Sarapis
will most graciously reward his willing slave, for whom daily
sacrifice will be made in the sanctuary of his founding: his
influence at the royal court will increase, the name of Apol-
lonius will acquire new fame for piety over land and sea,
and—be it not forgotten—the god who punishes the stubborn
so terribly with sickness will reward obedience with health
and long life.1 What will the expense matter in comparison
with this? The capital will bear interest! And personal
trouble for Apollonius in the building of the temple there will
be none: he, Zoilus, will regard it as his sacred duty to act
as assistant to Apollonius in all the business part of the under-
taking.
The letter reached its destination; its receipt was duly
noted, and it was docketed “ Sarapis”’? in the office of
Zeno, one of Apollonius’s subordinates.
The importance of this letter of Zoilus to the historian
of the cult of Sarapis has been pointed out by Edgar, and
more particularly by Wilcken. It affords, they say, a
glimpse into the propaganda of the cult; it shows how
closely it was bound up with the Egyptian court and its
officials. ἢ
That is perfectly true, but at the same time it points also
to the importance of the text in helping us to understand
the nature of the letters of St. Paul. Zoilus’s letter is in
Greek one of the first exact parallels to the letters of St. Paul,
inasmuch as it is an accidentally preserved fragment of
actual correspondence devoted to the propaganda of an
ancient cult. It is not propaganda literature, but a reflex of

1 The experienced propagandist thoroughly understands how to treat the

tich man.
2 The formula is interesting; one would have expected “ temple of Sarapis ”’
(which in the original is almost as short, Sarapaeum).
 158 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the propaganda, in fact itself an act of propaganda, a tiny
“portion of an actual happening.
Of course every missionary cult in ancient times produced
quantities of such correspondence, but all that vast mass of
written sheets that once had travelled between Egypt and
all parts of the Mediterranean world, or, say, between Syria
and Italy, vividly reflecting the visions, intentions and
itineraries of the propagators, the successes and failures of
their work, the finances of their propaganda—all is practically
lost as regards most of the cults. Only the cult of Christ,
by collecting and canonising the letters of St. Paul, succeeded
in saving a portion of its most ancient missionary documents.
And now in the letter of Zoilus there appears one of the lost
sheets relating to the cult of Sarapis, helping us to do greater
justice to the non-literary character of the apostolic letters.
It should also be remarked that indirectly it yields much
that is explanatory of St. Paul’s subject matter. We
observe things common to the two men, and striking contrasts
between them. They both regard the work of their pro-
paganda as their divine ministry.1 St. Paul like Zoilus 3
is under the direct, effective authority of his Lord and is
guided in important moments of his life by instructions
from above, by command 3 and (like the man from Cnidus 4)
by prohibition,® and, like the servant of Sarapis,* he knows
the unescapable divine “ must’? attaching to instruction.
They both venture to ask in prayer to be freed from divine
burdens, but they learn that the higher Will is the stronger.®
St. Paul, like Zoilus,® is led by a vision in a dream to under-
take a voyage 1°; and, like him, St. Paul knows the binding
force of a vow.22, The slave of Christ, like the servant of
Sarapis,!* is visited with frequent sickness,!4 and St. Paul,
like Zoilus,!5 recognises that his suffering is by the will of
God. They both practise intercession for distant adherents

1 Zoilus 1.11; 2 Cor. ix.12; Rom. xv. 16. 2 Zoilus 1. 4.

3 Gal. ii. 1, 2; Acts xxii. 18, etc. 4 Zoilus 1. 14.
5 Acts xvi. 6, 7. ® Zoilus 1. 6, δεῖ.
7 δεῖ Acts xix. 21; ἀνάγκη I Cor. ix. 16. § Zoilus 1. 8 ff.; 2 Cor. xii. 8 ff.
9. Zoilus ll. 5, 15. 10 Acts xvi. 9 ff. 11. Zoilus 1, τὸ f.
12 Acts xviii. 18; cf. xxi. 23 ff. 13 Zoilus ll. 9 f., 17.
14. 2 Cor. xii. 7 ff. etc. : 18 Zoilus ll. 9 f., 17.
16 2 Cor. xii. 7 ff.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 159
of the cult,? and both are troubled by rivals in piety.? Then
too, as regards form, the non-literary habit common to the
two men is shown, for example, in the anacolutha, savouring
of conversational language, which we find in their letters.
The contrasts, it is true, are more striking. The strength
and character of the apostle’s cult of Christ stand out clearly
against the background afforded by this document of the cult
of Sarapis. ;
First of all, the enormous contrast of the sociological
structure. The representative of the cult of Sarapis, having
been “‘ introdticed’’ to the minister of finance, is in im-
mediate touch with one of the richest and most powerful
politicians of his time, and enjoys through him close indirect
relations with the court of Ptolemy. The main unspoken
argument of the whole letter is that the king is to be regarded
as the chief patron of the cult of Sarapis, and that therefore
the foundation of a temple of Sarapis will be the best means
of rising in the king’s favour. Accordingly a man who is a
leading devotee of Sarapis does not stoop to trifles: his god
entrusts him with commissions that cost something—cost
so much, in fact, that smooth words must be spoken even to
the wealthy Apollonius. But even if the minister failed
to respond, money and materials for the temple would
be otherwise obtainable.
The tentmaker of Tarsus was not “introduced ’’ to any-
body. At the utmost he was brought before the government
officials as an accused man; friendly meetings, such as
that with the governor of Cyprus,4 were accidental. His
“connexions’’ were exclusively with the unpropertied
classes.6 And even his Alexandrian friend, also an Apol-
lonius,® was “‘ mighty ”’ only in the scriptures.? Paul had

1 Zoilus 1. 3 f.; Phil. i. 3 etc.

2 In the words of Zoilus concerning the man from Cnidus the same con-
sciousness of a “‘ parochia ”’ seems to find expression as for instance in the words
of St. Paul, Rom. xv. 20, where he says that he made it his ambition not to
‘build upon another man’s foundation,” ἵνα μὴ én’ ἀλλότριον θεμέλιον οἰκοδομῶ.
The Cnidian had obviously wanted to build on Zoilus’s ἀλλότριον θεμέλιον.
5. Cf. Wilcken, Archiv 6, p. 395.
* Acts xiii. 6 ff. : 5 1 Cor. i. 26 ff.
* In Acts xviii. 24, it will be remembered, Codex D calls mpellos by his
unshortened name, Apollonius.
7 Acts xviii. 24.
160 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
no connexions with the court; the salutations he once
sends from them “ that are of Caesar’s household ”’? are not
from princesses and ministers, but from simple Imperial
slaves, petty clerks, employed perhaps at Ephesus in the
departments of finance or of crown lands. Enterprises
aiming at the court and court society, such as the inspired
and unillusioned Zoilus cleverly prepared, are by their
nature utterly foreign to the apostle. When Paul had financial
problems to solve there were no estimates for marble ashlars,
columns and statues to be thought of, for the demon of
building had not yet taken hold of the young cult. Building
does play a large part in the imagination of the apostles, whose
divine Master had Himself in His earthly presence been a
workman of the building craft? ; and there is talk of temples.
But with Paul it is always buildings “‘ not made with hands,” ὃ
and not paid for in talents, that are thought of: the body
as the temple of the Holy Ghost,‘ the congregation as the
temple of the living God. And if Paul likens himself to a
“ masterbuilder,” * an architect, the epoch of the great
architectural popes is still a long way off. We owe, however,
to the apostle the deep and fruitful idea of inward, spiritual
“ edification.” 7 Like Zoilus, St. Paul hints at financial
anxieties in his letters; but he sets them forth, not to a
millionaire, but to people who work with their hands, who
in the bazaars of the artisans and in the quarters near the
harbours of the cities were to put by their obols week by
week for their poor associates in the cult at Jerusalem.®
But it is the deep difference in their ethos that is decisive
when we come to estimate the two cults from the point of
view of religious history. The cult of Sarapis, at least as
represented by Zoilus of Aspendus, is, down to its practical
activity, a hedonistic religion. Although sociologically it
has made itself at home in the highest altitudes of wealth,
power, and culture, though it has at its command the great
arts of architecture and sculpture as practised in the Hel-
lenistic age, it remains as a religion something quite primitive,

1 Phil. iv, 22. 2 σέκτων, Mark vi. 3.

8 2Cor. v. 1. 4 1 Cor. vi. 19.
5 1 Cor-iii.9, 16 £.; 2 Cor. vi. 16; Eph. ii. 20 ff. δα Cor. iii. το.
7 1 Cor. xiv. 3, 5, 12, 26, etc. § 1 Cor. xvi. 1 f.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 161
really a business transaction, do ué des, between man and a
fetish: Build a temple, and your influence with the king
increases; if you do not build, you fall ill! All the great
religions, including vulgar Christianity, have of course
in unnumbered instances of their empirical manifestation
remained as closely bound up with hedonism as the religion
of Zoilus: religion of works! But three hundred years
after the letter of Zoilus other letters relating to a new
cult cross the same sea—letters whose religious centre of
energy is grace. Preached to the insignificant, the revelation
of grace afterwards, with a divine energy ever renewed,
seizes hold of the great, an Augustine, a Luther. And it will
remain the heart’s pulse of reformations ; for always and every-.
where, even with a choice stock that has been brought to
great perfection, the wild strain asserts itself again: the
.. primitive religion of performance comes thrusting upward
again and again with elemental force. St. Paul’s great
reformation, his fight for grace, his fight against justification
by works, was directed in practice not only against vulgar
Judaism, but also against the cults of the Gentiles. A
religion still without a tabernacle, the apostle’s cult of Christ
is, by virtue of grace, inwardly superior to the glittering
magnificence of the neighbouring cults. Those cults were
seemingly divided from the coarseness of primitive religious
instincts by a world of the most refined formal culture;
but had. their tabernacles been opened, naught save the
uncultivated primitive would frequently have been dis-
coverable. It is a peculiarity of the earliest Christianity
that to men of primitive instincts, nurtured in primitive
and external religion, it imparts religion in its highest
perfection and inwardness (and yet, with simplest forms of
expression).
162 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

3 and 4
Two letters from Palestine: Tubias, Sheikh of the Ammonites, to
Apollonius, Egyptian minister of finance, and to King Ptolemy
11., Philadelphus, Transjordania, 257-256 B.C., papyrus
from the correspondence of Zeno found at Philadelphia
(Fayim), now in the Cairo Museum, edited by C. C. Edgar?
(Figures 22 and 23).
TovBias ᾿Απολλωνίωι χαίρειν. καθάπερ μοι ἔγραψας ἀποστεῖλα[ι]
[ea ἐν Ὁ φόφηρος ee ee 7 μηνί, ἀπέσταλκα τοῦ Ἐανδικ[οῦ]
τὸν παρ᾽ ἡμῶν
τῆι δεκάτ[ηι ἄγοντα τὸν δεῖνα] ἵππους δύο, κύνας [ξ]ξ; ἡμιονά[γριον]
ἐξ ὄνου ἕν, ὑποζύγιᾳ [᾿ΑἹρᾳβικὰ λευκὰ δύο, πῴ[λους] ἐξ ἡμιοναγ[ρίου δύο],
5 πῶλον ἐξ ὀναγρίου ἕνα. ταῦτα 8 ἐστὶν τιθασά. ἀπέσταλκα δέ [σοι]
καὶ τὴν ἐπι[σ]τολὴν τὴν γραφεῖσαν παρ᾽ ἡμῶν ὑπὲρ τῶν ξενί[ων]
τῶι: βασιλεῖ, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τἀντίγραφα αὐτῆς ὅπως εἰδῆις.
᾿ ἔρρωσο. ἰ-κθ, Ἐϊανδικοῦ ι.
(Copy :] Βασιλεῖ Πτολεμαίωι χαίρειν TovBias* ἀπέσταλκά σοι ἵππο[υς
δύο,]
IO κύνας ἕξ, ἡμιονάγριον ἐξ ὄνου ἕν, ὑποζύγια [᾿Ἀρ]ᾳβικὰ λευκὰ [δύο,]
πώλους ἐξ ἡμιοναγρίου δύο, πῶλον ἐξ ὀναγρίον ἕνα.
. εὐτύχει.

Endorsed :
Note of receipt (in another
hand) : Address :
TovBias τῶν ἀπεσταλμένων ᾿Απολλωνίωι.
τῶι βασιλεῖ καὶ τῆς πρὸς τὸν
βασιλέα ἐπιστολῆς τὸ ἀντίγραφον.
Lx, ᾿Αρτεμισίον tS, ἐν ᾿Αλεξαν.
Tubias to Apollonius greeting. As thou didst write unto me to
send... . (for the) . . . month, I have sent 2 on the tenth of
Xandicus N. N., one of our men,® bringing two horses, six dogs,
-one wild-ass mule by an ass, two white Arabian asses,! two colts
1 Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Egypte, vol. 18, No. 13, p. 231 ff.
The letter to the king was enclosed in the letter to Apollonius, and not left
open; but Apollonius received a copy for his information.
“3 In the Greek “ I sent ’’( as usually in epistolary style).
3 (Or, following the English rendering of Mark iii. 21, ‘‘ our friend.” For
“N.N.” (the ‘‘such a man” of Matt. xxvi. 18) cf. pp. 177; 302, ἢ. 5. The
whole phrase is like saying in modern English, ‘‘ our Mr. So-and-so.” ΤᾺ]
4 ὑποζύγιον, ‘‘ beast for the yoke, beast of burden,” is here used in the
same specialised sense as in the Greek Bible (Bibelstudien, p. 158f.; Bible
Studies, p.160f.). Both in ancient (Judges v. 10) and in modern times white
asses are accounted rare and specially valuable (Guthe, Kurzes Bibelwérteybuch,
p. 168; and Encyclopaedia Biblica, I., col. 344).
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 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 163
by a wild-ass mule, (5) one colt bya wild-ass. They are tamed.}
But I have sent? unto thee also the letter written by us for 3.
the presents to the king, likewise also the copies thereof, that
thou mayest know.
Farewell. In the year 29, Xandicus roth.
[Copy :] To King Ptolemy greeting [from] Tubias. I have sent 2
unto thee two horses, (10) six dogs, one wild-ass mule by an ass,
two white Arabian asses,4 two colts by a wild-ass mule, one colt
by a wild-ass.
Mayest thou fare well.

Endorsed :
Note of receipt (in another Address :
hand): Tubias, of things sent To Apollonius.
to the king, and the copy
of the letter to the king. In
the year 29, Artemisius 26th, at
Alexan.

The mighty Apollonius is concerned not only with Sarapis

but also with the little hobbies of his sovereign. Philadelphus
was passionately fond of animals.5 And so the minister
doubtless felt he was providing no ordinary treat for his august
lord when he ordered of the-Ammonite sheikh a present of
valuable animals for him from abroad, and Tubias duly sent
them, including some specimens of remarkable cross-breeding.
This Tubias, chieftain of the Ammonites, is a personage
known also from other papyri in the correspondence of
Zeno,® and of considerable interest to us.’ He is probably
1 No easy accomplishment in the case of the wild ass; the animal was
accounted untamable (Guthe, p. 727). In Job xxxix. 7 it is said of him,
“he scorneth the tumult of the city” (R.V.; LXX καταγελῶν πολυοχλίας
πόλεως). One wonders what Tubias’s steppe-land animals may have thought
of the cosmopolitan city of Alexandria.
2 In the Greek “1 sent” (as usually in epistolary style).
3 (On this preposition cf. p. 166,n. 6. TR.J 4 See note 4, p. 162.
5 Diodorus iii. 36 (quoted by Edgar, p. 231).
6 Cf. the contract for the purchase of slaves, No. 3 in Edgar (p. 164 ff.),
and the other letter from Tubias mentioned 7b7d., pp. 165, 232.
7 In 1z Macc. v. 13 (a hundred years after our Tubias) ‘‘ the people of Tubias “'
{or ‘‘ the land of Tubias "᾿ as the R.V. has it. Tr.] are mentioned, and in the
parallel passage, 2 Macc. xii. 17, ‘“‘ the Jews that are called Tubieni.’”’ On the
possible connexions cf. my note, ‘‘ Tubias,’’ in the Byzantinisch-Neugrie-
chische Jahrbiicher (edited by N. A. Bees), vol. 2, p. 275 f.; and H. Gressmann,
Die ammonitischen Tobiaden, Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie
“δι Ulin. tt -
164 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
connected somehow as a dependent (or ally) with the Egyptian
king, but is obviously, as the tone of his letters shows, a
gentleman with a good conceit of himself. The instantaneous
picture shown in the two letters is altogether extremely
remarkable; together with the other Palestinian items in
the correspondence of Zeno it furnishes valuable first-hand
evidence for the history of the Holy Land in the third
century B.C.

5
Letter from Demophon, a wealthy Egyptian, to Ptolemaeus, a
police official, civca 245 B.C., papyrus from mummy wrap-
pings found in the necropolis of El-Hibeh, now in. the posses-
sion of the Museum of Victoria University, Toronto, Canada;
discovered and published by Grenfell and Hunt 1 (Figure 24).
. Δημοφῶν Πτολε- Demophon to Ptolemaeus
μαίωι ὃ χαίρειν. ἀπό[σ]- greeting.? Send us by all
τειλον ΄ἡμῖν ἐκν παν->
x
means the piper (5) Petoys
TOS τρόπου TOV αυ-
with both the Phrygian pipes
5 λητὴν Πετῶυν ἔχοντ[α]
and the others. And if it is
τούς τε Ppvyiovs ai-
λ[ο]ὺς καὶ τοὺς λοιπούς. κ[αὶ] necessary to spend anything,
ἐάν τι δέηι ἀνηλῶσαι pay it. Thou shalt receive it
δός. παρὰ δὲ ἡμ[ῶ]ν κομε- from us. (10) And send us also
Io εἴ 3. ἀπόστειλον δὲ ἡ[μ]ῖν Zenobius the effeminate,* with
a
καὶ Ζηνόβιον τὸν pada-
4 4 Mw lA i ql
tabret, and cymbals,’ and
Fe OES TUE OY καὶ rattles. For the women have
κύμβαλα ὃ καὶ κρόταλα. χρεί-
foe ἢ νοι τον
a yap ἐστι Tals γυναιξὶν προς
need of5 himυ at (15) the sacrifice.
2
15 τὴν θυσίαν. ἐχέτω δὲ And let him have also raiment
καὶ ἱματισμὸν ws ἀσ- as fair as may be. And fetch
1 The Hibeh Papyri, No. 54.—For the photograph here reproduced in
slightly reduced facsimile (Figure 24), by kind permission of the Egypt
Exploration Fund, I am indebted to the courtesy of Dr. Grenfell. Cf. also
Helbing, p. 50 ff.; Schubart, Ein Jahvtausend, Ὁ. 33f.; Wilcken, Chresto-
mathie, p. 563; Witkowski, Epistulae?, No. 21.
2 Ptolemaeus seems to have held some post in the police force of the nome
of Oxyrhynchus. ‘
3 Wilcken’s conjecture.
4 The word is no doubt used in its secondary (obscene) sense, as by St. Paul
in 1 Cor. vi.9. It is an allusion to the foul practices by which the musician
eked out his earnings. Cf. the remarks in Chapter IV. on the lists of vices
(p. 316, π. 6).
St. Paul is thinking of cymbals such as these, employed for religious
music, in 1 Cor. xiii. 1.
 Fic. 24.—Letter from Demophon, a wealthy Egyptian, to
Ptolemaeus, a police official, civca 245B.c. Papyrus from Hibeh.
Formerly in the possession of the Egypt Exploration Fund, by
whose permission it is here reproduced. Now in the Museum of
Victoria University, Toronto, Canada.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE τόσ

τειότατον. κόμισαι δὲ also the kid! from Aristion

καὶ τὸν ἔριφον ὃ παρὰ ᾿Αρισ- and send it to us. (20) Yea,
τίωνος καὶ πέμψον ἡμῖν. and if thou hast taken the
20 καὶ τὸ σῶμα3 δὲ 5 εἰ συνεί- slave? deliver him to Semph-
ληφας παράδος [[αὐτὸ]] 4 theus that he may bring him
Σεμφθεῖ ὅπως αὐτὸ δι-
to us. And send us also
ακομίσηι ἡμῖν. ἀπόσ-
τειλον δὲ ἡμῖν καὶ τυ- cheeses (25) as many as thou
25 ροὺς ὅσους ἂν δύνηι καὶ canst, and new earthenware,
κέραμον κα[ι]νὸν καὶ λά- and herbs of every kind, and
χανα π[αντ]ρδαπὰ καὶ delicacies if thou hast any.
ἐὰν ὄψον τι ἔχη![ς.]
ἔρρ[ωσο.] Farewell.
30 ἐμβαλοῦ δὲ αὐτὰ καὶ φυ- (30) Put them on board and
λακίτας οἱ συνδιακομιοῦ- guards with them who will help
ow [[4ᾳ]] τὸ πλοῖο[ν.] in bringing the boat over.

Endorsed :
Πτολεμαίωι. | To Ptolemaeus.
The letter gives us a glimpse of the domestic life of an
obviously well-to-do family. A festival is coming on:
mother and daughter insist that at the sacrifice (and sacri-
ficial dance?) flutes and the rattle of castanets shall not be
wanting, and of course the musicians must be nicely dressed.
Then come anxieties about the festive meal, from the roast
to the dessert, not forgetting the new crockery that must be
bought for kitchen and table, and added to this the annoy-
ance of the runaway slave—really, as master of the house,
there is much for Demophon to think of; and it is no light
matter, the transport of man and beast, pottery, cheese, and
vegetables. But there, friend Ptolemaeus, who is over the
guards, will lend a few of his men who can help the boatmen,
1 No doubt to furnish the roast meat at the feest, such as the brother of
~ the Prodigal Son considered himself entitled to (Luke χν. 29).
2 σῶμα means “‘slave,’’ as frequently in the Greek Old and New Testaments
(Bibelstudien, p. 158; Bible Studies, p. 160). This example is of exactly the
same date as the oldest portions of the Septuagint, and comes from the land
of the Septuagint.—The slave had run away from Demophon, as Onesimus did
from Philemon (cf. St. Paul’s letter to Philemon). ᾿
3 δέ after καί and standing as the fourth word of the sentence, as in Matt. x.
18, John vi. 51,1 Johni. 3 and even earlier.
4 The word enclosed in double brackets was erased by the writer’ of the
Ietter.
166 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
and money shall be no obstacle. Altogether the details of
the proposed festival remind us of the slight but very lifelike
touches with which Jesus pictures the feast at the return of
the Prodigal Son.!
6
Letter from Asclepiades, an Egyptian landowner, to Portis, his
tenant, B.c.—(Ptolemaic period), ostracon from Thebes,
now in the possession of Ulrich Wilcken and published by
him? (Figure 25).
‘This is a private receipt, written, like so many others,®
in the form of a private letter. It is inserted here as a
characteristic example of a letter written to order by an
amanuensis.
[A ]oxAymea(Sys) Χαρμάγοντος Asclepiades, the son of Char-
Ἴτυν Περμάμιος xai(pew). magon, to Portis the son of
ἀπέχωά παρὰ σοῦ τὸ ἐπι- ε Permamis greeting. I have
βάλλον ὃ received * from thee the fruit
μοι ἐκφόριόν καὶ ἐπιγένη(μα) that falleth to me® and in-
5. οὗ ἐμίσθωσά σοι κλήρου crease (5) of the lot that I have
εἰς τὸν σπόρον τοῦ κε L let to thee for the sowing of
κοὐθέν σοι ἐνκαλῶ. the year 25, and I lay nothing
ἔγραψεν ὑπὲρ αὐ(τοῦ) Ἐὔμη- to thy charge. Written forδ
(Aos) Ἕρμαί. . .) him hath Eumelus, the son of
ἀξιωθεὶς διὰ τὸ βραδύ- Herma ...., being desired
IO τεραῦ αὐτὸν γρά(φειν). so to do for that he (10) writeth
L κε Φαμενὼθ B. somewhat slowly.? In the year
25, Phamenoth 2.
1 Luke xv. 22 ff.
2 Griechische Ostraka, 11. No. 1027. The facsimile there given (Plate 1118)
is reproduced here (Fig. 25) by the kind permission of the author and Messrs.
Giesecke and Devrient, Leipzig.
3 Cf. examples above, pp. 105, 111.
* Cf. above p. 110 ff.
5 A regular formula, as in the parable of the Prodigal Son, Luke xv. 12;
cf. Neue Bibelstudien, P. 57; Bible Studies, Ὁ. 230.
8 This ‘‘ for,’’ meaning ‘as representative of,’ occurs in many texts of
similar character, and is not without bearing on the question of ὑπέρ in the New
Testament.
7 This is no doubt a euphemism (cf. p. 92, n. 6 above), but it helps to
explain a habit of St. Paul, the artisan missionary. St. Paul generally
dictated his letters, no doubt because writing was not an easy thing to his
workman’s hand. Then in his Jayge handwriting (Gal. vi. 11), over which
he himself makes merry (Bibelsiudien, p. 264; Bible Studies, p. 348;
Moulton and Milligan, The Expositor, Oct. 1908, p. 383), he himself
 Fic. 25.—Letter from Asclepiades, an Egyptian landowner, to Portis.
Ptolemaic Period. Ostracon from Thebes. Now in the possession of Ulrich
Wilcken. Reproduced by permission of the owner and his publishers.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE τ67

7
Letter from Hilarion, an Egyptian labourer, to Alis, his wife,
Alexandria, 17 June, 1 B.c., papyrus from Oxyrhynchus,
now in the possession of the Museum of Victoria University,
Toronto, Canada; discovered and published by Grenfell and
Hunt ! (Figure 26). e
The letter is of a very vulgar type, although the writer
makes efforts at the beginning, e.g. not to forget the iota
adscript.?
Ἱλαρίων a3 ἴλλιτι τῆι ἀδελφῆι3 Hilarion to Alis his sister 4
πλεῖστα χαί- many greetings. Also to Be-
pew καὶ Βεροῦτι τῇ κυρία
Ν - a ἔν 5
μου 5> and Apollonarin.
Ἵ
rus my lady
καὶ ᾿Απολλω- y y P
νάριν. γίνωσκε ὡς ἔτι καὶ νῦν Know that we are still even
ἐν ᾿Αλεξαν- | now in Alexandrea [sic]. Be

adds a conclusion, which perhaps begins in Galatians at verse 2 of

chapter V. According to aicient procedure the autograph conclusion was
the token of authenticity, cf. C. G. Bruns, Die Unterschriften in den
rémischen Rechtsurkunden, Philologische und Historische Abhandlungen
der K6niglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin aus dem Jahre
1876, pp. 41-138, especially pp. 69 f., 81, 83, 90, 121, 137. Wilcken called
my attention to this important essay. Dziatzko, in the article quoted
at p. 146 above, refers to the statement of C. Julius Victor (Rhet. lat. min.
p- 448 Halm) : observabant veteres carissimis sua manu scribere vel plurimum
subscribere, ‘‘ to very intimate correspondents the ancients used to write or,
very often, sign the letter with their own hand.” The autograph signatures
to papyrus letters are greatly in need of.investigation (cf. e.g. Schubart,
Tabulae Nos. 34b and 35; Ferdinand Ziemann, De epistularum Graecarum
formulis sollemnibus quaestiones selectae, Halis Sax., 1911, p. 362 ff.; and
L. Eisner, Papyri Iandanae, fasc. 2, p. 41). A study of them would lead toa
better appreciation of that extremely important passage in 2 Thess. iii. 17,
which some most strangely regard as a mark of spuriousness : “ the salutation
of Paul with mine own hand, which is the token in every letter: so I write.”
The token (the last line or two in autograph) has the same significance as the
symbolum, which in other cases was sometimes given to the bearer to take
with him as proof of his commission; cf. the pre-Christian letter of Timoxenus
to Moschion, preserved in the Passalacqua Papyrus (Bibelstudien, p. 212 1.
[not given in Bible Studies]; Witkowski, Epistulae privatae, No. 25, *No. 34)»
and Letronne, Notices et Extraits, 18,2, p.407f. In one of the letters of Plato
(No. 13, Epistolographi Graeci rec. Rudolphus Hercher, Parisiis, 1873, p. 528)
ξύμβολον actually has the same meaning as σημεῖον in St. Paul: a sign of
authenticity contained in the letter itself—From his own statement, just
quoted, it follows of course that St. Paul appended an autograph conclusion
to all his letters, even where he does not expressly say so. The recipients
observed it at once by the difference in the handwriting. Cf. the remarks on
letter No. 8 below, p. 171 f. In the Second Epistle to the Corinthians the
autograph conclusion begins at x. 1.
_[For notes 1 to 5 see next page.
168 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
δρέα Vopev. μὴ ἀγωνιᾶς, ἐὰν not distressed if at the general
ὅλως eis- (5) coming in! I remain at
5 Topevovrar? ἐγὼ ἐν ᾿Αλεξανδρέα | Alexandrea. I pray 2 thee and
μένω. beseech thee, take care of the
3 ΠῚ ὰ n
EpwTw σε Kat παρακαλῶ σε
little child. And as soon as
ἐπιμελή- : :
ae! +s ox ogy
Oyt>e τῶ παιδίω καὶ ἐὰν εὐθὺς
|-we receive wages? I will send
ὀψώνι- thee? up. If thou... art
ov AdBupev® ἀποστελῶ σεῦ | delivered, if it was § a male
ἄνω. ἐὰν (xo) child, let it (live); if it was
πολλὰ wodAGv > τέκης, ἐὰν ἦν | female, cast it out.? Thou
ἄρσε- saidst® unto Aphrodisias,
10 νον ἄφες, ἐὰν ἦν θήλεα ἔκβαλε.Ἷ
“Forget me not.” How can
elpnxas® δὲ ᾽Α φροδισιᾶτι ὅτι μή με 8
I forget thee? I pray9 thee,
ἐπιλάθης. πῶς δύναμαί oe ἐπι-
Nader; ἐδωτῶῦ 9 ceaty a μὴ ὡγώ: therefore, that thou be not
νιάσης. distressed. (15) In the year 29
15 L «6 Καίσαρος Παῖῦνι xy. of the Caesar, Pauni 23.
1 Probably the return of Hilarion’s fellow-workmen from Alexandria to
Oxyrhynchus is referred to.
2 ἐρωτάω, “I pray (thee),’’ generally explained as a Semiticism in the
Greek Bible, is common in popular texts: Bzbelstudien, Ὁ. 45; Neue Bibel-
studien, p. 23; Bible Studies, pp. 290, 195.
3 A regular formula, as in the New Testament: Neue Bibelstudien, p. 94;
Bible Studies, p. 266.
4 Hilarion has written the accusative instead of the dative. He means, ‘‘ I
will send (them) up fo thee.”
5 πολλαπολλων has not yet been explained with certainty. Witkowski thinks
it implies a wish, quod bene vertat, something like “ great, great luck!” Other
[For continuation of notes see next page.

Notes to page 167 :—

1 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, IV. No. 744.—A photograph was very kindly
obtained for me by Dr. Grenfell, and from this was made the slightly reduced
facsimile (Fig. 26) which is here reproduced by permission of the Egypt
Exploration Fund.—The letter has also been published by Lietzmann, Grie-
chische Papyvi, p. 8 £.,*p. 7; Witkowski, Epistulae privatae, p. 97 f., ΞΡ. 131 ff.;
Milligan, Selections, Ὁ. 32 Ἐ.; Helbing, Auswahl, p. 77 ff.; Laudien, p. 1 ff.;
Schubart, Ein Jahvtausend, p. 49.
2 Witkowski prints it wherever Grenfell and Hunt have inserted the iota
subscript, which Hilarion did not use. I give the text without alteration, so
as not to detract from its vulgar character.
3 The a is a slip of the writer.
4 Alis is Hilarion’s wife. ‘‘ Sister’ might be a tender form of address, but
is probably to be taken literally: marriages between brother and sister were
not uncommon in Egypt. Cf. Egon Weiss, Endogamie und Exogamie im
rémischen Kaiserreich, Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung fiir Rechts-
geschichte, Vol. 29, Romanistische Abteilung, p. 351 ff. ,
5 A courteous form of address in letters, as in 2 John 1 and 5.
 Fic. 26.—Letter from Hilarion, an Egyptian labourer, to Alis, his wife. Papyrus,
written at Alexandria, 17 June, 1 B.c. Formerly in the possession of the Egypt
Exploration Fund, by whose permission it is reproduced. Now in the Museum of
Victoria University, Toronto, Canada.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE τόρ

Endorsed :
Ἱλαρίων “Adare ἀπόδος. | Hilarion to Alis. Deliver.

The situation in this letter is clear as to the chief facts.

Hilarion is working for wages in the metropolis, Alexandria,
and intends to remain there although his fellow-workmen
are already about to return home. Anxiety is felt for him
at home at Oxyrhynchus by his wife Alis, who is living with
(her mother?) Berus and (her only child?) Apollonarin. She
is expecting her confinement; gloomy thoughts arise within
her: Hilarion has forgotten me, he sends neither letter
nor money, and where is bread to come from for the growing
family? She confides her trouble to her friend Aphrodisias,
who is going to Alexandria, and through her Hilarion hears
of his wife’s sad case. He sends the letter (by his comrades
who are returning home,or by Aphrodisias) : words merely,
no money (the wages are said to be not yet paid), and in spite
of tender lines for the child, in spite of the sentimental
““ How can I e’er forget thee? ’’ 1 nothing but brutal advice
in the main: if it is a girl that you are bringing into the
world, expose it. Has custom blunted the fatherly instinct
1 [There is a German song by Hoffmann von Fallersleben (1841), beginning
“ Wie kénnt’ ich dein vergessen ’’ and with the same words in the refrain. ΤᾺ.)

Continuation of notes from page 168 :—

conjectures in Grenfell and Hunt, and Lietzmann; cf. also U. von Wilamo-
witz-Moellendorff, Géttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1904, p. 662; A. Harnack,
Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 29 (1904) col. 457. An attractive one by Fr. Pfister, Berl.
Philol. Wochenschr. 33 (1913) col. 926 f.
§ [‘* But the birth is still future, and ἦν is certainly, as often, an illiterate
spelling of 7,” said the kindly reviewer (J. H. Moulton ?) in The Times 15 Dec.
1910 (Literary Supplement, 16 Dec., p. 509). The translator thought so too,
and had printed a note, ‘‘ mistake for ‘ be’ ”’ which was suppressed, however,
because the author wrote, ‘‘ I think it is better not to note the ἦν as a ‘ mistake.’
It is a popular anticipation of the fact.” Tr.]
7 The opposite of LXX Exod. i. 16 (cf. 22): ἐὰν μὲν ἄρσεν ἦ, ἀποκτείνατε
αὐτό" ἐὰν δὲ θῆλυ, περιποιεῖσθε adtd. On the exposure of infants in antiquity
Lietzmann quotes Justinus, Apol. I. 27 ff., who condemns the custom severely.
See also J. Geffcken, Zwei griechische Apologeten, Leipzig und Berlin, 1907,
p. 283; Ludwig Mitteis, Reichsrecht und Volksrecht in den Gstlichen Provinzen
des vémischen Kaiserreichs, Leipzig, 1891, p. 361; and especially the article
“‘Kinderaussetzung ’’ by Egon Weiss in Pauly-Wissowa-Kroll, Real-Enzyklo-
padie.
8 No doubt Aphrodisias had been commissioned to convey this piteous
injunction to the absent husband.
® See note 2 on previous page.
170 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
in him? Has poverty made him unfeeling towards. his own
flesh and blood? Is he, as his name implies, a gay dog, a
good-for-nothing, to whom it is all one so long as he can have
his pleasure in the great city? Or are we doing him an
injustice, because we do not understand that mysterious
poliapolion? But there is no explaining away the fact that
a child is expected and is perhaps to be exposed. I have
met with a striking parallel in Apuleius1: a man setting out
on a journey orders his wife, who is in expectation of be-
coming a mother, to kill the child immediatelyif it should
prove to be a girl.
In any case, therefore, the letter displays a sad picture of
civilisation in the age which saw the birth of the great Friend
.of Children, a scene in which the fortunes of a proletarian
family are reflected in their naked horror, a background of
distinct contrast to what Jesus said of the value of children.
In the time of poor Alis frightened mothers innumerable of
the lower class, who found it difficult to be motherly owing
to the scarcity of daily bread, were waiting for that which
to us—such is the extent of the moral conquests made by the
Gospel—seems to be a thing of course. A century and a
half ‘later the Epistle to Diognetus (v. 6) boasts that the
Christians do not expose their children.
8
Letter from Mystarion, an Egyptian olive-planter, to Stotoétis, a
chief priest, 12 Sept. 50 A.D., papyrus from the Fayim,
now in the Reichspost Museum at Berlin, published by
Fritz Krebs 3 (Figures 27 and 28).
Μυσταρίων Srordéyr τῶι Mystarion to his οὐ ὃ
ἰδίωι 8πλεῖσ a χαίρειν. - | Stotoétis many greetings.
érepia* ὑμεῖν Βλάστον τὸν I have sent‘ unto you my
ἐμὸν Blastus for forked (9) > sticks
χάριν διχίλων5 ξύλων εἰς τοὺς for (5) my οἰϊνε-βαγάβηβϑ" See
5 ἐλαιῶνάς 6 pov. ὅρα οὖν μὴ | then that thou stay him not.
αὐτὸν For thou knowest how I need
κατάσχῃς. οἶδας γὰρ πῶς αὐτοῦ | him every hour.
ἑκάστης ὥρας χρήζωι.
1 Metamorphoses, ed. Eyssenhardt, x. 23. [Cf. Ovid, Met. ix. 675-9,
instructions of Ligdus to his wife Telethusa, in the story of Iphis and
Ianthe. TR.]
[For continuation of notes sce next page.
 oe = 2306.»

Io

Fic. 28.

Letter from Mystarion, an Egyptian olive-planter, to Stotoétis, a chief

50 a.D. Papyrus
priest, Address (Fig. 27) and Text (Fig. 28), 12 September,
Now in the Reichspost Museum at Berlin. Reproduced
from the Fayim.
by permission of the Museum authorities.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 171
(In another hand :) ἔρρωσο. (In another hand :) Farewell.
L ta Τιβερίου Κλαυδίου Kai- In the year 11 of Tiberius
σαρος Σεβαστοῦ Claudius Caesar Augustus (10)
Io Tepp[a]vexo[t] Adroxpdropo[s] |Germanicus Imperator in the
μη(νὶ) Σεβα(στῶι) ie. month Sebastos 15.
Endorsed in the first hand :
Στοτόητι Aeowvy! εἰς τὴν νῆσον To Stotoétis, chief ῥγιθϑί,1 at
τί Ὁ]. the island (9).
I give this little text, belonging to the time of the Pauline
mission, as an example of the letters of commendation
which St. Paul mentions more than once (2 Cor. iii. 1; x Cor.
xvi. 3) and himself employed (Rom. xvi.). In the wider
sense, at least, it is a letter of recommendation. The Latin
letter printed below (No. 17) is an example in the narrowest
sense of the word.
| The situation contained in the letter is extremely simple,
but for that very reason the document has an important
bearing on the disputed passage in 2 Thess. iii. 17.2 St.
Paul, we are told, has not in fact furnished all his letters with
a salutation in his own hand, therefore the words ‘“ which
1“ Lesonis”’ is a newly discovered title of the Egyptian priesthood, cf.
Wilcken, Archiv f. Papyrusforschung, 2, p. 122; and particularly W. Spiegel-
berg, Der Titel λεσῶνις, Recueil de travaux rel. ἃ la philol. égypt. et assyr.
1902, p. 187 ff. 2 Cf. p. 166, n..7 above. ᾿

Continuation of notes from page 170 :—

2 Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Koeniglichen Museen zu Berlin, Griechische
Urkunden, No. 37 (with date and reading corrected, I. p. 353), cf. Bibelstudien,
p. 213 [not given in Bible Studies], where the old reading is followed. For the
photographs from which, with the permission of the Reichspost Museum,
the facsimiles (Figs. 27, 28) were made, I am indebted to the kind offices of
W. Schubart. The illustrations reduce the size of the originals by about one
quarter. ᾿
8 ἴδιος, “ his own,” is used quite in the colourless Biblical sense (without any
emphasis on ‘‘own’”’). Cf. Bibelstudien, p. 120f.; Bible Studies, p. 123.
4 The epistolary use of the aorist. For this whole line cf, St. Paul’s ἔπεμψα
ὑμῖν Τιμόθεον, “1 have sent unto you Timotheus,” 1 Cor. iv. 17, and similar
passages.” :
5 Presumably equivalent to διχήλων, and with decolorisation of the meaning,
in a general sense “‘ cleft, forked.’ Hermann Diels (letter, Berlin W., 22 July,
1908) would rather take it as δισχιλίων, ‘‘ two thousand.” :
® The New Testament word [Acts i. 12, “ Olivet.” TR.], so strangely re-
jected by Blass (Grammar, Eng. trans.” 32, 64, 85. TR.], cf. Neue Bibel-
studien, Ὁ. 36 ff.; Bible Studies, p. 208. On the translation of εἰς by “‘ for,”
cf. Bibelstudien, p. 113 ff.; Neue Bibelstudien, p. 23; Bible Studies, pp. 117,
194; this use, found in both LXX and N.T., is not Semitic, but popular
Hellenistic Greek.
172 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
is the token in every letter’? cannot be genuine.
,
But the
premise from which this argument starts is a sheer petitio
principit. We must not say that St. Paul only finished off
with his own hand those letters in which he expressly says
that he did.1_ Mystarion’s letter, with its greeting and the
rest of the conclusion in a different writing, namely
in Mystarion’s own hand, was written only a few years before
St. Paul’s second letter to the Christians of Thessalonica, and
it proves that somebody at that date closed a letter in his own”
hand without expressly saying 50.2 It must not be forgotten
that we can have no proper conception of what a letter was
like unless we have seen the original; the copies in books
and most certainly the printed editions have taken more from
the letters of St. Paul than is generally suspected, while on
the other hand they have facilitated the discussion of problems
that could only have originated in the study as pure hallucina-
tions in overtasked brains. The soldier Apion, whose
acquaintance we shall make in letters 12 and 13, has the
unsophisticated man’s natural feeling for the significance of
the original handwriting of a letter: the mere sight of his
father’s handwriting makes him tender and affectionate. In
much the same way a contrast of handwriting awakes in
St. Paul a mood half jesting and half earnest.4

9
Letter from Harmiysis, a small Egyptian farmer, to Papiscus,
an official, and others, 24 July, 66 A.D., papyrus from
Oxyrhynchus, now in the Cambridge University Library,
discovered and published by Grenfell and Hunt 5 (Figure 29).
This is a good example of a communication to the authorities
couched in the form of a letter. The name of the addressee
is politely placed at the beginning, as often in official
correspondence.®
1 2 Thess. iii. 17; 1 Cor. xvi. 21; Gal. vi. 11; Col. iv. 18. ;
2 There is another good instance, I think, in a letter of the 2nd cent. a.p.,
Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 815; cf. Gregor Zereteli, Archiv fir
Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 336 ff., and the facsimile there given.
3 In all probability, for instance, the date of writing and the address.
* Cf. Gal. vi. 11 ff., and Bibelstudien, p. 264; Bible Studies, p. 348.
5 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (11) No. 246. A facsimile of lines 1-31 is given
there in Plate VII. With the consent of the Egypt Exploration Fund I re-
produce it here in slightly reduced form (Figure 29). For the text cf, also
Laudien, p. 27 f. ;
6 Cf. pp. 152, 162 above, and Bibelstudien, p. 209, n. 2 [not in Bible Studies).
 Fic. 29.—Letter from Harmiysis, a small Egyptian farmer, to Papiscus,
an official, and others, 24 July, 66 a.p., lines 1-31. Papyrus from Oxyrhyn-
chus. Now in the Cambridge University Library. By permission of the
Egypt Exploration Fund.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 173
Παπίσκωι κοσμητεύφ[α(ντι)] Τὸ Papiscus, former cos-
τῆς πόλεως καὶ στρα(τηγῶϊ) metes of the city and now
᾿Οξυ[ρυγχί(ίτου)] strategus of the Oxyrhynchite
καὶ Πτολεμα(ίωι) Baorrexd[e nome, and Ptolemaeus, royal
γρα(μματεῖ)) scribe, and the writers of the
καὶ τοῖς γράφουσι τὸν νο[μὸν] | nome, (5) from Harmiysis, the
5 παρὰ ᾿Αρμιύσιος τοῦ Πεῖτο-] son of Petosiris (the son of
σίριος τοῦ Πετοσίριος μ[η-] Petosiris), his -mother being
τρὸς Διδύμης τῆς Διογένους] Didyme, the daughter of. Dio-
τῶν ἀπὸ κώμης Φθώχ[ιος] genes, of the men of the
τῆς πρὸς ἀπηλιώτην το- village of Phthochis which is
[π(αρχίας).] in the eastern toparchy.? (10)
10 ἀπεγραψάμην 3 τῶι ἐν[εσ-] I- enrolled? in the present
τῶτι ιβ 1-- ΝέρωνοΪς] 12th year of Nero Claudius
Κλαυδίου Καίσαρος Caesar Augustus Germanicus
Σεβαστοῦ Τερμανικοῦ Imperator, nigh unto that (15)
Αὐτοκράτορος περὶ τὴν same Phthochis, of the young
15 αὐτὴν Φθώχιν ἀπὸ γ[ο-] of the sheep that I have,
vis ὧν ἔχω θρεμμάτων] twelve lambs. And now I
ἄρνας δέκα δύο. καὶ νῦ[ν] enrol those that have since
ἀπογράφομαι τοὺς éx[cye-] been born, for the present (20)
γονότας εἰς τὴν ἐνεστί doar] second enrolment; of the young
20 δευτέραν ἀπογραφὴν ἀπὸ] of those same sheep seven lambs
γονῆς τῶν αὐτῶν θρεμ[μά- —they are seven lambs.? And
τῶν ἄρνας ἑπτά, γίνονται) I swear by Nero Claudius
ἄρνες ἑπτά. καὶ ὀμν[ύω] Caesar (25) Augustus Germani-
Νέρωνα Κλαύδιον Καίσαρ[α] cus Imperator that I have kept
25 Σεβαστὸν Τερμανικὸν back nothing.
Αὐτοκράτορα μὴ ὑπεστα[λθ(αι).] Farewell.
ἔξρρω(σθε).]
In another hand:
᾿Απολλώνιος ὁ π(αρὰ) Πα- I Apollonius, one of the men
π[ίσκου] of 4 Papiscus the strategus, have
στρατηγοῦ σεση(μείωμαι) ἄρν(ας) noted 7 lambs.
é. (30) In the year 12 of Nero
30 L ιβ Νέρωνος τοῦ κυρ(ῦ) [0] the lord, Epiph 30.
Ἐπεὶφ A.
There follow, in a third and fourth hand, the signatures of the
other officials to the same effect.
The handwriting of this document is interesting on account
of the clear, almost literary uncials of the main text, sharply
1 (The word translated ‘‘ province” in r Macc. xi. 28. With regard to νομός
cf. Bibelstudien, p. 142 f.; Bible Studies, p. 145. TR.]
2 Technical expression for making a return.
5 I.e., “ total seven.” ‘ [J.e., ‘‘representing,” cf. p. 162, n. 3. TR.J
 174 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
distinguished from the cursive signatures of the attesting
officials. We must imagine this state of things reversed in the
case of the Epistle to the Galatians; the handwriting of the
amanuensis of Gal. i. I-vi. 10 (or —v. I) was probably cursive,
and the autograph signature of St. Paul the stiff, heavy
uncials of a manual labourer; the contrast was just as great.
In regard to contents this text is one of the most important 1
evidences that the title Kyrios (‘‘lord’”’) was applied to the
emperor as early as the reign of Nero. It is not the farmer
Harmiysis who employs it, but the officials use it three times
over in their formal signatures.

Io

Letter from Nearchus, an Egyptian, to Heliodorus, 1st or 2nd

cent. A.D., papyrus from Egypt, now in the British Museum,
published by Kenyon and Bell? (Figure 30).
Νέαρχος a[ Nearchus .. . (to Helio-
πολλῶν τοῦ aL dorus) . . . (greeting).
παν ἵνα ἀμνόν,
μένων, τ, ϊτους
τὰς χε[Πρρπ[οι]ή Since many even unto
τέ] taking ship,? that they may
5 χνας ἱστορήσωσι, ἐγὼ παρ-
ἐπο[ιησ]ά-3 learn about the works made
μὴν καὶ ἀράμενος ἀνάπλο[υν| by men’s hands, (5) I have done
π]αρ[α-]3
after this sort and undertook
γενόμενδς τε εἴς τε Σοήνας καὶ
- kf ca my ed Ν

ὅθεν τ[υγ]χά-
" ‘
a voyage up and came to
νει Νεῖλος ῥέων καὶ εἰς Λιβύην Soéne ® and there whence the
ὅπου Nile flows out,9 and to Libya,
Appov πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις χρη-
ΜΝ a 3 ,

σμωδεῖ
where Ammon sings oracles
Io [καὶ] εὔζσστομα 5 ἱστόρ[η]σα to all men,!° (ro) and I learnt
καὶ τῶν φίλων
* - , ν

goodly things," and I carved

[ἐϊμ[ῶν τ]ὰ ὀνόματα ἐνεχάραξα
the names of my friends}? on
τοῖς ἵ{ε-}
pots
a
ἀειμνήζσ)τως
> i 6
τὸ
‘
προσ- the temples for a perpetual
κύνημα memory, the intercession ...
[Two lines washed out.]
Endorsed :
Ἡλιοδόρμω. | To Heliodorus.
1 Cf. Chapter IV. (p. 351 ff.) below.
[For notes 2 to 12 see next page.
 Fic. 30.—Letter from Nearchus, an Egyptian, to Heliodorus, 1st or 2nd century, Α.Ὁ.
Papyrus from Egypt. Now in the British Museum. By permission of the Museum
authorities.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 175
This little fragment of a letter about travel is of great
interest to the historian of civilisation. It also gives a good
picture of the social piety which was already known to us
from the assurances of mutual intercession in other papyrus
(and Pauline) letters. Nearchus ? does not neglect to pray for
his friends at the seats of grace, and, as if to make his inter-
cession permanent, he inscribes their names on the temple walls.
The writer seems to be a man of the middle class, but his
1 Unfortunately nothing is known of the writer’s identity. As moreover
we have no exact data concerning the provenance of the papyrus, the utmost
that we can do is to suggest, without answering, the question whether this
fragment may have belonged to the correspondence of the Heliodorus who
is mentioned below (p. 236).

Continuation of notes from p. 174 :—

2 Greek Papyri in the British Museum (Vol. III.), London, 1907, No. 854
(p. 206); facsimile, Plate 28, here reproduced by kind permission of the
British Museum (Figure 30). The letter is assigned by the editors to the first
century; Grenfell and Hunt, as I was informed by Wilcken (letter, Leipzig,
13 October, 1907) would place it in the second century. The text is now
accessible also in Milligan, p. 69 f.
3 Wilcken’s reading, confirmed’ by Grenfell and Hunt.
4 Ditto (omitting xa‘).
5 The papyrus has εὔτομα. The meaning would then be: “and I visited
regions easily traversed ’’ (in opposition to the difficult approach to the oasis).
Hermann Diels (letter, Berlin W., 22 July, 1908) writes: ‘‘etoroua = arcana,
mysteria, 1 take to be a reminiscence of the Atyumriaxd of Herodotus (ii. 171),
which then, as now, every traveller on the Nile had in his pocket.’’ See also
Wilcken, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 4, p. 554.
ὁ Grenfell and Hunt’s reading.
7 Perhaps: ‘‘ Since many now make journeys and resolve them even to
4 sea voyage.”
8. = Syene.
“
® With regard to the supposed source of the Nile ‘“‘ between Syene and
Elephantine,’’ which occurs already in a story told to Herodotus (ii. 28) by”
the temple scribe at Sais, Wilcken refers me to Dittenberger, Ovientis Graeci
Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 168,, I. p. 243 f., and Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung
3, Pp. 326.
10 The oracle of Jupiter Ammon in the oasis of Siwah is referred to. (Cf.
Major W. T. Blake, “ On Ford Cars to Siwa_Oasis,’’ Discovery, 4 (July 1923)
Pp. 175-179. TR.]
11 This refers either to the impressions of the journey in general or specially
to a favourable oracle of the god Ammon.
12 Inscriptions of this kind, the work of pilgrims and travellers of the
Ptolemaic and Imperial periods, still exist in great numbers, cf. the Egyptian
inscriptions in the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. They. generally contain
the proskynema, a special intercession at the place of pilgrimage for absent
friend and relatives. Let us hope that some of the proskynemata inscribed
by Nearchus may yet be found.
176 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
style, despite faint echoes of the book-language, is on the whole
non-literary.*
II
Letter from Ivene, an Egyptian, to a family in mourning, 2nd
cent. A.D., papyrus from Oxyrhynchus, now in the Library
of Yale University, U.S.A., discovered and published by
Grenfell and Hunt 5 (Figure 31).
Εἰρήνη Taovvadpe καὶ Φίλωνι Irene to Taonnophris and
εὐψυχεῖν. Philo good comfort.
καὶ I am as sorry and weep
οὕτως ἐλυπήθην ἔκλαυσα 3 ἐπὶ over the departed4 one as
τῶι
eipotput,? ὡς ἐπὶ Διδυμᾶτος
Γὰ Ν a
I wept for Didymas. (5) And
ν
5 ἔκλαυσα. ν᾿
καὶ πάντα ὅσα ἦν>,
κα- “
all things, whatsoever were
θήκοντα ἐποίησα καὶ πάντες
΄ὔ
fitting, I have done, and all
of «ἐμοί, Ἐπαφρόδειτος καὶ |mine, Epaphroditus and Ther-
Θερμού- ' muthion and Philion and
θιον καὶ Φίλιον καὶ ᾿Απολλώνιος |Apollonius and Plantas. But,
καὶ Πλαντᾶς. ἀλλ᾽ ὅμως οὐδὲν nevertheless, (10) against such
Io δύναταί τις πρὸς τὰ τοιαῦτα. things one can do nothing.
παρηγορεῖτε οὖν ἑαυτούς. Therefore comfort ye one
εὖ πράττετε. ᾿Αθὺρ a.6 | another. Fare ye well. Athyr 1.6
Endorsed :
Ταοννώφρει
ρ καὶ Φίλωνι To Taonnophris and Philo.
Philo and Taonnophris, a married pair at Oxyrhynchus,
have lost a son by death, and Irene, a friend of the sorrowing
mother,’ wishés to express her sympathy. She can fully
1 Eduard Norden, in a letter to me (Gross-Lichterfelde W., 3 September,
1908), disagrees with this view.
2 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (I.), No. 115. For the facsimile (Figure 31)
I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Arthur S. Hunt. A translation is also
given by Preisigke, p. 109. Text and notes in U. von Wilamowitz-Moellen-
dorff, Griechisches Lesebuch, I. 23, Berlin, 1906, p. 398, and II. 22, 1902, p. 263.
Cf. also Milligan p. 95 f.; Wilcken, Chrest. p. 564 f.; Helbing p. 116 ff.;
Schubart, p. 63 f. 3 Epistolary use of the aorist.
4 The word was first taken as a proper name, Εὐμοίρωι. But, as pointed out
by E. J. Goodspeed, the article surely shows that the word is an adjective;
cf, Wilcken, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 4, p. 250. I have found the word
more than once as an epithet of deceased persons in early Christian inscrip-
tions from Egypt (Gustave Lefebvre, Recueil des Inscriptions grecques-chré-
tiennes d’Egypte, Le Caire, 1907, p. xxxi); cf. also Milligan, Selections, p. 96.
This interpretation is moreover supported by the parallel τοῦ μακαρίου of the
ancient letter-writer, cf. below (p. 177). [Per contra: p. 214, 1.9. Tr.].
5 Equivalent, I think, to ἀλλήλους, as often in the N.T., e.g. Col. iii. 16.
δ = 28 October.
7 That is why Irene in the letter names the mother before the father:
Preisigke, p. 109.
 yan AT a
ΡΜ,

Fic. 31.—Letter trom Irene, an Egyptian, to a Family in Mourning, 2nd

cent. A.D. Papyrus from Oxyrhynchus. Now in the Library of Yale Uni-
versity. Facsimile kindly obtained by Dr. Arthur S. Hunt.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 177
understand the grief of her friends; she weeps over again the
tears that she shed before for her own lost one, the departed
Didymas?: personal sorrow has made her sympathetic with
other people’s trouble. She speaks therefore of her own
tears first. But she must write more than that: it is to be
a letter of consolation. Irene, who knows how to write a
business letter quickly and surely,? experiences the difficulty
of those whose business it is to console and who have no con-
solation to offer. And so she ponders over sentences to fill
up the sheet: it will be a satisfaction to the mourners to hear
that she and all her family have fulfilled all the duties of
affection and decency that are customary in such cases.2 But
after these lines full of names, slowly written by great effort, the
genuine feeling in her heart breaks through, that despairing
resignation which speaks of inevitable fates. And then, illogical
and truly womanly, the concluding injunction, ‘“ Comfort ye
one another !’’ Who could help feeling for the helplessness
of this woman, whose own sympathy was assuredly so true?
Poor Irene! It is certainly with no wish to do her injustice
that I call attention to the fact that similar formulaé of con-
solation were common to the age. An ancient model letter-
writer gives the following formulary 4 :—
ἡ ἐπιστολή. λίαν ἡμᾶς ἡ ἀπο | The letter. The death of
βίωσις
ia
τοῦ
cel
μακαρίου
dont
τοῦ
an
δεῖνος
-
N. N., now blessed, hath

ἐλύπησε καὶ πενθεῖν καὶ δακρύειν

grieved us exceedingly and
constrained us to mourn and
ἠνάγκασε" τοιούτου φίλου yap σπου- weep; for of such an earnest
δαίου καὶ παναρέτου éorepyOnuev. |and altogether virtuous friend
δόξα οὖν καὶ αἴνεσις τῷ ἐν σοφίᾳ καὶ |have we been bereaved. Glory
ἀκαταλήπτῳ
3
δυνάμει καὶ προνοίᾳ
id 4
then and praise be to God,
Ἂς. i

κυβερνῶντι θεῷ τὰς διεξόδους τῷ

who in wisdom and incompre-
θανά μὰ sa fees ji hensible power and providence
i κα στην ΨΥΧῊ al a governeth the issues to death,
παραλαμβάνοντι. and, when it is expedient, re-
: ceiveth the soul unto Himself.
If the second half of this formulary shows signs of Biblical
1 Her husband (?) or, more probably, her son (?).
3 Cf. her letter to the same family, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No. 116. To
judge from this, Irene was a landed proprietress. ἃ
3 Funeral offerings? Prayers? One would gladly know more.
4 Proclus,.De forma epistolari, No. 21 (Epistolographi Graeci, rec. Hercher,
p. 10). The authorship of this letter-writer has been sometimes attributue
178 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
influence,! the first half is obviously ancient and secular.
Irene’s letter exhibits very similar formulae, the resemblance
of the opening lines being particularly striking. But it is
not mere imitation; the no doubt familiar formulae are ani-
mated by the personality of the writer, and we shall be
justified in regarding even the concluding words of resignation
as an expression of real feeling. That this feeling was a wide-
spread one,? and that it produced similar thoughts in another
formulary for a letter of consolation, need be no objection
to the view we have taken.
St. Paul doubtless was thinking of such despairing souls
in his letter to Thessalonica, when he inserted these words of
comfort for the Christians in trouble for their dead * :—
“But I would not have you to be ignorant, brethren,
concerning them which are asleep, that ye sorrow not, even
as others which have no hope.”
And then with all the realism of an ancient popular writer
he unfolds a picture of the Christian’s future hope, culminat-
ing in the certainty ὅ :—
* And so shall we ever be with the Lord.”
To which he immediately adds, in conclusion, the exhorta-
tion :-
“Wherefore, comfort one another with these words,”
reminding us of the ending of Irene’s letter of consolation,’
except that behind-St. Paul’s words there is not the resigna-
-tion of the ‘“‘ others’ but a victorious certitude, triumphing
over death.
to Libanius, as well as to the Neo-Platonist Proclus (cf. Karl Krumbacher,
Geschichte dev byzantinischen Litevatuy,? Minchen, 1897, p. 452, who rejects
both attributions). I regard the text as a Christian adaptation of ancient
models; cf. the Biblical intrusions noticed in the next footnote, like those
in the formulary for a letter of contrition mentioned below (p. 192, on the
letter of Antonis Longus).
1 Cf. the whole tenor and especially LXX Psalm Ixvii. [Ixviii.] 20, rod κυρίου
ai διέξοδοι τοῦ θανάτου, “ unto the Lord belong the issues from death,” and John
xiv. 3, παραλήμψομαι ὑμᾶς πρὸς ἐμαυτόν, “1 will receive you unto Myself.”
2 Wilcken recalls a saying frequent in epitaphs, ‘‘ No one is immortal.’
3 Demetrius Phalereus, Typi epistolares, No. 5 (Epistolographi, rec. Hercher,
Ῥ. 2), ἐννοηθεὶς δὲ ὅτι τὰ τοιαῦτα πᾶσίν ἐστιν ὑποκείμενα. . ., “ bearing in mind
that such dispensations are laid upon us all.”
4 1 Thess. iv. 13. 5 x Thess. iv. 17. 6 x Thess. iv. 18.
7 Irene: παρηγορεῖτε οὖν ἑαυτούς. | St. Paul: dare πὰρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους, etc.
St. Paul doubtless adopted the exhortation from the epistolary formulae of the
age (cf. also 1 Thess. v. 11, and later Heb. iii. 13). The model letter of
 Fic. 32.—Letter from Apion, an Egyptian soldier in the Roman Navy, to
his father Epimachus, Misenum, 2nd cent. a.D. Papyrus from the Fayim.
Now in the Berlin Museum. By permission of the Directors of the State
Museums.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 179
12
Letter from Apion, an Egyptian soldier in the Roman
navy, to his
father Epimachus, Misenum, 2nd cent. a.D., papyrus
from
the Fayim, now in the Berlin Museum, published
by Paul
Viereck 1 (Figure 32).
This splendid specimen had been frequently discussed
(and
translated) before the first publication of this book, and
it
has of late received a still greater share of attention.”
oR ᾿Απών Ἐπιμάχω τῶι πατρὶ καὶ
3 a

Re κυρίω3 ὃπλεῖστα a ,
χαίρειν. πρὸVos μὲν πάν-,
23a των εὖ χομαί ioe σε ὑγιαίνειν
ὑγιαίνειν 4
ἃ καὶκαὶ διὰ
διὰ παντὸςὸ
3 ww
πὸ ἃ >
ἐρωμένον΄ >
εὐτυχεῖνa
μετὰἃ τῆς κα ἐδ Las
ἀδελφῆς
5 BE. μον καὶ τῆς θυγατρὸς αὐτῆς καὶ τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ
= A μου. Εὐχαριστῶ ὃ τῶ κυρίω δ. Σεράπιδι,
E μ ὅτι μου κινδυνεύσαιτος εἰς θάλασσαν ἴ
Ca)
on 8, ἔσωσε εὐθέως 8, ὅτε εἰσῆλθον na
εἰς Μη-
3Sx 2 8 ) τ ae
σηνούςϑ, ἔλαβα 10 βιάτικον 11 παρὰ Καίσαρος
2 ᾿ os ᾿ “ .
Io py 95. χρυσοῦς τρεῖς. καὶ καλῶς μοί ἐστιν.
τ 3, ἐρωτῶ 13 σε οὖν, κύριέ μου πατήρ,
ξ΄ . γράψον μοι ἐπιστόλιον πρῶτον
με a
Be μὲν περὶ τῆς σωτηρίας 13 σου, δεύ-
x D 8 ni ia
τερον περὶ τῆς a
τῶν ἀδελφῶν μου,
Ε
15 σὴ γι© rp[i]rov, ἵνα σου προσκυνήσω τὴν
Ξ
& Ρ
|
γῆς; ld
xépav 14. ὅτι με ἐπαίδευσας καλῶςa
1 ot gs καὶ ἐκ τούτου ἐλπίζω ταχὺ προκό-
4

- 2 σαι} τῶν θε[ῶ]ν θελόντων 186. ἄσπασαι 17

: 8 f
Ha Καπίτων[α πο]λλὰ 18 καὶ to[ds] ἀδελφούς
és » ne]
20 _, Ἢ Ἐς [μ]ου καὶ Σε[ρηνίϊλλαν καὶ το[ὺς] φίλους μο[ν.]
ΕΝ ε΄ Ἔπεμψά oft εἰἸκόνιν 19 μίου] διὰ Εὐκτή-
os. 1 povos. ἔσ[τ]ι [δέ] μου ὄνομα 2 ᾿Αντῶνις
A
Μά-
= ες Expos 20. ξ ᾿ἘἘρρῶσθαί σε εὔχομαι.
gDoma
5

Kevrupi(a) ᾿Αθηνονίκη 33.

ἔν κα rd

τ
==, The address on the back:
28 oe ε[ἰς] Φ[ιλ]αδελφίαν 33 Ἐπιμ)ζ άχω ἀπὸ ᾿Απίωνος υἱοῦ.
w Boo

Two lines running in the opposite direction have been added *4 :

᾿Απόδος εἰς χώρτην πρῖμαν χω Ἰ[υλι]α[ν]οῦ ᾽Αν. [. .]85
30 λιβλαρίω 35 ἀπὸ ᾿Απίωνος do τε Ἐπιμάχω πατρὶ αὐτοῦ. ἢ a

consolation already quoted from Demetrius Phalereus, No. 5, also ends with
the exhortation: καθὼς ἄλλῳ παρήνεσας, σαυτῷ παραίνεσον, “845 thou hast
admonished another, admonish now thyself.”
᾿ [For notes 1 to 26 see pages 180-182.
180 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Apion to Epimachus his father and lord? many greetings.
Before all things I pray that thou art in health,4 and that thou
dost prosper and fare well continually together with my sister
(5) and her daughter and my brother. I thank® the lord ® Serapis
that, when I was in peril in-the sea,” he saved me immediately.’
When I came to Miseni® I received as viaticum™ (journey-
money) from the Caesar (10) three pieces of gold. And it is well
with me. I beseech thee therefore, my lord father, write unto
me a little letter, firstly of thy health, secondly of that of my
brother and sister, (15) thirdly that I may-do obeisance to thy
hand ™ because thou hast taught me well and I therefore hope
to advance quickly, if the gods will.1® - Salute 17 Capito much 18
and my brother and sister (20) and Serenilla and my friends. I
sent [07 ‘‘am sending ’’] thee by Euctemon a‘little picture 19
of me. Moreover my name is Antonis Maximus.?° Fare thee
well, I pray. Centuria Athenonica.24_ (25) There saluteth thee
Serenus the son of Agathus Daemon, and... the son of...
and Turbo the son of Gallonius and Ὁ... .Jnas the son of [. . .]sen
[essl anes

The address on the back :

(28) To Philadelphia 38 for Epim Kachus from Apion his son.

Two lines running in the opposite direction have been added * :

Give this to the first a, ὦ the Apamenians to (?)
Julianus An. . .%5
(30) the Liblarios,?* from Apion so that (he may convey it) to
Epimachus his father.

Notes to pages 179 and 180 :— °

1 Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Koeniglichen Museen zu Berlin (11.), No. 423
(cf. II. p. 356). For the photograph here facsimiled by kind permission of the
Directors of the State Museums at Berlin, Iam indebted to W. Schubart. The
figure is about one-third smaller than the original.
3. Cf. Viereck in his article in the Vossische Zeitung; Erman and Krebs,
p. 214 f.; Cagnat, p. 796; Preisigke, p. 101 f.; Lietzmann,? p.4f.; Milligan,
p. 90 ff.; Wilcken, Chrestomathie, Ὁ. 65f.; Helbing, p. roo ff.; Schubart;
p. 79 (see also the full-sized facsimile, recto and verso, in his Tabulae, No. 28).
3 Lord, here and in 1, 11, is a child’s respectful form of address.
* A frequent formula in papyrus letters, cf. Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 214 (not in
Bible Studies), and the similar formula in 3: John 2, περὶ πάντων εὔχομαί σε
εὐοδοῦσθαι καὶ ὑγιαίνειν, “1 pray that in all things thou mayest prosper
and be in health.” Misunderstanding this formula, many commentators on
{For continuation of notes see next page.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 181
Apion, son of Epimachus, of the little Egyptian village of
Philadelphia, has entered the Roman army as a marine,!
and after the farewells to father, brothers and sisters, and
1 Cf. Preisigke, p. τοὶ ff., and Wilcken, Chrestomathie, p. 565.

Continuation of notes to pages 179 and 180.

the Third Epistle of St. John have assumed that Gaius, the addressee, had
been ill immediately before.
5 This is a thoroughly ‘“‘ Pauline ” way of beginning a letter, occurring also
elsewhere in papyrus letters (cf. for instance Bibelstudien, p. 210; it is not
given in Bible Studies). St. Paul was therefore adhering to a beautiful
secular custom when he so frequently began his letters with thanks to God
(τ Thess. i. 2; 2 Thess. i. 3; Col. i. 3; Philemon 4; Eph. i. 16; 1 Cor. i. 4;
Rom, i. 8; Phil. i. 3).
δ Serapis is called Jord in countless papyri and inscriptions.
1 Cf. St. Paul’s “ perils in the sea,” 2 Cor. xi. 26, κινδύνοις ἐν θαλάσσῃ. The
Roman soldier writes more vulgarly than St. Paul, εἰς θάλασσαν instead of
ἐν θαλάσσῃ.
8 Cf. St. Peter in peril of the sea, Matt. xiv. 30 f., ‘ beginning to sink, he
cried, saying, Lovd, save me. And immediately Jesus stretched forth His
hand .. .” (ἀρξάμενος καταποντίζεσθαι ἔκραξεν λέγων: κύριε, σῶσόν με. εὐθέως
δὲ ὁ ᾿Ιησοῦς ἐκτείνας τὴν χεῖρα. . .). One sees the popular tone of the
evangelist’s narrative : he and the Roman soldier are undoubtedly following
the style of popular narratives of rescue.
® There are other instances of this plural form of the name of the naval
harbour, generally called Mzsenum, near Naples.
10 This form is one of the many vulgarisms found also in the New Testament,
cf. Neue Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 19; Bible Studies, p. 191.
11 The viaticum is aptly compared by Preisigke with the marching allowances
in the Germanarmy. It consists of three pieces of gold (aure?) =75 drachmae.
Alfred von Domaszewski writes to me (postcard, Heidelberg, 6 August, 1908) :
“The viaticum (cf. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, VIII. No. 2557) is a
stipendium.” For the orthography of the word Lionel R. M. Strachan refers
me to H. I. Bfell] in Notes and Queries, 11th Ser., vii. 283 f. (12 April, 1913).
12 Again the ‘‘ Biblical’ word.
13 σωτηρία here means ‘‘ welfare’ in the external (not in the religious)
sense, as in Acts xxvii, 34, Heb. xi. 7.
14 yépav = χεῖρα, with vulgar » appended, like χεῖραν in John xx. 25, Codices
X* AB; other examples in Blass, Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen
Griechisch,? p. 27 [Eng. trans. p. 26].—By hand I think Apion means his
father’s handwriting, which will recall his father’s presence. A specially fine
touch in this letter of fine feeling.
15 προκόσαι no doubt = προκόψαι, “ to advance,” as in Luke ii. 52, Gal. i. 14.
The soldier is thinking of promotion. Fine parallels, especially to Luke ii. 52,
in Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 3251, (#708), Istropolis, before 100 B.c., [τῇ]
τε ἡλικίᾳ προκόπτων Kal προαγόμενος εἰς τὸ θεοσεβεῖν (cf. Milligan, p. 91).
16 The pious reservation ‘‘if the gods will’ is frequent in pagan texts, cf.
Neue Bibelstudien, p. 80; Bible Studies, p. 252.
17 The writers of papyrus letters often commission greetings to various
[For continuation of notes see next page
182 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
friends, has taken ship (probably at Alexandria) for Misenum.
Serenus, Turbo, and other recruits from the same village
accompany him. The voyage is rough and dangerous. In
dire peril of the sea the young soldier invokes his country’s
god, and the lord Serapis rescues him immediately. Full
of gratitude, Apion reaches his first destination, the naval
port of Misenum. It is a new world to the youth from the
distant Egyptian village! Put into the centuria with the
high-sounding name “‘ Athenonica,”’ with three pieces of gold
from the Emperor in his pocket as viaticum, and proud of

Continuation of notes to pages 179 and 180 :—

persons, and often convey them from others (1. 25), just as St. Paul does in
most of his letters.
18 Cf, the same epistolary formula in 1 Cor. xvi. 19.
19 The reading here used to be σίοι τὸ ὀθ]όνιν, ‘the linen,” which was
understood to refer to Apion’s civilian clothes. Wilcken has re-examined
the passage in the original, and made the charming discovery that Apion sent
his father his [εἰϊκόνιν (= εἰκόνιον), “little picture ’’ (results communicated to
me in letters, Florence, 20 April, 1907, Leipzig, 5 May, 1907). It is just like
German recruits getting themselves photographed as soon as they are allowed
out of barracks alone.
20 On entering the Roman naval service Apion, not being a Roman, received
a Roman name. Antonis is short for Antonius. The passage has an impor-
tant historical bearing on the subject of changing names, ef. Harnack, Militia
Christi, Die christliche Religion und der Soldatenstand in den ersten drei
Jahrhunderten, Tiibingen, 1905, p. 35; and Die Mission und Ausbrettung
des Christentums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten,? Leipzig, 1915, I., p. 410
(Moffatt’s trans. 21905, p. 38n.). There will be found a neat analogy to the
present instance: Tarachus, a Christian soldier, says, "a parentibus dicor
Tarachus, et cum militarem nominatus sum Victor.”
21 The name of his company, given no doubt as part of the correct address
to be used in answering. ;
22 New reading by Wilcken.
23 Philadelphia in the Fayam.
24 The crosses mark the place for tying up the letter when folded (Wilcken,
Chrestomathie, p. 566). The cohort mentioned in these instructions for delivery
was stationed in Egypt (Preisigke, p. 102), The letter therefore went first of
all from the garrison of Misenum to the garrison of this cohort (Wilcken :
Alexandria), and the Liblarios (= librarius, cf. note 26), i.e. accountant to
the cohort, was then to forward it, as occasion should serve, to the village in
the Fayim.
25 George Milligan informed me (postcard, Murthly, 7 April, 1910) that Sir
W. M. Ramsay considered it possible we ought to read ἀν[τι]λιβλαρίω (pro
librario).
26 On this borrowed word, which also forced itself into Jewish usage in the
form liblay, cf. Blau, Papyri und Talmud, pp. 17 and 27. I agree with Blau
in thinking that Abvarius (the y becoming /), and not /ibellavius (as Wilcken
and others suppose) is the source.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 183
his new name, Antonis Maximus, he immediately has his
portrait painted for the people at home by some artist who
makes a living in the taverns about the docks. And now he
writes off to his father a short account of all that has hap-
pened. The letter shows him in the best of spirits; a rosy
future lies before Apion: he will soon get promotion, thanks
to his father’s excellent training. When he thinks of it all,
of his father, and his brother, and his sister with her little
daughter, and Capito and his other friends, his feelings are
almost too much for him. If only he could press his father’s
hand once again! But there, father will send him a note in
reply, and his father’s handwriting will call up the old home.
The letter is just about to be closed when his countrymen
give him their cheery greetings to send, and there is just room
for them on the margin of the papyrus. Finally the letter
must be addressed, and that is a little troublesome: in the
army there are rules and regulations for everything, but to
make up for it the soldier’s letter will be forwarded by
military post to Egypt, and by way of the Liblarios’ room
of the first Apamenian cohort it will reach the father in
safety.
Have I read too much between the lines of this letter?
I think not. With letters you must try to understand what
is written between the lines. Nobody will deny that this
soldier’s letter of the second century, with its fresh naiveté,
rises high above the average level.
We possess further the original of a second, somewhat
later letter by the same writer, addressed to his sister,1 which
was also found in the Fayim, and is now in the Berlin
Museum. I believe I am able to restore a few lines additional
to those already deciphered.
1 See letter 13 below.
 184 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
13
A second letter from the same soldier (Apion, now) Antonius Maximus,
to his sister Sabina, 2nd cent. A.D., papyrus from the
Faydim, now in the Berlin Museum, published by Fritz Krebs ἢ
(Figure 33).
*Ar[rdvi]os Μάξιμος Σαβίνη Antonius Maximus to Sabina
τῇ ἀ[δ]ελφῆ 3 πλεῖστα χαίρειν. | his sister * many greetings.
¥ ,
πρὸ μὲν πάντων εὔχομαί Before all things I pray that
ὅε ὑγιαίνειν, καὶ ᾽γὼ γὰρ αὐτὸς thou art in health, for I myself
5 ὑγιαίνζω]. Mviav cov ποιούμε. | also (5) am in health. Making
νος 3 mapa τοῖς [ἐν]θάδε θεοῖς 4 mention of thee? before the
ἐκομισάμην [ἐ]ν5 ἐπι[σἸτόλιον gods here 4 I received a 5 little
παρὰ Avtwre[t]vov τοῦ συν- letter from Antoninus our
πολ[ε]ίτου ἡμῶν. καὶ ἐπιγνούς fellow-citizen. And when I
IO ce ἐρρωμένὴν λίαν ἐχάρην.5 knew (10) that thou farest well,
καὶ ᾽γὼ διὰ πᾶσαν ἀφορμὴν I rejoiced greatly.6 And I at
o[d]y ὀκνῶ σοι γράψαι περὶ every occasion delay not to
τῆῇ[ς] σωτηρίας μου καὶ τῶν write unto thee concerning the
ἐμῶν. Ασπασαι Md£ipov? health of me and mine. Salute
15 πολλὰ καὶ Κοπρὴν8τὸν κύρινϑ | Maximus? (15) much, and
μίου. ἀ]σπάζεταί σε ἡ σύμβι- Copres® my lord. There
ὅς [μου ΑἸὐφιδίακαὶ [Μ]άξιμος | saluteth thee my life’s partner,
6 vids pov, [οὗ] ἐστὶ[ν] τὰ | Aufidia, and Maximus my 19
yeve son, whose birthday is the 301}
[ova ἘΠπεὶπ τριακὰς καθ᾽ “Ἔλ- Epip according to Greek reckon-
20 [Anva]s, καὶ Ἐλπὶς καὶ Φορτου- 11 | ing, (20). and Elpis and Fortu-
[vara]. Ασπζα]σαι τὸν κύριον nata. Salute my lord...
1 Aegyptische Uvkunden aus den Koeniglichen Museen zu Berlin (I1.),
No. 632, published by Fritz Krebs; partly translated by Erman and Krebs,
p. 215, and by Preisigke, p. 103. For the facsimile (Figure 33, about ¢ of
the size of the original) I am indebted to the kindness of W. Schubart.
2 The sistey was named in the first letter. Her daughter, not being named
in the second letter, had probably died meanwhile. It is not likely that
Sabina was a second sister of the writer, because in the first letter only one
sister is mentioned. The father too seems not to have been alive at the time
of the second letter.
3 Assurance of intercession for the receiver at the beginning of the letter
is a pious usage with ancient letter-writers (cf. Ziemann, pp. 317 ff. and
321 ff.); intercession for the receiver can, however, be traced back to the
East in very ancient times (Joh. Theiss, Altbabylonische Briefe, Teil I, a Berlin
dissertation, Leipzig, 1913, p. 8 ff.). In exactly the same way as our soldier,
St. Paul writes μνείαν cov ποιούμένος, Philemon 4; cf. 1 Thess. i. 2, Eph. i. 16,
Rom. i. 9 f., 2 Tim. i. 3; and see Brbelstudien, p. 210 (not in Bible Studies).—
The participial clause can also be taken with ὑγιαίνω (so Wilcken),
4 Where Antonius Maximus was at the time is not known. Alfred von
Domaszewski suggests Alexandria to me (postcard, Heidelberg, 6 August,
[For continuation of notes see next page.
 20

25

28

Fic. 33.—Letter from (Apion, now) Antonius Maximus, an Egyptian

soldier in the Roman Navy, to his sister Sabina, 2nd cent. a.D. Papyrus
from the Fayim. Now in the Berlin Museum. By permission of the
Directors of the State Museums. (ξ of the size of the original).
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 185
There follow 6 mutilated lines, obviously containing more salu-
tations.
28 [ἐρρῶσθαί σε εὔχο]μαι. | (28) Fare thee well, I pray.
On the verso the address :
[SaBin] ἀΓδε]λφ[ἢ] ar [0] To Sabina his sister, from
᾿Αντ[ω]νίου Μαξίμ[ο]ν ἀδελ- | Antonius Maximus her brother.
φ[οὔ].
I imagine the situation in this second letter to be as
follows :—
Continuation of notes to page 184 :—
1908). The soldier now serves the gods of the place where he is garrisoned,
as formerly he had served the lord Serapis of his native country; and this
is not without analogies, cf. the worship of local gods in the Roman army,
von Domaszewski, Die Religion des rémischen Heeves, Trier, 1895, p. 54 ff.,
and the letter of Athenodorus,a soldier (papyrus No. 20 in the collection of
the Berlin University New Testament Seminar, in P.M. Meyer’s Griechische
Texte, p. 82 ff.), who prays for his “ sister ’’ to the gods in the foreign country
where he is.
5 ἕν =the indefinite article, a popular usage often found in the New
Testament, for which, according to Blass, Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen
Griechisch,? p. 145 [Eng. trans. p. 144], Hebrew afforded a precedent. Well-
hausen, Einlectung in die drei ersten Evangelien, p. 27, explains it as an
Aramaism. As a matter of fact this usage of popular Greek, which has been
still further developed in Modern Greek, is parallel to the Semitic, Teutonic ~
and Romance usages.
8 Nav ἐχάρην is an epistolary formula like ἐχάρην λίαν in 2 John 4 and
3 John 3.
7 Maximus is probably the sister’s son, who would then be named after
his uncle.
® Copres is probably the brother-in-law.
® On κύρις (= κύριος) see Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des
Hellenismus, p. 154.
10 So I have restored lines 18-21. I have altered nothing except zew to ver
in line 19. Ene is the month ᾿Επείφ; for the spelling with final π cf. the
examples in Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka, I. p. 809. καθ᾽ Ἕλληνας, “ according
to the Hellenic (i.e. not Egyptian) calendar,” is a technical formula; cf. the
2nd cent. horoscope, Fayim Towns and their Papyvi, No. 139, καθ᾽ “Ελληνας
Mecopy ε, and the editors’ note; also Wilcken, Griechische Ostvaka, I. p. 792 ff.
The nominative τριακάς is grammatically unimpeachable, for it is a predicate
and not a statement of time (‘‘ on the thirtieth ’’), Even in the latter case,
however, the nominative is occasionally left, e.g. Berliner Griechische
Urkunden, No. 55, II, (161 A.D.), 64:4. (216-217 A.D.). For the prominence
given to the birthday cf. for instance Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 333,
2nd or 3rd cent. a.D. (Bibelstudien, p. 215; not in Bible Studies).—W. Schubart
informed me by letter (Berlin, 6 June, 1907) that my conjectures fit in well
with the traces of letters remaining and with the size of the lacunae in
the papyrus; he approves also, in spite of doubts suggested by the hand-
writing, the reading πειπ.
11 Krebs wrote ἐλπίς and φόρτου. I regard both as proper names; of course
one could also conjecture Fortunatus (cf. 1 Cor. xvi. 17). As the son Maximus
has ‘been already named, with special stress laid on his birthday, one is
rather inclined to assume in 1. 20 f. that the writer had two daughters.
 186 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
* Years have passed. Apion, who has long ago discarded this
name and now uses only his soldier-name Antonius Maximus,
has taken a wife, called Aufidia. She presents him with two
daughters, Elpis and Fortunata (the parents delight in
beautiful names with a meaning), and at last the longed-for
son and heir. His birthday, according to the Greek calendar,
is 30 Epiph (24 July), and the soldier’s child receives his
father’s splendid soldier-name, Maximus. Changes too have
taken place at home, in the far-away little village of Phila-
delphia, in Egypt. The sister Sabina has lost her little
daughter; lord father Epimachus has also died; but Sabina
and her husband Copres have got a little boy instead, who is
named Maximus in honour of his soldier uncle: is not uncle’s
portrait, left them by grandfather, hanging on the wall? Sabina
. is the link between her brother and his old home. He writes
as often as he can, and when he cannot write he remembers
his sister daily before the gods of his garrison in brotherly
intercession. But this is not his only connexion with home.
An old friend in Philadelphia, Antoninus, has just written, and
was kind enough to assure him of Sabina’s being well.
That is the occasion of the letter to the sister. Written in
a perfectly familiar strain, simply to impart family news and
to convey all sorts of greetings, it nevertheless, like that other
letter of richer content to the father, gives us a glimpse of
the close net of human relationships, otherwise invisible,
which the giant hands of the Roman army and navy had
woven with thousands of fine, strong threads and spread
from coast to coast and from land to land over the enormous
extent of the Mediterranean world at the time of the infancy
of Christianity. In judging of the Roman army of the second
century it is not without importance to know that among
the human materials of which that mighty organism was
composed, there were such attractive personalities as our
friend Apion. Another soldier’s letter (No. 17), given below,
also permits favourable conclusions to be drawn.1
1 Other soldiers’ letters, sometimes highly characteristic, are forthcoming
among the papyri. Preisigke, p. 99 ff., translates the unblushing begging-
letter of a soldier to his mother, 3rd cent. a.p., Berliner Griechische Urkun-
den, No. 814. Cf. also a letter now in the New Testament Seminar, Berlin,
from Athenodorus to his “‘ sister," published by P. M. Meyer, Griechische Texte
aus Aegypten, No. 20.
 τα. 34.—Letter from a Prodigal Son, Antonis Longus, to his mother Nilus, 2nd cent. A.D.
Papyrus from the Fayam. Now in the Berlin Museum. By permission of the Directors of
the State Museums.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 187

14
Leiter from a prodigal son, Antonis Longus, to his mother Nilus,
Faytm, 2nd cent. A.p., Dapyr is. now in the Berlin Museum,
published by Fr. Krebs ? and W. Schubart ? (Figure 34).
᾿Αντῶνις ® Advyos Νειλοῦτι
[τ]ῦ μητρὶ π[λ]ῖστα as καὶ δι-
ὰ révrely] εὔχομαί oat ὑγειαίνειν. τὸ προσκύνη-
μά σου [ποι]ῶ κατ᾽ αἱκάστην ἡμαίραν παρὰ τῶ
5. κυρίω [Σερ]άπειδει.ὅ γεινώσκειν σαι θέλω, ὅ-
τι οὐχ [ἤλπΊ]ιζον,Ἷ ὅτι ἀναβένις εἰς τὴν μητρό-
πολιν. χ[ά]ρειν τοῦτο ὃ οὐδ᾽ ἐγὸ εἰσῆθα 10 εἰς τὴν πό-
λιν. αἰδ[υ]φοποζύμην 1 δὲ ἐλθεῖν εἰς Καρανίδαν 13
ὅτι σαπρῶς παιριπατῶ. αἴγραψά 13 σοι, ὅτι γυμνός
IO εἰμει. παρακα[λ]ῶ 14 σαι, μήτηρ, δ[ι]αλάγητί μοι.15 λοι-
πὸν 15 οἶδα τί [ποτ᾿] 17 αἰμαυτῶ παρέσχημαι. παιπαίδ
δευμαι 18 καθ᾽ ὃν δὲ 19 τρόπον. οἶδα, ὅτι ἡμάρτηκα.20
ἤκουσα Tapa το[ῦ Ποστ]ούμου 31 τὸν εὑρόντα 32 σαι
ἐν τῶ ᾿Αρσαινοείτη 33 καὶ ἀκαιρίως πάντα σοι δι-
15 ἥγηται. οὐκ οἶδες, ὅτι θέλω 33 πηρὸς γενέσται,2
εἰ 38 γνοῦναι,27 ὅπως 28 ἀνθρόπω 28 [ἤτ[ ὀφείλω ὀβολόν;
[ccs ee ὁ καὶ οτος νας oe es Job αὐτὴ ἐλθέ.
Dein efeee oa ee eg Ἰχανκ [ . . . Jov ἤγουσα, ὅτι.
[roi Balchoes Geeliol eka 1. λησαι . . ] παρακαλῶ σαι
20 [bes ae eee κεν ee ae eae Dea vole 7. αἰγὼ σχεὸν
[sree ae ates Aine Goes aie Bar ie ayGnκα,ὧν aoὉ 7 @ παρακαλῶ gay
[ares gs ναῶν Seen Sat ale Ἰωνου θέλω αἰγὼ
ΠΤ ΟΣ eae Joan... . οὐκ ξ,
[λεὺς Sh DsGsGAGTAT AR Bama gL at, teJ]... . ἄλλως rofl. ]
Here the papyrus breaks off. On the back is the address :
ἔξ: aes ] μητρεὶ ἀπ’ "Ἀντωνίῳ ‘Aovyov ὑειοῦ.
1 Aegyptische ‘Urkunden aus den Koeniglichen Museen zu Berlin (III.),
No. 846.
3 Ibid. Heft 12, p. 6. Some conjectures by me are given below. The
photograph used for the facsimile (Fig. 34) here given by the kind permis-
sion of the Directors of the State Museums was obtained for me by W.
Schubart. Preisigke, p. 99, translated the letter in part and spoke, as I do,
of the writer as a “‘ prodigal son.” Later reprints of the text in Lietzmann,?
p. 5; Milligan, p. 93 ff. (who has also given a facsimile in the Journal of the
Transactions of the Victoria Institute, vol. 44, London, 1912, p. 76); Helbing,
p. 110 ff.
® Antonis, short for Antonius, cf. letter 12 above, p. 179.
* gat = oe. Numerous repetitions of this word and similar cases are not
specially noted.
5 This sentence, occurring in innumerable papyrus letters, is the stereo-
typed form of assurance of mutual intercession.
[For continuation of notes see pages 188-190,
 188 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
There can be no doubt that this letter is one of the most
interesting human documents that have come to light among
the papyri. This priceless fragment, rent like the soul of its
writer, comes to us asa remarkably good illustration of the
parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke xv. 11 ff.).1. Others may
improve on the first attempt at interpretation.
Antonis 3 Longus to Nilus his mother many greetings. And
continually do I pray that thou art in health. - I make intercession
for thee day by day to the (5) lord Serapis.5 I would thou
shouldst understand ® that I had no hope that thou wouldst go
up to the metropolis. And therefore I came not to the city.
But I was ashamed to come to Caranis,!2 because I walk about in
rags. I write [or “ have written ᾿ 15] to thee that I am naked.
(10) I beseech thee,!4 mother, be reconciled to me.1® Furthermore,
I know what I have brought upon myself. I have been chastened 18
even as is meet. I know that I have sinned.2°. I have heard
from Postumus,21 who met thee in the country about Arsinoé
and out of season told thee all things. (15) Knowest thou not
that I had rather be maimed than know that I still owe a man an
obol? .... come thyself! .... 1 have heard that....
I beseech thee . . . . (20) I almost . . . . I beseech thee .
I will .... not... . do otherwise.
Here the papyrus breaks off. On the back is the address :
ἜΣ 1 his mother, from Antonius Longus her son.

1 If this letter had happened to be preserved in some literary work there

would of course be a number of monographs, proving the parable to be derived
from the letter, and many a doctoral dissertation would have been made out
of it.

Continuation of notes to pages 187 and 188 :—

6 Epistolary formula, occurring also in St. Paul, Phil. i. 12 (with βούλομαι).
Other like formulae are frequent in the Pauline Epistles.
7 ἥλπιζον = ἤλπιζον with the vulgar aspirate, as in the New Testament
instances ἀφελπίζω and ἐφ᾽ ἑλπίδι (Blass, Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen
Griechisch,? p. 17, *p. 11 §14 [Eng. trans. p. 15]). W. Schubart examined the
original expressly and assured me by letter (Berlin, 14 June, 1907) that my
conjectured restoration of the text is quite feasible.
8 The metropolis is perhaps Arsinoé.
91 used toexplain this as = χάριν τούτου (as Schubart also did in a letter to
me). In the papyri this prepositional χάριν often stands before its case;
cf. for instance a passage, somewhat similar to the present one, in the letter
of Gemellus to Epagathus, 104 a.D., Fayitm Towns and theiv Papyvi, No. 11669,
ἐπὶ [= ἐπεὶ] βουλεύωμαι [εἰς π]όλιν ἀπελθῖν χάριν [τοῦ] μικροῦ καὶ χάριν ἐκί[νου] τοῦ
μετυώρουι. But Nachmanson, Eranos 11 (1912) p. 225 ff., is probably right in
assuming here a vulgarism, χάριν governing the accusative.
[For notes 10-23 see next page.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 189
Antonius Longus,! of Caranis in the Fayam, has quarrelled
with his (widowed ?) 5 mother Nilus and left the village. The
1 The name Antonius Longus occurs elsewhere: as the name of a veteran
(M. Antonius Longus Pull<us>) on a diptych of the time of Domitian from
the ruins of Philadelphia, reproduced in Appendix VI; again in a communica-
tion from Herais, a woman of Theadelphia in the Fayam, to the decadarch
Antonius Longus (2nd cent. a.p.), Hamburg papyrus No. 10,. Anyone with
surplus imagination might conjecture family connexions or even identity with
the writer of our letter: Antonius Longus, the son of a worthy veteran in
the Fayam, becomes, after a very ill-spent youth, something respectable after
all. Thus we should have a nice moral epilogue to the letter. But my advice
is: curb the imagination.
3 Otherwise there would surely have been some mention of the father.

Continuation of notes to pages 187 and 188.

10 = ἐγὼ εἰσῆλθα.
111 at first conjectured ἐν[εἸκοπ[τό]μην, “1 was hindered,” as in Rom. xv. 22.
From the photograph Wilcken and I came to the conjecture given above =
ἐδυσωπούμην, “1 was ashamed.” This word, which gives excellent sense, is
found more than once in translations of the Old Testament; in the letter of
Gemellus to Epagathus, 99 a.D., Fayim Towns and their Papyri, No. 112,93
and in another letter, Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No. 128,, 6th or 7th cent. a.D.
Further particulars in the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae. W. Schubart, writing
to me from Berlin, 3 October, 1907, proposed after fresh examination of the
original κατ[εἸσκοπούμην. But that, I think, would not makesense. Schubart’s
reading, however, is a warning to be cautious in accepting mine.
12 Caranis (a village in the Fayim) was probably the writer’s home and the
residence of his mother.
13 Refers probably to the present letter.
“4 This verb, which occurs several times here, is used exactly as in the New
Testament,
15. Cf, Matt. v. 24, διαλλάγηθι τῷ ἀδελφῷ σου, “ be reconciled to thy brother,”
and in the charming letter (‘‘if we could fly! ’’) written by Tays (a woman)
to Apollonius (Giessen papyrus No. 17,3, of the time of Hadrian; also in
Wilcken, Chrestomathie, p. 566), διαλλάγηθι ἡμεῖν, where it rather means ‘‘ be no
more angry with us.”
186 Adverbial, without article, as in 2 Tim. iv. 8, 1 Thess. iv. 1.
17 The restoration of the text is uncertain.
18 The word is used exactly in the ‘‘ Biblical’ sense of ‘‘ chasten,’’ which
according to Cremer, Biblisch-theologisches Wévterbuch,® p. 792, is “ entirely
unknown to profane Greek.”
18 J used to take δι 85 = δή. Virtually καθ᾽ ὃν δὴ τρόπον = καθ᾽ ὅντινα οὖν τρόπον,
2 Macc. xiv. 3, 3 Macc. vii. 7. But Wilcken makes a better suggestion:
δῖ = δεῖ. The reading δίτροπος, ‘‘ with two souls,’ can hardly be entertained.
20 Cf. the Prodigal Son, Luke xv. 18, 21," Father, I have sinned.” .
21 ΤῈ is best to assume some proper name here, I at first thought of
[Δι]δύμου, but I now prefer the reading adopted above, although the space is
somewhat small for so many letters. The name Postumus occurs often in the
Berlin papyri, but must remain doubtful here.
#2 The construction is grammatically incorrect, but such cases are frequent
in letters. Preisigke (p. 99) translates the sentence differently.
23 “' Nome,” ‘ district,’’ must be understood.
[For notes 24 to 28 see next page.
 Igo LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
cause of the dissension seems to have lain with the son—
loose living, and running up debts.1 It fares ill with him in
the strange country; he is in such wretched plight that his
clothes fall from him in rags. In such a state, he says to
himself with burning shame,’ it is impossible for him to
return home. But he must go back—he realises that, for he
had soon come to his senses: all this misery he has brought
upon himself by his own fault, and it is the well-deserved
punishment. Full of yearning for home he remembers his
mother in prayer daily to the lord Serapis, and hopes for
an opportunity of re-establishing communication with her.
Then he meets an acquaintance of his, Postumus (?). He
hears how Postumus (?) had met his mother in the Arsinoite
nome, as she was returning home from the metropolis,
Arsinoé (to Caranis), and how the poor woman had hoped to
find her son at the metropolis. Unfortunately Postumus (9)
recounted to the disappointed mother the whole scandalous
story of the runaway once more, reckoning up his debts for
her edification to the last obol.
1 Cf. Castor of Hermopolis, the dissolute fellow whose disgraceful life is
made the subject of bitter complaint by his parents in a communication to
the strategus Heraclides (Florence papyrus No. 99, 1st or 2nd cent. a.D.;
also in Milligan, p. 71 f.).
2 The word, if rightly read, is extraordinarily expressive. An ancient
lexicographer says, δυσωπεῖσθαι ἀντὶ τοῦ ὑφορᾶσθαι καὶ φοβεῖσθαι καὶ μεθ᾽ ὑπονοίας
σκυθρωπάζειν, “ἴμ6 word δυσωπεῖσθαι means ‘to stand with downcast eyes,’ ‘to
be fearful,’ and figuratively ‘to look sad and gloomy ’”’ (see the Thesaurus
Graecae Linguae). The position reminds one of Luke xviii. 13, says Heinrich
Schlosser (postcard to the author, Wiesbaden, 2 July, 1908).

Continuation of notes to pages 187 and 188 :—

324 θέλω with following ἢ papyrus (εἴ, “1 had rather... than...,’” is
used exactly like this in 1 Cor. xiv. 19.
25 The first editors read παρασγενεσται, which I at first took for παρασιαίνεσθαι
("οιγαίνω = σιαίνω, as ὑγιγαίνω = ὑγιαίνω, Karl Dieterich, Untersuchungen zur
Geschichte dev griechischen Sprache, p. 91 1). With the photograph to help
me I read πῃρος. Schubart tells me (letter, 3 October, 1907) this reading is
possible,
26 .. q

37 = γνῶναι.
28 This reading was also approved by Schubart (letter, 3 October, 1907) after
inspecting the original. ὅπως is used vulgarly like πῶς= ὡς= ὅτι (Blass,
Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Griechisch,? Ὁ. 2351. 5p. 222 f. § 396
(Eng. trans. pp. 230-1]; Hatzidakis, Einleitung in die neugriechische Gram-
matik, p. 19), e.g. Mark xii. 26, ἀνέγνωτε... ., πῶς εἶπεν αὐτῷ ὁ θεός (quotation
follows), and many other passages. I find this use of ὅπως beginning in Luke
xxiv. 20.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE τοι
That is the occasion of the letter: gratitude to the mother
for having looked for him, as he had not ventured to hope,
in the metropolis—and anger at Postumus (?) the scandal-
monger. The letter is dashed off in a clumsy hand and full
of mistakes, for Antonius Longus has no practice in writing.
The prodigal approaches his mother with a bold use of his pet
name Antonis, and after a moving description of his misery
there comes a complete confession of his guilt and a passionate
entreaty for reconciliation. But in spite of everything, he
would rather remain in his misery, rather become a cripple,
than return home and be still one single obol in debt to the
usurers. The mother will understand the hint and satisfy
the creditors before the son’s return. And then she is to
come herself and lead her son back into an ordered way of
life. . . . ‘I beseech thee, I beseech thee, I will. .... is
—no more than this is recoverable of the remainder of the
letter, but these three phrases in the first person are sufficiently
characteristic. Antonius has a foreboding that there is still
resistance to be overcome.?
Astute persons and models of correct behaviour will tell
us that the repentance of this black sheep was not genuine;
that sheer poverty and nothing else wrung from him the con-
fession of sin and the entreaty for reconciliation; that the
lines assuring his mother of his prayers to Serapis were mere
phrasing. But was not the prodigal’s confession in the Gospel
parable also dictated by his necessity? Jesus does not picture
to us an ethical virtuoso speculating philosophically and then
reforming, but a poor wanderer brought back to the path by
suffering. Another such wanderer was Antonius Longus the
Egyptian, who wrote home in the depths of his misery: “I
beseech thee, mother, be reconciled to me! I know that I
have sinned.”
We see very plainly how genuine and true to life it all is
when we compare the tattered papyrus sheet with a specimen
letter of contrition, ship-shape and ready for use, as drafted
by an ancient model letter-writer 3 :—
-

1 A somewhat different explanation of the letter is attempted by Ad.

Matthaei, in the Preussische Jahrbiicher, January 1909,p. 133 f.
3 Proclus, De forma epistolari, No. 12. (Epistolographi Graeci, rec. Hercher,
Pp. 9). Cf. the note on letter No. 8 above, p. 177, 0. 4.
102 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
ἡ ἐπιστολή. οἶδα σφαλεὶς κακῶς The letter. I know that I
σε διαθέμενος. διὸ μεταγνοὺς τὴν | erred in that I treated thee ill.
ἐπὶ τῷ σφάλματι συγγνώμην αἰτῶ. |Wherefore, having repented, I
μεταδοῦναι δέ μοι μὴ κατοκνήσῃς διὰ | beg pardon for the error. But
τὸν κύριον.2 δίκαιον γάρ ἐστι ovy- |for the Lord’s sake! delay not
γινώσκειν πταίουσι τοῖς φίλοις, ὅτε |to forgive me. For it is just
μάλιστα καὶ ἀξιοῖσι συγγνώμης | to pardon friends who stumble,
τυχεῖν. and especially when they desire
to obtain pardon.”
The person who calls himself “I” in this letter is a lay-
figure, and not even a well-made one; when Antonis Longus
says “1 do this or that ”’ a man of flesh and blood is speaking.
His affecting acknowledgments—more genuine perhaps than
the contrite wording of Lydian and Phrygian expiatory
inscriptions or the conventional sentence employed by
Justinus 4 the Christian—would lose naught of their inward
truth if his “1 know that I have sinned’ had been as much
a current formula as the “1 know that I erred.” The
prodigal had gone through experiences enough to animate
even formulae into confessions.

15 and τό.
Letters from Sempronius, an Egyptian, to his mother. Saturnila
and his brother Maximus, Alexandria (?), second half of the
and cent. A.D., papyrus, now in the British Museum, published
by H. I. Bell 5 (Figure 35).
Σεμπρώνιος Σατουρνίλα τῆ μητρεὶ 13
καὶ κυρία 5 πλεῖστα «χαίρειν.
Moan ὅλ, 2A “7 " 8 N 1,9 On
πρὸ τῶν OAWY ἐρρῶσθέ σε εὐχομαι“ μετὰ και" τῶν

ἀβασκάντων 19 μου ἀδελφῶν. ἅμα δὲ καὶ τὸ προσκύ-

1 This formula is undoubtedly Christian (1 Cor. iv. 10; 2 Cor. iv. 11;
Phil. iii. 7, 8). 2 Probably a faint echo of Luke xvii. 4.
* Cf. Franz Steinleitner, Die Beicht im Zusammenhange mit der sakvalen
Rechtspflege in dev Antike, Leipzig, 1913. 4 Cf. letter 2318¢. below.
5 Some Private Letters of the Roman Period from the London Collection,
offprint from the Revue Egyptologique 1, fasc. 3-4 (1919), No. 2, p. 5 ff.
For the photograph, which reduces the size of the original by a half, I am
indebted to the comradeship in learning so often shown me by Bell. The
letters, separated from each other when they reached the British Museum,
and’ there brought together again, were obtained together with portions of
the correspondence of Zeno (see p. 152 above), which emanates from the
Fayiim; whether they were found there is not quite certain. According to
Bell the place where they were written is possibly Alexandria.
[For notes 6 to 28 see pages 193, 194.
 Bigs
ae
ag
scoot
eee)
= re

Fic. 35.—Letters from Sempronius, an Egyptian, to his mother Saturnila

and his brother Maximus, second half of the 2nd cent. a.p. Papyrus from
Alexandria (?). Now in the British Museum. Facsimile kindly obtained
by H. I. Bell.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 193
5 νημα 11 ὑμῶν ποιοῦμε ἡμερησίως παρὰ τῶ κυρί-
ὦ 13 Σεράπιδι. τοσαύτας ὑμεῖν 13 ἐπιστολὰς διεπεμ-
ἢ
άμην ὑδεμείαν 1318μοι ἀντεγράψαται,14
κοὐδεμείαν 3 ᾿ 14 τοσούτων
,
καταπλευσάντων. ᾿Ἐρωτηθείς,15 ἡ κυρία μον,16 ἀνόκνως
Ul

μοι γράφειν περὶἢ τῆς

ἐς: a
σωτηρίας 17 ὑμῶνn
iva κἀγὼ ἀμε-
IO ριμνότερα 18 διάγῳ. τοῦτό μοι γὰρ εὐκτῆον 7 ἐστὶν διαπαν-
τός. ἀσπάζομαι Μάξιμον καὶ τὴν σύμβιον αὐτοῦ καὶ Σα-
τουρνῖλον καὶ Τέμελλον καὶ Ἑλένην καὶ τοὺς αὐτῆς.139 μετάδος
αὐτῇ ὅτι ἐκομεισάμην ἢ 13 Se μπρωνίου
tov ἐπειστολὴν
é λὴν 13
ἀπὸ Καπποδοκίας.20 ἀσπάζομαι Ἰούλιον καὶ τοὺς αὖ-
15 τοῦ κατ᾽ ὄνομα 31 καὶ Σκυθικὸν καὶ Θερμοῦθιν 33 καὶ τὰ
media” αὐτῆς. ἀσπάζετε ὑμᾶς Τέμελλος.
ἔρρωσό μοι, ἡ κυρία pov,!® διαπαντός.

Continuation of notes to pages 192-195 :—

$ “ Mother and lady,” deferentially, like older English ‘‘ my lady mother ””
or modern German “ Frau Mutter.’ For “lady τ᾿ cf. 2 John-1 and 5 and
p. 167 above; also the graffito of Amerimnus, p. 277 below.
7 ¢ for a. “8 Cf. p. 180, n. 4.
® On μετὰ καί (the καί pleonastic, as in Phil. iv. 3) cf. Neue Bibelstudien,
p. 93; Bible Studies, pp. 64, 265 f.
10 ἀβάσκαντος is a frequent expression for averting evil (‘‘ apotropaeic ”’) in
the papyri, equivalent to the wish, ‘‘ whom may no evil eye injure.” [It
comes from βασκαίνω, “ to bewitch,” the word used in Gal. iii. 1. Cf. p. 280,
n.6 below. Tr.]
11 Cf. p. 187, n. 5 above.
12 Cf. p. 180, n. 6 above.
18 εἰ fore. : 14 a for ε.
18 The initial E is very large. Sempronius means ἐρωτηθεῖσα; he uses the
participle in curiously abrupt fashion here and in 1. 21. Cf. below, letter
No. 21, col. III, 1. 1.
1¢ Nominative for vocative, as often in the New Testament.
1” Cf. p. 180, n. 13 above.
18 (Comparative of the word used in 1 Cor. vii. 32, ‘‘ without carefulness ””
"A.V.), or “ free from cares’ (R.V.). TR.]
19. The family relationships appear to be as follows: the mother, Saturnila,
is a widow; there are living with her (in the Fayim?) her sons Maximus
(married), Saturnilus and Gemellus (considerably younger), and the married
daughter Helena with her children; Helena’s husband, also called Sempronius
(l. 13 £.), seems to be abroad, in Cappadocia, and is in correspondence (per-
haps of a business kind) with his brother-in-law, the writer of our letter (who
is in Alexandria ?).—The persons named later on, Julius and family, Scythicus
and (his wife?) Thermuthis and her children, seem to be domestics. The
Gemellus of 1. 16 has gone with Sempronius to Alexandria (?) as assistant.
Might he be twin-brother of the Gemellus in 1, 12? Each must then have
had some distinguishing name in addition.
20 More probably o than a.
1 Just as in 3 John 15, ἀσπάζου τοὺς φίλους κατ᾽ ὄνομα, ‘salute the
friends by name " (R.YV.).
22 The woman’s name is either Thermuthis or Thermuthi(o]n.
[For notes 23-28 see next page.
104 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

Σεμπρώνιος Μαξίμωι τῷ ἀδελφῶ .᾿

πλ[ζε]ῖστα χαίρειν. πρὸ τῶν ὅλων ἐρῶσθέ 7: 23
20 σε εὔχομαι.8 μετέλαβον ὅτι βαρέως δουλεύζου)ετε
τὴν κυρίαν ὃἡμῶν μητέραν.33 ἐρωτηθείς,"Ὁ ἀδελφὲ ta
κύταται,14 ἐν μηδενεὶ 13 αὐτὴν λύπει. εἰ δέ τεις 13 τῶν ἀ-
δελφῶν ἀντιλέγει αὐτῆ, σὺ ὀφείλεις αὐτοὺς κολαφί-
ζει[ν]. ἤδη γὰρ πατὴρ ὀφίλεις 35 καλεῖσθαι. ἐπείσταμε 13: 1
25 ὅτι χωρὶς τῶν γραμμάτων μου δυνατὸς εἶ αὐτῇ
dpéce.2 28 ἀλλὰ μὴ βαρέως ἔχε μου τὰ γράμματα νουθε-
«τοῦν[τ]ά σε. ὀφίλομεν 35 γὰρ σέβεσθε τὴν τεκοῦσαν ὡς
θε[ὸν] 37 μάλειστα 13 τοιαύτην οὖσαν ἀγαθήν. ταῦτά σοι é-
ypawa, ἀδελφέ, ἐπειστάμενος
ἐ 13 38 τὴν γλυκασίαν τῶν
30 κυ[ρίων γονέων. καλῶς π[ο]ιήσις25γράψας μοι περὶ τῆς
σ[ωτ]ηρίας 17 ὑμ[ώ]ν. ἔρρωσό μοι, ἀδελφέ.
On the verso the address :
ἀπόδος Μαξίμωι x< ἀπὸ Σεμπρωνίου
x< ἀδελφοῦ.
Sempronius to Saturnila his mother and lady ® many greetings.
Before all things fare thee well, I pray,® together also ® with my
brethren unbewitched.1° And withal I make my (5) intercession #
for you daily to the lord 13 Serapis. So many letters have I sent
unto you, and not one have ye written back again unto me,
though so many have sailed down. Besought (art thou), my
lady, to write unto me without delay of your health,!” that I also
may live more free (10) from cares.18 For this is my prayer
continually. I salute Maximus and his life’s partner and Satur-
nilus and Gemellus and Helena and them (which are) of her
(household).19 Impart unto her that I have received of Sem-
Continuation of notes to pages 192-195 :—
28 For ἐρρῶσθαί.
w4 Vulgar form and use of the accusative.
35 for εἰ.
26 For the thought cf. Philemon 21, εἰδὼς ὅτι καὶ ὑπὲρ ἃ λέγω ποιήσεις,
“ knowing that thou wilt do even beyond what I say” (R.V.).
27 Important for the understanding of the famous opening of the homily
2 Clem. i. 1: οὕτως δεῖ ἡμᾶς φρονεῖν περὶ ᾿Ιησοῦ Χριστοῦ ὡς περὶ θεοῦ,
‘thus we ought to think of Jesus Christ as it were of (a) god” (cf. Pliny to
Trajan, Epist. x. 97, carmenque Christo quasi deo dicere, ‘‘ and sing a hymn
to Christ as it were toa god’’). The men of the ancient world were simple
and did not understand ἌΚΩΝ lofty words, proper to a cult, in any strained
dogmatic sense.
28 As it stands the participle ought to mean ‘‘ because I know.”’ Far more
suitable to the context would be‘‘because thou [as a married man ?] knowesf.”
The nominative of the participle might in vulgar usage that has thrown off
the restraints of syntax refer to the dative ‘ thee.” Sempronius does not
shine in his use of participles generally.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE = 195
pronius a letter from Cappodocia.2® I salute Julius and them
(which are of) his (household) (15) by name,”! and Scythicus and
Thermuthis 2? and her children. Gemellus saluteth you.
Fare me well, my lady, continually.
Sempronius to Maximus his brother many greetings. Before
all things fare thee well, (20) I pray. I heard that ye are dull of
service to the lady ὃ our mother. Besought (art thou), sweetest
brother: in nothing grieve her. But if one of the brethren gain-
say her, thou oughtest to buffet them, For thou oughtest now
to be called father. I know (25) that without writings from me
thou art able to please her.*® But be not displeased with my
writings admonishing thee. For we ought to worship her who bore
us as it were a god,” especially when she is good. These things
have I written unto thee, brother, knowing 38. the sweetness of
the lords our parents. Thou shalt do well if thou writest unto
me concerning your health. Fare me well, brother.

On the verso the address :

Deliver to Maximus >< from Sempronius °
his brother.
It is maddening! Here we are, far from home in the great
city, slaving day after day, trying to overcome homesickness
by faithful intercession for mother, brothers, and sister before
the lord Serapis, even writing letter after letter home—but
day after day passes, without any answer! Brother-in-law
Sempronius is the only one who still seems to remember us;
but if the letter from him finds its way from distant Cappadocia
to (Alexandria ?), well, really, mother and Maximus might
surely send a line! With boats arriving so often from home
too! But no, not one single sign of life from them direct!
Instead of that, unpleasant gossip reaches the ears of the
anxious letter-writer. People coming from his part of the
country have looked him up at the docks and told him that
everything is going topsy-turvy at home: since father’s death
there has been no more obedience in the house; instead of
looking after their mother, the youngest have been behaving
rudely to the old lady and doing just as they liked. . . . Oh,
it is maddening! Can’t Maximus put a stop to it? But he
himself seems to have been behaving in none too exemplary
fashion towards his mother. . . .
Sempronius is writing under the vivid impression of this
196 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
news and of his increased anxieties. One thing is clear to his
delicate sensibility 3: he must not let his lady mother, who
obviously is now having a specially hard time, observe that
he knows anything of the scandal of those ill-behaved brothers;
that would only distress her still more. And so the blowing-
up is put into the letter to Maximus; the old mother hears
nothing but kindness and affection. She hears it literally;
for she can probably neither read nor write.*_ Maximus reads
the letter to her, and then surely she will at last dictate a few
‘lines for the homesick son so far away. She surely must
notice how greatly he yearns for a message, how he remembers
them all, in his prayers and out of them—mother, brothers,
sister, his sister-in-law and the little ones, and the farm hands
—every one of them without exception.
That Maximus himself is not entirely free from blame is
shown by the opening of the refreshingly plain letter of reproof
to him: ‘ Ye are dull of service to the lady our mother.”
But Sempronius then discharges his main wrath on the.
younger brothers, Saturnilus and Gemellus: they deserve a
clouting, right and left, and the eldest brother, who really
is entitled to stand in the father’s place, had better administer
it. Maximus is bound to see it all; he does not really need a
letter like this, for he is at bottom a faithful son. And so
the great saying will have its effect on him: ‘‘ We ought to
worship a mother as it were (a) god.’ Sempronius did not
coin this saying himself; he knows it from his teachers. But
he believes in it; and as he writes the words, Sempronius
sees the old lady before him, in her helplessness and distress,
but in all her goodness of heart too: oh, what a splendid
mother we have got! how sweet it is still to have parents to
love! These thoughts come in all tenderness from the same
soul which, a moment ago, in deep indignation, had demanded
such rough physical measures. . . .
The two letters of Sempronius are valuable evidences of a
humanity which, transcending all the divisions of separate
cults, was present in the ancient world, a fragment of real
praeparatio evangelica. Hearts of such deep family sympathy,
of such strong religiously tinged devotion to father and
1 This has already been pointed out with fine discrimination by Bell.
2 As also conjectured, I think rightly, by Bell.
 Fic. 36.—Letter from Aurelius Archelaus,
beneficiarius, to Julius Domitius,
military tribune, lines I-24, 2nd cent.
a.p - Papyrus from Oxyrhynchus.
Now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.
By per: mission of the Egypt Explora-
tion Fund.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 197
mother, were no bad soil for the grains of wheat scattered by
the apostolic sowers.

17
Letter from Aurelius Archelaus, beneficiarius, to Julius Domitius,
military tribune, Oxyrhynchus, 2nd cent. a.D., p&pyrus,
now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, discovered and pub-
lished by Grenfell and Hunt 1 (Figure 36).
This letter is of great interest in various respects: as a
good example of an ancient letter of recommendation,? as an
early Latin letter, as a specimen of vulgar Latin 8 of the date
of the Muratorian Canon. Scholars of repute have even
considered it to be a Christian letter—and if that were so its
value, considering its age, would be unique.
I have retained the remarkable punctuation by means of
stops. The clear division of the words should also be noticed.
I[uliio Domitio® tribuno To Julius Domitius,5 mili-
mal(itum) leg(tonis) tary tribune of the legion, from
ab: Aurel(to) Archelao be- Aurelius Archelaus his bene-
nef (tciario)
jiciarius, greeting.
suo salutem-
tam tibt et pristine commen- Already aforetime I have
5 daueram Theonem amicum recommended unto thee (5)
meum et mod[o quloque peto Theon my friend, and now also
domine® ut eum ant’ oculos | I pray, lord,® that thou mayest
habeas’ tanquam: me:® est e- |have? him before thine eyes as
nim: tales omo® ut ametur myself.8 For he is such a man
1 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (I.) No. 32. The facsimile there given (Plate
VIIL.) is reproduced here (Figure 36) by permission of the Egypt Exploration
Fund. The last part of the letter, which was discovered later, is given by
Grenfell and Hunt in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Part II. p. 318 f. It comprises
lines 22-34.
2 Cf. p. 171 above.
3 Observe the marked use of parataxis, and cf. p. 131 ff. above.
4 The two little fragments to the right below (on a level with ll. 20, 21)
read respectively Jst.[ and ]quza[.
5 The subordinate politely places the name of his superior officer first,
οὗ, pp. 152, n. 3; 162,1.9. Alfred von Domaszewski (postcard, Heidelberg, 6
August, 1908) refers to the forms of an official report ;actus (1. 16) he takes to be
“conduct of my office,”’ the writer's conscience being not quite easy on that
score. In line 26 my correspondent would conjecture suc]cessorvis, supposing
the soldier about to be relieved of his post.
5 Lord is a polite form of address.
7 For this phrase, which recurs in 1. 31 f., cf. πρὸ ὀφθαλμῶν λαμβάνειν,
2 Macc. viii. 17, 3 Macc. iv. 4, and the Tebtunis Papyri, No. 28,, (c’vca 114 B.c.),
[For continuation of notes see next page.
198 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
10 ate: reliquit: enim su[o]s [e]t | that he may be loved (10) by
rem suam et actum etme |thee. For he left his own
secutus est! " et per omnia ᾿ .
ee people, his goods and business,
se[c]urum fecit- et ideo peto |and followed me.* And through
a te» ut habeat tntr[ojitum- | all things he hath kept me in
15 at te® et “π΄ tibi refere-| safety. And therefore I pray
ne ie : actuly] oon of thee that he may have
quitquit mle d)ixit- [{]1- entering in (15) unto thee.2 And
{lult et factlum....... fee] he is able to declare unto thee
amauy hlo]min[e]m [......... ] | all things concerning our busi-
5 . Ἵ
20 Mil... 56, ὃder [..κἀ{κἀπι: 1 π655.} Whatsoever he hath
ἢϊ.....} . dominfe.....0. j : :
8 m[......J.td esfé...... seal told me, so it was in very
face Ake 17 habl eee 1 | deed.* I have loved the man
Al ee 1 et [-..Ven τράγο ] mn (21) lord... .. that

25 tor.t..[.
+-] {φρ[56ππἨπττττν ]lis....have....and....
τς re fos) (ijiend oc. him as
cessoris uft il]lum co[mmen- . mediator that 1 would
darem (?)} recommend (?) him. Be ye
1 Cf. Matt. xix. 27 = Mark x. 28 = Luke xviii. 28, ‘ Lo, we have left all,
and have followed Thee.” Cf. also Matt. iv. 20, 22.
2 Cf. St. Paul, 1 Thess. i. 9, ὁποίαν εἴσοδον ἔσχομεν πρὸς ὑμᾶς, ‘ what manner
of entering in we had unto you.” :
3 = de actu (or acto) nostro. Cf. ad nobis, Muratorian Canon, |. 47. For
the whole sentence cf. St. Paul. Col. iv. 7, τὰ κατ᾽ ἐμὲ πάντα γνωρίσει ὑμῖν Τυχικός,
“all my affairs shall Tychicus make known unto you.”
4 The conjectured restoration of the text is uncertain. Grenfell and Hunt:
“ Whatever he tells you about me you may take as a fact.”
ὃ Hugo Koch, writing to me from Braunsberg, 25 November, 1908, con-
jectured a relative clause with the subjunctive here. He quoted Ambrosius,
De Obitu Theodosti, c. 34 (Migne, Patr. Lat.16, col. 1459), “ dilext virum, qui
magis arguentem quam adulantem probaret.”
5 Here begins the second and more recently discovered fragment.

Continuation of notes to page 197 :—

with Crénert, Wochenschrift fiir klassische Philologie, 20 (1903) col. 457; πρὸ
ὀφθαλμῶν τιθέναι, Epistle of Aristeas, 284, and Berliner Griechische Urkunden,
No. 362 Ver. (215 A.D.); and actually πρὸ ὀφθαλμῶν ἔχειν in an inscription at
Talmi, Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 210, (circa
247 A.D.). Another inscription of the reign of Hadrian, from Pergamum,
Athenische Mitteilungen, 24 (1899) p. 199, should be compared. I note these
passages, because people might easily scent a Hebraism here,
5 Cf. St. Paul, Philemon 17, προσλαβοῦ αὐτὸν ws ἐμέ, ‘‘ receive him as myself.”
3. = talis homo. With omo cf. odie, in the Muratorian Canon, 1. 11.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 199
estote felicissi[m: domine most happy, lord, many years,
_mul-] * ; _ | with all thine, (30) in good
ee Ol Se a ata health. Have this letter before
30 ben[e agentes] thine eyes,?, lord, and think
hanc epistulam ant’ ocu- that I speak with thee? Fare-
los? habeto domine putalt)o | well.
me tecum loqui®
uale

On the verso the address : 4

35 IOVLIO DOMITIO TRI- (35) To Julius Domitius, mili-
BVNO MILITVM LE- | tary tribune of the legion, from
G(IONIS) Aurelius Archelaus, benefict-
ab- Aurelio: Archelao- b(ene- | arius.
fictario)

The situation in this letter is quite clear, and needs no

reconstruction. It is only necessary to say something about
the theory, first advanced by N. Tamassia and G. Setti in
collaboration,® and approved by P. Viereck,® that the letter
was written by a Christian. In support of it we are referred to
the various “ Biblical’ and especially ‘“‘ New Testament ”’
echoes it contains, the chief being a striking parallel to the
words of St. Peter, ‘‘ Lo, we have left all, and have followed
Thee.” In conscious or unconscious recollection of these
Gospel words, we are told, Archelaus writes of Theon that
he had left his own people, his possessions, and business, and
had followed him—so that Archelaus at least must be regarded
as a Christian.? There is certainly something alluring about
this theory, but nevertheless I am not able to accept it. If
Archelaus were a Christian it is extremely unlikely, I think,
that he would have profaned St. Peter’s words by applying
them to the relations of an ordinary human friendship. The
1 Grenfell and Hunt conjecture fo- instead of mul-.
? See p. 197, ἢ. 7.
8. This pretty observation should be compared with the ancient comparison
of a letter to a conversation, quoted below, p. 228, n. 1.
4 The address is written on fragment I.
5 Due Papiri d’Oxirinco. An offprint from the Atti del R. Istit. Veneto di
Scienze, etc., t. 59, Venezia, 1900. I know this paper only from Viereck’s
review (see next note).
5 Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift, 21 (1901) col. 907 f.
7 Viereck, col. 907.
200 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
double concept of leaving and following is employed by
St. Peter in the deepest sense of evangelical self-denial and
refers to the disciples and the Master. But the expression
“leave and follow” is quite likely to have been one of the
stock phrases in ancient letters of recommendation; in the
Gospel it acquires ethical status. The other “ Biblical ’’ and
particularly “‘ Pauline’ echoes are explainable in the same
way. Archelaus was not acquainted with the Pauline
Epistles,? but Paul and Archelaus were acquainted with the
complimentary phraseology employed in ancient letter-
writing.
To the historian of manners this letter of Aurelius Archelaus
is a speaking testimony to the noble, unreserved humanity
that was possible in the Roman army of the second century,
even in the relations between a subordinate and his superior.

18
Letter from Harpocras, an Egyptian, to Phthomonthes, 29 Decem-
ber, 192 A.D., ostracon from Thebes, now in the author’s
collection, deciphered by U. Wilcken * (Figure 37).
A delivery-order in letter-form, perfectly simple and un-
assuming, but interesting in style and language.
“Aproxpas Φθομώ(ν)θη χαίρειν. Harpocras to Phthomonthes
δὸς Ψενμφ()θη Wad καὶ Πλήνι greeting. Give to Psenmonthes,
᾿ the son of Paos,. and to Plenis,
Παουώσιρ(ς)
the son of Pauosis, of Phmau,
ἀπὸ * Φμᾳῦ γεωργοῖς Λίμνης f4e |husbandmen of the lake, 5
εἰς πλήρωσιν f λε y(ivovra) f λε. (artabae) of wheat, to make
5 L Ay] THB(.) y. up the 35 (artabae) of wheat.
#8, ποτὲδ δὸς τῷ nee They are 35 (artabae) of wheat.
| καὶ my more’ οὖς τῇ SPA” | (5) In the year 33, Tybi3. And
παιδίσκη Ἷ now at length give to my maid
τὰς τοῦ fy E| the 32 artabae of wheat.
Ὁ What a significance for the history of the canon would attach to quota-
tions from St. Paul found in an unknown person’s letter in the second century |
How pleased we should be to be able to believe the letter Christian !
2 Cf. now P. M. Meyer, Griechische Texte aus Agypten, Deissmann collection,
ostracon No. 57 (p.176f.). Ihave taken account of Meyer's fresh decipherment.
For details see his commentary. The text will also be found in Preisigke,
Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Agypten, I, Strassburg, 1915, No.
4253.
* The same ἀπό that has been so often misunderstood in Heb. xiii. 24; cf.
my little note in Hermes, 33 (1898) p. 344. As on the ostracon people at.
[For continuation of notes see next page.
 37.—Letter from Ἡδγροοσαβ, an Egyptian, to Phthomonthes, 29 December, 192 A.D.
Fic.
Ostracon from Thebes. Now in the Author’s collection.
 Fic. 38.—Letter from Theon, an Egyptian boy, to his father Theon, 2nd or 3rd cent.
a.p.
Papyrus from Oxyrhynchus. Now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Facsimile kindly obtained
by Dr. Arthur S. Hunt.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 201

19
Letter from Theon, an Egyptian boy, to his father Theon, 2nd or
3rd cent. A.D., papyrus from Oxyrhynchus, now in the
Bodleian Library, Oxford, discovered and published by
Grenfell and Hunt } (Figure 38).
This letter, written in a schoolboy’s uncial hand, is of the
-highest importance for a variety of reasons: it is at once a
. picture of ancient family life, a portrait of a naughty boy
drawn by himself, and a specimen of the most uncultivated
form of popular speech. Blass’s* remark, that the boy
“ violates ’’ grammar, is about as true as if I were to calla
sloe-hedge a violation of the espalier. At the outset Theon
had no grammar to suffer humiliation and violence at a later
stage of his career. He had merely the language of the streets
and the playground, and that language the rogue speaks also
in his letter. The spelling too is “ very bad,’ says Blass—
as if the boy had been writing an examination exercise; but
from this “‘ bad” (really on the whole phonetic) spelling the
Greek scholar can learn more than from ten correct official
documents. The style I recommend to the consideration of
all who are specialists in detecting the stylistic features
characteristic of the Semitic race.
Θέων Θέωνι τῶ πατρὶ χαίρειν.
a ρον 3 *, a2 ta r>
καλῶς ἐποίησες.3 οὐκ darévynyés* με μετ᾽ ἐ-
σοῦδϑ εἰς πόλιν. ἢ ὃ οὐ θέλις ἴ ἀπενέκκειν ὃ με-
τ᾿ ἐσοῦ ὃ εἰς ᾿Αλεξανδρίαν, οὐ μὴ γράψω σε ἐ-.

1 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (I.) No. 119, cf. II. p. 320. See also U. von
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Géttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1898, p. 686,
F. Blass, Hermes, 34 (1899) p. 312 ff.; Preisigke, p. 110 f. Grenfelland Hunt,
it seems, did not adopt all Blass’s suggestions. I follow their readings. For
the facsimile (Figure 38) I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Arthur 5. Hunt.
Further reprints of the text in Lietzmann,? p. 13f.; Milligan, p. 102 f.;
Laudien, p. 4 f.; Helbing, p. 121 ff.; Schubart, p. 78.
2 Page 312.
3 = ἐποίησας. 4 = ἀπήνεγκες. 5 = σου, formed like ἐμοῦ, common,
δ =e. 7 = θέλεις. 8 = ἀπενεγκεῖν.

Continuation of notes to page 200 :—

Phmau are meant, so no doubt in the Epistle to the Hebrews of ἀπὸ τῆς ᾿Ιταλίας
(‘they of Italy,” A.V., R.V. )means people in Lealys (Cf. p. 173, text, 1.8. TR.]
4 Contraction for πυροῦ, ‘‘ wheat.”
ve) ποτέ is used as in Rom. i. ro.
5 ἐμός unemphatic as, for example, in Rom. x. 1.
“* female slave.”
-
202 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
5 πιστολήν, οὔτε λαλῶ σε, οὔτε viyevw! σε
εἶτα, ἂν 3 δὲ ἔλθης εἰς ᾿Αλεξανδρίαν, οὐ
μὴ λάβω χεῖραν 3 παρά [σἾου, οὔτε πάλι" χαίρω
σε λυπόν.δ ἂμ μὴ ὃ θέλης ἀπενέκαι Ἶ με],
ταῦτα γε[ίνετε.8 καὶ ἡ μήτηρ μου εἶπε ᾽Αρ-
10 χελάω, ὅτι ἀναστατοῖ με Gppov® αὐτόν.
καλῶς δὲ ἐποίησες.10 δῶρά pide ἔπεμψες] 1}
μεγάλα, ἀράκια. πεπλάνηκαν ἡμῶς 13 ἐκε[1],
τῇ ἡμέρα ιβ ὅτι18 ἔπλευσες.14 λυπὸν πέμψον εἴ[
με, παρακαλῶ σε. ἂμ μὴ δπέμψης, οὐ μὴ φά-
15 yo, οὐ μὴ πείνω.15 ταῦτα.
ἐρῶσθέ15 σε εὔχ(ομαι).
Τῦβι τη.
On the verso the address :
ἀπόδος Θέωνι [ἀ]πὸ Θεωνᾶτος vid.
Theon to Theon his father greeting. Thou hast done well.1?
Thou hast not carried me with thee to the town. If thou wilt
not carry me with thee to Alexandria, I will not write thee 18 a
(5) letter, nor speak thee,2® nor wish thee 18 health. But if thou
goest 19 to Alexandria, I will not take hand from thee, nor greet
thee again henceforth.” If thou wilt not carry me, these things
come to pass. My mother also said to Archelaus, (10) ‘‘ he driveth
me mad*!; away with him.” # But thou hast done well.}?
Thou hast sent me great 33 gifts—locust-beans.*4 They deceived 25
1 = ὑγιγένω (-: ὑγιγαίνω from ὑγιαίνω, Karl Dieterich, Untersuchungen,
p. 91 f. and p. 187, n. 25 above).
3 = ἐάν. 3 = χεῖρα.
4 = πάλιν as in the oldest Christian papyrus letter extant (No. 21 below,
Tlist.)
5 = λοιπόν.
ὁ ἐὰν μή as in the letter of the Papas Caor (No. 24 below).
7 = ἀπενέγκαι. 8 = γίνεται. 9 = ἄρον.
10 = ἐποίησας. 11 = ἔπεμψας. 12 = ἡμᾶς.
13 = Gre? " 14 = ἔπλευσας. 15 = πίνω.
16 = ἐρρῶσθαί. 17 Tronical.
18 The word in the original has the form of the accusative. This is not
an outrage on grammar, but a symptom that the dative was beginning to
disappear in the popular language.
19 That is to say: alone, without taking the son.
20 λοιπόν, as used frequently in St. Paul’s letters.
31 The ‘ New Testament ”’ ἀναστατόω, cf. p. 84 f. above.
22 ἄρον is used exactly like this in John xix. 15.
23 Blass and Preisigke take ‘‘ great ’’ with the word which I have translated
“locust-beans.”” Our interpretation makes the irony clearer.
24 Perhaps something like the husks which the Prodigal Son (Luke xv. 16)
would fain have eaten.
25 πλανάω, as frequently in the New Testament.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 203
us! there on the 12th day, when thou didst sail. Finally,? send
for me, I beseech thee. If thou sendest not, I will not eat (15)
nor drink. Evenso.4 Fare thee well, I pray. Tybi 18.

On the verso the address :

Deliver to Theon from Theonas 5 his son.

A nice handful, this boy! He has wrought his mother to

such a pitch that she is almost beside herself and has but one
‘wish: ‘“Away with him!” And the father is no better
treated. Little Theon is determined at all costs to share in
the journey to Alexandria planned by Theon the elder. There
have already been several scenes about it, and the father,
who has no need of the urchin on his long journey, can think
of no other way out of the difficulty but to start on the voyage
to the capital, Alexandria, under the pretext of a little trip
“to the town” (probably Oxyrhynchus).6 This was on
7 January. The weak father’s conscience pricks him for his
treachery, and so he sends a little present to console the boy
he has outwitted—some locust-beans for him to eat, which the
father perhaps thought would be a treat for him so early in
the year. But he was mistaken there. As day after day goes
by and the father does not return from ‘‘ the town,” the
victim sees through the plot. He knows now why he was
not allowed to go with his father this time to “ the town ”’;
he sees now why he received the fine present—fine present
indeed, why the poor people eat those locust-beans 7! Burn-
ing with rage, he sits down to write on 13 January. Having
found out that his father was to stop somewhere en route,

1 Us = probably Theon and (his brother?) Archelaus.

2 See p. 202, n. 20.
3 This notice of a hunger-strike recalls the curse under which the Jewish
zealots bound themselves, ‘' that they would neither eat nor drink till they had
killed Paul” (Acts. xxiii. 12, 21). Wettstein, Novum Testamentum Graecum,
Il. p. 615, quotes similar formulae from Rabbinic sources.
4 After ταῦτα we must probably understand γίνεται (cf. 1.9). ΟἿ. the abrupt
ταῦτα in inscriptions: Eduard Loch, Festschrift... Ludwig Friedlaender
dargebracht von seinen Schiilern, Leipzig, 1895, p. 289 ff.; R. Heberdey and
E. Kalinka, Denkschriften der Kais. Akad. ἃ. Wissensch. zu Wien, Phil.-hist.
Classe, 45 (1897) 1 Abh. pp. 5 f., 53-
5 Theonas is the pet-form of the name Theon.
6 I surmise that Theon’s home was some little place on the Nile (cf. ἔπλευσες,
1, 13), south of Oxyrhynchus, which would then be “‘ the town ”’ referred to.
7 Cf. Blass, p. 314.
 204 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
he composes this blackmailing letter we have before us.
Impudent, ironical, with childish wilfulness he pours out his
threats. He will stop doing everything that a well brought-up
. Child should do to its parents—wishing them good-day, shak-
ing hands, wishing them health, writing nice letters. Worst
threat of all, he will starve to death of his own free will.
That will bring daddy round, the device has never failed yet.
And still with all his defiant naughtiness, -Theon can contrive
a tolerable joke. His mother had cried in desperation to
(his brother?) Archelaus, ‘‘ He drives me mad, away with
him,” and Theon is quick-witted enough to turn this into an
argument with his father for travelling to Alexandria after
all! The same derisive artfulness is apparent in the address.
On the outside of a letter bristling with impudence he has
mischievously written as the name of the sender Theonas,
the father’s pet name for his pampered child.
Did Theon the elder, to whom such a letter could be
written, do-what the naughty boy wanted at last? The out-
lines which the son has unconsciously drawn of his father’s
portrait- certainly do not forbid our answering the question
in the affirmative.
20

Letter from Pacysis, an Egyptian, to his son, about the 3rd cent.
A.D., ostracon from Thebes, now in the author’s collection,
deciphered by U. Wilcken ? (Figure 309).
Πακῦσις Πατσέβθιο(ς) τῶ vid Pacysis, the son of Patsebthis,
μου x(aipey). to my son greeting. Contra-
μὴ ἀντιλογήσης. μετὰ στρατιώ. |
του 8 dict not. Ye have dwelt there
[ὠι %]ejoar’ ἐκεῖ, μ[ηδ]ὲ rapade- |with a soldier. But take her
[én airy]y,* ἕως ἔλθω πρὸς ἡμᾶς
not till I come to you.
Β. [προ aces ἂν |iwe ie ae

ἔρρωσο. {5} a and Farewell.

tere
1 Anyone who needs a restorative after the impudence of Theon had better
read the letters (dull, it must be admitted) from model boys to their parents,
as preserved, for instance, in The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No. 1296 and in Bell,
Some Private Letters, No. 2, p. 2 ff.
2 Wilcken examined the ostracon on two occasions, once in the autumn of
1904, and again at the beginning of 1907. Not all that was visible in 1904 can
be read now. See now P. M. Meyer, Griechische Texte aus Agypten, Deissmann
collection, ostracon No. 64 (p. 187), and Preisigke, Sammelbuch I, No. 4254.
[For notes 3-5 see next page.
Fic. 39.—Letter from Pacysis, an Egyptian, to his son, about the 3rd cent. a.p. Ostracon
from Thebes. Now in the Author’s collection.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 205
In its wretchedly sorry state this greatly faded ostracon is
a typical example of a poor man’s letter in ancient times.
Theon, the father whose acquaintance we made in the last
letter, was obviously better off, but would he, we wonder,
ever have been able, like Pacysis, in dealing with his son to
use such a wholesomely rough expression as “ Contradict
not’?

21
Letter from an Egyptian Christian at Rome to his fellow-Christians
in the Arsinoite nome, between 264 (265) and 282 (281) A.D.,
papyrus from Egypt (probably the Fayaim), formerly in
the collection of Lord Amherst of Hackney at Didlington
Hall, Norfolk, published by Grenfell and Hunt 1 (Figure 40).
This papyrus is at present perhaps the oldest ? known
autograph letter in existence from the hand of a Christian
and in spite of being badly mutilated it is of great value.
From external characteristics the fragment was dated
1 The Amherst Papyri, Part I, No. 3a, with a facsimile in Part II. Plate 25,
which I here reproduce by the kind permission of the late Lord Amherst of
Hackney. The reproduction (Figure 40) is about half the size of the original.
The text is also in Wilcken, Chvrestomathie, Ὁ. 153f., No. 126. Another
restoration of the text was attempted by E. Kalinka in ‘“‘ Aus der Werkstatt
des Hoérsaals: Papyrusstudien und andere Beitrage,’’ a volume presented to
the Innsbruck ‘‘ Philologenklub,’’ Innsbruck, 1914, p. 2 ff. I agree with
Wilcken, p. 153, in thinking that a re-examination of the original is necessary.
2 The Bale papyrus No. 16, also a Christian letter, has been assigned by
its editor Rabel (cf. above, p. 31, n. 1) to the beginning of the 3rd cent. a.p.
Wilcken, however, would place it nearer the middle of the 3rd cent.
(Archiv 6, p. 437). The letter (extremely meagre in contents) might therefore
be older than our No. 21; but I think the question is not yet decided.

Continuation of notes to page 204 :—

3 The punctuation was doubtful to me at first. I thought of reading μὴ
ἀντιλογήσης μετὰ στρατιώτου, ‘‘ dispute not with a soldier,’ when μετά would be
used as it is frequently in the New Testament and elsewhere after πολεμέω.
But I now feel sure that the sentences should be separated as above. ἀντιλογέω
is used of obstinacy, like ἀντιλέγω in the letter of Sempronius (above, No.
{15 and] 16,,).
4 I nowrestore the text thus, following a suggestion from Gustav Bréndsted
(letter, Hellerup, 13 April, 1912). There seems to be a reference to a girl
with whom the son was about to contract an irregular union. Only thus
do the ye and you become clear. There is no need to mention hey by name,
because father and son know precisely who is meant.
5 ἡμᾶς must certainly mean ὑμᾶς; this confusion, of which there are
countless instances in MSS. of the New Testament, arose in consequence of
both words being pronounced alike, imas.
 206 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
between 250 and 285 A.D. by Grenfell and Hunt, who deci-
phered and first published it, and their chronology has been
brilliantly confirmed by an observation of Harnack’s.1 He
found that the ‘‘ pope Maximus ”’ mentioned in the letter was
Bishop Maximus of Alexandria, who was in office from 264
(265) to 282 (281) A.D.
By no means everything has yet been accomplished for the
restoration of the text. Two other texts contained on the
same precious fragment have from the first somewhat diverted
attention from the letter itself. A few lines from the begin-
ning of the Epistle to the Hebrews have been written above
the second column of the letter in an almost contemporary
hand,? while on the back Dr. J. Rendel Harris was the first to
recognise a fragment of Genesis i. I-5in Aquila’s translation
preceded by the Septuagint parallel in a handwriting of the
-age of Constantine.
The first attempt at a restoration of the missing parts of
the letter was by C. Wessely.2 My own attempt, here given,‘
agrees in several places independently with his. I feel
obliged to point out that parts of the attempted restoration
of the text are extremely hypothetical. The same remark
applies also to the attempt made by Kalinka.5 But com-
bined effort is necessary for the solution of such tasks, and
I should be the first to discard these conjectures in favour
of better ones.

CoLtumn I
contains the remains of ro lines, not deciphered by Grenfell
and Hunt. A re-examination of the original is- greatly to be
desired, but merely from the facsimile I should not venture to
say anything.

1 Sitzungsberichte der Kéniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften

zu Berlin, 1900, p. 987 ff. Harnack thinks there is much to be said for the
theory that the papyrus contains two letters. Then, I think, we should have to
assume that the fragment was a leaf of the writer’s letter copy-book (cf. below,
p. 2354., the remarks on Rom. xvi.). But the more probable assumption is that
we have only one letter here.
2 See the facsimile.
3 Patrologia Orientalis, Tome IV. Fascicule 2, p. 135 ff.
4 Cf. also a short notice in the Supplement to the Allgemeine Zeitung
(Munich), 1900, No. 250.
5 Cf. p. 205, ἢ. 1 above. Skirmishing between Wessely and Kalinka in the
Deutsche Literaturzeitung (1916) col. 1944 £. and (1917) col. 110 f.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 207
Cotumn 11
ΚΠ τω » Jyoyy σον ἧς ἀνν[ώνης]1
we [ae sia ᾿δξο]διάσαι τὴν κριθὴν. ἢ
ἐκ Top [αὐτοῦ] λόγου [καὶ] μὴ τὸ abr[3]_
φροντ[(σωσι]ν οἷον καὶ elpyrw?.[. . Jo
5, ἐνθηκ[ῶν ὃἀπο]στελλομένων πρὸς
αὐτὸν ἀ[πὸ] τῆς ᾿Αλεξανδρείας. καὶ
προφάσε[ις] καὶ ἀναβολὰς καὶ ἀνα-
δόσις ἃ ποιη[σάμενος οὐχ οἴομαι αὐτ[ὸ]ν
ταῦτα [δίχα] αἰτίας οὗτος ὅπεφρονι-
IO κέναι. εἰ δὲ καὶ ἂν νῦν αὕτη ἡ περισ-
σότης ἡ συμβεβηκυῖαν 7 μὴ ποιήσαι
λόγον, is τὸ καλῶς ἔχειν τ[ελ]εῖν εὖ
ἀνέχομαι. εἰ δὲ εἶ. .. . ] ἄρτοιςὃπά-
εν

Ag? πεπράσιγ 1 ο [{. 7] εἰσ [. Jy διὰ μ[κρὸν γε-

15 νέσθαι πρὸς τὴν [. . Jef. . . Jv Νῖλον
καὶ τὸν πατέρα ᾿Απολλῶνιν εἰς
A..T.....@. ἐπέστειλάντε
παραχρ[ῆμ]α τὸ ἀργύριον ἐξοδιασ-
θῆναι ὑμῖν. ὃ καὶ καταγάγειται 11
20 ἰς τὴν ᾿Αλεξάνδριαν ὠνησάμε-
γον 12 ἀόνας 13 παρ᾽ ὑμῖν ἐν τῶ ᾿Αρσινο-
[ε]ΐίτη. τοῦτο yap συνεθ[ἐμην Πρει-
μειτείνω, ὥστε τὸ ἀργύριον αὐτ[ῶ] is
τ[ὴν] ᾿Α[λε]ξάνδριαν ἐξωδιασθῆναι.14
25 [(ἔτους).}}| Παῦνι ἢ ἀπὸ ἹΡώμης.15
1 This conjecture is not certain, but U. Wilcken agrees with me in thinking
it probable. The Latin annona often appears as a borrowed word in Greek
papyri. 2 = εἴρητο.
* Corpus Glossariorum Lat. 5» 619: “ enteca est pecunia commertiis desti-
nata ” (Kalinka, Pp. 5).
4 = ἀναδόσεις. 5 = οὕτως.
δ = πεφρονηκέναι. 7 = συμβεβηκυῖα.
® = ἄρτους ἢ ® = βπάλιν, as in Theon’s letter above, No. 19,.
10 == πεπράς,
mempd xa) ow? 2 1 --
= καταγάγετε. 2 7)ὠνησάμενοι
‘ ?ἢ
15. Grenfell and Hunt cite from Epicharmus ἀών as the name οἵ ἃ fish. They
observe—very rightly—that this is not likely to be the word here. We may
perhaps assume with Wessely that ὀθόνας was the word intended (cf. column
III). Hermann Diels wrote to me (Berlin W., 22 July, 1908): “ὀθόνας is
suggested by the sense, but there is not room enough for it. Is it possible
that the word there was the synonymous dévas (vestimenta), which has
hitherto defied explanation in Bacchylides 17 (16), 112?’ A. Debrunner
(letter, Basel, 25 April, 1913) asks: ‘‘ Ought we to read d<v)dvas = ἀννώνας
inl.1?” (The new Liddell and Scott, 1926, assumes ἀών here to mean “a
kind of garment.” Tr.]
14 = ἐξοδιασθῆναι.
18 This and the corresponding line in column III are ce in another
hand than the body of the letter. Cf. above, pp. 166, ἢ. 7;1
208 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

Cotumn III
Καλῶς οὖν ποιήσαντες, ἀδελφοί,]
évycdpevo[t]! τὰ ὀθόνϊια. .. . .. . τι
ves ἐξ ἡμ[ῶ]ν 5roval....... . λαβέτωσ-] 3
αν σὺν αὐτοῖς ἐξορμ[ήσαντες πρὸς]
5 Μάξιμον τὸν πάπαΪν ὁ καὶ... ...... 718
τὸν ἀναγν[ὠσἼτην. καὶ [ἐν τῇ ᾿Αλεξανδρία]
πωλήσαντες] τὰ ὀθόνια ἐκεῖνα ἐξο-]
διάσητε τὸ ἀργύριον [Πρειμειτεί-]
νω ἢ Μαξίμω τῶ πάπ[α ἀποχὴν ἀπο-]
IO AapPavorz[e]s παρ᾽ αὐτοῦ. αὐτὸς δὲ τὴν]
ἐπιθήκ[ην, τὴν τιμὴν τοῦ ὑφ᾽ ὑμῶν]
πῳλο[υμέ]νου ἄρ[του καὶ τῶν ὀθονί-}
wv τὸ ἀργύριον, παρακᾳβταθέσθω παρα-
᾿ς δρὺς αὐτὸ Θεονᾶ,7 ἵνα σὺν [Θεῶ ὃ παρα-]
I5 γενόμενος is τὴν ᾿Αλεξ[άνδρειαν]
εὗροϑ αὐτὸ is τὰ ἀναλώμα[τά μου. uy]
οὖν ἀμελήσητε, ἀδελφοίί, διὰ ταχέ-]
wv τοῦτο ποιῆσαι, ἵνα μὴ[ Πρειμει-}
τεῖνος διὰ τὴν ἐμὴν προ[θεσμίαν ἐν]
20 τῆ ᾿Αλεξανδρεία διατρίψη [πλεῖν μέλλων]
ἐπὶ τὴν Ῥώμην, ἀλλ᾽ ᾧς ἡμᾶς [ὠφέλησε πα-]
ράτευξιν 19 πάπα καὶ τοῖς κατ᾽ α[ὐτὸν ἁγιω-]
1 After καλῶς ποιεῖν we have here as in Theon’s letter (No. 19 above) not the
infinitive, but a paratactic participle; similar constructions in the Oxyrhyn-
chus Papyri, No. 113¢¢, and 1165¢,14 (both letters of the 2nd cent. a:p.). The
use is, however, much older, as shown by the letter (Hibeh Papyri, No 82}.
ἢ. 238 B.c.) quoted above, p. 87, note 5.
2 = ὑμῶν. :
3 This conjecture is not free from doubt, as the writer generally divides
words differently.
4 For the title πάπας, ‘‘ pope,” cf. Harnack’s observations on the letter,
p. 989 ff., and see Caor’s letter, No. 24 below.
5 Wessely here conjectures the name Primitinus. But this, in the ortho-
graphy of the writer, would be too long.
ὁ Grenfell and Hunt read zapaxo, but to judge from the facsimile παρακᾳ
would also be possible.
7 = OcwrG.
8 For this conjecture cf. 1. 16 of the letter of Psenosiris, No. 22 below, ὅταν
ἔλθη σὺν θεῷ. The formula σὺν θεῷ, ‘‘ with God,” occurs frequently elsewhere.
The writer of this letter fulfils almost literally the injunction in the Epistle of
St. James iv. 13 ff. not to say, ‘‘ To-day or to-morrow we will go into such a
city . . . and trade, and get gain,’’ without adding, ‘‘ If the Lord will and we
live.”
9. = εὕρω, cf. 1. 24 rdfo. The writer often confuses o and w.
10 παράτευξις is a new word, ‘‘ intercourse, personal relations,’’ perhaps also
‘intercession ’’ (cf. évrevgis, Bibelstudien, pp. 117f., 143 4.; Bible Studies,
pp. 121, 146).
 a ett ati
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vy
7
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Tel

“910 sdeyra
ey}g—‘or259Ρ[0 UPTSUYD79H9T jUe}x—a
uendAsq ueiysiy UT 911} ydes30}nW -TeUIsII
= Q 1929] Worfue
07 sty
) SUeI}SL
Ul IYO-MOT
911 [ay S}OUISI᾿ΘΌΙΟΤΙ
toz (S9z) pue zgz V ‘sniddeg τ|9γ7τιλὶ
28 aWOY UseMJeq
(1gz) avy Aq uorsstu
10 eadῬΙΟΊ ysrayur
jo y ‘AoUHe
91] E 93k] “OUMO
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 209

τάτοις + προ[εστῶσι 3], τείσ[ω αὐτῶ χάριν]

καὶ πάντα σ[ύμφω]να τάξο > ὑμῖν καὶ ’A-]
25 γαθοβούϊλω. ἐρρ]ῶσθαι ὑ[μᾶς εὔχομαι.
Jarada.[

-CoLumn II
. of which corn... deliver the barley4... from the
same account, and that they should not be careful of. that same
which had also been said . . . (5) when the stores (of money]
were sent to him ὃ from Alexandria. And though I made excuses
and delays and puttings off, I think not that he ® thus desired
these things? without cause. (10) And even if now this super-
fluity® which hath happened should not make a reckoning
[possible], for the sake of [my own] good feelings ® I will gladly
endure ?® to pay. Butif ... they have again sold loaves, .
in a little while (15) happen to . .. Nilus™ and [my?] father
Apollonis #2 in A... And they have written that the money
shall be delivered unto you immediately. Which also bring
ye down (20) to Alexandria, having bought . . . among you in
1 For ἁγιώτατος cf. Jude 20. The superlative is common in both secular
and ecclesiastical use.
wee 2
3 For προεστώς, ‘‘ chief man, ruler’ in early ecclesiastical use cf. Joh.
Caspar Suicerus, Thesauyus Ecclesiasticus ὃ IL., Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1746, col.
840; for the later Egyptian use see quotations in W. E. Crum, Coptic
Ostvaca, p. 113 of the lithographed part.
8. = τάξω, cf. 1. 16 evpo. σύμφωνος is common in the papyri in such contexts.
The phrase σύμφωνα διατάττω is quoted in the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae from
Plato, Legg. 5. 746 E.
« Hence we may conclude that dealings in corn are in the background of
this letter.
58.1.6. Primitinus, who was then also in Rome.
6 Primitinus.
7 Payment of the money in Alexandria instead of Rome.
® The letter was dated or signed in the beginning of June; this suggests
that the harvest was unusually good, and business correspondingly heavy.
9 Cf. the last lines of column III. The writer wants to have his conscience
clear towards Primitinus.
10 The word is no doubt used playfully. Wilcken proposes: ‘‘ yet I will
gladly make the sacrifice for the sake of decency.”
11 If the reading “‘ Nilos ” is not certain, I should expect a female name, say
Nilis ” (cf. letter 14, above). The preceding word would then be [ἀδ]ςε[λφή]ν,
sister.’ Kalinka adopts this conjecture and thinks Ni[vJov is possible as a
woman's name.
12 Apollonis is short for Apollonius. Harnack assumes that ‘‘ Father ’’ was
the title of the provincial bishop, and takes Apollonius to be the bishop of
the particular church in the Arsinoite nome (p. 991; cf. also his Geschichte der
altchristlichen Literatur, II. 2, p. 180). This does not seem to me very prob-
able. I rather think that the writer is speaking of his real father (and
210 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the Arsinoite [nome]. For I have covenanted this with Primi-
tinus, that the money shall be delivered unto him at Alexandria.
(25) [Year]//, Pauni 8,! from Rome.

Cotumn III
Ye did well,? therefore, brethren, having bought the linen
cloth. ... let some of you take the... and set forth with
it 3 unto (5) Maximus the Papas and... the Lector. And
having sold that linen cloth in Alexandria, deliver the money
unto Primitinus or * Maximus the Papas, receiving a quittance
(10) from him. But the gain, the price of the bread sold by you
and the money for the linen cloth, let him commit and deliver
it up unto Theonas,® in order that I, being come with God (15) to
Alexandria,* may find it [ready] against my charges. Neglect
not, therefore, brethren, to do this speedily, lest Primitinus, on
account of the time appointed of me;? (20) should tarry in Alex-
andria, being about to sail for Rome,’ but that, as he hath pro-
fited us by dealings with the Papas and the most holy rulers
who are before him, I may pay him thanks and determine all
things in agreement for you and (25) Agathobulus.® Fare ye
well, I pray... .... 2
1 = 2 June.
5. In the Greek text the verb is in the participle, through the carelessness of
the writer in haste. Radermacher, Neutestamentliche Grammatik, p. 167, is
no doubt right in asserting that the abrupt aorist participle is intended as a
true past tense.—For the abrupt participle cf. the letters of Sempronius
Nos. 15 and 16, lines 8 and 21, p. 193 f. above.
3 Or: ‘‘ Then let some of you take the .. with you (αὐτοῖς) and set forth
unto...”
4 If Primitinus has not yet arrived at Alexandria.
* Theonas is therefore probably the financial agent of the Papas.” Harnack
suggests very plausibly that he might be the Theonas who succeeded Maximus
as Papas of Alexandria, 282 (281)-—300 A.D.
6 The writer therefore intends presently to go from Rome to Alexandria.
7 The date arranged with Primitinus for the payment of the money.
® Primitinus is therefore at present in Alexandria, but intends to return to
Rome, where, according to column II, he had already been before.
» Tf our conjectural restoration of the text is correct in principle, Agathobulus
would be eminently interested in the settlement of the money matters dis-
cussed in the letter. Perhaps he as well as the writer was the confidential
agent of the Arsinoite Christians at Rome.
10 The letters amada defy all attempts at certain restoration. Can it be that
the Papas is once more named here? Kalinka, p. 5 f. is well worth noting.
The conclusion of the letter containing the good wishes seems to have been
set back farther from the margin (‘‘ indented,” a printer would say), which
at a later date was quite usual, cf. my note in Vevréffentlichungen aus der
Heidelberger Papyrus-Sammlung I. p, tor, and the letters of Psenosiris,
Justinus, and Caor which follow below (Nos. 22-24).
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE ζεῖ
Let us now attempt to make out the situation in this
venerable document. A hint will be sufficient reminder
that, so far as the restored portion of the text is concerned,
the attempt must remain questionable.
We might place as a motto at the head of this, possibly
the earliest Christian letter of which the original has come
down to us, the words which Tertullian! wrote two genera-
tions earlier: ‘‘ We do business in ships... we follow
husbandry, and bear our part in buying and selling.” The
Christians of the generation before the great tempest of
Diocletian persecution, whom we can here watch going
about their work from our hidden post of observation, took
their stand in the world, not alone praying for their daily
bread, but also trading in it; ‘‘ they bought, they sold.”
Christians,? living somewhere in the fertile Arsinoite
nome? of Egypt, have far away at Rome?‘ a confidential
agent whose name we do not know, but whose letter and
Greek we have before us in the original: rude clumsy
characters in the main text of the letter, a somewhat more
flowing hand in the concluding lines (perhaps in the agent’s
autograph), the spelling uncultivated as of the people, the
syntax that of the unlearned. This agent is supported
perhaps by another, Agathobulus.5 They are entrusted with
the dispatch of certain business connected with corn.®
A somewhat earlier letter written from Rome by one
Irenaeus to his brother Apolinarius, who also resided in the
Arsinoite nome,’ gives us a vivid picture of the kind of
business. The man landed in Italy on the 6th of the month
Epiph, finished unloading the corn-ship ® on the 18th Epiph,
went on 25th Epiph to Rome, “‘ and the place received us as
the god willed.” ® After that, it is true, Irenaeus had to wait
1 Apol. 42,“ Navigamus. . . et rusticamur et mercatus proinde miscemus.”’
2 Column HI,, (I11,).
5 Thay 4 TI...
ΘΠ. 6 1
7 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 27.
5. Cf. the corn-ship of Alexandria in which St. Paul sailed from Myra to
Melita on his voyage to Rome, Acts xxvii. 6, 38. ,
9 καὶ παρεδέξατο ἡμᾶς ὁ τόπος ὡς ὁ θεὸς ἤθελε. This phrase has led
people to regard the letter as a Christian one. The assumption is, I think,
disposed of by Wilcken (Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 436; 4, P. 208 ἘΣ
Chrestomathie, p. 524 ἴ., on No. 445); he interprets τόπος as the collegium
naviculariorum at Rome, and 6 θεός as the god of this guild of seamen.
212 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
day after day for the conclusion of his business: “to this
present day ! not one (of us) has finished this business of the
corn.”
Such no doubt was the sort of work that the writer of
our letter had to do, and he was dealing just now with a
man named Primitinus,2 to whom he had to pay money.’
That cannot very well be money for corn, for it is to be
assumed that the people of Egypt sold corn rather than
bought it. Primitinus might be a shipowner, claiming the
cost of freightage of the corn. In that case it is not sur-
prising that he is now in Rome, now in Alexandria.* At the
present time he is expected at Alexandria or is already
there, but will return to Rome before long.* First, however,
he will receive his money at Alexandria: so he had arranged
at Rome with the writer of the letter.? The latter would have
preferred some other mode of settlement, and had therefore
at first tried all sorts of expedients,* but he came at last to
the conviction that Primitinus had his good reasons,® and the
writer of the lettet is now greatly concerned to keep his
agreement with the man. For to him, the Alexandrian
shipowner, the Christians of the Arsinoite nome are indebted
for their close relations with the Papas of Alexandria,
Maximus, the Lector , and other ecclesiastical dignitaries
in the cosmopolis of Egypt.4° And although the good harvest
has greatly stimulated the trade in corn, and the settlement
of the bill might still perhaps be postponed to some quieter
time," he presses for immediate payment: he wants his
conscience to be easy,?” is anxious to keep true to his contract 18
and not appear ungrateful. .
If, however, the Arsinoites do send people 5 on the journey
to Alexandria, to pay Primitinus, as good business men they
will try to make a little money at the same time. They
must take with them home-grown linen? that they have
bought and sell it in the capital”; then, after Primitinus is
paid,?® there will remain a tidy balance,!® which, with the

1 The letter is dated 9 Mesore (2 August).

2 Tye, TT Tye. rat. 3 ILon. * Is, 6. ITT, a, 5 ΤΙΣ, 90.
6 Προ. 7 ΤΩΡ. 8 Tle, 9 Tee.
10. TWlog WL ΤΠ 05. 12 TT,. 18 ΤΙ. TIT,,.
16 1Π1,.. 18 Τρ. 18 ΤΙρ) Πρ, τ Tile,
18 [lop 19 TIT).
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 213
profit from other ventures,! they must hand over to the
Papas Maximus,? in reality to his steward Theonas,’ to hold
as a deposit for the use of the writer of the letter when he
presently returns, God willing, to Alexandria.* This is
perhaps not the first time that they have laid up such
“stores ’’5 at Alexandria.
To the ecclesiastical historian this is the most interesting
part of the letter: Egyptian provincial Christians employ
the highest ecclesiastic in the country as their confidential
agent in money affairs! The link between the Christian
corn-sellers in the Fayim and their agent in Rome is no
casual exchanger, intent on his share of profit, but the Papas
of Alexandria! This is certainly not a bad indication of
the way in which the scattered churches held together socially,
and of the willingness of the ecclesiastical leaders to help
even in the worldly affairs of their co-religionists.
And so this oldest of Christian letters preserved in the
original, although it contains, thank God, not a word of
dogma, is still an extraordinarily valuable record of Chris-
tianity in the days before Constantine—quite apart from its
external value as an historical document, which Harnack
has demonstrated to satisfaction. Certainly this papyrus
was not unworthy of the impressive lines from the Greek
Old and New Testaments which were afterwards written on
it, and inscribed with which it has come down to our own
day.
22

Letter from Psenosiris, a Christian presbyter, to Apollo, a Christian

presbyter at Cysis in the Great Oasis, beginning of the 4th
cent. A.D., papyrus from the Great Oasis, now in the British
Museum, published by Grenfell and Hunt ὁ (Figure 41).”

This“ original document from the Diocletian persecution ”’

was made the subject of a special investigation by me in
1 Cf. in Ij the hints, now unfortunately very obscure, of the sale of
bread.
2 Toe. 3 ΤΠ, 4 Wha 5 Ts¢,
® Greek Papyri, Series II., Oxford, 1897, No. 73., Further reprints of the
text in Preuschen, Analecta I? (1909), p. 93 £.; Lietzmann,? p. 15 f.; Milligan,
p. 117 ff.; Wilcken, Chvestomathie, p. 154. (No. 127); Helbing, p. 134 ff.;
Schubart, p. 104.
7 This reproduction is almost of the exact size of the original.
214 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
1g02.1_ The copious literature to which the precious fragment
has given rise since then has been already noted,” and I will
only add here that I have been confirmed in my theory of
the letter by the agreement of almost all the subsequent
writers.? I here reprint the text with a few improvements,
which do not affect my explanation of the letter, and with the
corresponding alterations in the translation, and refer for the
rest to my own little book and the other literature.*
Ψενοσίρι πρεσβ[υτέϊρω ᾿Απόλ- To (sic) Psénosiris presbyter,
λωνι to Apollo presbyter, his beloved
πρεσβυτέρω ἀγαπητῶ ἀδελφῶ brother, greeting in the Lord.§
ἐν K(upi)w χαίρειν.
Before all things I salute
πρὸ τῶν ὅλων πολλά σε ἀσπά-
Ν “ μὰ , 3 ,

thee much (5) and all the breth-

5 Comat καὶ τοὺς παρὰ σοὶ πάντας
, ren with thee in God. I would
"ἀδελφοὺς ἐν Θ(ε)ῶ. YVvooKelv
σε θέλω, ἀδελφέ, ὅτι οἱ νεκρο- have thee know, brother, that
τάφοι ἐνηνόχασιν ἐνθάδε the grave-diggers have brought
εἰς Τοετὼ τὴν Πολιτικὴν τὴν here to Toéto Politica, who (10)
Io πεμφθεῖσαν εἰς "Oacw ὑπὸ τῆς hath been sent into the Oasis
« ἡγεμονίας. καὶ [τ]αύτην πα- by the government. And I
ραδέδωκα τοῖς καλοῖς καὶ πι- have delivered her unto the
στοῖς ἐξ αὐτῶν τῶν νεκροτά- good and faithful οἵ - these
φων εἰς τήρησιν, ἔστ᾽ ἂν ἔλ-
> , ” >A "»
grave-diggers in keeping, till
1 Ein Oviginal-Dokument ans der Diocletianischen Christenverfolgune,
Tiibingen und Leipzig, 1902 (translated under the title The Epistle of Psenosiris,
London, 1902; Cheap Edition, 1907). 2 Page 46, n. 3.
3 Grenfell and Hunt have meanwhile published a new example of the word
that they print with a small letter instead of a capital, πολιτική, ‘“‘ harlot ”’
(The Oxyrhynchus Papyri [VI.], No. 903,;, 4th cent. a.D.), But this does
not affect the possibility of my reading, Πολιτική, a propername. The numer-
ous examples I gave of the use of this proper name can also,be increased;
Crénert, for instance, in January 1904 referred me to a Greek inscription of
the 2nd or 3rd cent. A.D. from Rome (Bull. della comm. arch. comm. di Roma,
1903, 279), Πολειτικῆ συμβίῳ. Cf. also A. Merk, Zeitschrift fir katholische
Theologie 35 (1911) p. 414 ff.
4 On 4 October, 1906, I examined the papyrus in the British Museum, and
convinced myself that Grenfell and Hunt were right in reading εξ αὐτῶν in
1. 13, and Ψενοσιρι in]. 1, and that 1. 9 reads not es το cow but (as Wilcken had
pointed out, Archiv fir Papyrusforschung 3, p. 175) εἰς roerw OF εἰς τοεγω.
The conjecture that this might be the name of a place (Chrestomathie, p. 155;
and the earlier editions of the present work) is now, I think, assured. We
must read εἰς Τοετώ. A place named Toéto is mentioned several times in the
London Papyri IV. 1460 and 1461; fugitives escape sometimes to Toéto,
sometimes from Toéto, and there is nothing to show that the place was not in
the Great Oasis. Toéto was a κώμη or a pagarchy (Wilcken, letter to me,
16 May, 1911; and Chrestomathie, p. vi.). Dies diem docet.
3 Cf. Wilcken, Chrestomathie, p. 155.
 Nn ο

Fic. 41.—Letter from Psenosiris, a Christian

is). presbyter, to Apollo, a
Christian presbyter at Cysis (Great O asis Papyrus, beginning of the 4th
cent. A.D. (Diocletian persecution) Now in t he British Museum.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 215
I5 θη ὃ vids αὐτῆς Νεῖλος. καὶ (15) her son Nilus come. And
ὅταν ἔλθη σὺν Wed, μαρτυρή- when he come, with God, he
σι σοι περὶ ὧν αὐτὴν πεποι- | shall witness to thee concerning
ἤκασιν. §[y]Aw[o]ov [δέ] μοι what things they have done
κ[αὶ σὺ] περὶ ὧν θέλεις ἐνταῦ- unto her. But do thou also
20 Oa ἡδέως ποιοῦντι. declare unto me _ concerning
ἐρρῶσθαί σε εὔχομαι what things thou wouldest
ἐν K(upé)w Θ(ε)ῶ. have done, and (20) gladly
will I do them. Fare thee
well, I pray, in the Lord God.
On the verso the address :
᾿Απόλλωνι Χ παρὰ Vevocipio[s] |To Apollo X from Psenosiris
πρεσβυτέρω XK πρεσβυτέρου ἐν | presbyter Χ presbyter in the
Κ(υρῆω Lord.

23
Letter from Justinus, an Egyptian Christian, to Papnuthius, a
Christian, middle of the 4th cent. a.D., papyrus from Egypt,
now in the University Library, Heidelberg, published by
Deissmann 1 (Figure 42).?
I give here only the text and translation of the letter, which
is typical of the popular religion of Egypt in the age of
Athanasius and Pachomius, and for the rest refer to my
edition, which gives a detailed commentary.
[TS κυρίω pov καὶ ἀγαπητῶ] To my lord and _ beloved
[ἀδελφῶ Παπνουθίω χρηστο-] brother Papnuthius, the Christ-
[pépp° ᾿Ιουστῖνος xatpew ] bearer °—Justinus, greeting.
pe oe She ae ee re ] ... (5), which it behoved
5 ἣν ἔδει γρα ihe “ietsgad [me] to write to thy goodness,
σὴν χρ[ηστότ]ηταν, κύριε μου
ἀγαπιτέ. πιστεύομεν γὰρ my beloved lord. For we
τὴν πόλιτία[ν σου ἐνν οὐρανῶ. believe thy citizenship in
ἐγῖθεν θεοροῦμέν σε τὸν heaven. Thence we consider
1 Veréffentlichungen aus der * Heidelberger Papyrus-Sammlung, I. (Die
Septuaginta-Papyri und andere altchristliche Texte), Heidelberg, 1905, No. 6
(pp. 94-104). Further reprints in Milligan, p. 125 ff.; Schubart, p. 106 f.
2 This reproduction reduces the size of the original by one-third. On the left
is the text of the letter, on the right a part of the verso with the address.
3 [Following H. I. Bell, Jews and Christians in Egypt, London, 1924, pp.
ior f., 108 f., Deissmann no longer reads Χρηστοφόρου, ‘‘ the son of Chresto-
phorus,’ but χρηστοφόρῳ, the word being still in the 4th cent. as in the time
of the Ignatian Epistles (Ign., Eph. 9, 2) a technical term, “ Christ-bearer,’’
applied e.g. to those endowed with special gifts of prayer. See Deissmann’s
Paulus’, p. 108, n. 3; Eng. trans. *p. 136, 0.6. Tr.]
 216 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
10 δεσπότην καὶ κενὸν (π)ά[τ]ρω[να]. thee the (10) master and new
ἵνα οὖν μὴ πολλὰ γράφω καὶ patron. Lest therefore I should
φλυραρήσω, ἐν γὰρ [πο]λλῇ write much and prate—for in
λαλιᾶ οὐκ ἐκφεύξοντ[αι] much speaking they shall not
(τ)ὴ(ν) ἁμαρτίη, παρακαλῶ [ο]ὖν, escape sin1—I beseech thee,
15 δέσποτα, ἵνα μνημον ε]ύης therefore, (15) master, that
μοι εἰς τὰς ἁγίας σου εὐχάς, ἵἴ- thou rememberest me in thy
να δυνηθῶμεν μέρος τὸν (ἀμ-) holy prayers, that we may be
a ᾽ν
)
αρτιων καθαρίσεως. εἷς γάρ able [to obtain] a part in the
εἶμει τὸν duaptovAdy.? παρακα- purifying from sins. For I am
20 λῶ καταξίωσον δέξεσθαι one of the’sinners.? (20) Cotint
τὸ μικρὸν ἐλέου διὰ τοῦ ἀδελ- [me] worthy, I beseech, and
φοῦ ἡμῶν Μαγαρίου. πολλὰ accept this little oil through
προσαγωρεϊ(ω) πάντες τοὺς ἀ- our brother Magarius. I greet
δελφοὺς ἡμῶν ἐν Κῶ. ἐρρω- much all our brethren in the
25 μένον σε ἡ θί- Lord. (25) The divine Provi-
a πρόνοια φυλάξα[ι] dence keep thee in health for a
ἐπὶ μέγιστον χρό- very great time in the Lord
νον ἐν ko Χω, Christ, beloved lord.
κύριε ἀγαπητί
ἐ].
On the verso the address :
30 [τῶ κυρίω] pov καὶ ἀγαπητῶ ἀδελφῶ Tlarvovfiw χρηστοφόρ[ῳ] 3
παρ | Ἰουστίνου.
2 id

(30) To my lord and beloved brother Papnuthius, the Christ-

bearer, from Justinus.

24
Letter from Caor, Papas of Hermupolis, to Flavius Abinnaeus,
~ an officer at Dionysias in the Fayiim, c. 346 A.D., papyrus
from Egypt, now in the British Museum, published by
Kenyon 4 (Figure 43).
This little letter is one of the finest among the papyri.
The situation resembles that in St. Paul’s letter to Philemon,
and the letter from the Papas to the officer can also be com-
1 Justinus is here quoting the Septuagint (Prov. x. 19) in a form of consider-
able textual interest.
2 This confession of sin can hardly be so genuinely felt as the peccavi of
the prodigal son Antonis Longus (letter No. 14, above).
3 See p. 215, n. 3.
4 Greek Papyri in the British Museum, Catalogue with Texts, Vol. II.,
London, 1898, p. 299 f., No. 417. The fascimile (Plate 103) is here reproduced -
by kind permission of the British Museum authorities (Fig. 43). Further
reprints in Milligan, p. 123 ff.; Wilcken, Chrestomathie Ὁ. 1561. (No. 129);
and Schubart, p. 109 f.
 Fic. 42.—Letter (with Address) from Justinus, an Egyptian Christian, to Papnuthius, a
Christian. Papyrus, middle of the 4th cent. a.p. Now in the University Library, Heidelberg.
 Fic. 43.—Letter from Caor, Papas of Hermupolis, to Flavius Abinnaeus,
an officer at Dionysias in the Fayim. Papyrus, civca 346 A.D. Now in the
British Museum. By permission of the Museum authorities.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 217
pared in contents with that beautiful little letter of the
Apostle’s, though the Papas is not fit to hold a candle to
St. Paul.
T@ δεσπότη μον Kat dyeryte To my master and beloved
ἀδελφῶ ᾿Α βιννέω πραι1 , brother Abinneus the Praepo-
pe Ἑρμουπόλεως situs—Caor, Papas of Hermu-
ἀσπάζωμαι" πὰ πεδίαδ gov polis, greeting. I salute thy
πολλά. children much. I would have
5. γινόσκιν ὃσε θέλω, κύριε, thee know, lord, concerning
π[ερὶ] Παύλω τοῦ στρατιότη ἴ Paul the soldier, concerning
περὶ τῆς φυγῆς, συνχωρῆσε ὃ his flight: pardon him this
αὐτοῦ τοῦτω τὸ ἅβαξ, : :
3 - a ΄ ν 9

ἐχειδὴ doyoXG ddbte 29 pile] once, seeing that I am without

10 ctv! αὐτεημερέ.12 καὶ rddew,!% |leisure to come unto thee at
ἂμ μὴ 14 παύσεται,15 ἔρχεται this present. And, if he slacken
1 Abbreviation for πραιποσίτω. The title πραιπόσιτος κάστρων is the Latin
praefectus castrovum.
21 at first suspected an abbreviation KaoTp
= κάστρων. But Kenyon
informed me (by postcard, London, W.C., 8 June, 1907) that the letters were
certainly not xaorp. Both Wilcken (letter, Leipzig, 5 May, 1907), Schubart
and Carl Schmidt (postcard, Berlin, 29 June, 1907) read from the facsimile
xaop. The two latter conjecture that -op is the Egyptian god’s name Hor
(as is commonly assumed, though not with certainty, to be the case in the
name of Origen).
3 = χαίρειν. easy ae
= ἀσπάζομαι.
5 = παιδία. 5 = γινώσκειν.
7 = Παύλου τοῦ στρατιώτου. 8 = συνχωρῆσαι.
® = αὐτῷ τοῦτο τὸ ἅπαξ. This is ἃ still older example of the substantival use
of ἅπαξ which occurs in the inscription of King Silco (Dittenberger, Orientis
Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae,
No. 201; cf. p. 137, n. 3 above), which R. Lepsius
took to be a Copticism. See Dittenberger’s notes, 7 and 10. Wilcken
considers it to be popular Greek. In the Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung 6,
p. 379 Wilcken quotes an example from the 2nd cent. a.D. (ἄλλα ἅπαξ). Cf.
further in the early Byzantine Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati 45,17 ἄλλο ἅπαξ
(P. Maas, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 20, p. 577). A. von Premerstein, Philo-
logus, Supplementband 16, Heft 2, Leipzig, 1923, notes τοῦτο τὸ ἅπαξ in a
papyrus of the reign of Claudius. [Early examples are furnished by the
LXX: Judges xvi. 28, ἔτι τὸ ἅπαξ ; 2 Sam. xvii. 7, τὸ ἅπαξ τοῦτο. TR.]
10 = ἐλθεῖν.
-- σέ. This σέν is not a clerical error, but a paler use.
13. = αὐθημερόν, OF αὐτημερόν ?
= πάλιν.
1 This ἄμ μή = ἐὰν μή occurs twice in the bad boy Theon’s letter to his
father Theon (2nd or 3rd cent. a.pD.), Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No. 119,14;
cf. above, letter No. 19. '
16 This is Wilcken’s reading from the facsimile. Kenyon read at first
qevderat = ξεύδεται. According to the corrigenda in Vol. III. of the Greek
Papyri in the British Museum Grenfell and Hunt also read παύσεται.
218 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST "
els τὰς χεῖράς σοῦ ἄλλω ἀβαξ.1 not, he will come again into
ἐρρῶσθαί σε εὖχο- thy hands? another time. Fare
μαι πολλοῖς χρό- 9
15 vins,? κύριε μον thee well, I pray, many years,
ἀδελφέ. my lord brother.
The letter forms part of the correspondence of Flavius
Abinnaeus, a Christian officer, who about the middle of the
fourth century A.D. was praefectus castrorum of the camp
of auxiliary cavalry at Dionysias in the Arsinoite nome.
Important alike in respect to the history of civilisation, of.
language, and of the Christian religion, this correspondence
consists of some sixty original papyrus letters, some long,
some short, some at London and some at Geneva, and still,
in spite of excellent provisional publications by Kenyon 4
and Nicole,> awaiting a collective edition.6 The earliest
dated letter in this priceless collection was written in the
year 343, the most recent in 351 A.D.
Among the numerous unknown persons who have come to
life again as correspondents of Abinnaeus in this collection
one of the most remarkable is the writer of the present
letter, Caor, Papas of Hermupolis. Like Kenyon? I at
first took him to be a bishop, understanding the word Papas
in the same way as in the Christian letter from Rome.? But
I was unable to answer the difficult question, which Hermu-
polis could then be meant? Lines 9 and 10 would suit neither
Hermupolis Magna nor Hermupolis Parva, the only sees of
this name; such an expressionas we have there could only
be used by somebody who lived not far from the residence of
the addressee. I talked the matter over with my friend
Wilcken, and he reminded me that several other letters in
1 = ἄλλο ἅπαξ, cf. n. 9, p. 217.
2 I.e, he will not desert again while executing an order, but will return to
ou.
᾿ 3 = χρόνος, ‘ year,” is late Greek.
4 Greek Papyri in the British Museum, Vol. 11. pp. 267-307; and 307 ff.
5 Les Papyrus de Genéve, Nos. 45-65.
6 Wilcken’s valuable notes should not be forgotten, Archiv fir Papyrus-
forschung, I, p. 162; 3, p. 397.
7 Page 299.
® Letter No. 21 above. For πάπας as the title of a bishop (abbreviated τ)
cf. Giessen Papyrus No. 55, Thebaid, 6th cent. a.p., and the remarks of the
editor, P. M. Meyer, who gives further material in the Berliner philologische |
Wochenschrift, 1913, col. 875.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 219
the correspondence of Abinnaeus were written from a village
called Hermupolis, in the south-west of the Fayim, which
is mentioned in the papyri from the Ptolemaic age down to
the seventh century A.p.!_ It then seemed to me that the
obvious thing was to identify the Hermupolis of our papyrus
with this village, and to regard the Papas not as a bishop
but as a simple priest. The word Papas was applied in early
times to village priests,? so there is no difficulty in so under-
standing it here. This degradation of the writer of the
letter in no way detracts from the value of the letter. Of
the bishops of the fourth century we already knew more
than enough; in Caor, who calls himself ‘‘ pope,” but is no
pope, we rejoice to meet a representative of village Chris-
tianity, and we range him beside Psenosiris, presbyter in
the Oasis a generation earlier.
1 Details in Grenfell, Hunt, and Goodspeed, The Tebtunis Papyri, Part II.,
London, 1907, p. 376.
2 In the Theologische Literaturzeitung, 27 (1902) col. 360, Harnack notes
the earliest passage known to him: in the Martyrium Theodoti a Galatian
village-priest is called Papas. This passage is no doubt older than our papyrus.
(H. D[elehaye], in the Analecta Bollandiana, 27, p. 443, considers that the
Martyrium is not so old. But see Ramsay, Luke the Physician, London,
1908, p. 374.) Cf. further the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, s.v. Πάπας. The
differentiation, there shown to be as old as Eustathius of Thessalonica (Opus-
cula, p. 38, 1. 58, about 1200 a.D.), by accenting the distinguished bishop πάπας
and the insignificant presbyter παπᾶς is probably mere learned trifling. The
history of the meaning of the word Papas is highly interesting. The question
is, whether the grand word (for bishop or even archbishop or pope) degenerated,
so that it could be applied to every presbyter, or whether an originally vulgar
word was gradually ennobled. Looking merely at the comparative frequency
of the word in its two meanings, one would be inclined to suppose that degenera-
tion had occurred. But the facts of the case were probably the other way
round: the word πάπας, a native of Asia Minor, where it was used as an epithet
for Attis and Zeus (A. Dieterich, Eine Mithvasliturgie erldutert, Leipzig,
1903, p. 147), was probably first adopted from the popular Christianity of
Asia Minor, and rose only gradually to its narrower and more distinguished
meaning. Cf. U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Griechisches Lesebuch, 11. 2
(Erlauterungen),? Berlin, 1902, p. 260; A. Margaret Ramsay in Sir W. M.
Ramsay’s Studies in the History and Art of the Eastern Provinces, p. 27; and
Ramsay, Luke, p. 373 f. If we now possess more examples of the grand
meaning than of the other, that is because documents of popular Christianity
have not been preserved in such numbers as those of the higher class (cf. the
conclusion of this chapter, p. 249). There is therefore philological justifica-
tion for the old saying that the pettiest priestling conceals a popeling. [The
German proverb says, “ Es ist kein Pfafflein so klein, Es steckt ein Papstlein
drein ’—‘‘ No priestling so mean But hides a popeling, I ween.” Tr.] On
πάπας as a secular title cf. Crum, Catalogue of the Coptic Manuscripts in the
Collection of the John Rylands Library, Manchester, Manchester, 1909, p. 145.
220 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Whether the ‘‘ Pope” of Hermupolis was master of the
Greek language seems to me to be a doubtful question. The
good man was certainly not learned; indeed, his syntax is so
rudimentary and his orthography so autocratic that many
a rude soldier’s letter shows to advantage beside this of the
Papas. Perhaps the man’s mother-tongue and language for
ordinary occasions was Coptic; Greek he had learnt in a very
vulgar form, and, good or bad, he made the best use he could
of it. But I cannot help feeling that this violence to grammar,
which would be unendurable in a book, is really not so bad in
a letter, especially in this letter : it merely serves to strengthen
the tone of unaffected sincerity.
What is the letter all about? Paul, one of the soldiers
of the garrison under Abinnaeus, has been entrusted with
some commission to execute,! and has failed to return to his
commanding officer. After more or less vagabondage the
deserter tires of the business and would like to go back.
But how is he to set about it? how escape the punishment
that is certainly in store for him? Then at Hermupolis he
makes a village-priest his confidant and intercessor, promis-
ing by all that is sacred that he will behave better in future.
The Papas is in some doubt about the case; perhaps he knows
the ecclesiastical ordinances dating from the concordat.
between church and state, by which deserters are to be visited
with ecclesiastical penalties, and he is not sure whether the
man’s good resolutions may be trusted. But the pastor
triumphs over the man of. ecclesiastical discipline, and he
good-naturedly gives the deserter this note to take with him.
If his Greek is not unexceptionable, his command of the
epistolary formulae of an age of growing formalism is at
least as good as that of the-polite and unctuous’ Justinus.?
Without further argument he throws into the scale for Paul
his personal friendship with Abinnaeus and his children,
and then at once ventures to ask for a pardon. ‘‘ This once ”
is delightful, and the pastor, foreseeing the weakness of the
flesh, must have smiled as he wrote “ if he slacken not.”” The

' This seems a fair inference from lines 11 and 12.

3 Note the formal resemblances between the letters of Caor and Justinus
(No. 23 above), and compare the stereotyped nature of the formulae in the
correspondence of Abinnaeus as a whole.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 221
officer, who knows the fellow, is intended to smile too, in
spite of his wrath, and it may be that Paul will after all go
scot free.
This little genre painting gains in interest when we re-
member that the treatment of deserters was a problem
that occupied the early church and even led to a conciliar
decree. In the year 314 the Council of Arles determined
“that those who throw down their arms in time of peace
shall be excommunicate.” 1 Caor the Papas of Hermupolis,
however, solved the problem in his own way—and, I think,
not badly.

25
Letter from Samuel, Jacob, and Aaron, three Egyptian candidates
for the diaconate, to-their bishop, Abraham of Hermonthis(?),
c. 600 A.D., Coptic ostracon from Egypt, now in the possession
of the Egypt Exploration Fund, published by Crum ? (Figure
44).
This and the following Coptic ostracon, of the period pre-
ceding the tremendous upheaval that Islam brought upon
Egypt, may close our selection of letters. The Bishop
Abraham to whom the first ostracon is addressed, and who
probably caused the second to be written, Crum? conjectures
with good reasons to be identical with the Bishop of Hermon-
this who is known from his will, now extant on papyrus *
in the British Museum, to have been living as an anchorite
on the Holy Mount of the Memnonia (= Jéme) near Thebes,
most probably towards the end of the 6th cent. a.pD. I owe
the translation of these instructive texts to the kindness of
my friend Carl Schmidt, of Berlin.*
1 Canon III: De his qui arma proiciunt in pace placuit abstineri eos
a communione; cf. Harnack, Militia Christi, Die christliche Religion. und
der Soldatenstand in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, Tiibingen, 1905, p. 87 ff.
2 Coptic Ostvaca from the Collections. of the Egypt Exploration Fund, the
Caivo Museum and others, No. 29 (p. 8 of the lithographed part, and p. 9 of
the letterpress). The facsimile of the back of the ostracon (Fig. 44) is repro-
duced here from Plate I. with the kind consent of the Egypt Exploration
Fund.
3 Coptic Ostvaca, Ὁ. xiii f.
4 Greek Papyri in the British Museum (Vol. 1, No. 77 (p. 231 ff).
5 Coptic Ostraca, p. xiiif.
* [As far as possible the wording of Crum’s (incomplete) translation has
been used here. TR.)
222 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

REcTO
(P)! I, Samuel, and Jacob and Aaron, we write to our holy
father Apa Abraham, the bishop.? Seeing ® we have requested *
thy paternity that thou wouldest ordain > us deacons,® we are
ready ? to observe the commands 8 and canons® and to obey
those above us and be obedient to the superiors and to watch
our beds on the days of communion 11 and to . . . the Gospel 12
according to 13 John and learn it by heart 14

VERSO
by the end of Pentecost. If we do not learn it by heart and
cease to practise it,!® there is no hand on us. And we will not
trade nor take usury nor will we go abroad without asking (leave).
I, Hémai, and Apa Jacob, son of Job, we are guarantors for
Samuel. I, Simeon and Atre, we are guarantors for Jacob.
I, Patermute the priest,!® and Moses and Lassa, we are guarantors
for Aaron. I, Patermute, this least!” of priests,!8 have been
requested 19 and have written this tablet 2° and am witness.

One wonders what the episcopal archives of the holy

father Apa Abraham can have looked like, destined to contain
such potsherd petitions as this.24_ Probably they were as
primitive as the potsherd itself, as primitive as the intel-
lectual equipment of the three prospective ecclesiastics,
Samuel, Jacob, and Aaron, who have displayed the extent
of their learning, ability, and ambition on this ostracon
We ought rather to say, they got the least of all presbyters,
Patermute, to display it for them, for—there is no con-
cealing it—they themselves could perhaps. only read, and
not write at all.
The three worthies are about to be ordained deacons;

1 Coptic letters generally begin with the monogram of Christ.

* ἐπίσκοπος. 3 ἐπειδή. [Crum compares 1 Cor. i. 22 (R.V.). TR.)
4 παρακαλεῖν. 5 χειροτονεῖν. ὁ διάκονος. 7 ἕτοιμος.
8 ἐντολαί. 5. κανόνες. 10 ὑποτάσσεσθαι. 11 συνάγειν.
15. εὐαγγέλιον. [Crum gives ‘‘ master(?)’’ in the place of Schmidt’s blank.
ΤΑΊ :
13 κατά. 4 ἀποστηθίζειν. On this word see p. 223, ἢ. 11.
16 μελετᾶν. (Crum has: “ἀπά if we do not so but keep it by us (9) and
recite it.” ΤᾺ] 16 πρεσβ(ύτερος). 17 ἐλάχιστος.
18. πρε(σβύτερος). 19 αἰτεῖν. 20 πλάξ (of white limestone).
2! Crum (p. 9 1.) has published a number of similar petitions from candidates.
 Fic. 44.—Letter from Samuel, Jacob, and Aaron, candidates
for the diaconate, to Bishop Abraham of Hermonthis (9).
Coptic ostracon, ciyca 600 A.D. (verso). Now in the possession
of the Egypt Exploration Fund, by whose permission it is
reproduced.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 223
but before the “hand” of the bishop “is on them” they
must fulfil the requirements of the sacred ordinances.!
They must be prepared, firstly to keep the commandments 3
and rules,? secondly to obey their superiors, thirdly “ to
watch their beds ’ 4 on communion days, fourthly to abjure
commerce and take no usury, and fifthly to fulfil the duty
of residence. All this, however, I expect, troubled them less
than a special condition which the bishop had imposed upon
them. Apa Abraham had set other candidates to learn the
Gospel according to Matthew,® or according to Mark,® or a
gospel,” or a whole gospel® by heart, or to write. out the
Gospel according to John®; Bishop Aphu of Oxyrhynchus
once required of a candidate for deacon’s orders five-and-
twenty Psalms, two Epistles of St. Paul, and a portion of a
gospel to be learnt by heart 15; and the task assigned to our
three friends was to learn by heart the Gospel according to
John by the end of Whitsuntide- and practise reciting 1{.31
Failing this, they could not be ordained. This stipulation
presupposes some sort of examination by the bishop before
ordination. The sureties produced by the candidates—

1 Cf. Crum’s excellent citations (p. 9) from Egyptian ecclesiastical law,

which I have made use of in what follows.
2 Of God and the bishop; this is clear from the allied ostraca.
3 Of the Church.
4 Crum thinks this refers to sexual continence of the married clergy (post-
card to the author, Aldeburgh, 13 September, 1907). Still it should be
possible, I think, to explain the expression with reference to watching through
the nights before communion.
5 Ostracon No. 31, Crum, p. 9.
5 Ostracon No. Ad. 7, Crum, p. Io.
_7 Ostracon No. 34, Crum, p. Io.
8 Ostracon No. 39, Crum, p. 11.
® Ostracon No. 37, Crum, p. 10. This probably throws some light on the
origin of the gospel texts on ostraca already discussed (p. 57 ff.). We may
suppose that they were written by prospective ecclesiastics at the bishop’s
orders. Our general judgment of the texts is not affected by this supposition ;
these potsherd-clerics are certainly not to be counted with the cultured class,
they belong to the non-literary common people.
10 Evidence in Crum, p. 9, where still more examples are given.
11 The future historian of this custom of learning by heart must not neglect
the similar phenomena in Judaism and Islam. Early Christian material is
collected by E. Preuschen, Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 15 (1906) p. 644; and
especially by Reitzenstein, Historia Monachorum, Pp. 162 ff., and 61 f., where
the verb ἀποστηθίζειν, occurring on our ostracon, is shown to be a technical
expression,
224 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
three by one candidate, and two each by the others—are
again in accordance with the ecclesiastical regulations.?
A singular revelation of sorry circumstances this potsherd
letter must be to those who imagine that three hundred
years after the triumph of Christianity all the young clergy
of Egypt would be theologians gifted with the knowledge of
an Origen. But there can be no talk of a decline of learning
in the case: the average education of the clergy probably
never had been greater in this remote. country district.
And Bishop. Abraham of Hermonthis, with his sympathy
for the life of an anchorite, was not likely to be the man to
raise the standard of learning among his people. The
numerous documents from his hand, or from his chancery,
written on the material used by the very poorest, and published
by Crum, show him to have been a practical man, and
particularly a man of discipline.

26
Letter probably from Bishop Abraham of Hermonthis (Ὁ) in Egypt
to the clergy of his diocese, c. 600 A.D., Coptic ostracon from
Egypt, now in the possession of the Egypt Exploration Fund,
published by Crum ? (Figure 45).
There may be some doubt concerning the persons to
whom this episcopal letter was sent. It deals with the ex-
communication of a certain Psate, who was guilty of some
misconduct towards the poor. The letter might therefore
have been addressed to Psate’s own church, but it is equally
possible that copies of the letter of excommunication were
sent to all the churches in the diocese.?
The question, What was Psate guilty of ? depends on the
interpretation of μαυλίζω, a word borrowed from the Greek,
which keeps on recurring in the letter. It is not immediately
obvious* what its meaning is here. The lexicographer
1 Cf. Crum, p. 9.
2 Coptic Ostraca, No. 71 (p. 16 f. of the lithographed text, and p. 13 of the
letterpress). The facsimile of the back of the ostracon (Plate I.) is here repro-
duced by kind permission of the Egypt Exploration Fund (Fig. 45).
3 Cf. the similar practice of the West at this period, F. Kober, Dey Kirchen-
bann nach den Grundsdtzen des canonischen Rechts, Tibingen, 1857, p. 177.
4 E. A. Sophocles’ lexicon fails us completely : neither of its two quotations
can be found. The information in the Thesaurus is better. Gleye, Padagog-
ischer Anzeiger fiir Russland, 1912, No. 3 (offprint, p. 3), refers to Ducange,
appendix, for the meaning ‘‘ to enervate”’ (effeminare).
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 225
Hesychius says it means ‘‘ to act as pander ’’? and in this
sense it occurs according to Johannes Baptista Cotelerius in
the Nomocanon edited by him.? It is, however, a question
whether it has not a wider meaning there, something like
“to bring into misery.’”’3 In an old Greek penitentiary4
the word occurs in a question of the father confessor, prob-
ably in the meaning “ to seduce.”” I know no other instances
of the use of the word. In the case of this ostracon the
meanings ‘‘ act as pander’”’ ᾽ and “‘ seduce’ seemed to Crum
and Carl Schmidt not to suit particularly well; I therefore
conjectured a wider meaning “‘ oppress,”’ ‘‘ bring into misery,”
and in the former editions of this work I allowed it to stand in
Carl Schmidt’s translation. I now think, however, that the
meaning “ to play the pander,” ‘‘ to procure,”’ or ‘‘ to seduce ”
should be adopted.®

REcTO
Since ® I have been informed that Psate seduceth’? the poor
and they have told me saying,® “‘ He seduceth? us and maketh
us poor and wretched”; he that seduceth? his neighbour is
altogether reprobate ® and he is like unto Judas (5) who rose 1°
from supper #4 with his Lord and betrayed 12 Him, as 13 it is
1 μαυλίζων' μαστροπεύων. Cf. also the Index graeco-latinus (Ρ. 577 μαυλιστής)
and anglosaxonicus-latinus (p. 706 scyhend maulistis) in the Corpus Glossari-
orum Latinorum, vol. VII., fasc. II., Lipsiae, 1903. According to M. Lambertz,
Glotta 6, p. 5 f. μαυλιστήριον (‘‘ brothel ’’?) is a Lydian word. [Scyhend is
the present participle of a rare Old English verb *scyccean (the infinitive is
conjectural), ‘‘ to seduce,’’ a derivative of scucca, ‘‘ demon, devil.”” The
modern English equivalent of scucca is shuck, the name of a dog-fiend or
spectre hound in Norfolk and Cambridgeshire, and the adjective shy is related.
Modern German cognates are scheuchen, “ to scare,” and Scheusal, ‘‘ thing of
horror.” See the New English Dictionary and the English Dialect Dictionary.
Tr.)
2 Ecclesiae Graecae Monumenia, Tomus I., Luteciae Parisiorum, 1677,
p. 158 A, cf. p. 734 C: eight years of penance are imposed on the μαυλίζων.
3 The μαυλίζων is in company with the men who plough false furrows, give
short measure and short weight, and sow their neighbours’ fields (?).
4 Edited by Jo. Morinus in his Commentarius Historicus de Disciplina in
Adminisivatione Sacramenti Poenitentiae, p. 466 of the Venice edition of 1702
which I use, ἐμαύλισάς τινα; ‘‘ hast thou seduced anyone to unchastity? ”
5 Crum says “‘ill-use.”’ (TR.) 5. ἐπειδή. 7 μαυλίζειν.
8. Carl Schmidt suspects a clerical error here.
9 Crum translates ‘‘ is excluded from the feast.”
10 Carl Schmidt prefers ‘‘ who sat.”
11 δεῖπνον. 13 παραδιδόναι. 18. κατά.
 226 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
written, “ He that eateth my bread hath lifted up his heel against -
me.” 1 He that seduceth ? his neighbour is altogether reprobate
and he is like-unto the man to whom Jesus said, “‘ It were better
for him (10) if he had not been born,’’? that is Judas. He that
seduceth 2 his neighbour is altogether reprobate and he is like
unto them that spat in His face 4 and smote Him on the head.§
He that seduceth ? his neighbour is altogether reprobate and he
is like unto Gehazi, unto whom (15) the leprosy of Naaman did
cleave, and unto his seed.6 The man that seduceth 2 his neighbour
is altogether reprobate and he is like unto Cain, who slew his
brother. (20) The man that seduceth 3

VERSO
his neighbour is altogether reprobate and he is like unto Zimri,
who slew his master.? He that seduceth 2 his neighbour
is alto-
gether reprobate and he is like unto Jeroboam, who (oppressed?)
(5) Israel, sinning (9). He that seduceth? his neighbour is
altogether reprobate, and he is like unto them that accused
Daniel the prophet.® He that seduceth 3 his neighbour is alto-
_gether reprobate and he is like unto them that accused Susanna.!®
But 11 he that seduceth 3 his neighbour is altogether (10) reprobate
and he is like unto the men that cried, ‘‘ His blood be on us and on
our children.” 12 The man that seduceth 3 his neighbour is alto-
gether reprobate and he is like unto the soldiers 13 that said, “‘ Say
ye, His disciples 4 came (15) by night and stole Him away, while
we slept.” 15

This episcopal letter, which we may regard as a kind of

letter of excommunication, has nothing particularly original
about it. No doubt practically all of it is well-worn material,
and even the monotony of the formulae of excommunication
1 Psalm xl. [xli.] 10 as quotedin John xiii. 18. 2 μαυλίζειν.
3 Matt. xxvi. 24 = Mark xiv. 21.
4 Matt. xxvi. 67 || Mark xiv. 65.
5 Ibid. ‘‘ On the head ”’ is inexact.
8 σπέρμα. The allusion is to 2 Kings v. 27.
7 2 Kings ix. 31, Ζαμβρεὶ 6 φονευτὴς τοῦ κυρίου αὐτοῦ, “ Zimri who slew his
master.”
8 1 Kings xii. 30.
9 προφήτης. Dan. vi. 13, 24.
10 Susanna 28 ff. 1l δέ:
12 Matt. xxvii. 25.
18 This is a slight error of the bishop’s; the words were spoken fo the
soldiers, not by them.
M μαθηταί. 18 Matt. xxviii. 13.
 Fic. 45.—Letter probably from Bishop Abraham of Hermonthis ( ?)
to the clergy of his diocese. Coptic ostracon, civca 600 A.D. (verso).
Now in the possession of the Egypt Exploration Fund, by whose
permission it is reproduced.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 227
is borrowed.t But this record of episcopal discipline was:
most certainly intelligible to common folk and effective with
them, and in the severity against Psate, who had wronged
“the poor,” we see the survival of a sentiment thoroughly
characteristic of the primitive Christians.

4. In the foregoing pages we have brought together six-

and-twenty letters of ancient date. Had we merely printed
the text of the letters, and nothing more, a casual reader
might have supposed as he turned the pages that he had before
him fragments of ancient literature. Witkowski’s magni-
ficent collection of letters of the Ptolemaic age, which has
found its way into Teubner’s “ Bibliotheca Scriptorum
Graecorum et Romanorum,” is no doubt placed by many
purchasers without further thought on the same shelf as the
other Scriptoves. A glance, however, at the facsimiles of
the original letters will banish at once in almost every case
the thought of literature: no page of an ancient book ever
looked like that letter of Antonis Longus to his mother
Nilus, or like the ostracon addressed by the three candidates
to Bishop Abraham. And whoever goes on to make himself
acquainted with the contents of the texts will see still more
clearly that he has before him not products of literary art
but documents of life, and that Mnesiergus and Zoilus,
Hilarion, Apion, and Sempronius are not Scriptores, nor is
1 For the passage about Judas and for the form in general cf. the Nomo-
canon above cited in Cotelerius, I. 155 C, δευτέρα ἁμαρτία ἐστὶν ὅστις. . . μισεῖ
καὶ καταλαλεῖ τὸν πλησίον αὐτοῦ. ὅμοιος γάρ ἐστιν τοῦ παραδώσαντος τὸν κύριον. διὸ
καὶ per’ αὐτοῦ ἔχωσιν μέρος, “the second sin is, whosoever . . . hateth and
slandereth his neighbour; for he is like unto him that betrayed the Lord.
Therefore shall they also have their portion together with him.” Judas is
frequently the type of the reprobate with whom no communion ‘is possible :
[ἔχοι τ]ὴν μερίδα τοῦ Εἰουδᾶ τοῦ [προδότου] τοῦ δεσπότου ἡμῶν ᾿Πησοῦ Χριστ]οῦ,
‘may he have the portion of Judas, the betrayer of our Lord Jesus Christ,”’ is
the imprecation in the epitaph of a Christian deaconess at Delphi (not later
than 6th cent. A.D.) on whomsoever shall open the tomb, Bulletin de Corre-
spondance Hellénique, 23 (1899) Ρ. 274, and the same curse is found in many
other epitaphs (Victor Schultze, Die Katakomben, Leipzig, 1882, p. 15 ff.;
Miinz, Anatheme und Verwinschungen auf christlichen Monumenten, Annalen
des Vereins fiir Nassauische Altertumskunde und Geschichtsforschung, 14
[1887], p. 169 ff.), also in the official anathema of the Council of Toledo, 633
A.D., and other councils (Kober, Der Kivchenbann, pp. 41, 37). Of course the
ecclesiastical formulae have been influenced by Jewish precedent: cf. the
leprosy of Gehazi in our ostracon and in a Jewish formulary cited by Kober,
pot
228 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
even Psenosiris, although that little letter of his, snatched
from the dust of the Great Oasis, already figures in two
histories of literature. Though we have printed them in a
book, these ancient texts have nothing to do with books and
things bookish. They are non-literary—most of them
popular as well as non-literary—admirably adapted to
familiarise us with the essential characters of popular and
non-literary writing, and with the character of the non-
literary letter in particular.
What is a letter? A letter is something non-literary, a
means of communication between persons who are separated
from each other. Confidential and personal in its nature,
it is intended only for the person or persons to whom it is
addressed, and not at all for the public or any kind of publicity.
A letter is non-literary, just as much as a lease or a will.
There is no essential difference between a letter and an oral
dialogue; it might be described as an anticipation of the
modern conversation by telephone, and it has been not
unfairly called a conversation halved.1 It concerns nobody
but the person who wrote it and the person who is to open it,
From all other persons it is meant to be a secret. Its con-
tents may be as various as life itself, and hence it is that
letters preserved from ancient times form a delightful collec-
tion of the liveliest instantaneous photographs of ancient
life. The form of the letters also varies greatly; but in the
course of centuries a number of formal peculiarities were
developed, and we not infrequently find the same forms
becoming stereotyped into formulae in civilisations apparently
quite independent of one another. But neither contents,
form, nor formulae can be decisive in determining the
characteristic nature of aletter. Whether the letter is written
on lead or on earthenware, on papyrus or parchment, on
wax or on palm-leaf, on pink notepaper or on an inter-

’ The expression occurs in antiquity. Demetrius, De elocutione (Epistolo-

gvaphi Graect, rec. Hercher, p. 13) traces back to Artemon, the editor of
Aristotle’s letters, the saying that ‘‘a letter is the half of a conversation.”
See further in Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 190; Bible Studies, p. 3 ff. Aurelius Archelaus,
the beneficiarius whose letter we have cited above (No. 17), also knows this
comparison of a letter with a conversation: ‘ hanc epistulam ant’ oculos
habeto, domine, puta[t]o me tecum loqui.”’ This beautiful simile was there-
fore quite a popular one,
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 229
national postcard, is as immaterial as whether it is clothed
in the conventional formulae of the period. Whether it
is well expressed or badly, long or short, written by a soldier
or a bishop, that does not alter the peculiar characteristic
which makes it a letter.1 Nor are the special contents any
more decisive: the cool business letter of Harpocras, the
impudent boyish scrawl of Theon, and the sanctimonious
begging-letter of Justinus are distinguished from the coarse-
ness of Hilarion and the despair of Antonis Longus only by
the tone and the spirit in which they are written.
If the non-literary character of the letter, especially the
ancient letter, has not always been clearly grasped, the
explanation and excuse lie in the fact that even in antiquity
the form of the non-literary letter was occasionally employed
for literary purposes. At the time of the rise of Christianity
the literary letter, the epistle as we have already called it,?
had long been a favourite genre with writers among the Greeks,
Romans, and Jews.
What is an epistle? Anepistle is an artistic literary form,
a species of literature, just like the dialogue, the oration, or the
drama. It has nothing in common with the letter except its
form; apart from that one might venture the paradox that the
epistle is the opposite of a real letter. The contents of an
epistle are intended for publicity—they aim at interesting
“the public.”’ If the letter is a secret, the epistle is cried in
the market; everyone may read it, and is expected to read
it: the more readers it obtains, the better its purpose will
be fulfilled. The main feature of the letter, viz. the address
and the detail peculiar to the letter, becomes in the epistle
1 Cf. Bibelstudien, p. 190; Bible Studies, Ὁ. 4.
2 Cf. p. 149, n. 4 above. So also Adolf Wagner writes in Die Hilfe, 2
(1896) p. 2, to Friedrich Naumann, the editor of that newspaper: ‘' But, my
dear sir, what was meant to be a mere letter has grown into a long epistle—a
regular essay, though written in haste.” Even in the early centuries of the
church people were sensible of the distinction between a letter and an epistle.
A. von Harnack (postcard, Grunewald, 19 April, 1921) replying to one of my
“ Evangelische Wochenbriefe ’’ (‘‘ Protestant Weekly Letters ''—which he
justly terms epistles) refers me to Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. VII. xxvi. 2, where,
speaking of the writings of Dionysius of Alexandria, it is said that there are
extant by him ἐπιστολαὶ καὶ δὴ πολυεπεῖς λόγοι ἐν ἐπιστολῆς χαρακτῆρι ypagevres,
“letters and copious treatises written in the manner of letters.” Among
the latter Eusebius cites books which can really only be classed with letters
inasmuch as they contain dedications.
230 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

mere external ornament, intended to keep up the illusion of

“epistolary ” form. Most letters are, partly at least, un-
intelligible unless we know the addressees and the situation
of the sender: Most epistles are intelligible even without
our knowing the supposed addressee and the author. To
attempt to fathom the soul of a letter-writer is always ven-
turesome; to understand what an epistolographer has written
is apprentice-work by comparison. The epistle differs from
a letter as the dialogue from a conversation, as the historical
drama does from history, as the carefully turned funeral
oration does from the halting words of consolation spoken
by a father to his motherless child—as art differs from
‘nature. The letter is a piece of life, the epistle is a product
of literary art.
Of course there are things intermediate between letter and
epistle. There are so-called letters in which the writer ceases
to be naive, perhaps because he thinks himself a celebrity
and casts a side-glance at the public between every word,
coquettishly courting the publicity to which his lines’ may
some day attain. “Letters” such as these, epistolary
letters (the counterpart of letter-like epistles), more than
half intended for publication, are bad letters; with their
frigidity, affectation, and vain insincerity 1 they show us
what a real letter should not be.

5. A large number of examples of both groups, letters and

epistles, have come down to us from antiquity.
For a letter to become public and reach posterity is, strictly
speaking, abnormal. The letter is essentially ephemeral,
transitory as the hand that wrote it or the eyes for which it
was destined.2. But thanks to loving devotion, or learning, or
1 Letters such as these no doubt inspired Grillparzer’s paradox (recorded
by August Sauer in the Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 27, 1906, col. 1315) : “ every
letter 15 4 116. [Franz Grillparzer, the great Austrian dramatist, 1791-1 872,.—
The English reader may like to see the same thought expressed in character-
istic style by Dr. Johnson. Criticising the letters of Pope, he says in the
Lives of the Poets: ‘‘ There is, indeed, no transaction which offers stronger
temptations to fallacy and sophistication than epistolary intercourse.” TR.]
2 Adolf Schmitthenner says (Die Christliche Welt, 15, 1901, col. 731):
“ Printed letters are really a self-contradiction. A letter implies pen and ink,
the one person who writes it, the other to whom it is written, and nothing more.
It is a substitute for intercourse by word of mouth. Such intercourse ends
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 231
accident, or spite, we possess and may read letters that were
not addressed to us. At an early date it became the custom
after the death of eminent men to collect their manuscript
remains. The first case of the publication of such a collec-
tion of real letters among the Greeks is considered to be that
of Aristotle’s, soon after his death in 322 B.c. Whether
fragments of this genuine collection are preserved among the
“Letters of Aristotle’ 1 that have come down to us, is a
matter of question. The traditionary letters of Isocrates3
(ft 338 B.c.) are probably to some extent genuine, and the
letters of Plato have been recently, in part at least, pronounced
genuine by eminent scholars. Authentic letters of Epicurus
(+ 270 B.c.) have also come down to us, among them a frag-
ment of a delightfully natural little letter to a child,? com-
parable with Luther’s celebrated letter to his son Hinsichen.4
We may mention further one example among the Latins.®
Cicero ([ 43 B.C.) wrote an enormous number of letters, four
collections of which have come down to us. Still more
valuable to us in many respects than these letters of great.
men are the numerous letters of unknown persons which the
new discoveries have brought to light, and of which we have
already given a selection in this book. They possess the

with the spoken word and leaves no trace, save in our inward being. Should
it not be the same also with that which takes its place? Ought we not from
time to time to burn all our correspondence ?—We do not.” [Schmitthenner
was a Heidelberg pastor and story-writer of distinction, 1854-1907. TR.]
1 Edited by R. Hercher in the Epistolographi Graect, pp. 172-174.
2 In Hercher, pp. 319-336.
3 In Hermann Usener, Epicurea, Leipzig, 1887, p. 154; Bibelstudien,
p. 219 f., Bible Studies,p.28, and U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Griechisches
Lesebuch, I. 2,8 Ὁ. 396, and II. 2%, p. 260. It is not certain whether the child
was Epicurus’ own.
4 [See Letters of Martin Luther selected and translated by Margaret A.
Currie, London, 1908, p. 221. TR.] :
5 Hermann Peter, Der Brief in der rémischen Litteratur : Litterargeschicht-
liche Untersuchungen und Zusammenfassungen (Abhandlungen der philo-
logisch-historischen Classe der K6nigl. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften, Bd. XX. No. III.), Leipzig, 1901, supplies a great deal of material,
but suffers from lack of a distinction between letter and epistle, isolates
“ Roman ” literature too rigidly, describes the suppression of individuality as a
characteristic feature of classical antiquity, and judges the men.of the period
far too much according to the accidental remains of classical literature. Cf.
my review in the Theologische Literaturzeitung, 27 (1902) cols. 41 ff.—I have
not seen Loman’s Nalatenschap, 1., Groningen, 1899, pp. 14-42; cf.G. A. van
den Bergh van Eysinga, Protestanische Monatshefte, 11 (1907) p. 260.
232 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
inestimable advantage that they have come down to us in
the autograph original, and that their writers had not the
slightest thought of future publication, so that they constitute
a completely unprejudiced testimony on the part of the
forgotten writers. They not only yield valuable evidence
regarding the nature and form of the ancient letter,’ they
are also instructive to those who study the nature and form of
Biblical and early Christian letters.? _
It is not surprising that we possess so many specimens
of ancient epistles. As an artistic literary form the epistle
has no intention of being transitory. Being published
from the first in a considerable number of copies it cannot
so easily perish as a letter, of which there is only one or at
most two copies made. It is moreover a very easily
manageable form of literature. It knows no rigid laws of
style; it is only necessary to employ the few epistolary
flourishes and then affix an address. Hence it comes that
every man of letters, even the least well-fitted, was able to
write epistles, and the epistle became one of the most widely-
used genres. Right down to the present day it has remained
a favourite in all literatures. Of ancient epistolographers
there are, for instance, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch
among the Greeks, L. Annaeus Seneca and the younger Pliny
among the Romans, to say nothing of the poetical epistles of
1 It was therefore an extremely promising subject that the Philosophical
Faculty of Heidelberg set for a prize competition in 1898-9: ‘‘ On the basis
of a chronological review of Greek private letters recently discovered in
papyri, to describe and exhibit historically the forms of Greek epistolary
style.” The subject was worked out by G. A. Gerhard, but of his work only
a portion was published (cf. above, p. 151, n. 3). Cf. moreover the valuable
work of Ziemann, already mentioned; also Wendland, Hellenistisch-vomische
Kultur®3, Ὁ. 411 ff.; and A. Calderini and M. Mondini, Repeviorio per lo studio
delle lettere private dell’ Egitto Greco-Romano (Studi della Scuola Papirologica
II. 109 ff.), Milano, 1917.
2 Some day, when we possess exact chronological statistics of the formulae
employed in ancient letters, we shall be better able to answer a whole series of
hitherto unsolved problems relating to the Biblical and early Church writings,
from the approximate chronology of the Second and Third Epistles of St. John
(and so, indirectly, of the First Epistle and the Gospel of St. John) to the
question of the authenticity of the epistle of Theonas to Lucianus (cf. Harnack,
Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 11, 1886, cols. 319 ff. and Geschichte dey altchristlichen
Literatur, I. p. 790; Bardenhewer, Geschichte dey althivchlichen Literatur, 11.
p. 216 ff.), etc. On the other hand many of the early Christian letters that
have come down to us through literary sources can be exactly dated, and thus
enable us to draw conclusions as to the age of some papyri that have not yet
been dated. ᾿
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 233
Lucilius, Horace, and Ovid. The epistle was especially
frequent in the literature of magic and religion. Nor must
we forget mention of one special feature in the literary history,
1.6. pseudonymous (or rather ‘‘ heteronymous’’) epistolo-
graphy. Particularly under the successors of Alexander and
in the early Empire numerous epistles were written under
false names, not by swindlers, but by unknown men of letters
who for some reason or other did not wish to mention their
own names. They wrote “letters’’ of Demosthenes, of
Aristotle and Alexander, of Cicero and Brutus. It would be
a mistake to brand as downright forgeries these products of
a literary instinct that was certainly not very sincere or
powerful. It is certain that letters were forged, but it is
equally certain that most “‘ pseudonymous”’ epistles are
witnesses to a very widespread and unobjectionable literary
habit.

6. What is the use to us of this distinction between letter

and epistle, to which we have been led by the ancient letters
on lead, papyrus, and earthenware?
The New Testament contains a considerable number of
texts, larger or smaller, calling themselves “ Letters ’—
“Letters” of Paul, of James, of Peter, etc. Fresh from
our consideration of the ancient letters and epistles, we are
at once alive to the problem: Are the “ Letters” of the
New Testament (and further, of early Christianity in general)
non-literary letters or literary epistles? The fact that all
these “΄ letters” have been handed down by literary tradition
and were first seen by all of us collected in a book, might
long deceive us as to the existence of the problem. Most
scholars regard all these texts unhesitatingly as works of
literature. But now that the new discoveries of letters
have shown the necessity of differentiation, and have given
us a standard for judging whether an ancient text is letter-
like in character, the problem can no longer be kept in the
background. And I think the study of these ancient letters,
newly discovered, obliges us to maintain that in the New
Testament there are ‘both non-literary letters and literary
epistles,
1 Cf. Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 199 ff.; Bible Studies, Ὁ. 12 ff.
 234 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST.
The letters of Paul are not literary; they are real letters,
notepistles; they were written by Paul not for the public
and posterity, but for the persons to whom they are addressed.
Almost all the mistakes that have ever been made in the
study of St. Paul’s life and work have arisen from neglect of
the fact that his writings are non-literary and letter-like in
character. His letter to the Romans, which for special
inherent reasons is the least like a letter, has determined the
criticism of all his other letters. But we must not begin our
discussion of the question how far Paul’s letters are true
letters by examining the one to the Romans. We must begin
with the other letters, whose nature is obvious at first sight.
The more we have trained ourselves, by reading other ancient
letters, to appreciate the true characteristics of a letter, the
more readily shall we perceive the relationship of Paul’s
letters to the other non-literary texts of the period.
Paul’s letter to Philemon is no doubt the one most clearly
seen to be a letter. Only the colour-blindness of pedantry
could possibly regard this delightful little letter as a treatise
“On the attitude of Christianity to slavery.’’ In its inter-
cession for a runaway it is exactly parallel to the letter,
quoted above, from the Papas of Hermupolis to the officer
Abinnaeus. Read and interpreted as a letter this un-
obtrusive relic from the age of the first witnesses is one of
the most valuable self-revelations that the great apostle has
left us: brotherly feeling, quiet beauty, tact as of a man of
the world—all these are discoverable in the letter.
If, as seems to me probable for substantial reasons, the
16th chapter of Romans was specially written by Paul to
be sent fo Ephesus, we have in it a text about which there
can be no doubt that it is letter-like in character. It is easy
to produce parallels from the papyrus letters, especially for
the one most striking peculiarity of this letter, viz. the
apparently monotonous cumulation of greetings. There is,
for instance, Tasucharion’s letter to her brother Nilus 3
(Fayam, second century A.D.) and the letter of Ammonius
to his sister, Tachnumi*® (Egypt, Imperial period). Their
1 Cf. Wilhelm Baur, Der Umgang des Christen mit den Menschen, Neue
Christoterpe, Bremen und Leipzig, 1895, p. 151.
2 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 601.
8 Paris Papyrus, No. 18 (Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la biblio-
théque imp., t. XVIII. 2, p. 232 £.); Bibelstudien, p. 215 f.; not in Bible Studies.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 235
resemblance to Romans xvi. is most striking; Paul, however,
enlivens the monotony of the long list of greetings by finely
discriminative personal touches.1 So too there is no lack of
analogies for a letter of recommendation plunging at once
in medias res and beginning with “ I commend.” ?
In opposition to the Ephesian hypothesis it is usual to ask,
How came this little letter to Ephesus to be united with the
long letter to Rome as handed down to us? This question
can perhaps be advanced a little by reference to ancient
customs of letter-writing. We knew already that letter-
books were in use in antiquity, containing either copies of
the letters sent? or collections of letters received.4 We
now possess a number of interesting papyrus fragments of
letter copy-books: among others® one of the Ptolemaic
period, now in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, with copies
of letters from an official®; one of the year 104 A.D., also
with official documents (two letters and one rescript), now in
the British Museum’; and one from Hermupolis Magna,
1 The long list of greetings has, by the way, survived in precisely similar
form in the epistolary style of the Mediterranean world down to the present
day. Examples: the Coptic letter of ‘‘ poor’’ Athanasius, bishop of Tapotheca
(18th and rgth cent. a.p.), in Crum, Catalogue of the Coptic Manuscripts in the
Collection of the John Rylands Libvary, Manchester, No. 461 (p. 231 ff.); and
a letter in my possession from a South Italian naval stoker (postmark, R.
Nave Amalfi, 7 Oct., 1913), which in form and contents reflects altogether
unchanged the ancient popular characteristics. Michele Petrone, to whom I
showed this letter, said that during the war he read a great many similar
letters, especially from the sons of Italian peasants. The Russian peasant
letter shows the same peculiarity : the principal contents consist not of news
but of greetings (Eugen Mayer, Frankfurter Zeitung, 5 April, 1922).
3 The letters in Epistolographi Graect, rec. Hercher, p. 259 (Dion to Rufus)
and p. 699 (Synesius to Pylaemenes) begin, like Rom. xvi., with συνίστημι.
3 Libyi litterarum missarum. References in Wilcken, Archiv fiir Papyrus-
forschung, I, p. 372; and in Otto Seeck, Die Briefe des Libanius zettlich
geordnet, Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen
Literatur, New Series, 15, 1, Leipzig, 1906, p. 19 ff., and Studien zu Synesios,
Philologus 52 (1893), pp. 442-483; G. Griitzmacher, Synesios von Kyrene,
Leipzig, 1913, p. II.
4 Libri litterarum adlatarum, References in Wilcken, Archiv, 1, p. 372.
Of special interest is a papyrus roll at Vienna, consisting entirely of different
letters to the same addressee stuck together. Also in the Berliner Griechische
Urkunden, Nos. 1203-1209, we have letters of the years 29-23 B.C. stuck
together. ο-. ;
5 Wilcken (Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 5, p. 221) mentions also the Lille
Papyrus No. 3 (c. 241-240 B.c.) and the papyrus in Mélanges Nicole, Genéve,
1905, p. 58 ff. :
8. Edited by John P. Mahaffy, cf. Wilcken, Archiv, 1, p. 168.
7 Greek Papyri, Vol. III. No. 904, p. 124 ff., with facsimile (Plate 30). A
portion of this fragment (the rescript) is given below, Fig. 51, facing p. 271.
235 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
of the beginning of the second century A.D., now in the
Heidelberg University Library,! with copies of three letters
from one Heliodorus? to Eutychides, Anubas, and Phibas,
each of whom he calls “‘ brother.” These three letters are
written in three parallel columns in the same hand; the upper
margin contains in each case the praescript, ‘‘ Heliodorus to
N. N., his brother, greeting.”’
Now we know that St. Paul did not write his letters with
his own hand, but dictated them.? The handwriting of the
originals and of the letter copy-books, if such existed, will
therefore have varied in appearance with the amanuensis.
The little letter to Ephesus was written by a certain Tertius,4
and the letter to Rome, being of the same date, would no
doubt be written by the same Tertius and stand in his hand-
writing next to the Ephesian letter in the copy-book. In
making a transcript from the copy-book it was the easier.
for the two letters in the same hand to run into one another
because in the copy-book the praescripts were generally
abbreviated.5 And how easily might any upper margin,
containing the praescript, break off! Just look, for example,
once more at the letter of Justinus.6 When once the prae-
script was gone, however, the two letters would fall into
one.? But even if we assume that St. Paul’s letters were
reproduced not from copy-books but from the originals, the
two letters might easily have become confused owing to the
similarity of the handwriting.®
The two “ Epistles to the Corinthians”’ that have come
1 Provisional number 22; not yet published.
2 Letters from other members of this man’s family are preserved in the
Amherst Papyri, Nos. 131-135. Heliodorus himself is mentioned there more
than once. There are other letters of his at Heidelberg.
3 Cf. above, pp. 166, n. 7; 171f.
4 Rom. xvi. 22.
5 Wilcken, Archiv, 1, p. 168.
& No. 23, with facsimile, Fig. 42, p. 216 above.
1 There is perhaps a case of this kind in the unpublished Heidelberg papyrus
No. 87. This also belongs to the correspondence of Heliodorus and contains
a letter from him to his father Sarapion in one wide column. To the right are
visible remains of a second column; the right-hand margin has been torn .
away. Was there a second praescript at the top of the second column? If
so, the papyrus must be part of a second letter copy-book belonging to
Heliodorus. Cf. also p. 206, note 1 above.
® The question of the technique followed in the compilation of ancient
collections of letters will have to be gone into some day in its widest connexions.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 237
down to us also belong to the group of real letters. What is
it that makes. the second Epistle so extremely unintelligible
to many people? Simply the fact that it is out-and-out a
letter, full of allusions which we for the most part no longer
fully understand. St. Paul wrote this letter with the full
strength of his personality, putting into it all the varied
emotions that succeeded and encountered one another in his
capacious soul—deep contrition and thankfulness towards .
God, the reformer’s wrath, irony and trenchant candour
towards the vicious. The first ‘‘ Epistle to the Corinthians ”
is calmer in tone because the situation of the letter is different,
but this also is no pamphlet addressed to the Christian public,
but a real letter to Corinth, in part an answer to a letter from
the church there.
The two “‘ Epistles to the Thessalonians ’’ are also genuine
letters, the first even more so than the second. Written in
comparative composure of mind, they represent, one might
say, the average type of a Pauline letter.
The “ Epistle to the Galatians,” on the other hand, is the
offspring of passion, a fiery utterance of chastisement and
defence, not at all a treatise ‘‘ De lege et evangelio,” the
reflection rather of a genius flashing like summer lightning.
The “letters of the captivity,” of which we have already
mentioned that to Philemon, will perhaps gain most in mean-
ing when treated seriously as letters. We shall come more
and more, as we weigh the epistolary possibilities and prob-
abilities of actual letter-writing, to shift the problem of their
date and origin from the profitless groove into which the
alternative “ Rome or Caesarea’ must lead; we shall try to
solve it by. the assumption that Colossians, Philemon, and the
“Epistle to the Ephesians ” (Laodiceans), and also Philip-
pians were written during an imprisonment at Ephesus 1
(or various periods of arrest in Asia). The contrast both in
subject and style which has been observed between Colossians
1 The careful reader of St. Paul’s letters will easily find evidences of an
imprisonment of St. Paul at Ephesus.—I may remark, in answer to a reviewer
of the first edition, that I do not owe this hypothesis (which has meanwhile
met with a number of ingenious champions in the case of Philippians) to
H. Lisco’s book, Vincula Sanctorum, Berlin, 1900. I introduced it when
lecturing at the Theological Seminary at Herborn in 1897, with application
to Colossians, Philemon, and Ephesians.
238 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
and Ephesians on the one hand and the rest of the Pauline
Epistles on the other is likewise explained by the situation
of those letters. Paul is writing to churches that were not
yet known to him personally, and what seems epistle-like in
the two letters ought really to be described as their reserved,
impersonal tone. The greatest stone of offence has always
been the relationship between the contents of the two texts.
Now I for my part see no reason why Paul should not repeat
in one “ epistle ”’ what he had already said in another; but
all astonishment ceases when we observe that we have here a
missionary sending letters simultaneously to two different
churches that he is anxious to win. The situation is the
same in both cases, and he treats practically the same questions
in like manner in each letter. The difference, however, is ‘after
all so great that he asks the two churches to exchange their
letters.1 The most remarkable thing to me is the peculiar
liturgical fervour of the two letters, but this is the resonance
of notes that are occasionally struck in other Pauline letters
and which are not’ without analogies in contemporary. texts
of solemn import in non-Christian cults.
The ‘ Epistle to the Philippians,” most gracious of all
St. Paul’s writings to the churches, is obviously letter-like.
As already hinted, the question of where it was written stands
also in great need of re-examination, for statistics carefully
compiled from inscriptions and papyri would show that
“praetorium ’’? and “‘ Caesar’s household,’ * which have
hitherto always been taken to indicate Rome, are by no means
necessarily distinctive of the capital.
The Ephesian theory of St. Paul’s prison writings, suggested
by a consideration of the probabilities of actual letter-writing,
opens up new possibilities of accounting for the Pastoral
Epistles, or at least some of them. The chief problem lies
not in their language or the teaching contained in them, but
in the circumstances under which the letters. were written,

1 Col. iv. 16.

? Phil. i. 13. A beginning of such statistics was made by Theodor Momm-
sen, Hermes, 35 (1900) pp. 437-442.
3 Phil. iv. 22. This does not refer to the palace (there were imperial
palaces elsewhere than in Rome), but to the body of imperial slaves, scattered
all over the world. We have evidence of imperial slaves even at Ephesus.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 239
the journeys that must be presupposed, and other external
events in the lives of the apostle and his companions.
In the case of ‘‘ Romans ’”’ one might at first be in doubt
whether it were a letter or an epistle.1 At any rate its
letter-like character is not so obvious as that of 2 Corinthians.
Yet it is not an epistle addressed to all the world or even to
Christendom, containing, let us say, a compendium of St.
Paul’s dogmatic and ethical teaching. Its mere length
must not be held an argument against its letter-like character : 2
there are long letters,? as well as short epistles. ‘‘ Romans”
is along letter. St. Paul wishes to pave the way for his visit
to the Roman Christians; that is the object of his letter. The
missionary from Asia does not yet know the Western Church,
and is known to it only by hearsay. The letter therefore
cannot be so full of personal details as those which the apostle
wrote to churches long familiar to him. ‘“‘ Romans” may
strike many at first as being more of an epistle than a letter,
but on closer examination this explains itself from the
circumstances of writing. Here also, therefore, if we would
understand its true significance, we must banish all thought
of things literary.4 Not even the oldest codices of the New
Testament, to say nothing of printed editions, give a perfectly
correct idea of the spirit of this text. What was originally
non-literary has there by subsequent development become
literary. Early in the fourth century a Christian at Oxy-
rhynchus—his name was probably Aurelius Paulus—copied
the beginning of Romans for some private purpose, very

1 Cf. also the examination of this question by M. J. Lagrange, The Con-

structive Quarterly 3 (1915) p. 501 ff.
2 Cf. Bibelstudien, p. 237; Bible Studies, p. 45.
8 E.g. the petition of Dionysia to the Praefect, Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No.
237 (186 a.D.) is not much shorter than the Epistle to the Romans. This
gigantic letter, between two and three yards long, gives one a good idea of the
probable outward appearance of St. Paul’s “‘ long ” letters—great rolls made
of single-column sheets stuck together.
4 Wilhelm Bousset (Theologische Literaturzeitung, 22, 1897, col. 358) says
admirably: ‘‘ Paul’s Epistles—even that to the Romans—must be read as
outpourings from the heart of an impulsive prophet-like personality, and not
as dialectic didactic writings.” Similarly Adolf Jiilicher in the Gegenwarts-
bibel (Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments neu iibersetzt und fur die Gegenwart
erklart, herausgegeben von Johannes Weiss, II. 2, Gottingen, 1905, p. 2):
“The Epistle to the Romans remains a letter not only in form but in
essence... .”
 ΄

240 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

likely for use as an amulet, on a sheet of papyrus that is
now in the Semitic Museum of Harvard University (Fig. 46).
The coarse, rustic, non-litetary uncials in which he wrote, or
got somebody to write, are more in keeping with St. Paul’s
letter than the book-hand of episcopally trained scribes.
Those powerful lines assume once more the simple garb they
probably wore in the autograph of Tertius written from
Paul’s dictation at Corinth.
Taking one thing with another I have no hesitation: in
maintaining the thesis that all the letters of Paul are real,
non-literary letters? St. Paul was not a writer of epistles
but of letters; he was not a literary man. His letters were
raised to the dignity of literature afterwards, when the piety
of the churches collected them, multiplied them by copying
and so made them accessible to the whole of Christendom.
Later still they became sacred literature, when they were
received among the books of the ‘‘ New” Testament then
in process of formation; and in this position their literary
influence has been immeasurable. But all these subsequent
experiences cannot change the original characterof Paul’s
letters. Paul, whose yearning and ardent hope expected the
Lord, and with Him the Judgment and the world to come—
Paul, who reckoned the future of “this”? world not by
centuries and millenniums but by years, had no presentiment
of the providence that watched over the fate of his letters in
the world’s history. He wrote with absolute abandon, more
so than Augustine in >is Confessions, more than the other
great teachers 5. in their letters, which not infrequently are
1 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No. 209. The facsimile (Fig. 46) is reproduced
by kind permission of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Cf. my discussion of the
papyrus in the Theologische Literaturzeitung, 26 (1901) col. 71f. After
a long study of early Christian amulets, I now prefer the theory that the
papyrus served as an amulet for the Aurelius Paulus who is named in a
cursive hand beneath the text from Romans. The folds also favour this
explanation. ᾿
2 Cf. the fine observations of Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Die
griechische Literatur des Altertums, Die Kultuy dey Gegenwart, Teil I.
Abteilung 8, 2 Auflage, Berlin und Leipzig, 1907, p. 159f., and of Johannes
Weiss in the Gegenwarisbibel, II. 1, pp. 1 ff.
3 Again and again in conversation I have been reminded of the epistle-like
character of so many “ letters”’ of the Fathers, and a similar character has
been claimed for the letters of Paul. But it is quite mistaken to attempt to
judge Paul’s letters by the standard of later degenerations from the type.
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 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 241
calculated for publication as well as for the immediate
recipient.
This abandon constitutes the chief value of the letters of
St. Paul. Their non-literary characteristics as letters are a
guarantee of their reliability, their positively documentary
value for the history of the apostolic period of our religion,
particularly the history of St. Paul himself and his great
mission. His letters simply ave ‘document ’’—original
tidings.1_ They are the remains, scanty it is true, but contain-
ing the essential part, of the records of the propaganda of the
cult of Christ—just as the letter of Zoilus,? lately come to
light, represents a missionary document of the cult of Serapis.
The exegesis of St. Paul’s letters therefore becomes spontane-
ously a matter of psychological reproduction, justice being
done to the ebb and flow of the writer’s temporary moods.
The single confessions in the letters of a nature so impulsive
as St. Paul’s were dashed down under the influence of a
hundred various impressions, and were never calculated for
systematic presentment. The strange attempt to paste them
together mechanically, in the belief that thus Paulinism might
be reconstructed, will have to be given up. Thus Paulinism
will become more enigmatical, but Paul himself will be seen
more clearly; a non-literary man of the non-literary class
in the Imperial age, but, prophet-like in personality, rising
above his class and surveying the contemporary educated
world with the consciousness of superior strength. All the
traces of systematisation that are found here and there in
him are proofs of the limitation of his genius; the secret of
his greatness lies in religion apart from system.?
There are two more real letters in. the New Testament,
viz. 2 and 3 John. Of the third Epistle I would say with

Paul wrote under circumstances that could not be repeated, circumstances

that preclude all possibility of playing with publicity or with posterity: he
wrote in expectation of the end of the world.
1 [A pun in the German: Uvkunde = ‘‘ document,” but it is spelt here
Ur-Kunde, “ original tidings; pristine knowledge.” TR.]
2 Letter No. 2 above, p. 152. ᾿
81 refer to my book, Paulus. Eine kultur- und religionsgeschichtliche
Skizze, Tiibingen, 1911, #1925 (S¢. Paul, translated by Lionel R. M. Strachan,
London, 1912; 2nd ed. by William E. Wilson, 1926; in Swedish, in shorter
form, Stockholm, 1910, #1918).
242 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 1: “It was entirely a
private note . . . ; it must have been preserved among the
papers of Gaius as a relic of the great presbyter.” * The
second Epistle of St. John is not so full of letter-like detail
as the third, but it too has a quite definite purpose as a letter,
although we cannot say with complete certainty who the:
lady was to whom it was addressed. That it was addressed
to the whole church seems to me quite impossible. The two
letters are of especial interest because they clearly show in
several instances a peculiar type of epistolary style, concern-
ing which it is to be hoped that, with the aid of the papyri,
we shall some day be able to set the bounds of its date more
exactly.

7. With the same certainty with which we describe the

Pauline and two Johannine epistles as real non-literary letters,
we recognise in other New Testament texts literary epistles,
most clearly in the Epistles of James, Peter, and Jude,?
which have from ancient times been known as “ catholic”
r ‘‘ general.””* A glance at the ‘“ addressees ’’ shows that
these are not real letters. Impossible demands are made of
the “bearer” if we are to imagine one. A “letter,” for
instance, superscribed ‘“‘to the twelve tribes which are
scattered abroad’ would be simply undeliverable. James,
in whose praescript we find this ‘‘ address,”’ writes as does
the author of the Epistle of Baruch “ to the nine-and-a-half
tribes that are in-captivity.’”’ In these cases we have to do
not with definite addressees but with a great “ catholic ”’
circle of readers. The authors did not despatch a single
copy of their “ letter,’ as St. Paul did of “ Philippians,”
for example: they published a number of copies of a
pamphlet. .
The Epistle of James is from the beginning literary, a
pamphlet addressed to the whole of Christendom, a veritable

1 Lesefriichte, Hermes, 33 (1898) p. 529ff. This essay is especially

instructive on points of style.
2 Page 531. ἡ ‘i
* Cf. the excellent remarks of Georg Hollmann and Hermann Gunkel in
the Gegenwartsbibel, II. 3, pp. 1 and 25.
‘ This old designation includes by implication the essential part of our
observations.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 243
epistle. The whole of its contents agrees therewith. There
is none of the unique detail peculiar to the situation, such as
we have in the letters of St. Paul, but simply general questions,
most of them still conceivable under the present conditions
of our church life. But the Epistle of James is nevertheless
a product of popular literature. The Epistles of Peter and
of Jude have also purely idealised addresses; the letter-like
touches are merely decorative. Here we have the beginnings
of a Christian literature; the Epistles of Jude and Peter,
though still possessing as a whole many popular features,
already endeavour here and there to attain a certain degree
of artistic expression. .
The question of the “‘ authenticity ” of all these epistles
is, from our point of view, not nearly so important as it would
certainly be if they were real letters. The personality of the
authors recedes almost entirely into the background. A great
cause is speaking to us, not a clearly definable personality,
such as we see in the letters of St Paul, and it is of little
importance to the understanding of the text whether we
know the names of the writers with certainty or not. From
our knowledge of the literary habits of antiquity, as well as
on general historical grounds, we are bound to regard the
catholic epistles first and foremost as epistles issued under
a protecting name, and may therefore call them, in the good
sense of the word, heteronymous.
It is very noteworthy in this connexion that the longest
“epistle’”’ in the New Testament, the so-called Epistle to
the Hebrews, is altogether anonymous, as it has come down
to us. Even the “ address ’’ has vanished. Were it not for
some details in xiii. 22-24 that sound letter-like, one would
never suppose that the work was meant to be an epistle, not
to mention a letter. Jt might equally well be an oration or
a “diatribe ’’;4 it calls itself a “word of exhortation τ᾿
(xiii. 22). It is clear from this example how in epistles all
that seems letter-like is mere ornament ; if any of the ornament
crumbles off, the character of the whole thing is not essentially
altered. Failure to recognise the literary character of the
Epistle to the Hebrews has led to a large number of super-
1 [In the sense of “ disquisition ’’ or “ critical discussion.” The word is
ambiguous in German as well as in English. ΤᾺ.
244 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
fluous hypotheses about the ‘‘addressees,” etc.,1 and the
fact has been overlooked that the Epistle gains immensely in
importance if really considered as literature : it is historically
the earliest example of Christian artistic literature. What
had been shyly attempted in some other epistles has here
been more fully carried out. Alike in form and contents this
epistle strives to rise from the stratum in which Christianity
had its origin towards the higher level of learning and culture.
The so-called “ First Epistle of St. John ” has none of the ~
specific characters of an epistle, and is, of course, even less
like a letter. The little work has got along with the epistles,
but it is best described as a religious ‘‘ diatribe,’ in which
Christian meditations are loosely strung together for the
benefit of the community of the faithful.
The “ Apocalypse of John,” however, is strictly speaking
an epistle : it has ini. 4 an epistolary praescript with a religious
wish, and in xxii. 21 a conclusion suitable for an epistle. The
-epistle is again subdivided at the beginning into seven small
portions addressed to the churches of Asia—Ephesus,
Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea.
These again are not real letters, sent separately to the respective
churches and afterwards collected together. All seven of
them, rather, have been written with an eye to the whole,
and are to be read and taken to heart by all the churches, not
only by the one named in the address. They represent,
however, in my opinion, a more letter-like species of epistle
than those we have been considering hitherto. The writer
wishes to achieve certain ends with the single churches, but
at the same time to influence the whole body of Christians, or
at any rate Asiatic Christians. In spite, therefore, of their
familiar form his missives have a public and literary purpose,
and hence they are more correctly ranged with the early
Christian epistles than with the letters. They belong more-

1 Cf. William Wrede, ‘‘ Das literarische Ratsel des Hebrderbriefs. Mit

einem Anhang iber den literarischen Charakter des Barnabasbriefs " (Part 8
of the ‘‘ Forschungen,” edited by W. Bousset and H. Gunkel), Géttingen, 1906.
Wrede agrees with my view. As he very well puts it (p. 73), ‘‘ The main .
point in the end is to recognise the whole epistle as a literary work.” In
recent works on Hebrews this problem has received abundant consideration;
cf. for instance its profound treatment by Eduard Riggenbach in Zahn’s
Kommentar zum Neuen Testament, vol. 145,8, Leipzig, 1922, p. xii ff.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 245
over to a large species of religious epistolography, which
still plays an important part in the popular religion of the
present day,! viz. the “ letters from heaven.” 2

8. Having clearly worked out the difference between the

non-literary letter and the literary epistle, we are now able to
attempt a sketch of the literary development of Primitive
Christianity. If in doing so we speak of times or periods, we
do not mean to imply that sharp chronological divisions are
possible.
Christianity, then, does not begin as a literary movement.
Its creative period is non-literary.
Jesus of Nazareth is altogether unliterary. He never
wrote? or dictated a line. He depended entirely on the
living word, full of a great confidence that the scattered seed
would spring up. Always speaking face to face with His
friends, never separated from them by the ocean, He had no
need to write letters. In His rural homeland He wanders
from village to village and from one little town to another,
preaching in a boat or in synagogues or on a sunlit hill, but
never do we find Him in the shade of the writing-room.
Excelling them of old time in reverence_as in all things else,
He would not have ventured to take the prophet’s pen and
add new “ Scriptures ”’ to the old, for the new thing for which
He looked came not in book, formulae, and subtle doctrine,
but in spirit and in fire.
Side by side with Jesus there stands, equally non-literary,
1 In May 1906 I bought at Athens for 5 lepta a reprint of a “‘ letter of
Christ ’’ that was being sold in the streets together with lives of saints:
᾿Ἐπιστολὴ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν ᾿Ιησοῦ Χριστοῦ εὑρεθεῖσα ἐπὶ τοῦ τάφου τῆς θεοτόκου,
“Letter of our Lord Jesus Christ, found on the grave of the Mother of God.”
During the Great War “‘ letters from heaven ” played a prodigious part.
2 Cf. on this subject Albrecht Dieterich, Blatter fiir hessische Volks-
kunde, 3 (1901) No. 3, and Hessische Blatter fiir Volkskunde, 1 (1902)
p. 19 ff.; V. G. Kirchner, Wider die Himmelsbriefe, Leipzig-Gohlis, 1908
(wages war of extermination against these “letters from heaven’’); W.
Kohler, ‘‘ Briefe von Himmel und Briefe aus der Hille,’ Die Geisteswissenschaf-
ten 1 (1913-14) pp. 588 ff., 619 ff.,and Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart,
3, col, 29 ff.; R. Stiibe, Der Himmelsbrief in der Religionsgeschichte, Tubingen,
1918; Gressmann, Sitzungsberichte. der Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Berlin, 1921, p. 620 ff.—As a new example No. 23 of the Odes of Solomon is
worth noting. ;
3 [The writing in John viii. 6, 8 was not literary, Tr.]
 246 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
His apostle. Even from the hand of St. Paul we should
possess not a line, probably, if he had remained, like his
Master, in retirement. But the Spirit drove the cosmopolite
back into the Diaspora. The great world-centres on the roads
and on the coasts become homes of the gospel, and if the.
artisan-missionary at Ephesus wishes to talk to the foolish
Galatians or the poor brethren at Corinth, then in the midst
of the hurry and worry of pressing daily duties he dictates
a letter, adding at the end a few lines roughly written with his
own hard and weary weaver’s hand.! These were no books
or pamphlets for the world or even for Christendom; they
were confidential pronouncements, of whose existence and
contents the missionary’s nearest companions often knew
nothing: Luke even writes his Acts of the Apostles without
knowledge of the letters of St. Paul (which were written but
not yet published). But the lack of all publicist intention,
the complete absence of literary pose, the contempt of the
stylist’s sounding phrase,—this it was that predestined St.
Paul’s unbookish lines, so unassuming and yet written with
such powerful originality, to literary fortunes of truly world-
wide import to history. They were to become a centre of
energy for the future, influencing leading men and books and
civilisations down to the present day.
Such sayings of the non-literary Jesus as have been re-
ported to us by others, and such non-literary letters as remain
to us of St. Paul’s, show us that Christianity in its earliest
creative period was most closely bound up with the lower
classes and had as yet no effective connexion with the small
upper class possessed of power and culture. Jesus is more in

1 When I first wrote these lines I was unconsciously expressing myself

quite in the manner of the apostolic age, even as to form. Thus, according
to Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. 111. xx. 3), did the relatives of Jesus describe themselves
before Domitian: εἶτα δὲ καὶ τὰς χεῖρας τὰς ἑαυτῶν ἐπιδεικνύναι, μαρτύριον τῆς
αὐτουργίας τὴν τοῦ σώματος σκληρίαν καὶ τοὺς ἀπὸ τῆς συνεχοῦς ἐργασίας ἐναποτυπω-
θέντας ἐπὶ τῶν ἰδίων χειρῶν τύλους παριστάντας, “ then showed they also their hands
and, as a witness of their working themselves, the hard places on their bodies
and the callosities that had come impressed upon their hands by continual
labour.”
2 One of the worst blunders ever made by criticism was to explain the
particularly clear tokens of this connexion as later Ebionite interpolations.
But even if we surrendered to these critics all that Jesus says about mammon,
‘we shall still, for linguistic and other reasons, be bound to maintain our thesis,
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 247
company with the small peasants and townsmen of a rural
civilisation—the people of the great city have rejected Him;
St. Paul goes rather with the citizens and artisans of the great
international cities1; but both Jesus and St. Paul are full
of magnificent irony and lofty contempt where the upper
classes are concerned. But the conventional language of
rural civilisations is always the simpler, and therefore the
popular standard and popular elements are seen much more
clearly in Jesus than in St. Paul. Paul’s letters, however,
are also popular in tone. This is most conspicuous in his
vocabulary, but even the subject-matter is adapted to the
problems, difficulties, and weaknesses of humble individuals.
Only, of course, a man of St. Paul’s greatness has knowledge
beyond the thousand-word vocabulary 2 of (say) a mere loafer
at the docks, leading a vegetable existence, and with no
religion except a belief in daemons. St. Paul has a poet’s
mastery of language, he experiences with unabated force in
the depths of his prophet-soul the subtlest, tenderest emotions
known in the sphere of religion and morals, and he reveals
his experience in the personal confessions contained in his
letters.
The creative, non-literary period is followed by the con-
servative, literary period, but this receives its immediate
stamp from the motive forces of the former epoch. The
earliest Christian literature is of a popular kind, not artistic
literature ὃ. for the cultured.‘ Τί either creates a simple form
for itself (the gospel), or it employs the most artless forms

1 The whole history of Primitive Christianity and the growth of the New
Testament might be sketched from this point of view. [Cf. the author’s
article in The Expositor, February to April 1909, ‘‘ Primitive Christianity and
the Lower Classes.”’ TR.]
2 [The ‘‘thousand”’ should not be thought of literally. Otto Jespersen,
Language, London, 1922, p. 126, points out the absurdity of the myth (to
which Max Miller gave currency) that an English farm labourer has only
about 300 words at command. Minute investigation shows the vocabulary ~
of Swedish peasants to amount to at least 26,000 words. TR.] ᾿
3 At the present day it is possible for literature to be both popular, in the
above sense, and artistic, viz. when it imitates consciously the forms which
have grown up naturally in popular books.
4 Cf. Georg Heinrici in ‘‘ Theologische Abhandlungen Carl von Weizsdcker
.. . gewidmet,” Freiburg i. B., 1892, p. 329: ‘‘ The New Testament writings
are distinguished by a far-reaching neglect of the laws that were recognised
throughout the classical world as governing artistic representation.”
248 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
assumed by Jewish or pagan prose (the chronicle, apocalypse,
epistle, ‘‘ diatribe”’). The popular features exhibited are
of two kinds, corresponding to the characteristic difference
that struck us when comparing Jesus and St. Paul: we
have on the one hand the influence of the country and
provincial towns, on the other hand that of the great towns
predominating.
The synoptic gospels, themselves based on earlier little
books, exhibit the local colour of the Galilean and Palestinian
countryside; the great city, in which the catastrophe occurs,
stands in frightful contrast to all the rest. The Epistle of
St. James will be best understood in the open air beside the
piled sheaves of a harvest field; it is the first powerful echo
of the still recent synoptic gospel-books.
St. Luke dedicates his books to a man of polish, but this
does not make them polite literature. Here and there the
language of his gospel, and more especially the style and
subject-matter of his book of apostolic history, mark the
transition to the popular books in which the cosmopolite tone
prevails. To this latter class belong, so it seems to me, the
Epistle of Jude, the Epistles of Peter, and the book of the
seven cities (Revelation of St. John). This last is particularly
popular in character, written with the passionate earnestness
of a prophet who speaks the popular language of his time, and
is familiar with the images created by the popular imagination
of-the East.?
The Gospel of St. John, in spite of the Logos in the opening
lines,’ is altogether popular, and so is the “‘ diatribe ” which
goes under the name of the First Epistle of St. John. These
1 I hope nobody will suppose that I intend to hint at any difference of value
between these two classes.
2 A sharp eye trained by the study of Direr and Rembrandt sees clearly the
marked popular character of this picture-book. This was shown me by a
remark in a letter from Prof. Carl Neumann, of Kiel, dated Gottingen, 6 March,
1905: ‘‘In one of my Gptungen semesters I studied the Apocalypse with
Albrecht Diirer and then read ’scommentary. Putting aside the thousand
and one pros and cons and questions about sources, and looking at the effect
of the whole, as the commentator is no longer naive enough to do, I must say
I have never come across a work of such coloristic power in the contrasts, I
might even say of such tremendous instrumentation. There is something
of barbaric unrestraint about it all.”
3 Cf. p. 69f. above.
4 This sentence contains obviously, in. concisest form, a whole programme
of work to be carried out, which has, however, engaged my attention for thirty
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 249
Johannine texts are still most decidedly popular works, but
they are neither. decidedly rural nor decidedly urban; rural
and urban, synoptic and Pauline are united together into
what I should call intercultural, oecumenical Christian
characteristics.
After this the production of popular Christian literature
never ceased. It runs through the centuries. Often it
went on as it were subterraneously,in holes and corners, in
secret conventicles —from the earliest known texts of vulgar
Latin, the Muratorian Canon, and the swarm of late gospels,
“acts,” and ‘‘ revelations ’’ which are branded as apocryphal,
to the books of martyrdoms, legends of saints, and pilgrimages,
—from the postils, consolatories, and tractates down to the
vast modern polyglot of missionary and edifying literature.
Even to-day the greatest part of this popular literature
perishes after serving its purpose. The dullest book of pro-
fessorial hypothesis in theology, which nobody ever will
read, finds a place in our libraries, but books of prayer that
served whole generations for edification become literary
rarities after a hundred years. Thus of the whole vast mass
of Christian popular literature of all times only a scanty
remnant has come down to us, and even this is almost stifled
by the volume of learned theological literature, which has
pushed itself, bulky and noisy, into the foreground.
If we trace this technical literature of theology back to its
beginnings we come to the Epistle to the Hebrews, a work
which seems to hang in the background like an intruder
among the New Testament company of popular books. It
marks an epoch in the literary development of Christianity
inasmuch as it is the first tolerably clear example of a litera-
ture which still, like the older popular writings, appealed only
to Christians and not to the whole, world, but was consciously
dictated by theological interests, and dominated (quite
unlike the letters of Paul) by theological methods, and the
endeavour to attain beauty of form. Christianity has moved
from its native stratum and is seeking to acquire culture.

years. In opposition to the widespread and widely prevalent view of the

Johannine texts which emphasises their aristocratic and doctrinaire features
it is time to do justice to their no less marked popular character and intimate
connexion with the cult.
250 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
It was but a step from this artistic literature for Christians
to artistic literature for the world, such as the apologists of
the second century produced. The subsequent lines of this
development are well known.
But before Christian literature ventured on this great step
into the world, the pristine inheritance was separated off
from the books of the after-generation by the insurmountable
barrier of a new canon. The formation of the New Testa-
ment is the most important event in the literary history of
mankind: wherein lay its significance, merely as regards
literature? - It meant, in the first place, the preservation of
the relics of the past age. Secondly, that the non-literary
part of these relics was raised to the rank of literature, and
the impulse given to unite all the parts gradually into a single.
book. Finally, that texts older than “the church” were
elevated to standards for the church, and popular texts
became a book for the world.1 The fact that scarcely any
but popular and primitive Christian writings found their way
into the nascent New Testament is a brilliant proof of the
unerring tact of the Church that formed the Canon.

g. We have reached the end of a chapter, and if anyone

should object that its results could all have been obtained
without the aid of the inscriptions, papyri, and ostraca, it is
not for me to enter an indignant denial. Speaking for my-
self, however, I am bound to say that I had never grasped
those main lines of the literary development of Christianity
until I took up the study of the class of document we have
been considering. Then it was that the great difference
between literary and non-literary writing impressed itself on
me, and 1 learnt from the papyrus letters to appreciate the
characteristics of the non-literary letter.
From that time onward the literary history of Primitive
Christianity stood out before me in all its grandeur.
It began without any written book at all. There was
only the living word,—the gospel, but no gospels. Instead
of the letter there was the spirit. The beginning, in fact, was
Jesus Himself. This age of the spirit had not passed away
1 Just as, philologically, it meant that the vulgar language was elevated to
the realm of things literary.
 THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE 251
before the apostle Paul was at work. He wrote his letters
not to gain the ear of literary men, but to keep up confidential
intercourse with undistinguished non-literary persons.
Next there sprang up among the Christian brotherhoods
popular books with no pretensions to literary art. Yet these
were the beginnings of Christian cult and propaganda literature,
and the authors—evangelists, prophets, apostles—being them-
selves men of the people, spoke and wrote the people’s language.
The Epistle to the Hebrews shows us Christianity preparing
for a flight from its native levels into the higher region of
culture, and we are conscious of the beginnings of a Christian
world-literature. First, however, the new religion, reviewing
its own initial stages, begins to collect the relics of that early
period as a standard for the future.
The development of the literature is a reflex of the whole
early history of Christianity. We watch the stages of growth
from brotherhoods to church, from the unlearned to theo-
logians, from the lower and middle classes to the upper world.
It is one long process of cooling and hardening. If we still
persist in falling back upon the New Testament after all
these centuries, we do so in order to make the hardened metal
fluid once more. The New Testament was edited and handed
down by the Church, but there is none of the rigidity of the
law about it, because the texts composing it are documents
of a period antecedent to the Church, when our religion was
still sustained by inspiration. The New Testament is a
book, but not of your dry kind, for the texts composing it
are still to-day, despite the tortures to which literary criticism
has subjected them, living confessions of Christian inward-
ness. And if, owing to its Greek idiom, the New Testament
cannot dispense with learned interpreters. it is by no means
a secret book for the few. The words in which it is written
come from the souls of saints sprung from the people, and
therefore the New Testament is the Bible for the many.
 CHAPTER IV

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY IN THE NEW

TESTAMENT, ILLUSTRATED FROM THE NEW TEXTS
1. In the days before the ancient inscriptions had sunk
beneath the soil, when men still wrote on papyrus and potsherd,
and the coins of the Roman Caesars were in daily circulation,
Jesus of Galilee called for a silver denarius of Rome when He
was disputing with His adversaries, and said, referring to the
image and superscription on the coin, ‘‘ Render unto Caesar
the things that are Caesar’s; and unto God the things that
are God’s.’’! It was an age which paid divine honour to
the Caesar; Jesus showed no disrespect towards him, but by
distinguishing so sharply between Caesar and God He made a
tacit protest against the worship of the emperor.? That
pregnant sentence does not present us with two equal magni-
tudes, Caesar and God: the second is clearly the superior of
the first; the sense is, ‘‘ Render unto Caesar the things that
are Caesar's; and, a fortiori, unto God the things that are
God’s.””3 The portrait and legend were an ocular demon-
stration of the right. of the sovereign who coined the money
to demand tribute from the provincials. The claims of God
were in no sense affected, for they are high as the heavens
above this world’s claims. Thus Jesus made use of the
portrait and legend on a Roman coin to give a concrete,
1 Matt. xxii. 21, with the parallel passages.
2. That the coins in particular might well provoke a feeling of protest against
the cult of the Caesar, is shown for instance by a denarius of Tiberius (Madden,
Jewish Coinage, 247) with the inscription, Ti(berius) Caesay divi Aug(usti)
f(tlius) Augustus, ‘ Tiberius Caesar Augustus, son of the divine Augustus,”
cited by E. Klostermann, Handbuch zum Neuen Testament, 11. p. 103, on
Mark xii. 16.
5 Cf. the remarks on the worship of the emperors, in ὃ 9 below, p. 338 ff.
This explanation of the passage is exactly how the Christian woman Donata
understands it, in the Acts of the Scilitanian Martyrs: honovem Caesari quasi
Caesari ; timorem autem Deo, ‘‘ honour to Caesar as Caesar, but fear to God!"
(Ausgewahlie Martyrerakien, herausg. von R. Knopf, Tiibingen, rgor, p. 35).
252
 Fic. 47.—Marble Inscription from Cos, containing the title Ewergetes, circa 53 A.D
Now in Sarrara Yussuf’s garden wall, in the town of Cos. By permission of Rudolf Herzog
and the publishing house of Theodor Weicher (Dieterich’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung).
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 253
tangible answer to a question of the day involving religion
and politics.
Some time later, on the eve of His martyrdom, in the trusted
circle of His immediate disciples, Jesus referred to a secular
custom, examples of which are derivable from literature 1
and most abundantly from inscriptions and coins of Greek-
speaking lands—the custom of distinguishing princes and
other eminent men with the honourable title of Euergetes,
“benefactor.” 2 It would not be difficult to collect from
inscriptions, with very little loss of time, over a hundred
instances, so widespread was the custom. I give here one
example only, of the same period as the evangelists. Gaius
Stertinius Xenophon, body-physician to the Emperor Claudius,
whom he afterwards poisoned, was contemporary with Jesus,
and received from the people of Cos, probably about A.D. 53
in gratitude for his valuable services to his native island, the
title of “‘ Benefactor.’ The title precedes his name, for
instance, in a fragmentary inscription from Cos 3 (Figure 47),
which was probably connected with some honour conferred
on his wife : 4

τοῦ εὐεργέτ[α TI. Srep-] | .-....- of the benefactor

twiov Ἐενοφῶντ[ος] G. Stertinius Xenophon, ...
ἀνιερωθεῖσαν zat] consecrated to the city.
πόλει.

Jesus knew this custom of “the Gentiles’” most probably

from Syrian and Phoenician coins® which circulated in
Palestine, and it is, 1 think, justifiable to suppose that this
common Greek title existed as a borrowed word in Aramaic.
The Greek title in the mouth of Jesus is, like His words about
the denarius, one of the instances in which we seemto hear
1 Cf. for instance the Old Testament Apocrypha.
2 Luke xxii. 25 f.
3 Discovered and published by Rudolf Herzog, Koische Forschungen und
Funde, leipzig, 1899, p. 65 ff., Nos. 24, 25. The greatly reduced facsimile
(Plate IV. 2, 3) is here reproduced (Fig. 47) by the kind permission of the
discoverer and his publisher.
4 The upper fragment ITHIOYA is perhaps part of another inscription.
5 E.g. coins of the cities of Ptolemais (Acve) and Aradus with Alexander I.
Bala, 150-145 B.c., Journal international d’archéologie numismatique, 4 (1901)
p. 203, and 3 (1900) p. 148; and coins of Tyre and Aradus with Antiochus VII.
Euergetes, 141-129 B.c., ibid. 6 (1903) p. 291, and 3 (1900) p. 148.
254 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
in the language of the Master the roar of breakers coming
from the great world afar off. He mentioned the title not
without contempt, and forbade His disciples to allow them-
selves to be so called: the name contradicted the idea of
service in brotherhood.
About twenty years after this St. Paul, on his journeyings
through the world, finds himself at Athens. He walks through
the streets, and stands meditating before an altar. He is
profoundly interested by the inscription 1: “ΤῸ an unknown
god.” That line on the stone he interprets as the pagan
yearning for the living God, whom he possesses in Christ.
At Ephesus, whither St. Paul soon proceeded, there was
another experience, not with an inscription this time, but
with papyrus books. Preaching with the Holy Ghost and
with power he won over a number of Jews and pagans, and
many of them who had dealt in magic brought their magical
books and burnt them publicly. There were such quantities
of them that St. Luke—perhaps with some pious exaggeration
—places their valueδὲ 50,000 silver drachmae.? The new
discoveries enable us to form a peculiarly vivid conception of
the appearance and contents of these magical books. There
are in our museums numerous fragments of ancient papyrus
books of magic, sometimes of very considerable size, for the
publication and elucidation of which we are especially indebted
to Carl Wessely, Albrecht Dieterich, and Sir Frederic
Kenyon. The most important fragment is no doubt the
“ Great ’’ Magical Papyrus in the Bibliothéque Nationale at
Paris,’ which was written about 300 A.D., and has been edited
by Wessely.4 Though it was not written till some centuries
after St. Paul’s adventure, though it is in the form of a codex
(instead of the roll which was probably still usual in the time
of St. Paul), and though the usurpation of the name of Jesus
(among other things) makes it no longer purely pagan or
Jewish, yet it will in the main afford us magical texts that
1’"Aydarw θεῷ, Acts xvii. 23. For reasons which I cannot give here I
believe firmly in the historicity of this inscription and of St. Paul’s experience
with it. ᾿
2 Acts xix. 19.
3 No. 574 of the Supplément grec.
4 Denkschriften der philosophisch-historischen Classe der Kaiserlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien, Bd. 36, Wien, 1888, pp. 27-208.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 255
are considerably older than the MS., and we are in a position
to construct from it a distinct picture of what ancient magical
literature at the time of St. Paul was like. There can, I
think, be no doubt-that we must assume a strong strain of
Jewish influence in it even then. I choose as a specimen leaf
33 of the Paris book ! containing the end of a pagan recipe,
and a long recipe written by a pagan but originally Jewish?
(Figures 48 and 49) :—

Recto, Pacan TExT (Figure 48)

τοῦ βυθοῦ. αἱ δὲ δυνάμεις σου ἐν τῇ καρδία τοῦ ‘Ep-
Pine Η
μοῦ εἰσίν. τὰ ξύλα σου τὰ ὀστέα τοῦ Mvevews. καί σου
2995 τὰ ἄνθη ἐστὶν ὁ ὀφθαλμὸς τοῦ Ὥρου. τὸ σὸν σπέρμα
τοῦ Πανός ἐστι σπέρμα. ἀγῶνι ζῶσεβ ῥητείνη ὡς καὶ
τοὺς θεούς. καὶ ἐπὶ ὑγεία ἐμαυτοῦ καὶ συνοπλίσθη-
ἣν θ ’, S 2 ἣι τ > a a ΄

or -
τι ἐπ᾽ εὐχῆ. καὶ δὸς ἡμῖν δύναμιν ὡς ὁ “Apys καὶ
ἡ ᾿Αθηνᾶ. ἐγώ εἶμι Ἑρμῆς. λαμβάνω σε σὺν ἀγαθῆ
e 7 a a

3000 Τύχη καὶ ἀγαθῶ Δαίμονι καὶ ἐν καλῆ f 4 καὶ ἐν Kady

ἡ ἢ ὃ καὶ ἐπιτευκτικῇ πρὸς πάντα. ταῦτ᾽ εἰπὼν
τὴν μὲν τρυγηθεῖσαν πόαν εἰς καθαρὸν ἕλισσε
ιν “
ὀθόνιον. τῆς δὲyerῥίζης τὸν
ΠΥ ΄
τόπον ε
ἑπτὰ᾿ς Ἂς
μὲν πυροῦ-
κόκκους τοὺς δὲ ἴσους κριθῆς μέλιτι δεύσαντες
005 ἐνέβαλον καὶ τὴνἼ ἀνασκαφεῖσαν μγῆν ἐνχώσας
ἀπαλλάσσεται"

1 Wessely has re-edited most of this leaf with a translation, Patrologia

Orientalis, t. IV., 2, pp. 187-190. I have silently corrected a number of
readings from the photograph; and my translation departs a good deal from
Wessely’s ideas. The Jewish part of this leaf was explained before Wessely
by Albrecht Dieterich. Abraxas Studien zuy Religionsgeschichte des spatern
Altertums, Leipzig, 1891, p. 138 ff. He sees in the ‘‘ pure men” of the
concluding lines members of a sect of the Essenes resembling the Therapeutae
(p. 146). Valuable elucidations were contributed by Ludwig Blau, Das
altjiidische Zauberwesen, Jahresbericht der Landes-Rabbinerschule in
Budapest fir das Schuljahr 1897-8, Budapest, 1898, p. 112 ff. Κ΄. Preisendanz,
who was editing the papyrus afresh, very kindly sent me on 7 June, 1909 a
number of improvements in the reading.
2 I am indebted to the kindness of my friend the late Albrecht Dieterich
for the photographs of the two sides of the leaf, here reduced to about two-
thirds of the original size (Figs. 48 and 49). 3 = ζῶσαι.
“ = dpa. Cf. the ostracon with the charm for binding, below, p. 306. This
and the one in the next line are good examples of p-monograms, which are
very numerous in the papyri. The so-called monogram of Christ, which
had: been in use long before the time of Christ, is also one of them. Cf. my
Epistle of Psenosiris, p. 43 (in the German edition, Ein Dokument, p. 23).
5 = ἡμέρᾳ.
 ,

256 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

Recto, JEwIsH Text (Figure 48)
“| πρὸς δαιμονιαζομένους Πιβήχεως δόκιμον.
λαβὼν ἔλαιον ὀμφακίζοντα μετὰ βοτάνης
μαστιγίας καὶ λωτομήτρας ἕψει μετὰ σαμψούχου
3010 ἀχρωτίστου λέγων Ιωηλ: Ὠσσαρθιωμι "
Ἐμωρι" Θεωχιψοὶθ" Σιθεμεωχ΄ Σωθη"
Ιωη " Μιμιψωθιωωφ- Φερσωθι AEHIOYO
Twn: Εωχαριφθα" ἔξελθε ἀπὸ τοῦ A? κοι3.
τὸ δὲ φυλακτήριον ἐπὶ λαμνίω κασσιτερινῶ
3015 γράφε: ἴαηω: Αβραωθιωχ' 6a- Μεσεν-
ψινιαω" Φεωχ’ Ianw: Χαρσοκ' καὶ περίαπτε
τὸν πάσχοντα παντὸς δαίμονος φρικτὸν ὃ φο-
βεῖται. στήσας ἄντικρυς ὅρκιζε. ἔστιν δὲ ὁ ὁρκισμὸς
οὗτος : ὁρκίξω σε κατὰ τοῦ θυ τῶν Ἑβραίων
3020 Ἰησοῦ" Tafa: Ἰαη" Αβραωθ: Ata» Θωθ’ Eve:
EAw: Anw: Eov: IuBacy: ABappas: ἴαβα-
paov: Αβελβελ" Awvas Αβρα: Mapota+ Bpaki-
wv πυριφανῆ" 6 ἐν μέση ἀρούρης καὶ χιόνος
καὶ ὁμίχλης, Τάννητις, καταβάτω σου ὁ dy-
3025 γελος ὁ ἀπαραίτητος καὶ εἰσκρινέτω 4 τὸν
περιπτάμενον δαίμονα τοῦ πλάσματος τούτου,
ὃ ἔπλασεν ὁ Os ἐν τῶ ἁγίω ἑαυτοῦ παραδεί-
σω. ὅτι ἐπεύχομαι ἅγιον θν ἐπὶ Αμμων-
-“ἱψεντανχω. Ad. δρκίζω σε λαβρία" Ἰακουθ"
3030 Αβλαναθαναλβα- Ακραμμ. A®. Αὐὠθ’ 1Ιαθα-
βαθρα: Χαχθαβραθα: Xapwyer+ Αβρω-
wh. σὺ Αβρασιλωθ- Αλληλου: ἵελωσαΐϊ"
Ἰαὴλ." ὁρκίζω σε τὸν ὀπτανθέντα ὃ τῶ
᾽᾿Οσραὴλ 7 ἐν στύλω φωτινῶ καὶ νεφέλη ἧμε-
3035 pw καὶ ῥυσάμενον αὐτοῦ τὸν λόγον ὃ ἔργου
Φαραὼ καὶ ἐπενέγκαντα ἐπὶ Φαραὼ τὴν

1 The word δαιμονιάζω is probably formed on the analogy of σεληνιάζω;

it is found in 1. 86 of the same papyrus (Preisendanz) and in Agathangelus,
edited by Lagarde 46,, [Abhandlungen der Gottinger Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften, vol. 35] (as I was informed by Gleye, 2 July, 1914).
2 = δεῖνα.
3 = κοινά, t.e. ‘and the other usual formulae.’ This note is frequentin
magical papyri.
4 This must be a technical expression : the daemon, freed by exorcism, and
fluttering about, is to be arrested so as not to enter into the man again (cf.
Mark ix. 25).
5 = λόγος.
For this supposed ‘‘ Biblical ”’ word, cf. p. 83.
= ᾿Ισραήλ.
@oaOriginally of course the formula contained the word λαόν and perhaps ἀπὸ
τοῦ épyov. Winsch conjectured ἐκ τοῦ for ἔργου (Preisendanz).
 2995

3000

3005

3010

3015

3020

3030

3035

3040

Fic. 48.—Folio 33 recto of the Great Magical Papyrus, written in Egypt

civca 300 A.D. Now in the Bibliothéque Nationale at Paris. (The photo-
graph was obtained for me by the late Albrecht Dieterich.)
 ope Tita

~ eS ow Watelyre Bi WL FANECPI Ion

“77 ΤΡsg
3945
i i Fae ae
sf aa νυ-
PDP)
λγλυ ΟΡ,
3950
}
Arr enend
Taree ᾿
Se ZS, i
gees
pipe :

ie
PN
S|

3060 ῬΑ Wr : vive
ἘΞ ΤΩἌΠΟ |
ΣῈ Τὸν : Clee |
A Bay Wt? |
TRL
"ἢ
3065
7] ©pKa
SO Pyle DI

3070

3075

3080

3085 ‘

Fic. 49.—Folio 33 verso of the Great Magical Papyrus, written in Egypt

circa 300 A.D. Now in the Bibliothéque Nationale at Paris. (The photo-
graph was obtained for me by the late Albrecht Dieterich.)
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 257
δεκάπληγον διὰ τὸ παρακούειν αὐτόν. ὁρκί-
ν᾿

ζω σε, πᾶν πνεῦμα δαιμόνιον, λαλῆσαι ὁποῖ-

cad a , ~ ‘4 a

ov καὶ ἂν ἧς, ὅτι ὁρκίζω σε κατὰ τῆς σφραγῖ-

xa on an

ἷ- a
3040 δος ἧς ἔθετο Σολομὼν ἐπὶ τὴν γλῶσσαν
᾿
τοῦ Ἰηρεμίου καὶ ἐλάλησεν. καὶ σὺ λάλησον
€ om ΣΧ am ΄ Qa 922
ὁποῖον ἐὰν ἧς ἐπεουράνιον 5 ἢ ἀέριον

VERSO, JEWISH TEXT (Figure 49)

εἴτε ἐπίγειον εἴτε ὑπόγειον ἢ καταχθόνιον
¥ a ὦ wy «ε , a ἔν

ἢ ‘EBovcatov ἢ Χερσαῖον ἢ Φαρισαῖον. λάλησον

A 2 a aA a a

3045 ὁποῖον ἐὰν ἧς, ὅτι δρκίζω σε θεὸν φωσφό-

pov ἀδάμαστον, τὰ ἐν καρδία πάσης ζωῆς
3 ae: ἊΝ > ἢ , a

ἐπιστάμενον, τὸν χουοπλάστην ὃ τοῦ γένους

τῶν ἀνθρώπων, τὸν ἐξαγαγόντα ἐξ ἀδήλων
καὶ πυκνοῦντα τὰ νέφη καὶ ὑετίζοντα τὴν γῆν
Ν a DY , ᾿ Ne Fi ν a

4. > a x Α, ΕΙΣ, a 3
3050 καὶ εὐλογοῦντα TOUS καρπους αὑτῆς, Ov εὑ-
λογεῖ πᾶσα ἐνουράνιος δυνάμιος ἃ ἀγγέλων
ἀρχαγγέλων. ὁρκίζω σε μέγαν by Σαβα-
60, 80 ὃν ὃ ᾿Ιορδάνης ποταμὸς ἀνεχώ-
pyoev εἰς τὰ ὀπίσω καὶ ᾿Ερυθρὰ θάλασσα
3055 ἣν ὥδευσεν Εἰσραὴλ καὶ ἔσται 5 ἀνόδευτος"
¢ ε ΄, x , \ ε ᾿
ὅτι ὁρκίζω σε τὸν καταδείξαντα τὰς ἑκατὸν ,
τεσσεράκοντα γλώσσας καὶ διαμερίσαντα
τῶ ἰδίω προστάγματι. ὁρκίζω σε τὸν τῶν αὖ-
χενίων γιγάντων ὃ τοῖς πρηστῆρσι κατα-
3060 φλέξαντα, ὃν ὕμνϊ ὃς 7οὐρανὸς τῶν οὐρανῶν,
ὃν ὑμνοῦσι τὰ πτερυγώματα Tod! Χερουβίν.
δρκίζω σε τὸν περιθέντα ὄρη τῇ θαλάσση
e ΄ ‘ a ” ~ ,

τεῖχος ὃ ἐξ ἄμμου καὶ ἐπιτάξαντα αὐτῇ μὴ ὑπερ-

- 8 2 a Ν 2 La 2A εἶ ε

βῆναι καὶ ἐπήκουσεν ἣ ἄβυσσος. καὶ σὺ ἐπά-

3065 κουσον, πᾶν πνεῦμα δαιμόνιον, ὅτι ὁρκίζω σε
τὸν συνσίοντα9 τοὺς τέσσαρας ἀνέμους ἀπὸ
τῶν ἱερῶν αἰώνων οὐρανοϊδῆ θαλασσο-
εἰδῇ νεφελοειδῇ φωσφόρον ἀδάμαστον.
ε fy
ὁρκίζω τὸν. ἐν> τῆa καθαρᾶ
6 a τ λ ,
‘IepocoAvpw &e τὸΗ͂
1 For this vulgar ἐάν, which occurs again, instead of av, cf. Neue Bibelstudien,
p. 29 ff.; Bible Studies, p, 202 ff.
2 = ἐπουράνιον.
3 χουοπλάστης (χοοπλάστης) is a word, not yet found elsewhere, of Jewish
origin.
4 δύναμις is meant.
5 = ἔστη, cf. LKX Exodus xiv. 27, καὶ ἀπεκατέστη τὸ ὕδωρ.
6 A word has dropped out here; Wessely’s ὄχλον is a good conjecture.
7 ὑμνεῖ ὅ
8 Corrected from τειξος. ® = συνσείοντα.
 258 ΠΊΙΟΗΤ FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
" lat ,
3070 ἄσβεστον πῦρ διὰ παντὸς αἰῶνος προσπαρά-
κειταιΐ 7H ὀνόματι αὐτοῦ τῶ ἁγίω Laew-
βαφρενεμουν, d*, ὃν τρέμει Tévva πυρὸς
‘

καὶ φλόγες περιφλογίζουσι καὶ σίδηρος

ν N

λακᾶ καὶ πᾶν ὄρος ἐκ θεμελίου φοβεῖται.

3075 ὁρκίζω σε, πᾶν πνεῦμα δαιμόνιον, τὸν ἐφο-
ρῶντα ἐπὶ γῆς καὶ ποιοῦντα ἔκτρομαὃ τὰ
.(θεμίλια αὐτῆς καὶ ποιήσαντα τὰ πάντα
ἐξ ὧν οὐκ ὄντων εἰς τὸ εἶναι. ὁρκίζω δέ σε τὸν
παραλαμβάνοντα τὸν ὁρκισμὸν τοῦτον χοίριον® ;
Ν a Ν ε £ a na an
3080 μὴ φαγεῖν Kal ὑποταγήσεταί σοι πᾶν πνεῦμα
καὶ δαιμόνιον ὁποῖον ἐὰν ἦν. ὁρκίζων δὲ
Ν ὃ ¥ ε a aN wa 7 ε Ey δὲ

ὰ 8 2k ay ve oe δὴ > ,
φίσα a8 ἀπὸ τῶν ἄκρων Kal τῶν ποδῶν ἀφαΐί-
ρων τὸ φύσημα ἕως τοῦ προσώπου καὶ εἰσ-
, , δ oe ἧς ,
κριθήσεται. φύλασσε καθαρός" ὃ yap λόγος
3085 ἐστὶν ἑβραϊκὸς καὶ φυλασσόμενος παρὰ κα-
θαροῖς ἀνδράσιν:

Recto, PAGAN TEXT

The subject referred to is a root, which is dug up with certain ceremonies,
while a magic spell is pronounced, part of which comes on this page. The
daemon is being addressed. Note the paratactic style and the frequent
use of and.10

“|... . of the depth. But thy powers are in the heart of

Hermes. Thy trees are the bones of Mnevis.. And thy
2995 flowers are the eye of Horus. Thy seed
is the seed of Pan. Gird thyself for the strife with rosin
as also 12

1 Preisendanz (Archiv fiir Religionswissenschaft 17, Ὁ. 347 2.) makes the

attractive conjecture that προσπαρακάεται was the original reading.
2 = λόγος.
8. ἔκτρομος is not in the lexicons, but it seems to be a synonym of ἔντρομος,
* Acts vii. 32, xvi. 29; Heb. xii.21. (TR)
4 = θεμέλια.
5 = ἐκ τῶν.
® = χοίρειον according to Debrunner (letter, Basel, 25 April, 1913).
7 For ἦν after ἐάν οἵ. Neue Bibelstudien, pp. 29, 31; Bible Studies, Ὁ. 201 f.
® This a is no doubt a dittograph and may be struck out. According to
Preisendanz a = ἃ (ἅπαξ).
9 The MS. has αφαιρων, but ἀφαιρῶν would make no sense. ἀπαίρων,
however, used as in LXX Psalm Ixxvii. [Ixxviii.] 26, 52 in the sense of ‘' make
to go forth,” suits admirably and was probably the original reading.
10 Cf. p. 131 ff. above.
11 The Egyptain Sun-bull.
12 Here, I think, one line or more must have dropped out; even by takingds
as a preposition we get no good sense.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 259
the gods. And for my health! <and> be my companion
in arms
at my prayer.2 And give us power like Ares and
Athena. I am#® Hermes. I seize thee in fellowship with 4
good
3000 Tyche and good Daemon, and in a good hour, and on a
day good and prosperous for all things.’’ Having said
this, :
roll > up the gathered herb in a clean
linen cloth. But into the place of the root seven wheat-
grains, and the like number of barley, they ὅ mixed with
honey
3005 and threw. And having filled in the earth that was dug up
he ὁ departeth.

Recto, JEwisH TEXT

For those possessed by daemons, an approved charm by
Pibechis.?
Take oil made from unripe olives, together with the plant
mastigia 8 and lotus pith,® and boil it with marjoram
3010 (very colourless), saying: ‘ Jéél,1° Ossarthiomi,
1 These words perhaps should be construed with the preceding.
2 Or “ according to my wish.”
3 Cf. pp. 136-143 above.
4 This σύν is a technical expression in the ritual of magic and cursing. Cf.
p. 303, n. 1 below.
5 Note the change of subject.
5.1.6. the digger of the root.
7 A magician, cf. Albrecht Dieterich, Jahrbiicher fiir classische Philologie,
16. Supplementband (1888), p. 756.
8 ?? Οἱ. Albr. Dieterich, Abvaxas, p. 138. (Can “ herb mastic,” a plant
resembling marjoram, be meant? Tr.].
9. Lotometra is perhaps the name of a plant, cf. Thesaurus Linguae Graecae,
V. col. 473.
10 In these charms we should try to distinguish between meaningless hocus-
pocus and words of Semitic (cf. Bibelstudien p. 1 ff.; Bible Studies, p. 321 ff.)
or Egyptian origin, etc., which once had and might still have a meaning. In
trying to recover this meaning we must not only employ the resources of
modern philology but also take into account the ancient popular and guessing
etymologies, of which we have a good number of (Semitic) examples in the
Onomastica Sacra. Several of the magical words in this text are Biblical
and are explained in the Onomastica Sacra. That the explanations in the
Onomastica Sacra were in some cases current among the people, is shown
by the Heidelberg papyrus amulet containing Semitic names and Greek
explanations (cf. Figure 73, facing p.-405 below). (The English reader will
find other interesting examples of such ‘‘ words of power ”’ in a paper by W. R.
Halliday, ‘‘ Horse-Racing and Magic under the Roman Empire,” Discovery,
3 (April, 1922), pp. 99-102. TR.) :
260 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Emiari, Theéchipsoith, Sithemedch, Sothé,
158, Mimipsdthidoph, Pherséthi AEEIOYO
1δξ, Eéchariphtha: come out of} such an one (and the
other usual formulae).”’
But write this phylactery ? upon a little sheet of
3015 tin: “ Jaé6, Abradthidch, Phtha, Mesen-
psinias, Phedch, Jaé6, CharsGc,”’ and hang it
round the sufferer: it is of every daemon a thing to be
trembled at,? which
he fears. Standing opposite, adjure him. The adjura-
tion is
this: “1 adjure thee by the god of the Hebrews
3020 Jésu,* Jaba, Jaé, Abradth, Aia, Thoth, Ele,
El6, Aéd, Eu, Jiibaech, Abarmas, Jaba-
rau, Abelbel, Léna, Abra, Maroia, Bracién,
thou that appearest in fire, thou that art in the midst of
earth and snow
and vapour,® Tannétis ὃ: let thy angel descend,
3025 the implacable one, and let him draw into captivity the
daemon as he flieth around this creature
which God formed in his holy paradise.’
For I pray to the holy god, through the might of § Ammén-
. ipsentanchd.” Sentence. “1 adjure thee with bold, rash
words: Jacuth,
3030 Ablanathanalba, Acramm.’’ Sentence. ‘‘ Adth, Jatha-
bathra, Chachthabratha, Chamynchel, Abré- -
6th. Thou art Abrasiléth, Allélu, Jeldsai,
Jaél: I adjure thee by him who appeared unto
Osrael 9 in the pillar of light and in the cloud by

1 The same formula exactly occurs in Luke iv. 35; with ἐκ instead of ἀπό in
Mark i. 25, v. 8, ix. 25. 2 T.e. amulet. :
3 Cf. James ii. 19, and Bibelstudien, p. 42 £.; Bible Studies, p. 288.
4 The name Jesu as part of the formula can hardly be ancient. It was
probably inserted by some pagan: no Christian, still less a Jew, would have
called Jesus ‘‘ the god of the Hebrews.” It is to be regretted that the passage
is still uncritically made use of in William Benjamin Smith’s Der vorchristliche
Jesus,? Jena, 1911, p. xxvi. f.
5 Snow and vapour coming from God, LXX Psalm cxlvii. 5 [16], cf. also
LXX Job xxxviii. 22, 9.
8 ? Dieterich, Abraxas, p. 138, alters it to τανυσθείς.
7 Cf. Tanchuma, Pikkudé 3: Rabbi Jochanan said: “Ὁ. . Know that
all the souls which have been since the first Adam and which shall be till the
end of the whole world, were created in the six days of creation. They are all
in the garden of Eden ”’ (Ferdinand Weber, Jidische Theologie auf Grund des
Talmud und verwandter Schriften,® Leipzig, 1897, Ρ. 225).
8. This ἐπί seems ἐο 6 related to the technical σύν (p. 259, n. 4 above).
® This form also suggests the pagan origin of the editor of the Jewish text.
 SOCIAL. AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 261
3035 day,! and who delivered 2 his word 3 from the taskwork 4
of Pharaoh and brought upon Pharaoh the
ten plagues > because he heard not.* I adjure
thee, every daemonic spirit, say whatsoever
thou τί. 7 For I adjure thee by the seal
3040 which Solomon 8 laid upon the tongue
of Jeremiah ® and he spake. And say thou
whatsoever thou art, in heaven, or of the air,

VERSO, JEWISH TEXT

or on earth, or under the earth or below the ground,!®
or an Ebusaean, or a Chersaean, or a Pharisee.!!_ Say
3045 whatsoever thou art, for I adjure thee by God the light-
bringer,?? invincible,18 who knoweth what is in the heart
of all 116,14. who of the dust 15 hath formed the race
of men, who hath brought out of uncertain [places]
and maketh thick the clouds!* and causeth it to rain upon
the earth 17
3050 and blesseth the fruits thereof 18; who is
blessed by every power in heaven of angels,!®
1 See for the facts Exod. xiii. 21. The LXX has pillar of five, not pillar
of light.
? A frequent expression in the LXX.
3 Word (λόγον) written by mistake for people (λαόν).
4 LXX Exod. i. 11. 5 LXX Exod. vii. ff. 6 LXX Exod. vii. 4.
7 To obtain complete power over the daemon it is necessary to know his
name; hence the question to the daemon in Mark v. 9 = Luke viii. 30.
8 Solomon's seal is well known in magic; see for instance Dieterich, Abvaxas,
p. 141 f., Schiirer, Geschichte des juidischen Volkes, 111.8 Ὁ. 303.
® I do not know what this refers to. The tradition is probably connected
with LXX Jer. i. 6-10,
10 In spite of the resemblance to Phil. ii. 10, Eph. ii. 2, iii. 10, vi. 12, this is
not a quotation from St. Paul. The papyrus and St. Paul are both using
familiar Jewish categories.
11 This remarkable trio of daemons obviously comes from LXX Gen. xv. 20,
Exod. iii. 8, 17, etc., where we find Xerraio. (who have become Χερσαῖοι,
i.e. “land daemons ’’), Φερεζαῖοι (who have become the more intelligible
“Pharisees ’), and "JeBovoaio. Χερσαῖος, which also occurs elsewhere as a
designation applied to a daemon (see Wessely’s index), has here no doubt the
force of an adjective derived from a proper name. Dieterich, Abraxas, p. 139,
explains the passage somewhat differently.
12 Cf, LXX Gen. i. 3 and many similar passages.
13 Cf. 3 Macc. vi. 13.
1. LXX Job vii. 20; Psalm cxxxviii. [cxxxix.] 23. An inaccuracy in the
translation here was corrected by P. W. Schmiedel (letter, Zirich, 9 March
1909). 16 LXX Gen. ii- 7.
16 LXX Psalm cxxxiv. [cxxxv.] 7. 17 LXX Job xxxviii. 26,
18 LXX Deut. vii. 13. 19 LXX Isaiah vi. 3.
262 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

of archangels. I adjure thee by the great God Sabaoth,

through whom the river Jordan returned
backward,1—the Red Sea? also,
3055 which Israel journeyed over and it stood ὃ impassable.
For I adjure thee by him that revealed the hundred
and forty tongues and divided them.
by his command.’ I adjure thee by him who
with his lightnings the [race3] of stiff-necked ὅ giants con-
3060 sumed,® to whom the heaven of heavens sings praises,’
to whom Cherubin 8 his wings sing praises.
I adjure thee by him who hath set mountains ® about the
sea,
a wall of sand,!° and hath charged it not to pass
over,!! and the deep hearkened. And do thou
3065 hearken, every daemonic spirit, for I adjure thee
by him that moveth ™ the four winds since
the holy aeons, him the heaven-like, sea-
like, cloud-like, the light-bringer, invincible.
I adjure thee by him that isin Jerosolymum 15 the pure,
to whom the

' LXX Joshua iii. 13 ff.; Psalm cxiii. [cxiv.] 3.

*? LXX Exod. xiv.
3 LXX Exod. xiv. 27.
4 Noah’s generations enumerated in Genesis x. contain the names of 70
peoples; the Jews therefore assumed that there were 70 different languages
(Weber,? p. 66). Our papyrus has 2 x 70 languages—a number not mentioned.
elsewhere, so far as I know.
5 Cf. LXX Psalm cxxviii. [cxxix.] 4.
8 This is a combination from LXX Gen. vi. 4 ff. and xix. 24 ff. The giants
and the people of Sodom and Gomorrah are mentioned together as typical
evil-doers in Ecclus. xvi. 7, 3 Macc. ii. 4, and the Book of Jubilees xx. 5.
Dieterich, Abraxas, p. 143, explains the passage differently.
7 LXX Psalm xviii. [xix.] 2.
8 The use of Cherubin as a singular may perhaps be regarded as another
proof that this Jewish formula was written out by a pagan. Cf. Tersteegen’s
plural form die Seraphinen, resukting from a like miscon¢eption of Seraphin as
asingular. But Strachan refers me to LXX 2 Sam. xxii. 11 and 2 Chron. iii.
11 [where χερουβίμ is treated as a neuter singular. Cherubin, -m, was
formerly used as a singular in English. The New English Dictionary has
examples ranging from Wyclif to Dickens, and the plural cherubims is
familiarinthe A.V. Τα]
® Mountains (ὄρη) isa corruption of bounds (dpa), cf. LXX Job xxxviii. το,
and especially LXX Jer. v. 22. :
10 LXX Jer. v. 22.
11 LXX Job xxxviii. 11; Jer. v. 22.
12 LXX Psalm cxxxiv. [cxxxv.] 7.
13 Cf. LXX Psalm cxxxiv. [cxkxv.] 21. The form of the name of he city
again points to a pagan writer.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 263
3070 unquenchable fire! through every aeon is
offered,? through his holy name Jaeé-
baphrenemun (Sentence), before whom trembleth® the
Genna ὅ of fire
and flames flame round about 5 and iron
bursteth ὃ and every mountain feareth 7 from its founda-
tions.
3075 I adjure thee, every daemonic spirit, by him that
looketh down on earth and maketh tremble the
foundations 8 thereof and hath made all things
out of things which are not into being.® But I adjure
thee, :
thou that takest unto thee this adjuration : the flesh of swine
3080 eat not, and there shall be subject unto thee every spirit
and daemon, whatsoever he be. But when thou adjurest,
blow,?° sending the breath from above [to the feet] and
from the feet to the face,!! and he [the daemon] will
be drawn into captivity. Be pure and keep it. For the
sentence
3085 is Hebrew and kept by men
that are pure.

Good parallels to the Jewish portion of the above text, both

85 a whole and in details, are furnished by the leaden tablet
from Hadrumetum # and a magician’s outfit discovered at
1 LXX Lev. vi. 9, 12, 13. The fire is that on the altar of burnt-offering at
Jerusalem. As this fire was extinguished for ever in the year 70 A.D., this
portion of the papyrus at any rate must have originated before the destruction’
of Jerusalem.
2 Originally (οὗ, p. 258, mn. 1 above) “‘ before whom the unquenchable
_ fire . . . burneth.”
3 LXX Isaiah xiv. 9.
41... Gehenna. On the Jewish conceptions of hell cf. Weber,? p. 393 ff.
The word Γαιεννα, from which (through an intermediate form [Ieewa) our
word Γεννα is derived, occurs as a transcription in LXX Joshua xviii. 16.
5 LXX Isaiah lxvi. 15 ff., etc.
® The translation is not certain. I assume a form λακάω (= λάσκω), a back-
formation from éAd«noa. For the allusion see LXX Jer. vi. 28, Psalm cvi.
[cvii.] 16, xlv. [xlvi.] 10.
7 LXX Psalm xvii. [xviii.] 8, etc.; cf. also Bibelstudien, p. 451.; Buble
Studies, p. 290 f.
® LXX Psalm ciii. [civ.] 32; cf. xvii. [xviii] 8 and Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 44;
Bible Studies, p. 290.
® 2 Macc. vii. 28. 10 For this formula cf. Luke x. 17, 20; 1 Cor. xiv. 32.
41 Cf. LXX Gen. ii. 7 (John xx. 22).
12 These concluding lines again prove that the formula was written out by
a pagan magician.
15. Bibelstudien, pp. 21-54; Bible Studies, pp. 269-300.
264 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Pergamum.! Anyone who can read this one leaf without
getting bewildered by the hocus-pocus of magic words will
admit that through the curious channel of such magical
literature a good portion of the religious thought of the Greek
Old Testament found its way into the world, and must have
already found its way by the time of St. Paul. The men of
the great city in Asia Minor in whose hands St. Paul found
texts of this kind were, though heathen, not altogether
unprepared for Bible things. The flames of the burning
papyrus books could not destroy recollections of sacred
formulae which retained a locus standi even in the new faith.
But, apart from this, the magical books, with their grotesque
farrago of Eastern and Western religious formulae, afford
us striking illustrations of how the religions were elbowing
one another as the great turning-point drew near. They are
perhaps the most instructive proofs of the syncretism of the
middle and lower classes.
᾿ Jesus handling coins, St. Paul reading the inscription on the
Athenian altar, or watching the burning of magical books at
Ephesus—are not these detached pictures typical? Is not
the New Testament itself offering us a clue in our studies?
Is it not telling us that the texts contemporary with’ but not
belonging to Primitive Christianity, which have come down
to us in the original, must be read with the eyes of the religious
man and with the spectacles of the historian of religion?
This raises the subject of the present chapter: the bearing
of the new texts on social? and religious history. In the
1 Antikes Zaubergerat aus Pergamon, herausgegeben von Richard Wiinsch.
Jahrbuch des Kaiserl. Deutschen Archaolog. Instituts, Erganzungsheft 6,
Berlin, 1905, p. 35 f.
2 The application of the methods of social history (as attempted in the
following pages) seems to me particularly needful and profitable—And it
would be a fascinating task one day to compare the historical with the poldtical
aspect of such study, for in many works of the critical schools a sort of
political attitude towards the inquiry has all unknowingly become a great
power, secretly influenced by the thought, ‘‘ What can we make use of
to-day?”
3 The comparative study of religion, so it seems to me, has of late led to
an exaggeration of the so-called Oriental “influences ’’ (Hermann Gunkel,
Zum veligionsgeschichtlichen Verstindnis des Neuen Testaments, Gottingen,
1903). The material must be more sharply discriminated as ‘‘ analogical ”
and “‘ genealogical,’ and the genealogical portion is in the main only of
indirect importance (this is also the opinion of Gunkel, who assumes that
Judaism acted as intermediary). Gunkel, however (p. 6), rightly emphasises
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 265
second chapter we discussed the linguistic, in the third the
literary bearing of the new texts on the New Testament, and
we were chiefly, of course, concerned with the more formal
aspects of interpretation. Now we are proposing an inquiry
which involves deeper issues. We seek to understand the
substance of the New Testament (and so of Primitive
Christianity), and here again, I believe, the new texts: will
not desert us.
Some kind of an understanding as to methods of work
would certainly be desirable at the outset; but I must resist
the temptation to discuss here in its full extent a methodo-
logical problem? which has engaged my liveliest interest
since the beginning of my studies. I will only remark that
in the case of each single observation made I find the questions
resolve themselves for me into the alternative? : is it analogy
or is it genealogy? That is to say, we have to ask: Are the
similarities or points of agreement that we discover between
two different religions to be regarded as parallelisms of more
or less equal religious experience, due to equality of psychic
pitch and equality of outward conditions, or are they depen-
dent one on the other, demonstrable borrowings?
Where it is a case of inward emotions and religious experi-
ences and the naive expression of these emotions and

the fact that the New Testament is a Greek book. This is the side of the
problem which interests me most. My desire is to continue the work recently
begun by Georg Heinrici, Adolf Harnack, H. J. Holtzmann, Otto Pfleiderer,
and other theologians, by Hermann Usener, Albrecht Dieterich, Richard
Reitzenstein, Paul Wendland, and other classical scholars. To the literary
Greek sources, which have been chiefly studied hitherto, I would add the non-
literary ones, which are for the most part more congenial with the New Testa-
ment. An excellent guide to the material hitherto collected by students of
comparative religion is Carl Clemen’s Religionsgeschichtliche Evklirung des
Neuen Testaments, Giessen, 1909.
1 Richard M. Meyer, Kriterien der Aneignung (offprint from Neue Jahrbiicher
fir das klassische Altertum, etc.), Leipzig, 1906, is very instructive.
2 Cf. Die Christliche Welt, 14 (1900) col. 270. Since then the same alter-
native has been often adopted. Friedrich Pfister in his article on “‘ Kultus”’
in Pauly-Wissowa-Kroll’s -Realenzyklopadie (p. 5 of offprint issued in March,
1922) formulates the problem as an alternative between “‘ genealogy or
polygenesis.’” On the subject cf. Franz Cumont, The Oriental Religions in
Roman Paganism, Chicago, 1911, p. xviii.; Karl Marbe, Zeitschrift f. Psycho-
logie, 56 (1910) p. 261 ff.; Refer, Die jiingste (vel.-gesch.) Theologie (no place
of publication, 1914], p. 3 f.; G. Heinrici, Die Eigenart des Christentums, a
rectorial address, Leipzig, 1911, p. 6.
266 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
experiencesin word, symbol, and act, I should always try
first to regard the particular fact as “ analogical.” ὦ
Where it is a case of a formula used in worship, a pro-.
fessional liturgical usage, or the formulation of some doctrine,
I should always try first to regard the particular fact as
“ genealogical.”
The apologist, if he ever acknowledges anything, acknow-
ledges as a rule only analogy, and prefers to erect walls and
fences round his own little precinct.
The amateur in these subjects thinks as a rule only of
genealogy. His best instrument is the wooden ruler with
which, to his own increasing admiration, he draws straight
lines that can be produced to any length. Finding a phantom
of the desert among the Bedouins and a slave possessed with a
daemon in the lanes of Smyrna, he triumphantly proclaims
the phantom as the ancestressof the daemon, and there is
nothing hidden from his sagacity after he has persuaded
himself that the gold in some prehistoric shrine came from
Saba, the marble from Paros, and the cedar-wood from
Lebanon.
Most pitiable of all, however, are the mere shifters-on 2
and wipers-out of names. Anything trivial they regard as
genuine; where there is a great name, there is something to
rub out : the Sermon on the Mount cannot be by Jesus, nor
the Second to Corinthians by Paul. By whom then? The
Sermon on the Mount by X or Y, or possibly by seventeen
anonymous writers, and the Second to Corinthians, if written
by anybody, then by Z, yes, by Z! Having thus made
everything anonymous, they think they have done a work of
scholarship and have disposed of the texts themselves for ever.
Now, supposing there were cogent reasons for doubting
St. Paul’s authorship of the confessions in the Second to
Corinthians, I should acknowledge these reasons. But would
the text itself be then done away with? The text itself,
with its thoughts, remains, and remains classic: the dis-
appearance of the one word Paul from the first line does not
1 To Georg Heinrici belongs the undoubted merit of having paved the way
for the analogical method, in Germany, at a time when such researches met
with little sympathy.
2 The term Weiterschieber (here translated “ shifters-on ") was coined by
Hermann Oeser, Die Christliche Welt, 5 (1891) col. 780. ᾿
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 267
detract from the intrinsic value of the text. Does a coin-
collector throw one of his gold coins on the dust-heap because
- it was along with the Persian ones and he finds it to be
Lycian, or because he is unable to identify it at all?
What is the actual result of making the synoptic sayings of
Jesus anonymous? Merely the proper name Jesus is erased;
the centre of energy, the “I,” the personality behind the
sayings, remains.
We will not dispute that the erasers and shifters-on may in
their zeal empty an ink-pot over the map of the ancient
Mediterranean lands; a great deal is possible in the scholar’s
study. But if these poor people want us to do more than
sympathise with them in their misfortune—as we certainly
do most readily—if they ask us to believe that the blackened
provinces of their dirty map have swallowed up all that was
counted valuable evidence of the ancient culture of the Mediter-
ranean, they deniand the sacrifice of our intellects. We must
treat them kindly, and let them go on shifting; the earth is
round, and so, across sea and land, they will find their way
back to us some day.
Pledged to no inexorable “ method,” but testing each case
as it arises; not providing an answer at any cost to every
question, but content to leave doubtful what is really obscure;
recognising, however, that light is light—the New Testament
student will reap a rich harvest from our texts. Let me
proceed to give some indication of the sort of thing he is
likely to find, and where it may be found.

2. He finds the world as it was in the age of the Caesars,

that is the historical background of Primitive Christianity—
and first of all the general cultural background.
In sketching the literary development of Primitive Christi-.
anity we saw that in the growth of our religion there is
reflected from the very beginning the difference between
the characteristics of the common people in town and
country. To comprehend this difference we must know
what the ancient civilisation was like in town and country.
1 The following pages make no claim to even approximate completeness of
statement. Asa rule only characteristic examples have been picked out; the
amount of material still to be worked up is enormous.
 268 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
From literary sources we were fairly well acquainted with
ancient city-life, but the ancient village and small country
town, being seldom touched upon in literature, were practi-
cally inaccessible. Archaeological discovery, especially since
the finding of papyri and ostraca, has brought about a
resurrection of such places. As students of the New Testa-
ment we are most interested in the villages and little country
towns of Galilee, and we have at any rate become acquainted
with the same kind of places in the neighbour land of
Egypt.
Some idea of the abundance and freshness of the materials
now at our command to illustrate the civilisation of certain
Egyptian villages may be gathered from an examination
of Wessely’s 1 valuable collections relating to the villages of
Caranis and Socnopaei Nesus. Anyone who has been brought
up in the country and has a spark of imagination clinging to
him can now without difficulty participate by sympathy in
the thousand and one little things that made up the social
vortex for the men and women of these places. The same
trifles, of daily occurrence among their not very dissimilar
neighbours in Galilee at the same epoch, served the Master
of parable as symbols of the Eternal.
No less vividly, however, the country towns of Egypt, large
and small, arise before us—Arsinoé, Magdola, Oxyrhynchus,?
Hermupolis,? and other places.
There must, of course, have been differences between
country life in Egypt and in Palestine, owing particularly
to differences in the soil and methods of work. The degree
of Hellenisation must also have been slighter in Galilee than
in Egypt. But the common element must have predominated.
The parallelism extends not only to details of social history,
1 Karanis und Soknopaiu Nesos, Studien zur Geschichte antiker Cultur- und
Personenverhaltnisse. Denkschriften der Kaiserl. Akademie der Wissen-
schaften in Wien, philos.-hist. Classe, Band 47, Wien, 1902, p. 56 ff.
2 Erich Ziebarth discourses with charm and fascination of these three little
towns in his Kulturbilder aus eviechischen Stddten (Vol. 131 of the series called
“ Aus Natur und Geisteswelt ’’), Leipzig, 1907, p. 96 ff. A rich collection of
material for Arsinoé is given by Carl Wessely, Die Stadt Arsinoé (Krokodilo-
polis) in griechischer Zeit, Sitzungsber. der Kais. Akad. d. W. in Wien, philos.-
hist. Cl., Bd. 145, Wien, 1902, pp. 1-58.
3 Cf. the life-like description by Paul Viereck, Die Papyrusurkunden von
Hermupolis, Ein Stadtbild aus rémischer Zeit. Deutsche Rundschau, 35,
Part 1 (October 1908), pp. 98-117.
 ψχ.,
ἐπε κα ΜΉ λει
ce aby a|

Fic. 50.—Report of Judicial Proceedings before the Praefect of Egypt, G. Septimius

Vegetus, 85 A.D. Papyrus. Now at Florence. By permission of the R. Accademia dei Lincei.
(4 of the size of the original).
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 269
such as the unpopularity of the ‘“‘ publicans,’’} or again the
“tribute” of two drachmae 3 levied in Egypt for the Great
Great God Suchus in the gospel age,? but also to peculiarities
of legal life.
A Florentine papyrus‘ of the year 85 a.D. (Figure 50)
supplies a very noteworthy parallel to Mark xv. 15, etc. In
the words of the evangelist,®
“And so Pilate, willing to content the people, released
Barabbas unto them, and delivered Jesus, when he had
scourged Him, to be crucified.”
The papyrus, containing a report of judicial proceedings,
quotes these words of the governor of Egypt, G. Septimius
Vegetus, before whom the case was tried, to a certain
Phibion :—
“ Thou hadst been worthy of scourging* .. but I will
give thee to the people.” 7
1 Cf. Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka, I. p. 568 f.
2 Matt. xvii. 24.
5 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 748, of the year 48 a.p. Cf. Wilcken,
Griechische Ostvaka, I. 360. For the expression ‘‘ Great Great (= greatest)
God,” imitated from the Egyptian (Wilcken), cf. Moulton, Grammar,? p. 97,
and Bruno Mueller, Meyas θεος, a dissertation published at Halle, 1913, pp.
330 and 346f. A Jewish inscription, Fayim, 25 B.c. (Archiv fiir Papyrus-
forschung 5, p. 163) has the expression: θεῷ μεγάλῳ μεγάλῳ ὑψίστῷ, “το God
the Great Great Highest.” ;
* No. 61594. Supplementi Filologico-Storici ai Monumenti Antichi Papiri
Graeco-Egizii pubblicati dalla R. Accademia dei Lincei, volume primo, Papiri
Fiorentini .. . per cura di Girolamo Vitelli, Milano, 1906, p. 113 ff., with
facsimile (Plate IX.), here reproduced (Figure 50) by kind permission of the
R. Accademia dei Lincei. Cf. Ludwig Mitteis, Zeitschrift der Savigny-
Stiftung fiir Rechtsgeschichte, 26 (1905), Romanistische Abteilung, p. 485 ff.,
and Chrestomathie p. 88f., No. 80. For the chronology cf. Wilcken, Archiv,
4, P- 445.
5 ὁ δὲ Πειλᾶτος βουλόμενος ποιῆσαι τὸ ἱκανὸν τῷ ὄχλῳ ἀπέλυσεν αὐτοῖς τὸν Βαραββᾶν
καὶ παρέδωκεν τὸν ᾿Ϊησοῦν φραγελλώσας ἵνα σταυρωθῇ.
® A parallel to John xix. 1, cf. also Luke xviii. 33, etc., where, as in the
papyrus, the word used is μαστιγόω.
7 ἄξιος μ[ἐ]ν ἧς μαστιγωθῆναι, . . . χαρίζομαι δέ σε τοῖς ὄχλοις. Vitelli called
attention to Mark xv. 15. I first learnt of the papyrus in conversation
with Wilcken. [W. M. Calder, Classical Review 38 (Feb.-March, 1924), pp.
29, 30, refers to the Ephesian inscription of Phlegethius (civca 441 a.D.), Count
of the Domestici and Proconsul of Asia, who reminds the people of Smyrna
that they deserve punishment, and goes.on: διὰ δὲ ras ἐκβοήσεις ταύτης τῆς
λαμπρᾶς ᾿Εφεοίων μητροπόλεως καὶ ὅτι οὐ δεῖ αὐτῶν τὰς δεήσεις τὸ καθόλου
παρακρούεσθαι, ἀπολύομεν ὑμᾶς κτλ. (Grégoire, Recueil No. 1008; Anato-
lian Studies presented to Sir W. M. Ramsay, Manchester, 1923, Ὁ. 154 ff.),
270 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Phibion’s offence was that he had “ of his own authority
imprisoned a worthy man [his alleged debtor] and also women.’
The Florentine papyrus is thus a beautiful illustration of the
parable of the wicked servant (Matt. xviii. 30; cf. also Matt.
v. 25 f. ||Luke xii. 58 f.) and the system, which it presupposes,
of personal execution by imprisonment for debt. Numerous
other papyri and inscriptions show that this was in Graeco-
Roman Egypt, and elsewhere, a widespread legal custom.?
Probably the most interesting example for us is an inscription 3
in the Great Oasis containing an edict of the governor of
Egypt, Tib. Julius Alexander, 68 a.D. The technical
expression here used has the same ring as in the gospel.
“They delivered them into other prisons,’’ says the Roman
governor 3; “‘ he cast him into prison,’’ says Jesus.4
Perhaps the most remarkable discovery of this kind in the
new texts is a singular parallel to the statement in Luke ii. 3,
which has been so much questioned on the strength of mere
book-learning, that on the occasion of the enrolment for
taxation made by Cyrenius, “‘ all went to enrol themselves,
every one to his own city.” > That this was no mere figment
of St. Luke or his authority, but that similar things ὃ took
place in that age, is proved by an edict ? of G. Vibius Maximus,

‘‘ by reason of the outcries of this illustrious metropolis of the Ephesians, and

because their prayers ought not to be at all set aside, we release you... .”
As Calder remarks, “ the action of these two Roman officials,” Septimius
Vegetus and Phlegethius, ‘in the Greek East at an interval of centuries
suggests that Pilate’s procedure was neither fabulous nor capricious.” Tr.]
1 Cf. especially Ludwig Mitteis, Reichsvecht und Volksvecht in den Ostlichen
Provinzen des rémischen Kaiserreichs, Leipzig, 1891, p. 444 ff.; also Zeitschrift
der Savigny-Stiftung fiir Rechtsgeschichte, 26 (1905), Romanistische Abteilung
p. 488, a note on the Reinach Papyrus No. 7; Grundziige, pp. 19 f., 44 f.;
Chrestomathie, p. 122 ff.; H. Lewald, Zur Personalexekution im Recht der
Papyri, Leipzig, 1910.
2 Dittenberger, Ovientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 669.5, (cf. below,
Fig. 66, facing p. 358).
3 παρέδοσαν καὶ εἰς ἄλλας φυλακάς.
4 ἔβαλεν αὐτὸν εἰς φυλακήν.
5 καὶ ἐπορεύοντο πάντες ἀπογράφεσθαι, ἕκαστος εἰς τὴν ἑαυτοῦ πόλιν. That
Luke is here employing departmental language is shown by a comparison
with the report in Bevliner Griechische Uvkunden, No. 15 I. 10£. (194 a.D.),
where the order ἕκαστος is τὴν ἑαυτοῦ κώμην is issued (also by the ἡγεμών).
* The Egyptian edict does not correspond with the passage in St. Luke in
every particular, but the similarity is very great.
7 Greek Papyri in the British Museum, Vol. III., ed. F. G. Kenyon and
H, I. Bell, London, 1907, p. 125, No. 90419, with facsimile (Plate 30), here
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Fic. 51.—Edict of the Praefect of Egypt, G. Vibius Maximus, 104 a.D. Papyrus (part ot
letter copy-book). Now in the British Museum. By permission of the Museum authorities: |
(¢ of the size of the original.)
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 271
governor of Egypt, 104 a.D. (Figure 51). I am indebted to
Ulrich Wilcken ! for the following restoration of the text, to
which re-examinations of the original by Grenfell and Hunt
have also contributed :—
T[dios Οὐι]βιοῖς Μάξιμος ἔπα]ρχ[ος]
, . Αἰγύπτ[ου λέγει 1
0 τῆς κατ᾽ οἰκίαν ἀπογραφῆς ἐϊνεστώ[σης] 3
ἀναγκαῖόν [ἐστιν πᾶσιν τοῖ]ς καθ᾽ ἥντινα]
δήποτε αἰτίαν ἐκστᾶσι τῶν ἑαυτῶν]3
νομῶν προσα[γγέλλε]σθαι ἐπα[νελ-Ἶ
θεῖν εἰς τὰ ἑαυ[τῶν ἐ]φέστια, ἵν[α]
25 καὶ τὴν συνήθη [οἰϊκονομίαν τῆ[ς ἀπο-
γραφῆς πληρώσωσιν καὶ τῇ προσ[ηκού-Ἶ
oy αὐτοῖς γεωργίαι προσκαρτερήσφῳ[σιν.

Gaius Vibius Maximus, Praefect of Egypt, saith: The enrol-

ment by household 4 being at hand, it is necessary to notify all
who for any cause soever are outside their nomes to return to
their domestic hearths, that they may also accomplish the cus-
tomary dispensation of enrolment and continue steadfastly in
the husbandry that belongeth to them.
With regard to the last two lines Wilcken ® writes to me:
“We have several such edicts, requiring the peasants to
return and do their work (6.5.6 Geneva Papyrus No. 16).
The Praefect here goes beyond his immediate subject when he
takes the opportunity to enforce these injunctions once again.”

reproduced by kind permission of the British Museum (Fig. 51). Cf. J. H.

Moulton, The Expository Times, Vol. 19, No. 1, October 1907, p. 40 f., and
E. Schirer, Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 32 (1907) col. 683 f.—I have already (Ρ. 235 above)
referred to the importance of this papyrus in other respects.
1 Letter, Leipzig, 13 Oct. 1907. For the text see now in the first place
Wilcken, Chrestomathie, Ῥ. 235 ff., No. 202; also Milligan, Selections, p. 72 ff.
* As read by P. W. Schmiedel (and now by Wilcken).
3 The restoration is not certain. ;
* The reference is to one of the censuses which were taken (according to
an important discovery by U. Wilcken, Hermes, 28 [1893] p. 230 ff.) every
14 years in order to fix the poll-tax or other personal dues. Among the papyri
there are large numbers of documents relating to these assessments. Sir
W. M. Ramsay, Was Christ born at Bethlehem ? London, 1898, attempted to
explain the enrolment in the time of Cyrenius by means of these facts (con-
tested by E. Schiirer, Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 24 [1899] col. 679 f.). I think it possible
that this line of argument may really lead on to something.
5 Letter, Leipzig, 24 Oct. 1907. Cf. also P. M. Meyer, Griech. Papyri .
zu Giessen I. 2 (1910), p. 34-
* This and other edicts are cited by the editors Kenyon and Bell, p. 124 f.
 272 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
The cultural parallelism between Egypt and the birthplace
of Christianity again explains the fact that we are repeatedly
able to illustrate from Egyptain papyri details of the life of the
people in Palestine which Jesus immortalised in His parables.
Besides the above-mentioned parallel to the parable of. the
wicked servant, we have illustrations to the parables of the
good Samaritan,! the importunate widow,? and the prodigal
son.2 To one familiar with both the gospels and the papyri
the general impression says even more plainly than the details
that we are dealing with the same kind of people in the two
countries.
Of course there are equally notable parallels to gospel details
in the written remains found in other Mediterranean lands.
The fact is that the threads of connexion between Primitive
Christianity and the world are to be sought not in the high
regions of culture and power but in the lower levels of the
common life of the people, which has been far too much
neglected hitherto. When it has once been grasped that the
threads cross and re-cross where labourers work for hire in the
vineyard, and where the house is swept for the sake of a lost
drachma, we shall be ready to receive with something more
than indifference a detail like the following, which brings so
vividly before our eyes the popular character of the gospel.*
In order to arm His disciples for their dangerous work in
the world with the same trust in God that filled His own heart,
Jesus exhorts them (Matt. x. 28 ff.) thus :—
“Fear not. . . . Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing?
and one of them shall not fall on the ground without your
Father. But the very hairs of your head are all numbered.
Fear ye not therefore; ye are of more value than many
sparrows.”
The evangelist Luke (xii. 6) has recorded this saying
somewhat differently :—
‘* Are not five sparrows sold for two farthings? ”
1 Cf. above, p. 134, ἢ. 7. 2 Cf. above, p. 134, n. 7.
* Cf. above, p. 134, ἢ. 7; p. 165, n. 1; and especially p. 187 ff. A pretty
parallel to the parable of the barren fig-tree (Luke xiii. 6 ff.) is given by.Hans
Windisch, Neue Jahrbiicher, 1910, p. 209, from the Oxyrhynchus Papyri,
No. 53 (316 A.D.).
‘ In what follows I avail myself of my article on ‘‘ Der Marktpreis der
- Sperlinge ’’ in Die Christliche Welt, 17 (1903) col. 203 ff.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 273
The difference between these two versions is practically
quite unimportant, although the equation 2:5 = 1: 2 does
not hold mathematically. On the purchaser’s taking a larger
number of birds the proportional price may well have been
reduced; as we should say nowadays, they came cheaper by
the half-dozen. It is quite possible that Jesus repeated this
particularly homely analogical conclusion from the less (the
little sparrows) to the greater (the infinitely more valuable
human beings) on more than one occasion, with variants, so
that both versions might go back to Him. Be that as it may,
the saying about the sparrows—apart, of course, from the
mighty “ Fear not,’’ which is indivisible—contains a threefold
statement if we analyse it as an economic document of the
Imperial period :—

(1) Sparrows were a very cheap article sold in the market

as food for the poor;
(2) They were sold in the market either by the pair or in
fives, the pair being the smallest, and five the next
smallest quantity sold;
(3) The market price in the time of Jesus was a “‘ farthing "
(= about a halfpenny of our money) a pair, or two
“farthings ’” (= about a penny of our money)
for five.1

The same three deductions, nearly, can be drawn from one

of the inscriptions discovered recently. There is a highly
important commercial law of the Emperor Diocletian, known
as the maximum tariff, the greater part of which has long been
known from inscriptions. All kinds of articles of commerce
are quoted in this tariff, and to each item is attached the
highest price at which it is allowed to be sold. Historians
of the Imperial period are not agreed as to the real purpose
of this tariff; but the question does not concern us here. The
interesting point for us is that a new fragment ? of the tariff
which was discovered in Aegira in 1899 gives us the highest
1 Another market price, the price of wheat and barley, which may be of
chronological importance, is mentioned in Rev. vi. 6. It would be valuable
to get together some day as complete a collection as possible of corn prices
during the second half of the first century A.D.
* Publishedinan Athens journal, Epnuepis Αρχαιολογικη, 1899, Ῥ. 154.
274 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

price for sparrows. From it we learn the following particulars,

applying of course to the end of the third century A.D. :—
(x) Of all birds used for food sparrows are the cheapest;
they are cheaper, for instance, than thrushes,
beccaficoes, and starlings.
(2) They were usually sold in decades. Ten seems to have
been the regular number with all sorts of small
animals (cf. our dozen); the tariff, for instance,
gives the prices for 10 thrushes, 10 beccaficoes,
Io starlings.
(3) According to the tariff 10 sparrows are to be sold for at
most 16 ‘ denarii.’’ This does not mean the old
silver denarii, but the new copper coins, whose value
Theodore Mommsen ! and Salomon Reinach ? agree
in estimating at (14 pfennig, 2} centimes) less than an
English farthing. The market price of 10 sparrows
was fixed at a maximum of threepence-halfpenny
(English).
From what Jesus says, the half-decade of sparrows in His
day cost about one penny (English); the whole decade would
therefore cost about twopence. Taking into account the
difference in date—which is itself quite sufficient to explain
the difference in price—and the fact that Diocletian is fixing
a maximum pricé, we cannot deny that Jesus spoke with
correct observation of the conditions of everyday life. This
is not a mere game that we have been playing with farthings.
The edict of the Emperor Dio¢letian helps us, I think, to
understand one of the finest utterances of Jesus in its original
significance. Even in small things Jesus is great. The
unerring eye for actualities that asserts itself so repeatedly
in the gospel parables comes out also in the saying about the
sparrows. St. Paul has been accused—but unjustly—of.
overreaching himself in the figure (Rom. xi. 17 ff.) of the wild
branch grafted on the cultivated olive: The reproach is
groundless, because St. Paul is there bent on demonstrating
something that is really against nature; but St. Paul, the
inhabitant of the city, had not the marvellous simplicity of
Jesus, the child of the country, in his attitudé to nature,
1 Hermes, 25 (1890) Ῥ. 17 ff. ? Revue numismatique, 1900, p. 429 ff.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 275
or he would never have written (1 Cor. ix. 9), with expectation
of a negative answer, ‘‘ Doth God take care for oxen?”
Jesus grew up among country people, who lived with their
animals and felt for them: the ox and the ass, as we know
from pictures in the catacombs, were early placed beside the
manger-cradle of the child Christ, and the popular instinct
that borrowed them from Isaiah i. 3, and still speaks to us
from those pictures, was right. Jesus was in His true element
in the market-place, watching a poor woman counting her
coppers to see if she could still take five or ten sparrows home
with her. Poor, miserable little creatures, fluttering there,
such numbers of them, in the vendors’ cages! A great many
can be had for a very small sum, so trifling is their value.
And yet each one of them was loved by the Heavenly Father.
How much more will God care for man, whose soul is worth
more than the whole world !

‘While the papyri from the villages and small towns of

Egypt introduce us indirectly to the characteristic civilisation
of the synoptic gospels, the rediscovered culture of the cities
of Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and Southern Italy shows us
rather the background of St. Paul’s missionary labours.
Even Pompeii, although St. Paul probably never walked its
lanes, is extraordinarily instructive. It not only furnishes
us with texts; it has, by its peculiar fate, been itself preserved
with all the actuality of petrifaction, and we may regard it as
a typical town. ‘‘ Such was the actual appearance of a
city of Campania at the time when the Emperors Nero,
Vespasian, Titus ruled the world of their day.” This remark
about Pompeii was made by Friedrich von Duhn,? under whose
masterly guidance I was privileged to visit the place, gather-
ing new and lasting impressions; and I would add, speaking
1 Judging from a great number of separate instances that I have observed,
I think it would be a fascinating task to demonstrate in detail the far-reaching
parallelism in the civilisations of Egypt and Palestine under the early Roman
Empire, using on the one hand the papyrietc., and on the other hand the N.T.,
the Mishna, the Talmuds, etc. Particularly with regard to law there-is much
to be shown. See a note by L. Blau, valuable as concerning methods, in
Judaica Festschrift zu Hermann Cohens 70. Geburtstag, p. 208.
2 Pompeji, eine hellenistische Stadt in Italien (Aus Natur und Geisteswelt
114), Leipzig, 1906, p. 24. This is an excellent introduction. The large works
on Pompeii are easily accessible.
276 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
in terms of the New Testament: Such was the appearance
of a small Hellenistic town in the West in the time when
St. Paul wrote at Corinth his-letter to the Romans, his heart
full of thoughts of the West, which began for him with Italy.?
Besides the indescribably valuable general impression, there
are plenty of striking details. The Pompeian inscriptions
HRISTIAN (?) and Sodoma Gomora® and the Pompeian
“ Judgment of Solomon "3 have given rise to a well-known
controversy. In the Macellum ὁ at Pompeii we can imagine
to ourselves the poor Christians buying their modest pound
of meat in the Corinthian Macellum (1 Cor. x. 25), with the
same life-like reality with which the Diocletian maximum
tariff called up the picture of the Galilean woman purchasing
her five sparrows. How full the wall-inscriptions are of
popular wit and popular coarseness! What degradation of
the higher classes is revealed when the obscene Pompeian
bronzes, costly in material and execution, are shown in the
Naples Museum! One single example of a contribution to
our knowledge of the New Testament from Pompeii may be
given here in more detail. ὃ

In the Revelation of St. John (xiii. 18) we read :-—

“Let him that hath understanding, count the number
of the beast: for it is the number of a man, and his number
is, Six hundred three score and six.’’ (Some ancient
authorities read 616 instead of 666.)
Scientific commentators are probably by this time agreed
that the name to be “‘counted”’ must be found by
“‘gematria,” 1.6. we must look for a name the letters
1 Paul obviously divided his world into two halves: the eastern half
stretched ‘‘ from Jerusalem unto Illyricum ” (Rom. xv. 19). What was under-
stood by “ Illyricum ’”’ in the Imperial age is shown by Wilhelm Weber, Unter-
suchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus, Leipzig, 1907, p. 55.
? Cf. A. Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den
ersten dvet Jahrhunderten,? 11., Leipzig, 1906, p. 74 (81915, p. 90); The Expan-
sion of Christianity in the first three centuries, translated and edited by James
Moffatt, II., London, 1905, pp. 243 n. 3, 391 ἢ. 3; and E. Nestle, Zeitschrift
fiir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 5 (1904) p. 168, where other possible
direct witnesses to Judaism and Christianity in Pompeii are mentioned.
a the literature in Erich Becker, Malta Sotteranea, Strassburg, 1913,
Ῥ. 65.
4 1.6.“ shambles,” ‘‘ meat-market.”
5 Cf. Die Christliche Welt 17 (1903) col. 746 f.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 277
of which, taken separately in their ordinary values as
numerals and added together, will make up the sum of 666
or 616. Now it has been generally assumed by exegetists
hitherto that gematria was a specifically Jewish form of the
numerical riddle, and therefore attempts have often been
made, especially in recent times, to solve the number 666
or 616 by means of the Hebrew alphabet. As a matter of
fact, however, the interchange of numbers for words and
words for numbers was not unknown to the ancient Greeks,
as even Greek lexicons! tell us. The patristic writers, in so
far as they attempt to solve the riddle with the Greek alphabet,
show that such numerical puzzles were not entirely foreign
to the Greek world. From Pompeii, however, we learn that
they were current among the people at the very time in which
the New Testament was being written. A. Sogliano? has
published. graffiti (wall-scribblings) from Pompeii, 1.6. not
later in date than 79 A.D., one example of which is as follows :—
᾿Αμέριμνος ἐμνήσθη “Appovias τῆς Amerimnus thought upon his
iSias_x(v)pia(s) ἐπ᾿ ἀγαθῷ ἧς ὃ | lady Harmonia*for good. The
ἀριθμὸς pe’ (or αλε τοῦ καλοῦ | number of her honourable name
ὀνόματος [cf. James ii. 7]. is 45 (or 1035).
Another example reads :—
φιλῶ ἧς ἀριθμὸς hue’. | I love her whose number is 545.
These graffiti, in date not far removed from the Revelation
of St. John, certainly suggest new riddles, but they also
establish, besides those already pointed out, the following
facts :—
(1) They are concerned with names of persons, which names
for some reason or other are to be concealed.
(2) The name was concealed by resolving it into a number.
In all probability single letters were given their usual values
as numerals and then added together.
1 S.v. ἰσόψηφος. H. Dfelehaye], in the Analecta Bollandiana, 27, p. 443,
refers to Perdrizet, Revue des études grecques, 17 (1904) pp. 350-360.
2 Isopsepha Pompeiana, Rendiconti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, 10
(1901) pp. 256-259. An extract is given in the Wochenschrift fiirklassische
Philologie, 19 (1902) col. 52. Wilhelm Weber (postcard, Groningen, 27 May,
1912) refers me to E. Rohde, Griech. Roman’, p. 487.
8 This name is probably only bestowed playfully by the writer on his
mistress; her real nameis hidden in thenumber. [For the whole sentence cf.
LXX Neh. v. 19, xiii. 31. TR]
 278 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST ©
(3) The similar numerical riddle in the Revelation would
not necessarily seem Semitic, 1.6. foreign, to the men of the
Greek-speaking world. Examples of such playing with
numbers have been found on inscribed stones ! of the Imperial
period at Pergamum, which was one of the cities of the
Apocalypse (Rev. ii. 12 ff.). Franz Biicheler? has con-
vincingly proved how widespread the habit was at that time,
and a passage in Suetonius (Nevo, 39), hitherto obscured by
false conjectures, has been cleared up by his brilliant dis-
covery that the name “ Nero ᾿᾿ is there resolved numerically
into ‘“ matricide.”
(4) In solving the apocalyptic numbers 616 and 666,
occurring in the Greek book, it is not only not unfeasible
to start from the Greek alphabet, it is in fact the most
obvious thing to do.

In any case the graffiti_at Pompeii bring the Book of Mys-

teries a little bit nearer to the Hellenistic world—the world
in which it originated, but from which the exegetists have
often divided it by an all too deep gulf, although in language
and coloration it shows clearly the reflection of that world.
A visit to Pompeii and the study of its records are most
excellent means of supplementing one’s Eastern impressions,
gathered from moderately sized towns of Asia Minor, such as
Magnesia on the Maeander, or Priene, and deepened ‘by the
magnificent publications4 of the inscriptions and other
discoveries. The same is true of Hierapolis® and many
smaller towns of Asia.®
1 Cf. Die Inschviften von Pergamon, Nos. 333, 339, 587. The Pompeian
graffiti are, however, more valuable, because more popular.
2 Rheinisches Museum fiir Philologie, New Series, 61 (1906) p. 307f. Iowe
this reference to Wilhelm Weber.
8 If I may here venture to propose a solution, 616 (= Καῖσαρ θεός, ‘‘ Caesar
god ’’) is the older secret number with which the Jews branded the worship of
the emperor. 666 is perhaps a Christian adaptation of the Jewish number
to bring it into (subordinate) harmony with 888 (= ᾿Ιησοῦς, ‘‘ Jesus”).
4 For Magnesia on the Maeander, which I visited on 15 April, 1906, see
Pp. 13, n. 4 above, and Thieme’s book (p. 20, n. 4 above). For Priene, which I
saw under the guidance of Theodor Wiegand on 16 April, 1906, cf. p. 13, π. 5
above, and Rouffiac’s book (p. 20, n. 5 above); also Ziebarth, Kulturbilder,
p. 50 ff. The early Christian ‘‘ house-church ”’ at Priene is of great interest, cf.
. Priene, p. 480 f. ᾿
5 Cf. p.14,n.1above. I visited the town on 14 March, rg09.
8 Cf. pp. 13-17, above.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 279
A good deal is also known about the civilisation of the
islands in the Imperial age. The islands of the sea between
Ephesus and Corinth were not outside the sphere of St. Paul’s
missionary labours. There are scholars who, in the 16th
chapter of Romans, assume with the utmost calmness whole-
sale migrations-of poor Christians from Asia to Rome,! and
who make the slave Onesimus mentioned in Philemon run
over from Colossae to Rome or Caesarea, as if it were some-
thing quite ordinary; and yet these same scholars regard a
journey of St. Paul from Ephesus to Crete as wildly im-
probable. But the islands were easier to get at than many
towns in the interior of Asia Minor: the list of perils en-
countered by Paul the traveller in 2 Cor. xi. 23 ff. shows us
that travelling by land was fraught with great difficulties for a
poor man.? From our authorities we must certainly assume
that St. Paul made many more voyages than we are now able
to determine in detail. He had suffered shipwreck three
times already before the Second Epistle to the Corinthians
was despatched’; and the Pastoral Epistles also mention
voyages of the apostle and his companions, of which nothing
more is known, the principal one being a voyage of St. Paul
to Crete. This last reference points at least to the early
establishment of Christianity in the islands. Even if it is
not yet certain whether the “ angel ’’ inscriptions from Thera
1 The assumption breaks down at once from the fact that Aquila and
Priscilla were at Ephesus when the First Epistle to the Corinthians was written
(1 Cor. xvi. 19), and that their house was a centre for church meetings. If, as
is generally assumed, the Epistle to the Romans was written not very long
afterwards, then within that short time Aquila and Priscilla must have not
only gone to Rome, but also have got together again at once the church meeting
in their house mentioned in Rom. xvi. 5.—To describe the personal names in
Rom. xvi. as specifically Roman on the strength of inscriptions found in the
city of Rome is about as safe as to describe Wilhelm, Friedrich, Luise as
specifically Berlin names because they are found on Berlin tombstones.
The ‘‘ Roman ” names referred to are found swarming in inscriptions, papyri,
and ostraca all over the Mediterranean world.—Least appropriate of all to a
letter to Rome is the passage Rom. xvi. 17-20.
2 The “ perils of rivers, perils of robbers ”’ (2 Cor. xi. 26) have remained the
same to our own times, as we were able to convince ourselves in April 1906,
riding through the swamps of the Maeander, and next day at Didyma in the
house of a Greek who had been shot by robbers immediately before our arrival.
3 2 Cor. xi. 25.
4 Titus 1. 5. ;
5 Cf. Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums,? II. Ὁ. 195 f.;
The Expansion of Christianity, translated by Moffatt, II. p. 370 f.
280 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
are Christian, the islands would deserve our attention for
at least one reason, viz. that. the inscriptions found there
furnish a quantity of valuable information bearing on the
history of the ‘“‘ New Testament’ vocabulary.? Especially
noteworthy are the inscriptions of Delos,’ Thera,* and Cos.®
Immeasurable, next, is the abundance of light, ever in-
creasing from year to year, that has been shed upon the great
New Testament cities ® of Greece, Asia Minor, and Syria,

1 Cf. the stimulating conjectures of Hans Achelis, Spuren des Urchristentums

auf den griéchischen Inseln? Zeitschrift fir die neutestamentliche Wissen-
schaft, 1 (1900) p. 87 ff. I saw the dyyedos-inscriptions on 18 May, 1906, in
the Thera Museum. Many of them bear a rosette @, the central lines of
which look like a cross, but are not a Christian cross (on this rosette see R.
Herzog, Koische Forschungen und Funde, p. 90, n. 1). As Friedrich von
Duhn also remarked on that occasion, only one, No 952, bears instead of @ a
rosette with a p-cross. I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Hugo Kehrer for
a photograph (Fig. 52). But I consider it highly probable that the rosette
was given its Christian character subsequently. On 14 May, 1906, in the New
Museum at Epidaurus, I saw a Christian rosette just like this on an ancient
stone inscribed to Asclepius. Christian symbols are often found on stones of
pre-Christian age.—In considering the question of the age of the Christianity
of the islands two things must not be forgotten: the older Jewish settlements
and the opportunities for intercourse between the islands. There were Jewish
congregations in Crete, and how near Thera is to Crete I first learnt from.
personal observation: from the heights of Thera we saw in the south, where
sky and deep blue sea joined, the snowy peaks of Ida and the other mountains
of Crete. The preliminary conditions for a Christian mission from island to
island were therefore very favourable——I may add that in the monastery of
St. Elias in Thera I saw a number of Biblical and patristic Greek MSS., the
existence of which is, I believe, not generally known. Cf. the account (not
quite exhaustive) of them given in the Theol. Lit.-Ztg. 33 (1908) col. 4091,
by Samuel Brandt, who was travelling with me. There are also patristic
MSS. in the Museum at Candia in Crete, as I was told by the director there,
Dr. Hatzidakis, I had no time to inspect them, but I obtained the titles
afterwards.
2 Cf. the examples in Chapter II. above.
3 Cf. p. 15, ἢ. 1 above.
‘ Cf. p. 14, n. 2 above, and Ziebarth’s sketch, Kulturbilder, Ὁ. 16 ff.
5 Cf. p. 14, n. 3 above.
5 Cf. on the whole subject Sir W. M. Ramsay, Pauline Cities, London, 1907.
[The Zeus-Hermes dedication of Sedasa, near Lystra, soon after 250 A.D., dis-
covered by Sir W. M. Ramsay’s fellow-traveller, W. M. Calder, throws light on
the conduct of the natives of Lycaonia who called Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul
Mercury, Acts xiv. 11 ff. The inscription, found at Baliik-laou (Balyklagho),
about a day’s ride south of Lystra, records the dedication of a statue of
Hermes to Zeus by men with Lycaonian names, thus proving the existence of
a local cult of these deities, to which Ovid’s location of the story of Baucis and
Philemon (Metamorphoses viii. 620-625) also points. Published by Calder in
the Classical Review, 1910, pp. 76 ff., and the Expositor, July 1910, p. 1 ff.
He also has an article, ‘‘ New Light on Ovid’s Story of Philemon and Baucis,”
 Fic. 52.—‘‘ Angel’’ Inscription from the Island of Thera.
Gravestone, Imperial Period. Now in the Thera Museum.
From a photograph by Dr. Hugo Kehrer.
 αι

Io

Fic. 53.—The Zeus-Hermes dedication from Sedasa (Ahk-Kilisse), near

Lystra, soon after 250 A.D. Now in a house-wall at Baliik-laou (Balyklagho),
near Lystra. Photograph of a rubbing kindly supplied by Professor W. M.
Calder.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 281
illuminating the mission-field proper of Primitive Christianity.
The spaciousness and boldness of their proportions, the
strength and grace of their architecture, the equable beauty
of their Graeco-Roman works of art (from the marble miracles
of masters in sculpture down to the humblest of the terra-
cottas and small bronzes), the old places of worship, venerable
still in ruins—whoever has seen, and seeing has reanimated,
all this in Athens ! and Corinth,?in ever royal Pergamum,?
‘in Smyrna,‘ in the solemn and oppressive gravity of
Ephesus,’ and in the silent and but recently desecrated
in Discovery, August 1922, pp. 207-211. Cf. also Classical Review, Feb.-
March 1924, Ρ. 29, Π.1. Theinscription (see Fig. 53, photograph of a rubbing,
kindly supplied by Professor Calder), on an oblong pillar, about 2 feet high,
built into a house-wall, reads: Τούης (? Tovjs) M[a]|xpeivos ὁ] καὶ ᾿Αβάσκαντος
καὶ Bdra|ous Βρετασί]δος ᾿Ερμῆν] μέγιστον] κατὰ εὐχὴν] éemoxevdoav|res σὺν ὡρολογήωι
ἐκ τῶ[ν]] ἰδίων (ἀνγαλωμ[άτων ἀνέστ[]]σαν Διὶ [Ηλίῳ]. ‘‘ Tues Macrinus, who also
is called Abascantus, and Batasis the daughter (son?) of Bretasis, having
restored (this) Hermes Most Great according to a vow, together with the sun-
dial, at their own private charges, set it up to Zeus the Sun.’’ For ὁ καί
cf. Acts xiii. 9 and p. 452, n. 1 below; for Abascantus cf. p. 193, n. 10 above.
ἀλωμάτων is probably a mistake of the carver for ἀναλωμάτων, though it occurs
in Boeotian inscriptions. Again in May 1926, as announced in Discovery 7
(Aug. 1926), p. 262, Calder and W. H. Buckler found near Lystra a stone
altar dedicated to the ‘‘ Hearer of Prayer ’’ (Zeus?) and Hermes. Tr.]
1 19 April to 11 May, 1906.
3212 May, 1906. Corinth, the scene of events in the earliest history of
Christianity, is indescribably impressive. With the Acrocorinthus it con-
stitutes, merely as natural scenery, an experience of the highest order.
3 For Pergamum cf. p. 13, n. 3 and p. 20above. On Good Friday, 13 April,
1906, I had the advantage of seeing Pergamum under the guidance of Wilhelm
Dérpfeld. Actual inspection of the place suggests that ‘ Satan’s throne ”’
(Rev. ii. 13) can only have been the altar of Zeus; no other shrine of the hill-city
was visible to such a great distance and could therefore rank so typically as the
representative of satanic heathendom.
4 14 April, 1906; 11 and 16 March, Igo9.
5 For Ephesus cf. p. 13, n. 1 above. It well repays the theological visitor.
I inspected the Austrian excavations, under Dr. Keil’s guidance, on Easter
Sunday, 15 April, 1906, and a second time on 12 March, 1909, with Carl
Schmidt (of Berlin) and Wilhelm Weber. Though one cannot see the house
inhabited by the mother of Jesus, in spite of the already highly reputed, modern
cultofPanagia Kapuli (cf. an article by me in Die Christliche Welt, 20 [1906]
col. 873 ff.), yet there are the tragic remains of the temple of Artemis (Acts xix.
27), the well-preserved theatre (Acts xix. 29), where the Anatolian spring sends
its blood-red anemones to shine among the tiers of white marble seats, the
Stadium in which St. Paul fought with beasts (if 1 Cor. xv. 32 is to be taken
literally), the ‘‘ prison of St. Paul,”’ and important remains of early Christian
architecture (the best, perhaps, still unexcavated). And above all, one obtains
an ineradicable impression of the greatness and distinctiveness of the most
important city in the world, after Jerusalem and Antioch, in the early history
of Christianity—the city of St. Paul and St. John the Evangelist.
282 ‘LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST us
fairy-world of Miletus-Didyma,! at Laodicea* and Hiera-
polis,? at Angora‘ and Konieh,® at Tarsus,* Antioch on the
Orontes,’? and at Damascus,’ will have acquired, even if
all the details were to escape him, one permanent possession
—the recognition of the grandeur of that world of which
a Paul had ventured to say that it was passing away. Was
this remark of the artisan missionary dictated by the futile
envy of one excluded from it? or did it come from the con-
sciousness of an inner power superior even to that world?
And the quiet little Book containing the simple evidences of
that power—does it not seem strangely great when we open.
it on the Acrocorinthus or among the ruins of Ephesus ἢ greater
than the whole Bibliotheca Christiana of after times with
its frequent sins of prolixity?
Some traditional lines in the picture of the ancient world
would have to be altered if we were to try to-day to depict
that world after a study of its own records." Most of us,
probably, at some time or other, have heard that the world to
which the Gospel message came was thoroughly corrupt.
1 For Miletus-Didyma, see p. 13, n. 6 and p. 14, n. 6 above. We visited
these places under the guidance of Theodor Wiegand, 16-18 April, 1906.
Some Milesian matter will be found in the Appendices.
2 13 March, 1909. 3 14 March, 1909.
4 2 and 3 March, 1909. 56 6-8 March, 1909.
8. 20 and 21 March, 1909. 7 23 and 24 March, 1909.
8 29 and 30 March, 1909. ® 1 Cor, vii. 31.
10 The best works available to theologians are : Theodor Mommsen, Romische
Geschichte, Vol. V.; Ludwig Friedlander, Darstellungen aus dey Sittengeschichte
Roms in der Zeit von Augustus bis zum Ausgang dey Antonine, 4 parts, 8th
edition, Leipzig, 1910 (in the 7th edition the notes were unaccountably
omitted) [Eng. trans. by L. A. Magnus and J. H. Freese, London, 1908-1913;
vol. iv., by A. B. Gough, contains the notes and appendices of the 6th edition] ;
and especially Paul Wendland, Die hellenistisch-rémische Kultuy in thren
Beziehungen zu Judentum und Christentum (Handbuch zum Neuen Testament,
I, 2), Tiibingen, 1907,2% 1912. The only thing I miss in this excellent
work is a stronger emphasis on the popular elements in the cultureof the
Imperial age. The background sketched by Wendland is more suitable to
that stage of Christianity (2nd cent.) in which it was becoming literary and
theological. W. Staerk, Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, 2 small volumes in
Géschen’s series, Leipzig, 1907, gives a popular and well-ordered summary of
recent research.—Theologians must on no account neglect the investigations of
Ludwig Mitteis in the first part of his Reichsrecht und Volksvecht in den
Gstlichen Provinzen des vémischen Kaitserreichs, Leipzig, 1891, entitled ‘‘ Die
hellenistische (cf. p. vii) Civilisation und ihre Grenzen.” Though written
before the publication of most of the papyri and ostraca, this book was epoch-
making in its use of the non-literary texts which were known down to that
time. ᾿
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 283
Many writers have in good faith painted the situation in the
Roman Imperial period in the darkest colours; and in cases
where there was really nothing but light to be seen, people
have been only too often inclined to call the virtues of the
heathen brilliant vices.
This dark picture of the ancient world is due, I think, to
two main facts: it was drawn from the Jiterary records of
the age, and it was influenced by the polemical exaggera-
tions of zealous Fathers of the Church. St. Paul must not
be held responsible for it; in spite of his feeling of superi-
ority to this transitory world and its hollow wisdom, and in
spite of his knowledge-of the corruption of a great city,! he
did not overlook the light places, and he was never a mere
‘advocate abusing his opponent. It was otherwise with the
later champions of the faith, when the world had declared
war to the knife against it. They had to struggle against
the world outside and the world in their own camp, and it
is not difficult to understand their passionateness and to
pardon their heated exaggerations.
But the Christian historian of to-day ought to be just in
his judgments—because he is a Christian, and, if not for
that reason, then because he is entered on the roll of the
religion that came out victorious in the struggle. At any rate
he ought to notice which lines are caricatured. And it ought
to be equally clear to him that the merely literary records
of an age are insufficient to give him a reliable picture.?
As a general rule, literature is a reflex of upper-class opinions.
Doubt, denial, satiety, frivolity always proclaim themselves
much more loudly in the upper than in the vigorous and
unspoiled lower classes. A lower class that begins to doubt
and scoff is generally copying the educated classes; it always
lags some few dozen years behind the class above it, that
amount of time being required for the impurities to filter
down. Then, however, purification takes place automat-
ically; the giant body is robust and contains its own means
of healing. ’
The Roman Imperial period of literature is, as a matter
of fact, rich in notes of negation and despair; the luxury
of the potentates,, with its refinements in the cultivation of
1 Rom. i. 24 ff. 3 Cf. pp. 3 f., above.
 284 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
obscenity and brutality, certainly does give the age a dark
look. But even in the literature forces of a different kind
are heard and felt. The popular writers on ethics in the
narrower sense, to whom Georg Heinrici ! so insistently refers,
_ served positively to prepare the way for Christianity; but,
not to mention them, what an attractive personality, taken
all round, is Plutarch—and there are many other good names
besides his that could be mentioned in the cultured and powerful
class. And then, when we descend into the great masses and
listen to them at their work, in the fields, in the workshop,
on the Nile boat and the Roman cornships, in the army and
at the money-changer’s table,—he must be blind who cannot
see that many were leading useful, hard-working, dependable
lives, that family feeling and friendship bound poor people
together and strengthened them, that the blessings of an old
and comparatively established civilisation were felt in the
smallest villages, and, chiefly, that a deeply religious strain
went through that entire world.

3. This brings us to that feature of the world contemporary

with Primitive Christianity which is for us, of course, the
most important, viz. its religious position. The new texts
are here extraordinarily productive, for a large proportion
of them are of a directly religious nature.2 There are the
innumerable epitaphs, in poetry and prose; there are prayers
and dedications, temple laws and sacrificial regulations;
there are confessions of sin,’ private letters with a religious
colouring, horoscopes, amulets, cursing tablets and magical
books; there are oracles and thankful accounts of deliverance
from dire peril or of miraculous cures at the great shrines.
And if anyone doubts the words of these texts—setting
aside the assurances of intercession in the papyrus letters
as mere phrases, and the reports of cures as simply so much
sacerdotal fraud—perhaps figures will appeal to him. Let
him calculate the sums of money that were devoted to
1 Chiefly in his various commentaries on the Epistles to the Corinthians,
and in his semasiological analysis of the Sermon on the Mount (Vol. III. of
his Beitrage, Leipzig, 1905).
? Many examples are made use of in the various chapters of this book.
3 These extremely remarkable texts have now been conveniently collected
and criticised by Franz Steinleitner, Die Beicht. Cf. p. 192, n. 3 above.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 285
religious purposes in the Imperial period on the evidence of
dedicatory inscriptions and the papyri!—from the monster
presentations to great temples immortalised in marble
splendour, to the drachmae and obols of the Isis collections
for which a receipt was issued to the Egyptian peasant on a
miserable potsherd.? 2
Were it possible to collect before us, in all their shades of
variety, the original documents attesting the piety of the
Gentile world in the age of the New Testament, and could
we then with one rapid glance survey them all, we should
feel as St. Paul did at Athens. After passing through the
streets of that one city he was fain to acknowledge that the
men he had seen were “‘ extremely religious.’ ὃ
The impression is deepened when we gaze actually upon
some of the great places of worship which were still in high
repute in the Hellenistic period of Roman history. We
experience over again in all their complexity the feelings of
the ancient devotee, so far as they were determined by the
prevailing atmosphere of the sacred place itself. It is
possible, of course, unconsciously to read something modern
into our interpretation of the temple walls and ordered
columns rising from the debris. Above all, the imposing
solitude which usually surrounds us as we stand beside these
ruins to-day may easily mislead us into giving a false touch
to the picture we piece together for ourselves. But the great
things cannot be sophisticated: sky, and sea, and cliff,
gorge and plain, fig-tree and olive grove, and over all the
frolic strife of sunlight and shadow—these are eternally the
same. And it cannot be altogether wrong to assume that the
feelings which come over us to-day 4 on the site of the ancient
shrines were experienced also by the pious men of old who
discovered and consecrated, settled and tended these places.
All the effects come under one of two main heads: either the
1 There is much materialin Walter Otto, Priester und Tempel im helleni-
stischen Agypten, ein Beitrag zur Kulturgeschichte des Hellenismus, 2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1905 and 1908; and especially in Bernhard Laum, Stiftungen in der
griechischen und romischen Antike, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1914.
2°Cf. p. 105 above.
8 κατὰ πάντα ws δεισιδαιμονεστέρους, Acts xvii. 22. The A.V. “ too super-
stitious ” is an incorrect translation, found also in Luther’s Bible.
4 The following is a sketch of my own impressions in April and May, 1906,
—in some cases deepened and extended in 1909—0n visiting the places named.
286 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
beauty and loveliness of the sacred place enlarge the heart to
solemn devotion, or else the grandeur and the vastness make it
sink shuddering before the terrible and the sublime.
There is Olympia, with the sprightly charm of what might
almost be a German hill-landscape—a place of joyous festal
celebration. There is Epidaurus, the goal of sick pilgrims,
in its green forest solitude remote from all the world. And
Eleusis, above the silent bay bounded by the cornfields and
olive plantations of the plain and by the cliffs of Salamis;
—the spirit of this sanctuary is rendered with marvellous
feeling in the most deeply religious work of ancient sculpture
that I have ever seen, the Eleusinian Triptolemus relief in
the Museum at Athens.?
There Corinth lies, above the gleaming beauty of her rock-
crowned gulf, not unlike Eleusis, only vaster, severer, more
masculine, possessing the oldest temple on Greek soil, and -
overhung by the defiant mass of the Acrocorinthus. There
in her pride and strength and beauty the Acropolis of Athens
sits enthroned above the crowded Polis, bearing sway over
the sea and the islands,and calling up feelings of patriotic
devotion.
And then the island shrines: the temple of Aphaea in
Aegina, on a steep wooded height, with wide expanses of sea
visible through the tops of evergreen trees ; lovely Delos
in the circle of her humbler sisters; Thera, opening up to us
from primeval peaks, still sacred to this day, the beauty of
sea and sunshine stretching away into the blue limitless
distance. Finally the great seats of worship in Asia Minor:
Pergamum, Ephesus, and Miletus-Didyma, Hierapolis.
But nothing can approach the shrine of Delphi in dignity
and vastness. The giants of the prime whose hands piled
those frowning mighty walls of rock, the Phaedriads,? have
here created for the sacred precinct a background of in-
describable solemnity; not even the extravagant profusion
of costly votive offerings in bronze and marble can have
banished that solemnity in ancient times. And, on the high-
road, if you let the eye stray downward from the bare rocks
1 [Ernest A. Gardner, A Handbook of Greek Sculpture, London, 1907,
pp. 303 f. TrR.]
2 [Steep rocks on one of the peaks of Parnassus, 800 feet above Delphi,
2,000 feet above sea-level. TR.]
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 287
opposite into the valley, the stream that you see there far
below is a stream—or rather, sea—of gloomy, silent olive
woods: naught save the distant streak of some bay on the
Corinthian Gulf, lit up for a moment as it catches a glimpse
of the sun, gives to the heroic outlines of this awesome
picture a kindlier touch.
The inspection of all these venerable and solemn places,
their buildings and their sculptures, increases our knowledge
of ancient piety beyond what we know from the inscriptions
and papyri. This is chiefly because in those texts—one need
only recall the magical texts, for instance—it is the coarser
forms of religion, strongly suggestive of ‘‘ heathenism,”’ that
come prominently to the front. If we did not know it before,
we learn now from this inspection that, even at the time of
the great turning-point in religious history, there were
various levels of piety. Just as in museums we see the
neolithic bowl side by side with the masterpiece of Attic vase-
painting, so in the cults of Hellenism we find on the one hand
vestiges of primitive popular religion, surviving in secret
corners and at cross-roads under cover of the night—lurking,
too, in the letters of a propagandist —and on the other
hand temples bathed in the streaming sunlight, and votive
gifts which nothing but a high religious culture could have
created. And if we could awaken again to life the choirs
that sang in those temples and are now for ever silenced, we
should probably be still further convinced of the refinement
of that culture. The earliest Christians certainly appreciated
the mature beauty of the religious art of the world surrounding
them, as we know from the comparatively unpolished writer
of the Apocalypse. A good deal of the colouring of his
visions is obviously derived from the religious art and usage 3
of Hellenistic Asia Minor; but he shared the popular liking
for strong effects, and it was certainly the more startling
shades that he adopted. ©
1 Cf. the letter of Zoilus, pp. 152 ff. above.
2 Cf. for instance my little essay on ‘‘ White Robes and Palms” in Bibel-
studien, Ὁ. 285 ff.; Bible Studies, p. 368 ff. Much Hellenistic material for the
background of the various Apocalypses will be found in Albrecht Dieterich, .
Nehyia, Beitrdge zur Evklarung der neuentdeckten Petrusapokalypse, Leipzig,
1893; and Georg Heinrici, Der littevarische Charakter dey neutestamentlichen .
Schriften, Leipzig, 1908, p. 87 £. :
 288᾽ LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
4. Amid the tangle of religions in the Hellenistic world of
the Mediterranean—this must at least be hinted in this
connexion—certain great lines become clearer and clearer,
chiefly as the consequence of the epigraphical (and archaeo-
logical) discoveries, but thanks also to the papyri: we see
the other religions that competed with Christianity because
they were themselves missionary! religions. The great
problems suggested merely by the new material already
published 2 are by no means all solved yet. The older
Egyptian texts, doubtless containing much undiscovered
material of importance, have still to be utilised with the full-
ness they deserve, and as yet we haveno investigations dealing
with the Hellenisation and secularisation of the Egyptian
divinities.2 What prospects are opened up merely by the Isis
inscription from Ios * and the prayer to Isis from Oxyrhyn-
chus.2 To Wilhelm Weber, with his wide knowledge of the
archaeological material and of the texts, both non-literary and
literary, we are here indebted for an important series of pre-
paratory studies.* Elsewhere the investigation of the new
sources from the point of view of religious history has pro-
gressed farther : we can already reconstruct with considerable

1 Here too the letter of Zoilus is typical (pp. 152 ff. above).
Δ The pioneer works of Richard Reitzenstein (especially Poimandyes :
Studien zur griechisch-A4gyptischen und frith-christlichen Literatur, Leipzig,
1904; Die hellenistischen Mysterienreligionen,? 1920), and the extensive
literature called forth by them, deal chiefly with literary sources.
8 Franz Cumont (Les religions ovientales dans le paganisme romain, Paris,
1906, *1909; English translation, The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism,
Chicago, 1911) gives in the fourth chapter a brief survey and indicates the
problems, also with respect to the other Eastern cults; Toutain does the same
in the second volume (Paris, 1911) of his work mentioned at p. 290, n. 2
below.
4 P. 139 f. above. Adolf Rusch, De Serapide et Iside in Graecia cultis,
a Berlin dissertation, 1906, underestimates its importance as evidence of the
worship of Isis.
5 Cf. p. 140, n. 13 above.
5 Cf. his Drei Untersuchungen zur dgyptisch-griechischen Religion, a “" Habili-
tations-Schrift,” Heidelberg, 1911; <Aegyptisch-griechische Gotter im Hel-
lenismus, an inaugural address, Groningen, 1912; and especially his great
“ Book of the Lord Gods" (as I like to call it): Die dgyptisch-griechischen
Tervakotten, text and plates (Kénigliche Museen zu Berlin, Mitteilungen aus der
Agyptischen Sammlung, vol. 2), Berlin, 1914, which is uncommonly rich in
material bearing on the religion of the lower classes. Much has been pub-
lished by Otto Weinreich in his Neue Urkunden zur Savapis-Religion, Tubingen,
1919 (and in his earlier work, Antike Heilungswunder, Giessen, 1909).
‘
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 289
certainty the religious map of the world in the Imperial
period, at least at some of the main points.
To take the chief instance, Greek Judaism, the mighty
forerunner of Christianity as a world-religion, yielded up its
hidden inscriptions; papyri and the evidence of literary
writers did the rest,—and so Emil Schtirer 1 and Jean Juster?
were able to write their very full sketches of the Jews of the
Dispersion.
Franz Cumont’s work on Mithras? is monumental, not
only in the sense of being written from the monuments;
but there are also smaller investigations, such as Alfred von
Domaszewski’s on the religion of the Roman army ὁ or Hugo
Hepding’s on Attis,5 which would have been impossible
without modern epigraphy.
Finally there remain to be mentioned the important ad-
ditions to our knowledge due to the light that has been
thrown upon the worship of the sovereign, particularly
emperor-worship, in antiquity—a form of cult whose
1 Geschichte des jtidischen Volkes, 111.8 pp. 1-135 [Eng.-trs., Div. II,
vol. 2, pp. 219-327]; cf. also Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreittung des
Christentums, I.* pp. 1-16, ®pp. 1-20; Moffatt’s translation, The Expansion of
Christianity, 1. pp. 1-18; and Theodore Reinach, article Diaspora, in The
Jewish Encyclopedia, IV., New York and London, 1903, p. 559 ff. In the
map appended to my St. Paul‘ (not in second edition) I have endeavoured to
exhibit graphically the statistics of Jewish settlements outside of Palestine.
It should be compared with Cumont’s map of the Mithras cult (see next note
but one). :
3. Cf. p. 19, n. 2 above.
8 Textes et Monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystéves de Mithva, 2 vols.,
Bruxelles, 1899, 1896. Two small epitomes have appeared, entitled Les
Mystéves de Mithva,? Bruxelles, 1902, and Die Mysterien des Mithva, Ein
Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte der rémischen Kaiserzeit. Autorisierte
deutsche Ubersetzung von Georg Gehrich, Leipzig, 1903, #1911 (containing
Cumont’s map of the Mithras cult), English translation by T. J. M'Cormick,
London, 1903.—Albrecht Dieterich, Eine Mithvasliturgie erlautert, Leipzig, 1903,
contains besides the material relating to the religion of Mithras (on which see
Cumont, Revue de l’instruction publique en Belgique, 47, p. 1, and Dieterich’s
reply, Archiv fiir Religionswissenschaft, 8, p 501) a number of other investi-
gations bearing on our subject. -Dieterich had previously published a survey
entitled ‘‘ Die Religion des Mithras "᾿ in the Bonner Jahrbicher [Jahrbiicher
des Vereins von Altertumsfreunden im Rheinland], Part 108, p. 26 ff. Cf.
also Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums, II.? pp. 270 ff.,
Spp. 334 ff.; Moffatt’s translation, The Expansion of Christianity, 11. pp. 447 ff.;
and L. Patterson, Mithraism and Christianity, Cambridge, 1921.
Die Religion des romischen Heeres, Trier, 1895; offprint from the West-
deutsche Zeitschrift fir Geschichte und Kunst, 14 (1895).
5 Attis, Seine Mythen und sein Kult, Giessen, 1903.
200 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
importance is becoming more and more obvious in the
religious history of the Graeco-Roman period. Comprehensive
works have been published by E. Kornemann! and J.
Toutain.2 I think I am able to show later on in this chapter ®
how, considered in contrast with that of emperor-worship,
much of the terminology of the earliest Christian worship
acquires once more its original distinctive clearness.

5. One other thing the student of Primitive Christianity

owes to the new texts. It is something to have perceived
the religious feelings that animated the great world con-
temporary with the New Testament, and to have learnt to
know its forms of worship, but much greater is the fact that
ancient souls, seemingly lost to us for ever, have leapt into
life once more.
It has always been characteristic of Christianity from the
beginning, that, as it lived in the souls of individuals, so it
influenced the individual soul. Christianity is in the very
front rank as regards the discovery and culture of individual
souls. Its oldest documents are without exception reflexes
of souls. What a soul is reflected in the words of Jesus!
What souls has He depicted with a few touches in His parables
and words of disputation. And St. Paul’s letters are soul-
pictures in such high degree that their writer is probably
the best-known man of the early Empire: not one of his
celebrated contemporaries has left us such frank confessions.
But to understand the’ progress of the new faith through
the world we must know the spiritual constitution of the men
from whom the missionaries came and to whom the message
and pastoral care of the missionaries were addressed.
That these were men of the non-literary classes has been so
often indicated in these pages from a variety of points of
view, that I should have no objection if this thesis were
described as a main feature of my book. There is a book
which affords us admirable aid in dividing off these classes
from the upper class which, being possessed of power, wealth,
or education, is the most seen and heard in the literature of the
1 Zuy Geschichte dey antiken Herrscherkulte, Beitrage zur alten Geschichte
{Klio], 1, pp. 51-146.
3 Les cultes paiens dans l’empive romain. Premiére partie, tome I. Les
cultes officiels; les cultes romains et gréco-romains, Paris, 1907.
8 Pp. 338-378.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 201
Imperial age and elsewhere. Under the auspices of the
Berlin Academy of Sciences three scholars, Elimar Klebs,
Hermann Dessau, and Paul von Rohden, presented us with a
three-volume work,! Prosopographia Imperii Romani Saec. I.
IT, III., uniting in one great alphabetical catalogue 8,644
men and women who are known from literature, inscriptions,
etc., in the three centuries from Augustus to Diocletian,
which of course mean to us the primitive period of Christi-
anity. Turning the pages of these volumes we find among
the men of the Imperial age the deified favourite Antinous,
but not John the Baptist; Apollonius of Tyana, but not
Jesus of Nazareth; the celebrated robber chief Bulla Felix,
but not Paul of Tarsus; the historian Flavius Josephus, but
not the Evangelist Luke, to say nothing of the vanished souls
in the lists of salutations in the letters of St. Paul. This is
no mere accident; the editors intentionally neglected “ the
endless multitude of plebeians that crowd the pages of ecclesi-
astical and legal writers.” ὃ
I will not press the sentence; I will not refer in confu-
tation of it to the isolated examples of insignificant persons
who of course have found their way into this book of grandees
here and there. But one thing I will say: That endless
multitude, as it is rightly called, which seems too big to be
comprehended historically, and which begins below the
upper eight-thousand found worthy to be catalogued in the
Berlin Prosopographia, deserves attention because in it
Primitive Christianity grew up and expanded. One of the
greatest pictures in the Revelation drawn by one of that
multitude and consecrated by the tears of those nameless ones
shows 8 the “‘ great multitude, which no man could number,
of all nations, and kindreds, and people, and tongues, stand-
ing before the throne, and before the Lamb, . . . who came
out of great tribulation, . . . and who shall hunger no more,
neither thirst any more.”

1 Berolini, 1897-1898.
2 Klebs in the Praefatio to Vol. I. (p. viii), “sed hominum plebeiorum
infinita illa turba qua scripta ecclesiastica et auctorum iuris referta sunt
procul semota est.” In exactly the same way the aristocratic historians of
the Imperial age are devoid of almost all interest in Christianity in the first
stages; and the fact that Jesus and St. Paul are not mentioned by certain
contemporary writers is admirably accounted for by social history.
3 Rev. vii. 0-17.
 292 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
And now to-day the new texts have brought a wonder to
pass. That ancient world of the insignificant and the many
who hungered and thirsted, which seemed to be inaccessible
save to the dreamy eye of the seer, and hopelessly lost to the
scholar, now rises up before us in the persons of innumerable
individuals. They sow grains of wheat once more in the
furrow blessed by the Nile; they pay their drachmae for tax
and impost, duty and rate and collection; they travel by
boat, on camels or on donkeys to the capital, to fill the halls
of justice with their quarrels and abuse; adventurous youths
climb on board the imperial ships bound for Italy; in silent
devotion the survivors observe ancestral custom at death
and burial: And so it goes on from generation to generation,
from the days of the Septuagint to the gospels and the
church-meetings of the Pauline mission, on to Diocletian and
the baptised Caesars: in the lower stratum there is always
the same bustle of so many humble individuals eating,
drinking, sowing; tilling, marrying and given in marriage.
But out of the ceaseless rhythm of wholesale existence
souls emerge, individual souls, in which the scholar may
recognise types of ancient personal life. The unparalleled
value of the papyrus letters is this, that they bring before us
with all possible truth ancient souls and spiritual conditions
in the non-literary classes.
What is it that makes these newly discovered papyrus
- letters such splendid evidence of the soul-life of the ancients?
What literature has to show us in the way of souls is a
product of art, often of a high form of art, but even then
generally only a drawing from the model. That which is literary
cannot be completely naive. We cannot be sure whether it is
the real face or only a mask of concealment worn by a player
when the Emperor Hadrian writes these verses ! before his
death :—
“Soul of mine, pretty one, flitting one,
Guest and partner of my clay,
Whither wilt thou hie away;—
Pallid one, rigid one, naked one—
Never to play again, never to play? ”
} Whether they are genuine I do not know: Eduard Norden (letter,
3 September, 1908) sees no reason for doubting their authenticity. They
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 293
And the works of the plastic arts? The marbles and
bronzes recovered from the ruins of ancient cities and from
the sea-bed around the coasts are certainly not soul-less;
but to whom would the athlete of Ephesus in the Theseion at
Vienna,! or the youth of Anticythera at Athens,? have ever
revealed his soul? These marvellous presentments of the
human body so captivate us that we do not think of inquiring
about their souls until we have said farewell to them and the
bronzes can no longer understand our questioning. Who
would venture to make the great eyes of the Egyptian mummy-
portraits speak, or attempt to read the personal secrets of
even the portrait-busts of the Imperial period? The con-
noisseur only ventureson hesitating attempts at interpreta-
tion when he is supported by literary tradition.’
And the men who speak to us on the inscribed stones—do
they stand quite naturally before us? Are they not in the
same publicity as the stone, and are not their words calcu-

are found in the Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Hadrian, 25 (rec. Peter,?

p- 27) :-

“‘ Animula vagula blandula

hospes comesque corporis,
quae nunc abibis in loca
pallidula rigida nudula
nec ut soles dabis iocos !”

For the “ naked soul” cf. for instance St. Paul, 2 Cor. v. 3. [These verses are
of acknowledged difficulty to translate. Prior, Pope, Byron, and Christina
Rossetti are amongst those who have essayed the task. The version in the
text is by Merivale. Deissmann’s rendering runs literally: ‘ Thou restless
charming little soul of mine, the body’s guest and comrade, must now away,
poor little thing, so pale and so bare, to a land so bleak, and hast for the last
time jested!’’ Tr.] A stimulating discussion between Otto Immisch,
L. Deubner, Friedrich Reiche, and Ernst Hohl will be found in the Neue
Jahrbiicher fiir das klassische Altertum, 1915, pp. 201 ff.5. 4121.; 413 ff.;
4151. My proposal to connect rigida with loca there received more than one
confirmation.
1 [Guy Dickins, Hellenistic Sculpture, Oxford, 1920, P. 34, and
Plate 26. TR.) :
2 [Anticythera is the official modern Greek name for the island of Cerigotto
(between Cerigo and Crete), off which the statue was found. ; See Ernest A.
plate; Guy
Gardner, Six Greek Sculptors’, London, 1925, pp. 244-6, with
Dickins, op. cit., pp. 53 ff. TR.] ;
Hadrianus,
3 E.g. Wilhelm Weber, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Καὶ aisers
p. 174: “Α heaviness about the eyes and a reserved and piercing look give
even to his (Hadrian’s) face a peculiarly melancholy stamp.”
204 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
lated for publicity? We could indeed make shift to patch
together some of their personalities, but we could put no life
into them. The imperial physician and imperial murderer
G. Stertinius Xenophon of Cos,1 the contemporary of St. Paul,
is a case in point. The editor of the inscriptions of Cos has
tried to make him live again and has found in him a figure
for an historical romance ?;—a figure, certainly, but no
soul.
Two generations later a Lycian millionaire, Opramoas of
Rhodiapolis, thrusts himself forward with boastful ostentation
among the crowd of inscriptions from Asia Minor. On the
walls of the heroén destined for the reception of his mortal
body we find still to-day nigh upon seventy records which,
in order that his name might not perish, he engraved in marble,
immortalising his money benefactions and other services, as
well as the honours he received from emperors, procurators,
and municipal associations. Thanks principally to modern
archaeology 8 this man with the full-sounding name has
attained his object : Opramoas is to-day, at least in a few
scholars’ studies, a sort of celebrity. But where is his soul?
So far as it was not identical with his treasure, it is not to be
found on all those great marble tablets. And if we were to
receive it from the hand of the angel commissioned to demand
it of the rich man in the night, it would not be a soul that felt
at home with the poor souls of the New Testament.
Even where the inscriptions seem to bear a more personal
note, we do not always: find a personal manifestation. In the
poetical epitaphs, especially, there is much that is borrowed
and plenty of second-hand feeling. It would be rash, for
example, to say that Chrysogonus of Cos, with his eighty-
three years, was a great drinker merely on the strength of the
epigram on his tomb (Figure 54), even supposing he was
himself responsible for the epitaph.
1 Cf. p. 253 above.
? Rudolf Herzog, Koische Forschungen und Funde, p. 189 ff.
5 Reisen im stidwestlichen Kleinasien, 11. pp. 76-135; Rudolf Heberdey,
Opramoas Inschriften vom Heroon zu Rhodiapolis, Wien, 1897. The inscrip-
tions extend from 125 to 152 A.D. Heberdey enumerates 69 of them.
4 The Opramoas inscriptions are, however, of great value to us as religious
history; first in illustration of the powerfully sarcastic parable of the rich fool
(Luke xii. 16-21) and the other allied types of the “ rich man,” and secondly
in contrast with the spirit of Matt. vi. 1-4. For the type cf. also Ernst Meyer,
Dev Emporkémmling : ein Beitrag zur antiken Ethologie, a Giessen dissertation,
1913. e
 Fic. 54.—Epigram on the Tomb of Chrysogonus
of Cos.
Marble Altar, Imperial Period. Now built into the wall of
a house in Cos. By permission of Rudolf Herzog and the
‘publishing house of Theodor Weicher (Dieterich’sche Verlags-
buchhandlung). Begs
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 295
This feeble epigram,! the metre of which is here imitated
in the translation, dates from the Imperial period and runs
as follows :—
οὔνομα & <a> Χρυσό- One, Chrysogonus hight, lies
yovos Νονυφῶν2 here, of nymphs an adorer,
λάτρις ἐνθάδε κεῖτα[ι] Saying to each passer-by,
παντὶ λέγων παρό- “Drink, for thou seest the
Sw" 3 πεῖνε, βλέπις end.”
τὸ τέλος. 83 years.
ἐτῶν ΠῚ τ

The exhortation to drink in anticipation of approaching

death is one of the well-known formulae of ancient popular
morals ὁ (often, no doubt, of popular wit), and is by no means
rare in epitaphs.5 We can therefore draw no certain con-
clusion whatever as to the spiritual constitution of Chryso-
gonus in particular from his epitaph. We know little about
the old man beyond his name and a cult to which he was
devoted; his soul has disappeared for ever.
The epitaphs of antiquity as a whole are of this service,
that they reflect for us the emotions of a class of men rather
than the innermost thoughts of individuals. Stones with
long metrical inscriptions almost provoke us, as we seek for
something personal behind the ornate forms, to cry sometimes
in the words of a medieval inscription from Heraclia on the
Black Sea ® :—
1 Discovered and published by Rudolf Herzog, Koische Forschungen und
Funde, p. 103 ff., No. 163. The greatly reduced facsimile (Fig. 54) is given
here from Plate VI. 2 by kind permission of the discoverer and his publisher.
® Should no doubt be Νυνφῶν.
8 ὃ πάροδος, ‘‘ the passer-by,” ‘‘ traveller’ (cf. 6 σύνοδος, “‘ companion on
the road ’’), was hitherto only known in LXX 2 Sam. xii. 4, Ezek. xvi. 15, 25,
and Symmachus Jer. xiv. 8; but it must be struck out of the list of ‘‘ Biblical ’’
words. It occurs not exactly rarely in inscriptions (Herzog, p. 104f.); cf. also
an inscription from Egypt in E. Breccia, Note epigrafiche e bollettino biblio-
grafico, Extrait du Bulletin de la Société Archéol. d’Alexandrie, No. 12 (1910),
P. 16, χαίρετε πάροδοι, and Inschriften von Priene, No. 311, where there is no
need to conjecture παροδ[ίτα]ις.
4 Cf. Isaiah xxii. 13 in the original text and in the interesting LXX transla-
tion; then cf. St. Paul’s use of the passage in « Cor. xv. 32, which is very
effective in a popular way.
5 Herzog, p. 105.
* Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 8748, 13th cent. a.D. :
ἂν off λ]ίθοι κρ[ά]ζωσιν ἐκ [π]αροιμίας,
πέμψον βοήν, [ἄφων]ος, ἄψυχος πέ[τ]ρ[α].
I read [d¢wv]os, after J. H. Moulton, The Expository Times, October 1908,
p. 32. There is an allusion to Luke xix. «o,
206 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
“ΤΕ then the stones cry out, as saith the Word, |
Send forth a shout, thou voiceless, soulless rock ! ”’

But the stones remain dumb: they have preserved for us

no souls.
Souls, however, living souls from the great perished multi-
tude, good and bad, beautiful and ugly, joyful and tremulous, ©
flutter towards us with the papyrus letters ! that have been
snatched from the rubbish of villages and little towns in
Egypt. Those who, being vilely deceived in their hopes of
autograph MSS. of philosophers and poets, cast the letters
aside as lumber owned by the obscure, will fetch them out
again when they have learnt to appreciate the value of non-
literary waiveté. The more obscure the writer, the more naive
‘will be the letter, at least as concerns the thought of future
publication. It may be said with some certainty that most
of the papyrus letters written by unknown men and women
of Egypt at the time when the New Testament was growing
and consolidating are in the above sense of the word com-
pletely naive and reflect single definite situations in the outer
or inner lives of their writers with the greatest sincerity, even
if we make some allowances for conventional wording.
This estimate of the papyrus letters is quite in harmony
with ancient ideas on the subject, as may be shown by refer-
ence to Demetrius,? a theorist on the art of letter-writing,
who says very finely that in writing a letter one draws a
picture of one’s own soul, and in nothing is the personality
better reflected than in a letter.
Interpretative scholarship ought certainly to come first
to an understanding about the methods of regarding, explain-
ing, and reanimating these ancient self-portraits. We are
not yet sufficiently practised in this new art. The best way
is to read the texts in conjunction with other scholars, with
continuous discussion of the various possibilities of inter-
1 It is a remarkable fact that the 2nd cent. a.p. is especially rich in personal
letters allowing of conclusions as to spiritual conditions. Is that accident,
or were men then really more sentimental and communicative? This open-
ness and sensitiveness of soul was an important factor in the Christian
propaganda.
2 Epistolographi Graect, rec. Hercher, p. 13: σχεδὸν γὰρ εἰκόνα ἕκαστος τῆς
ἑαυτοῦ ψυχῆς γράφει τὴν ἐπιστολήν. καὶ ἔστι μὲν καὶ ἐξ ἄλλου λόγου παντὸς ἰδεῖν τὸ
ἦθος τοῦ γράφοντος, ἐξ οὐδενὸς δὲ οὕτως ὡς ἐπιστολῆς.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 297
pretation. What one regards as mummy-like another will
perhaps be able to make live again. At any rate let us read
without sentimentally lauding any supposed child of nature
to the skies; let us brand as brutal what is brutal, and accord
no praise to vulgar narrowness.. Not on any account, how-
ever, must we come to the letters with the condescending
superiority of the man from town who knows “ the people ”
only from kail-yard fiction or from stage-representations, and
perhaps from holiday tours in quest of old farmhouse furni-
ture; ‘who thinks Hodge stupid, and is hugely amused at his
lack of culture. In these texts we are dealing not with
curiosities but with human destinies; sometimes only the
humorous vexations of everyday life are concerned—and then
it is permissible to smile—but often the trouble is very deep
and real. We must leave our linguistic red-pencils at home,
- for these are not Greek examination papers to be corrected,
and we shall do better to ask ourselves whether soldiers and
day-labourers of the present day write any better. These
texts should be read only by those who have hearts for the
common people, who feel at home among fields, vineyards,
and dykes, guard-rooms and rowing-thwarts, and who have
learnt to read the lines of a hand distorted by toil.
There is Alis, wife of the day-labourer Hilarion, growing
anxious as her hour of trial approaches: a half-sentimental,
half-brutal letter 1 is all that her husband writes her from the
capital, on 17 June in the year I B.C. "
Irene ? is called upon to console a family that has just been
plunged into mourning, but the poor empty soul has nothing
to give but tears and a few good words dictated to her by
custom; and yet we cannot deny her our sympathy.
Or a young Egyptian soldier who has just been saved
from peril on the sea by the lord Serapis, lands in Italy and
writes to his father ? while the new impressions are fresh upon
him. A thankful, hopeful temperament this soldier’s, as he
looks forward to the future, nor does he lose his attractiveness
after years of hard service‘ The same hearty goodwill
comes out in the letter of another soldier.®
Or Sempronius ® worries about his aged mother far away,
1 Cf. p. 134 ff. above. 2 Cf. p. 176 ff. above. 5. Cf. p. 179 ff. above.
“Cf. p. 184 ff. above. 5 Cf. p. 197 ff. above. ® Cf. p 192 ff. above.
 298 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT. EAST
who ought to be worshipped as if she were a god, but who is
at the mercy of her unfeeling younger sons.
Then again there is revealed. to us the soul of a practising
propagandist of a cult: Zoilus1 stands undisguised before
us, with all his servile fear and calculating thoughts of reward
—on terms with the deity and with the great ones of this
world, fulfilling with smartness and sanctity the requirements
for extending and establishing his cult.
And then Nearchus prattles on to Heliodorus ? about his
travels, and we see him in sacred places carving the names of
his friends with intercessory prayer.
Or we hear the prodigal Antonis Longus 5 coming to him-
self and expressing his contrition in these moving sentences
in the first person: ‘‘I walk about in rags, I am naked.
I beseech thee, mother, be reconciled to me! I have been
chastened. I know that I have sinned.”
And so it goes on, the texts are inexhaustible. The same
papyri that we made use of above to make clear the character-
istics of the non-literary letter can thus be employed also in
solving a greater and still more profitable problem—that of
entering into the nature of individual souls among the non-
litérary classes οὗ ancient society. Soul is added to soul, a
new soul in every letter, and we even possess whole bundles
of connected letters from one and the same family,‘ and are
able to see into the relationship between various families of
the same social stratum. Every new soul, however, makes
clearer to us the “ world ᾿ which was the object of the mission-
1 Cf. p. 152 ff. above, 2 Cf. p. 174 f. above. 3 Cf. p. 187 ff. above.
4. Cf. the 14 letters from the correspondence of the veteran L. Bellenus
Gemellus, of the years 94-110 a.D., which were found in a house at Kasr el-
Banat (the ancient Euhemeria) in the Fayim, and publishedin Faytm Towns,
Nos. 110-123. The handwriting of the letters written by the man himself
shows the advance of age. The letters yield an unusually rich lexical harvest.
For the epistolary formula οὖς (ὃν) ἐγὼ ἀγαπῶ ἐν ἀληθείᾳ, “‘ whom I love in
truth ” (2 John 1, 3 John 1), there is analogy in the Gemellus letters 11925.
(¢. 100 A.D.) and I18,, (110 A.D.), τοὺς φιλοῦντες ἡμᾶς (σὲ) πρὸς ἀλήθιαν,
“who love us (thee) according to truth." U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,
G6ttingische gel. Anzeigen, 1901, p. 37 ff., made a beginning in the work of
turning these letters to scientific account.—There should also be mentioned the
correspondence of Heliodorus and others (see p. 236 above), part of which is
published in the Amherst Papyri, Nos. 131-135, the rest at Heidelberg still
awaiting publication. There are also connected family letters in the Berliner
Griechische Urkunden, etc. The correspondence of Abinnaeus, which next
follows in the Christian Imperial period, has been mentioned above, p. 218.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 299
ary labours of St. Paul and: his successors. This world was
composed of human souls. The interest of the first missionary
generations was directed, not to ancient systems of philosophy
and speculative ways of combating them, but to the salvation
of souls. It is, however, most highly probable that the souls
of men on the coasts of Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece were
not essentially different from those of their Egyptian con-
temporaries. This is what I meant by saying above that we
may take the souls of the Egyptian letter-writers as types of
the ancient soul in general. If individual proof be wanted,
think of the surprising similarity between the Prodigal Son
depicted by Jesus the Galilean and the real soul of the
Egyptian Antonis Longus. But chief stress must be laid on
the total impression received; anyone coming from the soul-
life of the New Testament to the papyri finds himself in no
strange world, and whoever comes from the papyrito the
New Testament will encounter familiar states and expressions
of emotion at every step.
Some day perhaps, when all those men and families of the
ancient lower classes have received individual attention and
been made to live again, the command will go forth from the
citadel of learning that they and the countless others whose
names alone are mentioned shall also be enrolled. The
personal register of the upper classes, which is a book of con-
trast to the New Testament, will then be supplemented by a
personal and family register of the humbler classes, a book
not of contrast but of contact.!_ And in this book, in which
peasants and artisans, men and women, from Egypt jostle
1 A tremendous task no doubt. A specimen is furnished by Franz Paulus’s
Greifswald dissertation, Prosopographie dey Beamten des APSINOITHZ NOMOZ
in dey Zeit von Augustus bis auf Diokletian, Borna-Leipzig, 1914. None but
non-literary persons, belonging to the upper ranges of their class, are there
recorded, 1325 of them in all, mostly small officials, such as occur frequently
in the N.T. Still more copious: Friedr. Preisigke, Namenbuch, containing
-all the Greek, Latin, Egyptian, Hebrew, Arabic and other Semitic and non-
Semitic names of persons occurring in Greek documents (papyri, ostraca,
inscriptions, mummy tablets, etc.) found in Egypt, with an appendix by
Enno Littmann, published by the author at 101 Gaisbergstrasse, Heidelberg,
1922. Most of these names of course do not come into the light of the inquiry
concerning souls: they remain names of isolated individuals out of the vast
number of the Unknown. But the noteworthy fact is that, thanks especially
to the discovery of letters, we are able to bring to life again a not inconsiderable
number of individuals and families who may be regarded as typical of the
masses in ancient times—those masses that were, to all seeming, lost.
300 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
legionaries from Britain and the frontiers of Germany, in
which traders from Syria and the Black Sea encounter with
slaves from Ephesus and Corinth—in this book of the For-
gotten we shall not search in vain for the Baptist, for Jesus,
and for St. Paul.

Souls of the ancients! Before we leave them let me

commend their study to all those—I do not wish to blame
them—who are so fond of chasing the psyche of ‘“‘ modern ”’
man with the butterfly-net. If we look to the really great
events and possibilities of the inward life, those “ ancient ”
souls seem to be separated by no such great interval from our
own. That is to say, the papyri teach us the continuity of
human soul-life in all its main movements. If I may give
practical point to the observation, they diminish, when heed
is paid to things of the soul, the interval that many people
nowadays, exaggerating the value of things intellectual, feel
between themselves and the New Testament.

6. When the individual souls of antiquity have been studied

so far that a beginning can be made with the personal register
of the humbler classes, we shall recognise better than we can
at present how greatly Christianity met the needs of those
souls. The depth of meaning will become clearer and clearer
in that dream-vision 1 of a man of Macedonia, begging the
Apostle of the Gentiles, then in Asia, to ‘‘ come over into
Macedonia, and help us.” Indeed, the old and the new came
to meet each other like two hands stretched out for a friendly
clasp.
In this connexion the fact which occupied us in the second
chapter appears in a new light, I mean the fact of close rela-
tionship between the early Christian missionary language
and the popular language of the age. The scholars who
isolated ‘‘ New Testament ”’ Greek did not reflect that by so
doing they closed the doors of the early Christian mission.
Paul would have found no “ open door ’’ 2 if he had not been
1 Acts xvi. 9.
2 This thoroughly popular expression, a favourite with St. Paul (1 Cor. xvi.9;
2 Cor. ii. 12; Col. iv. 3), is very characteristic. Thanks probably to the
English, who know their Bibles so well, it has become a catchword of modern
international politics, but not many who use it are conscious of its Pauline
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 301
to the Greeks “a Greek,” 1.6., in our context, if he had not
in the Hellenised world spoken to Hellenised men in the
Hellenistic popular language.
We can, however, go still further: Paul and the other
apostles are, in a much higher degree than has probably ᾿
been supposed, at home also in the world of cultural, especially
of religious, ethical, and legal ideas peculiar to their Hellen-
istic age, and they are fond of making frequent use of details
taken from this world of thought. This is a fact which is
not completely separable from the one discussed in Chapter II;
‘at many points philology and social history overlap.1 This is
particularly true in the case of technical ideas and liturgical
formulae, but also where institutions of the surrounding world
exert an influence on the figurative language of religion.
One of the marks of the highly popular style of St. Paul’s
missionary methods is thatin many passages of his letters
we find St. Paul employing a usage particularly familiar and
intelligible to popular feeling—I mean the technical phrase-
ology and the cadence of the language of magic.
I have tried elsewhere 2 to show that the curious sentence
about “the marks of Jesus’? is best understood if read in
the light of a magical formula handed down in a Leyden
papyrus.4
So too in the case of the directions to the Corinthian church
concerning the punishment of the transgressor who had

character. St. Paul perhaps found it current in the world about him.—C. E.
Gleye, in the Padagogischer Anzeiger fiir Russland, 1912, No. 3 (offprint, p. 4)
suggested, not very convincingly, that the modern catchword should be
traced back to Alfred de Musset. Afterwards (Tagliche Rundschau, 11 Oct.,
1915) he referred to the 25th edition of Biichmann’s Gefligelte Worte for
evidence that the expression was introduced into the language of politics by
John Hay, Secretary of State, U.S.A., in 1899. That would be compatible
with my conjecture here put forth. [Deissmann nevertheless alters ‘‘ English ”
to “‘ Anglo-Saxons.” But the New English Dictionary, s.v. ‘Open door,’ has
quotations, beginning with one from a speech by the Chancellor of the
Exchequer, Sir Michael Hicks-Beach (afterwards Viscount St. Aldwyn, 1837--
1916) in Jan. 1898, showing that the phrase was used throughout that year
especially with reference to Chinese ports. TR.]
1 It is advisable, however, to keep the points of view of philology and social
history distinct. At many points philology holds its own completely.
2 Bibelstudien, p. 262 ff.; Bible Studies, p. 346 ff.
3 Gal. vi. 17.
‘ For this formula see also J. de Zwaan, The Journal of Theological Studies,
April 1905, p. 418.
302 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
committed sin with his step-mother,! the full meaning does
not come out until the passage is read in connexion with the N N

ancient custom of execration, i.e. devoting a person to the gods

of the lower world. A person who wished to injure an enemy
or to punish an evil-doer consecrated him by incantation and
tablet to the powers of darkness below, and the tablet reached
its address by being confided to the earth, generally to a
grave.2 A regular usage was established in the language of
these execrations,—a usage common to antiquity. The only
difference between Jewish and pagan execrations probably
lay in the fact that Satan took the place of the gods of the
lower world. In form, however, there must have been great
similarities.2 This is seen in the words of St. Paul to the
Corinthians :-—

“* Gather together in the name of the Lord Jesus, ye

and my spirit, and in fellowship with the power of our Lord
Jesus deliver such a one unto Satan for the destruction of the
flesh, that his spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord
Jesus.” 4

Two technical expressions are here adopted from the ritual

of cursing. The phrase “deliver unto Satan that... .,”
recurring in τα Tim. i. 20, corresponds to the formula in ‘the
London Magical Papyrus 4654 ¢.:—

““Daemon of the dead, . . . I deliver unto thee (such a

man), in order that... ,’’5

and even the unobtrusive little word σύν, “‘ with,” “ in fellow-

ship with,” is technical in just such contexts as this: we
find it not only in the Paris Magical Papyrus,® but also
1 1 Cor. v. 4. 5.
2 Cf. Antike Fluchtafeln ausgewahlt und erkld4rt von Richard Wiinsch
(Lietzmann’s Kleine Texte, No. 20), Bonn, 1907.
3 Cf. pp. 95, 96 above, the remarks on ἀναθεματίζω, “1 curse.”
§ 1 Cor. v. 4,5: ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τοῦ κυρίου ᾿Ιησοῦ συναχθέντων ὑμῶν καὶ τοῦ ἐμοῦ
πνεύματος, σὺν τῇ δυνάμει τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν ᾿Ϊησοῦ παραδοῦναι τὸν τοιοῦτον τῷ Σατανᾷ
εἰς ὄλεθρον τῆς σαρκός, ἵνα τὸ πνεῦμα σωθῇ ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τοῦ κυῤίου ᾿Ιησοῦ.
5 Greek Papyri in the British Museum, ed. Kenyon (Vol. I.) p. 75, νεκυδαίμων,
. παραδίδωμί σοι τὸν S(civa), ὅπως... . The papyrus was written in the
4th cent. a.D., but its formulae are ancient. The present formula, addressed
to a daemon of the dead, is neither Jewish nor Christian.
® Cf. p. 259 above, line 2999.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 303
on a much older Attic cursing tablet of lead (3rd. cent.
B.C.) 2 :— :
“T will bind her . . . in fellowship with Hecate, who is
below the earth, and the Erinyes.”

All this proves therefore that the apostle advises the

Corinthian church to perform a solemn act of execration.
And in the concluding lines of x Corinthians, which St. Paul
wrote with his own hand,? there is a reminiscence of the
cadence of ancient curses imitated from the language of |
legislation :—
“ΤΕ any man loveth not the Lord, let him be anathema.”
With this compare the epitaph from Halicarnassus already
cited above ὃ :—
“But if anyone shall attempt to take away a stone...
let him be accursed.”
1 Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum, Appendix (= Inscriptiones Graecae,
Vol. III. Pars 11.), No. 108, δήσω (cf. the following pages) ἐγὼ κείνην
. σύν θ᾽ ‘Exdr(n)e χθονίαι καὶ ᾿Ερινύσιν. Considering the rarity of the
preposition σύν (cf. Tycho Mommsen, Bevirdge zu der Lehre von den grie-
chischen Praépositionen, 3 parts, Frankfurt a. M., 1886, 1887; at p. 107 σύν
is even described as an aristocratic word) this parallel is not without import-
ance. The same σύν occurs also in a metrical oracle from Asia Minor, in
‘Heinevetter’s Wiirfel- und Buchstabenorakel, p. 6: σὺν Ζηνὶ (μεγίστῳ) (τ)ε(ύ)ξῃ ἐ(φ᾽
ἣν)ὁρμᾶς mpaéw.—We may make room here for ἃ remarkable parallel to Phil. i. 23,
“‘to depart, and to be in fellowship with (σύν) Christ.’ As to the formula “ with
Christ ’’ (σὺν Χριστῷ) I have tried to show (Die neutestamentliche Formel “in
Christo Jesu,’ Marburg, 1892, p. 126) that it nearly always means the fellow-
ship of the faithful with Christ after their death or after His coming. Thus
we read in a vulgar grafito from Alexandria (Imperial period ?) these words
addressed to a deceased person, εὔχομαι κἀγὼ ἐν τάχυ σὺν σοὶ εἶναι, “1 would
that I were soon in fellowship with thee ’’ (Sitzungsber. der Kgl. Preuss.
Akademie der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1902, p. 1098); U. von Wilamowitz-
Moellendorff there points out the striking fact'that the gvaffito already expresses
the hope [not current even in the New Testament] of meeting again after death
which is current among us. It seems that we have here an inscription (or
formula?) that had previously been regarded as ‘ Christian” (see Victor
Schultze, Die Katakomben, Leipzig, 1882, p. 281). The matter needs looking
into. Hermann Diels, writing from Berlin W., 22 July, 1908, tells me that
the (certainly rare) mention of meeting again in ancient epitaphs has its
exact parallel in the ancient mysteries: the gold plates of the Orphics
(Vorsokvatiker,? p. 480, No. 17 ff.) have no other object than to guarantee this
certainty. The new thing about the graffito is its proof that the ideas of
the mystics had penetrated among the People.
2 1 Cor. xvi. 22, ef τις οὐ φιλεῖ τὸν κύριον, ἤτω ἀνάθεμα. Similar formulae,
Gal. i. 8, 9.
3 Page 96, n. 7.
304 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Akin to this is the parallelism between St. Paul’s assevera-
tion 1 :---
“1 call God for a witness upon my soul.”

and the formula of an oath taken under Augustus and recorded

in an inscription from Galatia,? in which the taker of the
oath says, in case of breach of the oath :—
“I pronounce a curse against myself, my body, soul,
goods, children, etc.’’ 3
The clearest example of the use of technical expressions
taken from magic is perhaps the phrase ‘‘ bond of the tongue.’
In the story of the healing of the deaf and dumb man St. Mark
(vii. 35) says :—
“And straightway his ears were opened, and the bond
of his tongue was loosed.”
Most commentators, I think, have lightly pronounced “ bond
of his tongue” to be a “ figurative’’ expression, without
realising the technical peculiarity. and therewith the point
of the “ figure.’”” But running throughout all antiquity we
find the idea that a man can be “‘ bound ”’ or “ fettered’”’ by
daemonic influences. It occurs in Greek, Syrian, Hebrew,
Mandaean, and Indian magic spells.5 In Greek we even have
a detailed magical prescription for ‘‘ binding’: a man,®
besides large numbers of inscriptions dealing with the matter.
One of the oldest of these is the following, a leaden tablet
from Attica of the first half of the 4th cent. B.c. (Fig. 55),
which I give here as read by Adolf Wilhelm 7 : —
1 2 Cor. i. 23, ἐγὼ δὲ μάρτυρα τὸν θεὸν ἐπικαλοῦμαι ἐπὶ τὴν ἐμὴν ψυχήν. ‘* Upon
my soul” or ‘‘ against my soul ” in case I say what is untrue.
2 Dittenberger, Orientis ἀγαθοὶ Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 5328, ἐπαρῶμαι
αὐτός τε κατ᾽ ἐμοῦ καὶ olwpalros τοῦ ἐμαυτοῦ Kai ψυχῆς καὶ βίου κα[ὶ τέϊκνων, etc,
3 At the same time a fine analogy to Luther’s ‘‘ Leib, Gut, Ehr, Kind
und Weib,” which is influenced by Luke xviii. 29 [‘‘ And though they take
our life, Goods, honour, children, wife, Yet is their profitsmall . . .” in Carlyle’s
version of ‘‘ Ein’ feste Burg.” Cf. p.143,n.1above. ΤῈ]
4 ὃ δεσμὸς τῆς γλώσσης. For what follows cf. Die Christliche Welt, 17
(1903) col. 554 ff. ‘
5 Cf. Mark Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fi semitische Epigraphik, 1, Ὁ. 31.
® Details in the Corpus Inscriptionum Alticarum, Appendix, p. xxx (by
R. Wiinsch).
7 Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archaologischen Institutes in Wien, 7
(1904) p. 120f, The facsimile there (p. 121) is reproduced here (Fig. 55) by
kind consent of the Austrian Archaeological Institute.
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 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 305
Θεοί. ᾿Αγαθὴ Τύχη.ἷ
Καταδῶ καὶ οὐκ ἀναλύσω ᾿Αντικλέα ᾿Αντιφάνος καὶ ᾿Αντιφάνην Πατροκλέος
καὶ Φιλοκλέα καὶ Κλεοχάρην
καὶ Φιλοκλέα καὶ Σμικρωνίδην καὶ Τιμάνθην καὶ Τιμάνθην.
Καταδῶ τούτος 5 ἅπαντας πρὸς τὸν “Ἑρμῆν τὸν [τὸν] χθόνιον καὶ τὸν δόλιον
an μ΄: ε na

καὶ τὸν
5 κάτοχον καὶ τὸν ἐριούνιον καὶ οὐκ ἀναλύσω.
Γιὰ Σ Ν Ἂς > i ‘ 3 2 ,

“Gods! Good Tyche! I bind down and will not loose Anticles,
the son of Antiphanes, and Antiphanes the son of Patrocles, and
Philocles, and Cleochares, and Philocles, and Smicronides, and
Timanthes, and Timanthes. I bind these all down to Hermes,
who is beneath the earth and crafty and fast-holding and luck-
bringing, and I will not loose them.”

Many other Attic binding-tablets have been published by

Richard Wiinsch,* but we also possess examples from other
localities and of later date.
The cases are particularly common in which a man’s tongue
is specially to be “ bound.’ There are no less than thirty
of Wiinsch’s Attic tablets which bind or curse the tongue.
And in the Louvre at Paris ὁ there is this much later Mandaean
inscription on a magician’s dish :—

‘*Bound and fast held be the mouth and. fast held the
tongue of curses, of vows, and of invocations of the gods.
. . . Bound be the tongue in its mouth, fast held be its lips,
shaken, fettered, and banned the teeth, and’ stopped the
ears of curses and invocations.”

A binding-charm of essentially similar nature is found on

an ostracon of the later Empire from Ashmunén in Egypt,
in which pagan and Jewish elements are mixed (Fig. 56).
It was formerly in the possession of Mr. F. Hilton Price
(1842-1909), of London, and was first published (as a Christian

1 Samuel Brandt, in a letter to me dated Heidelberg, 22 September, 1908,

_proposes to write ἀγαθῇ τύχῃ. This is well worth noting.
2 = τούτους.
8 Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum, Appendix; cf. also A. Wilhelm, loc. cit.
p. 105 ff., and R. Miinsterberg, bid. p. 145 ff.; and for “ binding ” see further
W. Kohler, Archiv f. Religionswissenschaft, 8, p. 236 ff.
4 Ephemeris fir semitische Epigvaphik, τ, p. 100. The date cannot be ascer-
tained exactly.
306 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
text) by F. E. Brightman.}A similar charm was pointed out
by Wilcken? in the London Papyrus? No. 12195 4, and there
are other examples in allied texts of magical prescriptions
against anger.
The text of the ostracon (not yet fully established) is as
follows :—

Κρόνος, ὃ κατέχων 4 τὸν θυμὸν Cronos, thou who restrainest

“ n 3. , ΓΝ
ὅλων τῶν ἀνθρώπων, κάτεχε TOVN the wrath of all men, restrain
θυμὸν Ὧρι, τὸν © ἔτεκεν the wrath of Hor, whom Mary
5 Mapia®, xe? μὴ
»
ἐάσης
27
αὑτὸν
a8
bore®, and suffer him not to
λαλήσεν 8 ᾿Ατρῶί 1], τῶ δ ἔτεκεν speak with Hatros(?), whom
Ταήσης. Taisis bore. I adjure... by
[- . . ἐξ]ορκίζω κατὰ τοῦ δακτύ-" the finger of god 9 that he open
λου τοῦ θεοῦ 9, εἵνα 19 μὴ ἀναχά- not his mouth to him, because
νη αὐτῶ, ὅτι ΚΚρινουπελι 11 xe? he is subject to Crinupelis
(9) 1
10 Κρόνω ὑπόκιτε.}22 μὴ ἐάσης and Cronos. Suffer him not
αὐτὸν
3. "
λαλήσεν
λ rd
ὃ αὐτῶ
8 3A
μήτε
4
to speak with him, neither for
a night nor a day, nor for one
’ 13 , ς /
γύκταν ° μήτε ἡμέραν
μήτε μίαν £ 14, | hour.

1 In W. E. Crum’s Coptic Ostvaca, No. 522, p. 4 {. (and p. 83 of the litho-

graphed text); cf. U. Wilcken, Archiv fir Papyrusforschung,2, p. 173, and
E. Preuschen, Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 15 (1906) p. 642. Iam indebted to
the kindness of W. E. Crum for the photograph which is here (Fig. 56) given
in slightly reduced facsimile.
2 Archiv, 2, p. 173.
8 Published by Wessely, but now accessible in Greek Papyri in the British
Museum (Vol. I.) p. 114.
4 κατέχω in magical texts often has the sense of “1 cripple,” and is com-
pletely synonymous with the “I bind” which is elsewhere used. Cf. θυμοκάτοχον,
P. 93, n. 5 above. ᾿
5 Article for relative pronoun.
* The addition of the mother’s name is regular in magical texts, cf. Bibel-
studien, p. 37; Bible Studies, p. 283; L. Blau, Das altjiidische Zauberwesen,
p. 85; Wilcken, Archiv, 1, p. 423f.; W. R. Halliday, Discovery 3 (April,
1922) p. ΤΟΙ. The occurrence of the name Mary once more (cf. p. 121 f.
above) is interesting.
7 = καί. 8 = λαλήσειν.
® The “ finger of God ” is an old Jewish expression, cf. LXX Exod. viii. 19,
xxxi. 18; Deut. ix.1o. In Luke xi. 20 we have “ the finger of God” in con-
nexion with exorcism. Ample material will be found in Immanuel Léw, Die
Finger in Litteratuy und Folklore der Juden, Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an
David Kaufmann, Breslau, 1900, p. 65 ff.
10 = ἕνα. ;
11 I was unable to explain this name and conjectured a secret name for the
god Ammon. Preisendanz, Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift, 1913, col.
[For continuation of notes see next page.
 Fic. 56.—Charm for “ Binding.’’ Ostra-
con from Ashmunén, late Imperial Period.
Formerly in the possession of the late
F. Hilton Price, London. Facsimile kindly
obtained by W. E. Crum.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 307
From these and many other texts we see what the ancients
thought of as the result of binding the tongue, viz. inability
to speak. The man whose tongue was bound was intended to
become thereby dumb, so we may conclude conversely that
the tongue of a dumb person was often considered in ancient
popular belief to have been “‘ bound’ by some daemon.
This view fits in with the wider complex of widespread ancient
beliefs that certain diseases and morbid conditions were
caused in general by daemonic possession. Jesus Himself
says (Luke xiii. 16) that Satan had ‘“‘ bound ”’ a daughter of
Abraham eighteen years. He means the crooked woman
previously mentioned in the context, ‘‘ which had a spirit
of infirmity,’ and whose ‘‘ bond ’’ was loosed on the Sabbath.
‘It seems probable, therefore, that St. Mark’s “ bond of his
tongue ” is also a technical expression. . The writer will not
merely say that a dumb man was made to speak—he will add
further that daemonic fetters were broken, a work of Satan
undone. It is one of those thoroughly popular touches which
helped Christianity to make its way in the world !.
The formulae usual in ancient accounts of healing, of which
we know plenty! from inscriptions at Epidaurus and other
places where cures were wrought, of course cannot have been
unknown to the apostles. As St. John’s story of the healing
of the man born blind finds a parallel in a Greek inscription
from Rome,? reporting the cure of a blind man, and as St.
Matthew describes St. Peter’s peril on the sea in the style of
a popular narrative of rescue,’ so also St. Paul clothes one of
his most remarkable confessions in the style of the ancient
texts relating to healing. Speaking of his severe bodily
affliction, the “ thorn in the flesh, the messenger of Satan to
buffet me,” he confesses * :—
“ Concerning this thing I besought the Lord thrice,”
1 As an introduction to the psychology of the cult of Asclepius cf. Joh.
Ilberg’s excellent address, ‘‘ Asklepios,’’ Neue Jahrbiicher fiir das klassische
Altertum, 1901, p. 297 ff. . :
2 Cf. p. 135 above. 8. Cf. pp. 179, 180, ἢ. 8 above.
4 2 Cor. xii. 8, ὑπὲρ τούτου τρὶς τὸν κύριον παρεκάλεσα. Ὁ

Continuation of notes to page 306 :—

1597 proposes convincingly to regard the word as a scribal error for Kpovou πεδι
= Κρόνου παιδί, “ the son of Cronos.” Nikos A. Bees (Béys) gives a different
conjecture in his Byzantinisch-Neugriechische Jahrbiicher1 (1920), p. 157.
18 --- ὑπόκειται. 13 Vulgar for νύκτα. 14 = ὥραν, cf. p. 255 above, 1. 3000.
308 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
just as M. Julius Apellas, a man of Asia Minor in the Imperial
age, narrating on a marble stele how he was cured at the
shrine of Asclepius at Epidaurus, acknowledges with regard
to one of his various ills 1 :—
“ And concerning this thing I besought the god.”
The parallel is all the more remarkable because the verb ?
used for ‘‘ beseech’ seems to be the technical term in such
a context. It is moreover factually important, as showing
very clearly that Christ ? was occasionally, even by the piety
of St. Paul, taken as the Saviour in the literal sense of
“Healer.” Whoever fears that the New Testament may
suffer from the discovery of this parallel should read the whole
inscription of M. Julius Apellas and the whole twelfth chapter
of 2 Corinthians side by side, and then compare the souls and
the fortunes of the two men of Asia Minor, Apellas and Paul.
Two patients besought their Healers for healing, and to which
of them did his Healer give the most? What is greater?
the cures of Apellas’ various ailments, following one another in
rapid succession, and paid for in hard cash to Asclepius of
Epidaurus? or the answer that St. Paul received ὁ instead of
bodily healing >—
““ My grace is sufficient for thee: for My strength is made
perfect in weakness.”’

And which is the more valuable text? the advertising

‘inscription on marble, ordered by the god himself*? or that
line of a letter, wrung from suffering and sent in confidence to
the poor folk of a great city, without a thought that it would
survive the centuries?

7. But there are other ways in which St. Paul made use
of the forms and formulae of his age, as they presented them-
1 Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 804392,,8£170, καὶ yap περὶ τούτου παρεκάλεσα τὸν
θεόν.
2 Wilke-Grimm, Clavis Novi Testamenti,? quotes παρακαλεῖν θεούς or θεόν only
from Josephus. There are good examples in the letter of Zoilus (p. 153, n. 4
above) and in a letter, valuable to the historian of religion, from Aurelius
Demareus to his wife Aurelia Arsinoé in the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No. 107092,
(3rd cent. A.D.), τὸν μέγαν θεὸν Σάραπιν παρακαλῶ περὶ τῆς ζωῆς ὑμῶν.
3 To Him the word ‘‘ Lord ” refers, cf. verse 9, beginning and end.
4 2 Cor. xii. 9. 5 Cf. 1. 31 f. of the inscription.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 309
selves to him, principally, no doubt, in inscriptions. When
in reviewing his past work he professes 1 :—

“T have kept faith,”

and when, probably in the 2nd cent. Α.Ὁ., the Ephesian
M. Aurelius Agathopus, full of gratitude to Artemis, makes
the same profession in an inscription in the theatre ? :—
“T kept faith,”
both no doubt are drawing from the same source, from the
stock of formulae current in Asia Minor.2 On the other hand
the metaphor employed by the apostle in the same passage,
“T have fought the good fight. ... Henceforth there
is laid up for me the crown of righteousness .,. . ,”

reminds one of phrases in an inscription relating to an athlete

of the 2nd cent. A.D., also in the theatre at Ephesus ὅ :-

“He fought three fights, and twice was crowned.”

No doubt St. Paul in his time read inscriptions like this.

The following is. a still more striking case of contact
between the apostle and the world. In the Pastoral Epistles
we read § :—

“ Rebuke not an elder, but intreat him as a father; the

younger men as brethren: the elder women as mothers;
the younger assisters in all purity.”

In the same way a pagan inscription of the 2nd or 3rd cent.

1 2 Tim. iv. 7, τὴν πίστιν τετήρηκα.

2 The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part
III. No. 587 b, ὅτι τὴν πίστιν ἐτήρησα (i.e. with the Gerusia or Senate).
3 Cf. also Wettstein’s Novum Testamentum Graecum, II., Amstelaedami,
1752, p. 366. The parallels show that πίστις in the passage in St. Paul means
“ faith ’ in the sense of ‘“‘ loyalty,’ not “‘ the faith ” in the sense of ‘‘ creed.”
Further passages are quored by Ww. Jerusaion, Wiener Studien, 1, p. 56.
4 2 Tim. iv. 7, 8, τὸν καλὸν ἀγῶνα ἠγώνισμαι, . .. λοιπὸν ἀπόκειταί μοι ὁ τῆς
δικαιοσύνης στέφανος.
5 The Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, Part
III. No. 604, ἠγωνίσατο ἀγῶνας τρεῖς, ἐστέφθη δύω. J. H. Moulton, The
-Expository Times, October 1908, p. 33, adds another inscription of 267 B.c.
6 y Tim. v. I, 2, πρεσβυτέρῳ μὴ ἐπιπλήξῃς, ἀλλὰ παρακάλει ὡςὦ πατέρα, νεωτέρους
ὡς ἀδελφούς, πρεσβυτέρας ὡς μητέρας, νεωτέρας ὡς ἀδελφὰςἐν πάσῃ ἁγνείᾳ.
 310 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
A.D., at Olbia on the Black Sea,! in honour of Theocles, the
son of Satyrus, boasts of him as
“Dearing himself to his equals in age as a brother, to
his elders as a son, to children as a father, being adorned
with all virtue.”

Though much later in date than St. Paul this inscription is

not dependent on the New Testament; both it and St. Paul
have been influenced by old tradition. Pithy sayings of
ancient teachers, such as Wettstein ? has collected in his note
on the New Testament passage, were in the time of St. Paul
commonplaces of popular ethics. They were taken over by
him (perhaps after reading them in inscriptions *) with a
sure instinct of appreciation for noble thought and pregnant
expression, and in the same way their echo reaches us again
later on from the Black Sea.
Much might be said about ancient popular ethics in general
and the fruitful effects of the same on early Christian popular
ethics. The otherwise somewhat barren inscriptions,‘ espe-
cially complimentary and funeral inscriptions, yield an
abundance of ethical detailed material. The praises lavished
on the meritorious citizens, or the thankfully commemorated
good qualities of deceased persons, will not always tell us
what those people were really like, but all such statements
reflect the moral ideals of the men who set up the inscriptions,
and whatever seems stereotyped may be reckoned part of
the world’s fixed moral consciousness at the time. Had I
unlimited space at my disposal I would deal here in special
detail with sculptured lines that reflect: the best religious
ethics of paganism, laws of those who, “ having not the law,
are a law unto themselves,” ® such as the wonderful Delphic
1 Inscviptiones Antiquae Ovae Septentrionalis -Pontt Euxini Graecae et
Latinae ed. Latyschev, I. No. 22x, (cf. IV. p. 266f.), τοῖς μὲν ἡλικιώταις προσφε-
ρόμενος ὡς ἀδελφός, τοῖς δὲ πρεσβυτέροις ὡς vids, τοῖς δὲ παισὶν ὡς πατήρ, πάση ἀρετῆ
κεκοσμημένος.
2 Novum Test t Gr , IL. p. 339. L. Martens (letter, Duisburg,
18 May, 1910) refers me to Plato, Apology 31 B, ἑκάστῳ προσιόντα ὥσπερ πατέρα
ἢ ἀδελφὸν πρεσβύτερον.
3. This conjecture has since been confirmed to me by one of the inscriptions
from Priene, No. 11755 . (Ist cent. B.C.) : πρεσβυτέρους τιμῶν ὡς γονεῖ]ς, rods δὲ
καθήλικας ὡς ἀδελφούς, τοὺς δὲ [νεωτέρους ὡς παῖδας( )].
4 For the literary sources I refer to the works of Georg Heinrici and Paul
Wendland. 5 Rom. ii. 14.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 311
commandments,! or the injunctions from a sanctuary at
Philadelphia? of the Apocalypse, which were bestowed in
a dream and are so insistent in their popular appeal. Truly
it is one of the marks of St. Paul’s fineness of perception that,
far from denying the “‘ world ” all moral attributes, he credits
the heathen ® with a general fund of real morality regulated
by conscience, in the same way as he praises the depth of
their religious insight.‘
In previous works ὅ I have given a not inconsiderable
number of examples of the secular origin of supposed exclu-
sively “‘ New Testament” ethical concepts. For the sake
of argument I was bound to deal only with the more unusual
concepts, when of course the agreement between the apostles
and the world would be most striking, but if attention is
paid also to the concepts belonging to everyday morality we
discover an extensive common ground on which the apostles
could and did take their stand. Particularly as we read
the pastoral exhortations of St. Paul in his letters (and not
leastin the Pastoral Epistles) and others imitating them, we
feel that, instead of being spoken to the winds like so much
obsolete wisdom, they were bound to find in the popular
consciousness of their day a powerful reverberating medium.
Here is an example. The expressions “‘ conversation,’
“to have conversation,” ® etc. (A.V.), in an ethical sense
(=" behaviour, manner of life,” ‘‘ behave, live,” etc., R.V.),
are frequent in the apostolic writers, and many commentators
explain them as a Hebraism. But they were common to
the ancient world as a whole, and it is senseless to make a
difference between Semitic and non-Semitic. I have given
the necessary quotations elsewhere already,’ but here is an
1 Dittenberger, Sylloge®, No. 1268 (inscription from Miletopolis, 3rd cent.
B.C.).
τ τα,No. 985 (1st or 2nd cent. a.p:). For this particularly valuable
inscription we are indebted to Keil and von Premerstein, Bericht tibey eine
ἀνία Reise in Lydien, p. τ ff. (see p. 17, n. 1 above).
3 Cf. especially Rom. ii. 14 ff. :
4 Acts xvii. 28.
5 Especially in Bibelstudien and Neue Bibelstudien (= Bible Studies).
6 ἀναστροφή and ἀναστρέφεσθαι.
? Bibelstudien, p. 83; Neue Bibelstudien, p. 22; Bible Studies, pp. 88, 194;
and, before that, E. L. Hicks in the Classical Review, 1 (1887) p.6; and now
Moulton and Milligan, The Expositor, March 1908, p. 269; W. H. P. Hatch,
Some Illustrations, p. 136 f.
312 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
additional illustration that appeals to the eye: an inscrip-
tion 1 (Fig. 57) in honour of the Gymnasiarch Apollodorus,
the son of Pyrrhus, on a marble pedestal in the gymnasium
at Pergamum, of the Roman period (after 133 B.c.). It
reads thus :—
ὁ δῆμος ἐτίμησεν ᾿Απολλόδωρον Πύρρον
χρυσῶι στεφάνωι καὶ εἰκόνι χαλκῆι
ἀρετῆς ἕνεκεν καὶ εὐνοίας τῆς εἰς ἑαυτὸν
καὶ διὰ τὸ γυμνασιαρχήσαντα
5. καλῶς καὶ ἐνδόξως ἀναστραφῆναι.
The people honoured Apollodorus, the son of Pyrrhus,
with a golden crown and a brazen image by reason of his
virtue and goodwill towards them, and because of his good
and glorious behaviour when he was Gymnasiarch.
Extraordinarily interesting are the cases in which the
apostles, being still in living contact with the lower classes,
adopt the fine expressions which, coined in the workshop and
the market-place, are a terse and pithy presentment of what
the people thought was good. There is a phrase we find on
the tombstone of a humble man? of the early Empire in a
country district not far from the home of St. Paul in the
south-west of Asia Minor. To the eye wearied with the
bombast of overloaded eulogy in showier inscriptions it
appears scarcely noticeable at first, and yet how eloquent in
reality is this simple form of praise: Daphnus, the best
among the gardeners, has raised himself a hero’s resting-
place (Heroén), and now has reached this goal,’
‘after that he had much laboured.”’
To anyone with a sense for beauty in simplicity these lines
1 Die Inschriften von Pergamon, No. 459. The facsimile there given on the
scale of 1 : 7°5 is reproduced here (Fig. 57) by kind permission of the Directors
of the State Museums, Berlin. (The translation of the inscription in the
first edition of this book was incorrect, as pointed out by Johannes Imelmann;
cf. also Eberhard Nestle, Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift, 28 [1908]
col. 1527.)
2 The inscription was discovered in the village of Ebedjik (S. W. Asia
Minor) in the house of the mollah Mehmet, and published by Heberdey and
Kalinka, Bericht δεν zwei Reisen im stidwestlichen Kleinasien [p. 17, n. 1
above], p. 41, No. 59, pera τὸ πολλὰ κοπιᾶσαι. [In German spelling, Ibedschik.
It is on the site of Bubon (Pliny, H.N. V. 27), in N. Lycia. Tr.]
* This translation of the brief ταῦτα of the inscription (cf. p. 203, n. 4 above)
is very free.
 ΟΔΗΜΟΣ ΕἼΪΜΗΣ ΕΝΑΠολλοδω PONTIYPFOY
ἡ ΠΝ: ΤΕ ΦΑΝΩΊΙΚΑΙΕΙΚΟΝῚΧ AAKHI
ΠΣ ΕΝΕΚΕΝΚΑΙΕΥΝΟΙΑΣΤΗΣΕΙΣΕ
ΑΥΤΟΝ
ΚΑΊΤΔΙΑΤΟΓΥΜΝΑΣΙΑΡΧΉΣΑΝΤΑ
ΚΑΛΩΙΣΚΑΙΕΝΔΟΞΩΣΑΝΑΣΤΙΆΦΗΝΑΙ
Fic. 57.-Marble Pedestal from Pergamum with an Inscription
in honour of the Gymnasiarch Apollodorus of Pergamum. Roman
Period. Original still at Pergamum. By permission of the
Directors of the State Museums at Berlin.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 313
concerning the much labour of the gardener Daphnus are as
a green spray. of ivy tenderly clasping the tombstone of its
old friend. And the words of St. John, in the Revelation,
are just as racy, just as primal, when, recording the voice
heard from heaven, he gives a slight Asiatic tinge! to an
old Biblical phrase,? and says that the dead “‘ rest from their
labours.” ὃ. St. Paul, however, the artisan missionary,
catches the popular tone of his native country even better
when he boasts * of an Ephesian Mary, while she was yet
living, that

“she much laboured for you.”

Again, in a Roman cemetery ὅ of later date, we hear the old
popular phrase re-echoed by a wife who praises her husband,
““who laboured much for me.”

In fact, with regard to all that Paul the tentmaker has

to say about labour, we ought to place ourselves as it were
within St. Paul’s own class, the artisan ® class of the Imperial
age, and then feel the force of his words. They all become
more life-like when restored to their original historical milieu.
“1 laboured more abundantly than they all ’’ 7—these words,
applied by St. Paul to missionary work, came originally
from the joyful pride of the skilled craftsman, who, working
by the piece, was able to hand in the largest amount of
goods on pay-day. The frequent references to “‘ labour in
1 He says κόπων instead of ἔργων. He uses the latter word immediately
afterwards: ᾿
2 Cf. LXX Gen. ii. 2.
3 Rev. xiv. 13, ἐκ τῶν κόπων αὐτῶν. ([Cf£. the epitaph in Bushey churchyard,
said to have been copied before 1860, with the last words of ‘‘ a poor woman
who always was tired ’’ owing to domestic drudgery: ‘‘ Don’t mourn for me
now, don’t mourn for me never, For I’m going to do nothing for ever and
ever,” given in full in the Spectator, 2 Dec. 1922, p. 834. TR.]
4 Rom. xvi. 6, πολλὰ ἐκοπίασεν εἰς ὑμᾶς; cf. also Rom. xvi. 12.
5 Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 9552, inscription from the cemetery .
of Pontianus at Rome (date ?), refs [= ὅστις] μοι πολλὰ ἐκοπίασεν.
δ. St. Paul speaks of himself as a manual labourer in 1 Cor. iv. 12, and he
writes to manual labourers (1 Thess. iv. 11). There are two small studies of
great importance in this connexion: Franz Delitzsch (1850-1922), Jiidisches
Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu,? Erlangen, 1875 ; and Samuel Krauss, “ Parallelen
im Handwerk,” Vierteljahrsschrift fir Bibelkunde, Talmud und patristische
Studien, 3 (1907) p. 67 ff.
7 1 Cor. xv. 10, περισσότερον αὐτῶν πάντων ἐκοπίασα.
314 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
vain ” 1 are a trembling echo of the discouragement resulting
from a piece of work being rejected for alleged bad finish
and therefore not paid for. And then the remark to the
pious sluggards of Thessalonica?:
“That if any would not work, neither should he eat.”
I remember a newspaper controversy a generation ago, in
which my opponent, a social reformer not quite so well up
in his Bible as he should have been, denounced this text as
a modern heartless capitalist phrase. As a matter of fact,
St. Paul was probably borrowing a bit of good old workshop
morality? a maxim applied no doubt hundreds of times by
industrious workmen as they forbade a lazy apprentice to
sit down to dinner.
In the same way we can only do justice to the remarks in
the New Testament about wages by examining them in situ,
amidst their native surroundings. Jesus and St. Paul spoke
with distinct reference to the life of the common people.
If you elevate such utterances to the sphere of the Kantian
moral philosophy, and then reproach Primitive Christianity
with teaching morality for the sake of reward, you have not
only misunderstood the words, you have torn them up by
the roots. It means that you have failed to distinguish
between the concrete illustration of a popular preacher,
perfectly spontaneous and intelligible in the native sur-
roundings of Primitive Christianity, and a carefully con-
sidered ethical theory of fundamental importance to first
principles. The sordid, ignoble suggestions, so liable to
arise in the lower class, are altogether absent from the
sayings of Jesus and His apostle, as shown by the parable
of the labourers in the vineyard and the analogous reliance
of St. Paul solely upon grace.
Still more instructive than the parallelism of single ethical
phrases in popular use are the formulae in which pairs of
ideas or whole series of ideas have united. When in Titus ii. 4,
5 the young women are exhorted to be “ loving to their
husbands, loving to their children, soberminded,” 4 this is
the voice of popular ethics, for precisely this ideal of woman-
1 E.g. Gal. iv. 11; Phil. ii. 16; 1 Cor. xv. 58.
2 2 Thess. iii. 10, εἴ τις οὐ θέλει ἐργάζεσθαι, μηδὲ ἐσθιέτω.
3 See Wettstein’s quotations at 2 Thess. iii. 10.
4 φιλάνδρους εἶναι, φιλοτέκνους, σώφρονας.
 ἸΟΥΛΊΟΣ ΒΑΣΣΟΣ
OTAKIAIATIOAAR
THIAYKYTATH
YNAIKIGIAANAP
AIPDIAOTEKN
YNBILQZAEH
ΑΜΕΜΠΤΊΩ,Σ
ETH A-

——
a

ee)
Fic. 58.—Marble Tombstone of
Otacilia Polla of Pergamum, about
the time of Hadrian. Now in the
garden of Pasha-Oglu Hussein, in
the Selinus valley, near Pergamum.
By permission of the Directors of
the State Museums at Berlin.
 SOCIAL’ AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 315
hood 1 is set up by the inscriptions. In an epitaph at Perga-
mum, of about the time of Hadrian? (Figure 58), one Otacilia
Polla is called ‘‘ loving to her husband and loving to her
children ”” :—
Ἰούλιος Βάσσος Julius Bassus to Otacilia
Ὀτακιλία Πώλλη ᾿ : ἢ :
τῇ γλυκυτάτη Polla, his sweetest wife. Loving

[γ]υναικὶ φιλάνδρ[] to her husband, and loving to

5 καὶ φιλοτέκνω
συνβιωσάση her children, she lived with
ἀμέμπτως
ἔτηλ. him unblamably 30 years.
That this formula was no extempore formation is proved
by a quotation from Plutarch, by an inscription from Paros ὃ
of Imperial age, and by a metrical inscription from Tegea.*
The collocation “ loving to her husband and soberminded ”’
is also not rare; it occurs in epitaphs for women of the
Imperial period at Termessus in Pisidia,> Prusias on the
Hypius in Bithynia,* and Heraclia on the Black Sea.’
Whole series of ethical concepts are brought together in
the well-known Primitive Christian lists of virtues and vices.
These were no new creations, but based on Jewish and
pagan series—this has long been recognised.* But it will be
1 It would be an interesting and comparatively simple task to sketch
the ancient ideal of womanhood as shown.in the inscriptions and papyri.
A comparison with the Jewish inscriptions and the N.T. would reveal a
far-reaching agreement throughout the whole of antiquity.
2 Die Inschriften von Pergamon, No. 604 (cf. Neue Bibelstudien, p. 83 f.;
Bible Studies, p. 255 f.). The drawing (scale 1 : 10) is here reproduced with the
kind consent of the Directors of the State Museums, Berlin (Fig. 58).
3 References in Neue Bibelstudien, p. 83 {.; Bible Studies, p. 255 f.
4 Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 25 (1901) p. 279, φιλότεκνε φίλανδρε,
“Ὁ thou loving one to children and husband!” The date cannot be exactly
determined. .
5 Ibid. 23 (1899) p. 301, τὴν σώφρονα καὶ φίλανδρον, ᾿᾿ soberminded and loving
.to her husband.” :
8. Ibid. 25 (1901) p. 88, ἡ σόφρων (sic) καὶ φίλανδρος γυνὴ γενομένη, ‘ who was
a soberminded wife and loving to her husband.”
7 Ibid. 22 (1898) p. 496, ἡ φίλανδρος καὶ σ[ὠ]ῴφρων ἡ φιλόσοφος ζήσασα κοσμίως,
“loving to her husband and soberminded, a lover of wisdom, she lived
modestly ” (cf. 1 Tim. ii. 9 for this last word).
® The latest treatment of this subject, brief but excellent, is in H. Lietz-
mann’s commentary on Rom. i. (Handbuch zum N.T., 111. p. 11, *p. 34f.).
Abundant material was collected by Albrecht Dieterich, Nekyia, Bettrage zur
Erklavrung dev neuentdeckten Petrusapokalypse, Leipzig, 1893, p. 163 ff. Since
thén the literature has grown. The subject is not confined to the Mediter-
onnann af far avamnla Chinace licte of vices in the ‘‘ Book of the Most
316 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
as well to give up looking for the models exclusively in
philosophical literature, although there may still be much
to find there! The popular lists of virtues and vices are of
more direct importance; they show better than the philo-
sophical texts what had really made its way among the
people. Scattered in many museums we find specimens of
the counters ? used in an ancient game resembling draughts :
one side of the counter bears a number (up to 25 or 30 or
40), and on the other side is a word addressed to a person,
occasionally in verbal form, e.g. “ Art thou glad? ” or “ Thou
wilt scarcely laugh,’ but nearly always substantives or
adjectives, generally in the vocative case. These give us
a large number of popular names of vices* and virtues;
the Greek loan-words among the Latin lists show the Hellen-
istic influence, and the decidedly vulgar form of the Latin
words indicates that the game was a popular one. Although
we have not yet recovered all the counters necessary for the
game, and the presumable sequences of the counters are not
yet certain, the parallels with St. Paul strike us immediately.
Take, for instance, the list of vices ὅ in x Cor. vi. 9, 10,
“Fornicators, idolaters, adulterers, effeminate, abusers
of themselves with mankind, thieves, covetous, drunkards,
revilers, extortioners.”
With the exception of “ covetous,”’ which is rather colourless,
and“ idolaters,” which is not to be expected in a pagan list,
all these will be found substantially, word for word, on the
counters.®
High concerning Deeds and Retaliations,” a Taoist work translated by
Wilhelm Schiller in Die Welt des Ostens (supplement to the “ Kiautschou-
Post ’’) 2 (1909), No. 15.
1 The astrologers, e.g. Vettius Valens, also furnish plenty of material.
2 Details in Chr. Huelsen, Tessere lusorie, Rémische Mitteilungen, 11 (1896)
p. 227 ff.; F. Buecheler, Rhein. Museum, New Series, 52 (1897) p. 392 ff.
3 gaudesne, vix rides.
4 The vices greatly preponderate on the counters that have been preserved.
5 Even Lietzmann (loc. cit. 4p. 11) considered this list to be purely Jewish.
6. St. Paul; The counters ;
πόρνοι impudes (the » wanting as in Κρήσκης, 2 Tiim. iv. το)
μοιχοί motce, moece
μαλακοί patice
ἀρσενοκοῖται cinaidus, cinaedus
κλέπται fur
μέθυσοι ebriose and vinose
λοίδοροι trico ἢ
ἅρπαγες arpax
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 317
The comic dramatists afford us help in completing these
popular lists of vices. No certain explanation has yet been
given of the mention of such rare crimes as parricide and
matricide in the list of vices in 1 Tim. i. 91. The text there
enumerates :—

“The lawless and disobedient, the ungodly and sinners,

unholy and profane, murderers of fathers and murderers
of mothers, manslayers, whoremongers, them that defile
themselves with mankind, menstealers, liars, perjured
persons.’*

Now compare the “ scolding” of Ballio the pander in the

Pseudolus of Plautus!: quite a number of the most charac-
teristic terms of abuse in that popular scene occur again in
St. Paul’s list, either literally or in forms nearly synonymous.?
Nor is the parallelism between the New Testament and
the world wanting in the corresponding lists of virtues.
This is shown by comparing 2 Peter i. 5, 6 with an inscription
from Asia Minor, Ist cent. B.c., in honour of one Herostratus,
the son of Dorcalion.? The inscription mentions successively
the faith, virtue, righteousness, godliness, and diligence of the
person to be honoured; and the apostle incites his readers

The last word ἅρπαξ was current as a loan-word in Latincomedy. In St. Paul
it should probably not be translated ‘‘ robber’ but rendered by some other
word, like ‘‘swindler”’ (‘‘extortioner,” A.V.,'R.V.). ‘‘ Robbers”’ were Ayoraé,
with whom St: Paul became acquainted on his journeys (2 Cor. xi. 26).—For
μαλακός cf. letter No. 5 above, p. 164, n. 4.
1 Cf. Hermann Usener, Italische Volksjustiz, Rhein. Museum, New Series, 56
(1901) p. 23 ff. The passages in Wettstein, Novum Testamentum, II. p. 318 f.,
especially those from Pollux, afford a very interesting parallel to Plautus and
St. Paul.
2 St. Paul: Plautus :
ἀνόμοις ἰορίγμρα
2 y

ἀσεβcae } sacvrilege
ανοσιοις

ἁμαρτωλοῖς sceleste
- βεβήλοις caenum and
. inpure ,
πατρολῴαις parvicida.—verbevasti patrem et matrem, to which the
καὶ person abused answers scornfully : atqgue occidi quogque
μητρολῴαις potius quam cibum praehiberem.
πόρνοις impudice
ἀρσενοκοίταις pernities adulescentum (this parallel is not certain)
ψεύσταις fraudulente
ἐπιόρκοις periure
3 Dittenberger. Orientis Graect Inscribtiones Selectae, No, 438.
318 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
to diligence in faith (= belief), virtue, knowledge, temperance,
patience, godliness, brotherly kindness, and love.}

8. The correspondences we have noted: so far relate only

to isolated details of,the popular religion and popular morality
of the world contemporary with the apostolic texts. The
cumulative effect even of such details should be sufficiently
remarkable, but there are besides in the New Testament
whole groups of thought, the peculiar strength and beauty
of which we can only appreciate from the vantage-ground
of the ancient world. Recent discoveries have made it
possible to reconstruct large portions of Hellenistic popular
law, which was previously known only in miserable frag-
ments, and this gives us an uncommonly valuable, means of
judging some of the figurative religious language of Primitive
Christianity. It has of course long been known, and mono-
graphs have been written to prove, that St. Paul was strongly
influenced by legal ideas?; but the fact was not sufficiently
1 Inscription : 2 Peter:
ἄνδρα ἀγαθὸν γενόμενον καὶ διενένκαντα σπουδὴν πᾶσαν παρεισενέγκαντες
ἐπιχορηγήσατε ἐν τῇ πίστει ὑμῶν τὴν
> a ~

πίστει καὶ ἀρετῇ καὶ δ[ικ]αιοσύνῃ καὶ

,ὔ [ἢ 2 a A sf 4

ἀρετήν, ἐν δὲ τῇ ἀρετῇ τὴν γνῶσιν, ἐν δὲ

edacBelacxat .. . τὴν πλείστ[η]ν εἰσ- τῇ γνώσει τὴν ἐγκράτειαν, ἐν δὲ τῇ
ενηνεγμένον σπουδήν. ἐγκρατείᾳ τὴν ὑπομονήν, ἐν δὲ τῇ ὑπομονῇ
τὴν εὐσέβειαν, etc.
Cf. also the remarks on the beginning of 2 Peter in Bibelstudien, Pp. 277 f.;
Bible Studies, p. 360 ff.
2 In view of the importance of this point I offer the following statement
‘of the literature of the subject, as far as it is known to me :—
John Selden [1584-1654], De synedriis et praefecturis juridicis veterum
Ebracorum, Liber II, Londini, 1653, c. XII., § iii., p. 523 (cited by
Schramm, p. 398) ;
Daniel Schraderus, Evevcitatio juridica de juvisprudentia Pauli Apostoli,
Halle/Magdeburg, 1695 (cf. Eger, Rechtsgeschichtliches zum N.T.,
P- 27);
Johannes Samuel Stryck (Strickius), De Pauli jurisprudentia (title uncertain),
Halle 1695, 71743 (cf. Schramm, p. 398, and Winer-Schmiedel § 3,
1 [p. 18]);
Joh. Henricus Schramm, De stupenda Pauli Abpostoli eruditione, Herborn,
1710 (I use the edition printed together with his commentary on
‘Titus, Lugd. Bat., 1763) ;
Johannes Ortwin Westenberg, Paulus Tarsensis Jurisconsultus, Frane-
querae, 1722, also Baruthi 1738 (cf. my Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 103; Bible
Studies, p. 107 £.), and in his Opuscula Academica I, Leipzig, 1794;
Gg. Wh. Kirchmaier (title not known to me, cf. Winer-Schmiedel, § 3,
1 [p. 18]), Wittenberg, 1730;
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 319
accounted for by comparisons either with Roman or with
Jewish law, the latter, so far as the Diaspora was concerned,
being probably for the most part a dead letter. We now
receive help of a far different order from the law that was
alive in the popular consciousness up and down the Hellenistic
area in which the New Testament originated. A few examples
will confirm this statement.1
The stupendous force of dogmatic tradition, and the
fact that the word s/ave ? with its satellites has been translated
servant, to the total-effacement of its ancient significance, in
our Bibles, have brought it about that one of the most
original and at the same time most popular appraisals of
the work of Christ by St. Paul and his school has been, I
think, only vaguely understood among us.’ I refer to the
metaphor of our redemption by Christ from the slavery of
sin, the law, idols, men, and death 4—a metaphor influenced

C. F. Freiesleben (cf. Winer-Schmiedel, <bid.), Leipzig, 1840;

My Bibelstudien (1895) and Neue Bibelstudien (1897);
A. Halmel, Uber romisches Recht im Galaterbrief, Essen, 1895;
Fr. Sieffert, Das Recht im N.T., Géttingen, 1900;
(Th. Mommsen, ‘' Die Rechtsverhdltnisse des Apostels Paulus,’’ Zeitschrift
fiir neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 2 (1901) p. 81 ff. ;)
Max Conrat [Cohn], ‘‘ Das Erbrecht im Galaterbrief,’’ Zeitschr. f. neutest.
Wiss. 5 (1904), p. 204
ff.;
My Licht vom Osten, 1908;
William Duncan Ferguson, The Legal Terms Common to the Macedonian
Inscriptions and the New Testament, Chicago, 1913;
W. S. Muntz, Rome, St. Paul and the Early Church: The Influence of
Roman Law on St. Paul’s Teaching and Phtaseology and on the
Development of the Church, London, 1913 (which I know only from
the bibliography in the Theologische Literatur-Zeitung, 1913, col.
799) ;
The important works by Otto Eger already mentioned at p. 119, n. 1 above.
1 Here Otto Eger (cf. p. 119, n. 1 above) has continued working most help-
fully; I refer especially, for instance, to his luminous exposition of 1 Cor.
iii. 9 ff. by the aid of ancient building law (Rechtsgeschichtliches zum N.T.,
Pp. 37 ff.).
2 In Luther’s Bible the word “‘ slave ” (Sklave) does not occur once, although
its equivalent is used times without number in the original (Old and New
Testament). Knecht, the word used by Luther, is for modern Germans no
longer the same as ‘‘slave.” [The R.V. rendering, ‘‘ bondservant,’’ in text
and margin, has helped to correct the misapprehensions of English readers.
“‘ Slave ’’ does occur in the A.V., but only twice : Jer. ii. 14, Rev. xviii. 13. Tr.]
3 Similarly the mistranslation of διαθήκη as ‘‘ covenant ’’ instead of “ testa-
ment” has interfered with the right understanding of another great group
of ideas. The blame in this case does not fall on Luther.
4 Cf. my Paulus, p. 100 ff., *p. 134 ff.; St. Paul, p. 149 ff., *p. 172 ff.
 320 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
by the customs and technical formulae of sacred manu-
missions in antiquity.1_ I should like to illustrate a little
more particularly this instance of St. Paul’s having been
influenced by the popular law of the world in which he
lived.?
Inscriptions at Delphi have been the principal means of
enlightening us concerning the nature and ritual of manu-
mission with a religious object in ancient times? The
French archaeologists have discovered and published a large
number of records of manumission relating to several different
centuries,* and particularly to that one which gave rise to
1 Johannes Weiss, Die Christliche Freiheit nach dey Verktindigung des
Apostels Paulus, Gottingen, 1902, has the merit of bringing St. Paul’s idea
of freedom into connexion with ancient thought on the subject. But I think
the author has gone to too high a bookshelf: the inscriptions, to be found
among the folios at the bottom of the bookcase, are here more instructive
than the philosophers on the higher shelves, just as we saw in the case of the
lists of vices, p. 320 ff. above. JI agree in thinking that St. Paul was influenced
by popular philosophy, but I would lay stress on the mediation, mentioned
by Weiss, of popular culture, into which a great deal of philosophy had
percolated.
2 Since the earlier editions of this book the subject has become fairly well
known and has been made use of in religious literature of the practical order
(e.g. by Gottfried Traub, Gott und wir, Heilbronn, 1912, p. 42 ff.; and by
Harrington C. Lees [who became Archbishop of Melbourne, Australia, in
1921. Tr.], Christ and His Slaves, being Devotional Studies from the
Egyptian Papyri, London, 1911).
8 The pioneer works were Ernestus Curtius, Amecdota Delphica, Berolini,
1843, pp. 10-47, 56-75, and Ῥ, Foucart, Mémoire sur l’affranchissement des
. esclaves par forme de vente a une divinité d’aprés les inscriptions de Delphes
(Archives des missions scientifiques, deuxiéme série, t. III., Paris, 1866,
Pp. 375-424; also separately, Paris, 1867). Cf. also Ludwig Mitteis, Reichs-
recht und Volksvecht in den Ostlichen Provinzen des rémischen Kaiserrvetchs,
Leipzig, 1891, p. 374 ff. (a short account, but containing everything that is
essential), and E. Schiirer, Geschichte des jidischen Volkes, 111. p. 53f.,
‘p. 93f. There is much material on the subject of manumission customs in
Gualterus Rensch, De manumissionum titulis apud Thessalos, Diss. Phil.
Halenses, XVIII. 2, Halis Saxonum, 1908. Add to these A. B. Drachmann,
De manumissione seruorum apud Graecos qualem ex inscriptionibus cog-
noscimus, Nordisk Tidskrift for Filologi, Ny Raekke, vol. 8 (Copenhagen,
1887/88), pp. 1-74; and especially A. Calderini, La manomissione 6 la con-
dizione det liberti in Grecia, Milano, 1908. Other literature in Dittenberger,
Sylloge® 3, p. 352 ff. ;
4 Including two records of the manumission of Jewish slaves between 170
and 157 B.c., probably prisoners from the Maccabaean wars (cf. Schiirer,
111.2 p. 27,4 p. 55 f.), and a manumission by Judaeus, a Jew, who sells his
slave Amyntas to Apollo, 119 B.c. (Juster, Les Juzfs, II. p. 327). This Judaeus
is most probably identical with one of the two Jewish slaves manumitted
some forty years before.
1 “91. Bururezyoy—-6S
[TBM
so oy} 9Ππι91
jo οπμοᾶν
38 ‘tydjeq peqriosur
πητλὰ ΞΠΟΙΘΤΠΓΙJUSTIOUeS ΞΘΡΙΟΌΘΙ
JO ΠΙΙΈΤΙ ᾿ΒΙΓΟΙΒΘΊΤΙΙ
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 321
the New Testament. After two thousand years the records
stand to-day almost uninjured on the polygonal rétaining-
wall of the temple of Apollo (Fig. 59), the blocks of which
seem, despite their bulk, to have collectively the effect of a
poem in stone. Climbing greenery and blue blossoms greet
you from the joints of the stone if you read the texts in
springtime.!
But these are not records of something-peculiar to Delphi.
Manumission on religious grounds was practised all about
Parnassus and probably throughout ancient Greece, and it
even made its way into Jewish and Christian ecclesiastical
.custom. As examples from places outside Delphi I may
refer to inscriptions at Physcus in Aetolia ? (sale to Athene,
and cent. B.c.), at Amphissa? (sale to Asclepius, Imperial
period), and also in Cos # (sale to Adrastia and Nemesis [9],
and or Ist cent. B.c.). Ernst Curtius > has-collected records
from Naupactus (sale to Dionysus), Chaeronia, Tithora, and
Coronia (sale to Serapis), Chalia (sale to Apollo Nesiotes),
Elatia and Stiris (sale to Asclepius), Daulis (sale to Athene
Polias). Th. Macridy has published records from Notion.®
We find this sacred kind of manumission among Jews?
“ἴῃ the house of prayer ’’ in two stone records from Panti-
capaeum,® the first of which can be certainly dated 81 a.D.;
and there is a record® of great interest from Gorgippia,
4I A.D., ‘referring to the cult of ‘the Most High God.”

1 On 22 and 23 May, 1906, I was able to see these highly important remains
of ancient civilisation in situ (Fig. 59). The topographical remarks below
(p. 329) are the result of my own observation on 12 May, 1906.
2 Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 22 (1898) p. 355.
3 Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 844.
4 Paton and Hicks, No. 29; and now Herzog, Koische Forschungen und
Funde, p. 391. This is not a record of manumission, but manumission of a
sacred character is mentioned in it. Cf. p. 327, n. 6.
5 Cf. p. 320, n. 3 above.
* Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archdologischen: Institutes in Wien, 8
(1905) p. 155 ff. (Pointed out to me by Theodor Wiegand, postcard, Miletus,
c. 26 May, 1908; and by Baron F. Hiller von Gaertringen, postcard, Berlin
W., 4 June, 1908.) ,
7 Abundant material bearing on the subject in Juster II. p. 80 ff. Note-
worthy also is the document, Oxyrhynchus Papyri No. 1205, (291 A.D.), in
which the synagogue pays the redemption-money.
8. Inscriptiones Antiquae Ovae Septentrionalis Ponti Euxini, ed. Latyschev,
Vol. II. Nos. 52 and 53.
® Ibid. No. 400.
Ψ
322 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
These Jewish and Judaeo-pagan records} are of great
importance in our problem, as sure proofs of the influence
of the pagan rite on Jewish Hellenism? in the time of the
apostle Paul. Finally, it has long been recognised by experts
that ‘‘manumission in the church’? was nothing but a
Christianised form of the old Greek custom.
But between the Greek usage and the practice of the
early Church there-stands St. Paul, who made the ancient
custom the basis of one of his profoundest contemplations
about the Christ.
What was this custom? Among the various ways in
which the manumission of a slave could take place by ancient
law 4 we find the solemn rite of fictitious purchase of the
slave by some divinity. The owner comes with the slave
to the temple, sells him there to the god, and receives the
purchase money from the temple treasury, the slave having
previously paid it in there out of his savings. The slave is
now the property of the god; not, however, a slave of the
temple, but a protégé of the god. Against all the world,
especially his former master, he is a completely free man;
at the utmost a few pious obligations to his old master are
imposed upon him.
The rite takes place before witnesses; a record is taken,
and often. perpetuated on stone.
The usual form of these documents must have been
extremely well known, because they are so numerous. It is
like this > :—

Date. “N.N. sold to the Pythian Apollo a male slave

named X.Y. at a price of —minae, for freedom (07 on con-
dition that he shall be free, etc.).” Then follow any special
arrangements and the names of the witnesses. .

1 See Schirer, III,® p. 53f., * p. 93.

3. For a similar process in another field cf. the prayers for vengeance from
Rheneia (Appendix I. below, p. 413), which exhibit a secularisation of the
Jewish ritual for the expiation of an unexplained murder.
5 Manumissio in ecclesia, cf. Curtius, p. 26f.; Mitteis, p. 375; and the
Jewish manumission “ in the house of prayer,” p. 321 above.
4 Cf. Mitteis, p. 372 ff. The redemptio servi suis nummis is discussed by
Lothar von Seuffert, Der Loskauf von Sklaven mit ihrem Geld, Festschrift fiir
die juristische Fakultat in Giessen, Giessen, 1907, pp. 1-20.
5. The texts are so numerous that individual quotation is unnecessary.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 323
Another form, which occurs less frequently, is “sale to
the god as trustee.” An inscription! of 200-199 B.c. on
the polygonal wall at Delphi may serve as an example :—

Date. ἐπρίατο ὃ ᾿Απόλλων Date. Apollo the Pythian

6 Πύθιος παρὰ Σωσιβίου bought from Sosibius of Am-
᾿Αμφισσέος ἐπ᾽ ἐλευθερίαι phissa, for freedom, a female
σῶμ[α] 3 γυναικεῖον, & ὄνομα slave,? whose name is Nicaea,
Νίκαια, τὸ γένος Ῥωμαίαν, τιμᾶς |by race a Roman, with a price
ἀργυρίου μνᾶν τριῶν καὶ of three minae of silver and a
ἡμιμναίουι προαποδότας 8κατὰ | half-mina. Former seller? ac-
τὸν νόμον Evpvacros cording to the law: Eumnastus
᾿Αμφισσεύς. τὰν τιμὰν of Amphissa. The ῤγίοθ he
ἀπέχει. τὰν δὲ ὠνὰν ‘| hath received. The purchase,®
ἐπίστευσε Νίκαια τῶι however, Nicaea hath com-
᾿Απόλλωνι ἐπ᾽ ἐλευθερίαι. mitted 6 unto Apollo, for free-
dom.
Names of witnesses, etc., follow.

St. Paul is alluding to the custom referred to in these

records when he speaks of our being made free by Christ.
By nature we are slaves of sin,’ of men,® of death®; the Jew
is furthermore a slave of the law,!° the heathen a slave of his
gods." We become free men by the fact that Christ buys us.
And He has done so :—
“ Ye were bought with a price,”
1 Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 845.
2 For σῶμα = “‘ slave”’ see above, p. 165, ἢ. 2; also ἢ. 7 below.
8 [προαποδότης, ‘‘ previous vendor’ (Liddell and Scott,* 1901, wrongly
“previous traitor”; but see Addenda), in inscriptions and papyri=zpomwanris ;
often coupled with βεβαιωτήρ, ‘surety.’ Sosibius had bought Nicaea of
Eumnastus, who thus, became the warrantor of Sosibius’ rightful ownership.
TR] :
‘ For this ἀπέχει see p. 110 ff. above.
5 Janell, Ausgewahlite Inschriften, p. 107, wrongly translates "" purchase
money.”
® On this trusteeship cf. Josef Partsch { 1925, Griechische Biirgschaftsvecht I,
Leipzig, 1911, Ὁ. 362 f.
7 Rom. vi. 17, 20, 6,19; Titusiii.3. The passage in Rom. vi. 6, “ that the
body of sin might be destroyed,” is ambiguous, since ‘‘ body ”’ (σῶμα) may also
mean ‘slave’; similarly in Rom. viii. 23, ἀπολύτρωσις τοῦ σώματος.
8 x Cor. vii. 23. :
® Rom. viii. 20 f.
10 Gal, iv. 1-7, v. I.
11 Gal, iv. 8, 9.
324 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

says St. Paul in two places,! using the very formula of the
records, “ with a price.” ? Again,

“ For freedom did Christ set us free,? . . . ye were called

for freedom ”’ 4

—in these words of St. Paul we have literally the other

formula of the records.®
In numerous records of manumission the nature of the
newly obtained liberty is illustrated by the enfranchised
person’s being expressly allowed henceforth to
“do the things that he will.’’ ὁ

St. Paul, therefore, is referring to the danger of a relapse

1 1 Cor. vi. 20, vii. 23, τιμῆς ἠγοράσθητε. [ἀγοράζειν is used of the purchase
of slaves in the will of Attalus III., 133 8.c., Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci
Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 33823. For τιμή, “ price,” in the sale of a slave,
cf. also τ Clem. lv. 2.7] The repetition of this brief but expressive and
exceedingly popular saying leads us to imagine that it was a favourite watch-
word also in the apostle’s spoken sermons. Cf. also Gal. iv. 5, ‘‘ to redeem
them that were under the law” (ἐξαγοράσῃ).
2 τιμῆς (τιμᾶς) is quite a stereotyped expression in the records, of course with
the addition of a definite sum. But τιμῆς can also be used absolutely, as
shown by the great document containing royal ordinances of Euergetes II.,
118 B.c., The Tebtunis Papyri, No. 5186» 194 20. Cf. the editorial note p. 50 f.
The Vulgate pretio magno and Luther’s translation “dearly bought’ can
hardly be right. St. Paul is not emphasising the amount of the price, but
the fact that the redemption has taken place. Cf. Lietzmann on i Cor. vii. 23:
he translates quite justifiably‘‘bought for ready money.”’ See also Wilcken
on the Gradenwitz Papyrus No. 1 (Griechische Papyri der Sammlung Graden-
witz, edited by Gerhard Plaumann, Heidelberg, 1914, p. 14).
8 Gal. v. 1, τῇ ἐλευθερίᾳ ἡμᾶς
ἡ Χριστὸς ἠλευθέρωσεν.
4 Gal. ν. 13, ἐπ᾽ ἐλευθερίᾳ ἐκλήθητε. :
5 én’ ἐλευθερίᾳ, cf. Curtius, pp. 17, 32. The formula is common at Delphi,
Naupactus, and Tithora. Rensch, p. 100, refers to G. Foucart, De libertorum
condicione apud Athenienses, Lutetiae Parisiorum, 1896, p. 14. How very
much the formula was alive in the popular consciousness is shown by a letter
(Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 1141e,¢, Alexandria, 17th year of
Augustus) to which my attention was called by Schubart (letter, Steglitz,
31 July, 1909). It is a remarkable letter, extremely valuable for the N.T.,
and was written by a freedman apparently to his patron: ὡς δοῦλος ἐπ᾽
ἐλευθερίᾳ θέλει ἀρέσαι [501]. τῷ κυρίῳ, cf. 1 Cor. vii. 32: πῶς ἀρέσῃ τῷ κυρίῳ],
οὕτω κἀγὼ τὴν φιλίαν σου θέλων ἄμεμπτον ἐματὸν""ς ἐτήρησα (cf. 1 Thess. v. 23,
ἀμέμπτως τηρηθείη], “as a slave for (the sake of) freedom desires to please
(his lord), so have I also, desiring thy friendship, kept myself blameless.”
8 ποιῶν 6 xa θέλῃ, cf. Curtius, pp. 17, 39, and especially Mitteis, Reichsrecht
und Volksrecht, p. 390. Theᾧ θέλει in τ Cor. vii. 39 originated probably iin the
formularies of bills of divorcement; see the material collected in Blau, Die
judische Ehescheidung, 2. Teil, p. 20 ff. (35. Jahresbericht der Landesrabbiner-
schule in Budapest, Budapest, 1912).
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 325
into servitude when he points to the possible result of the
conflict between flesh and spirit with these words 1 :—
“that ye may not do the things that ye would.”
Numerous manumissions, again, expressly forbid, some-
times under heavy penalties, that the enfranchised shall
ever “ be made a slave”? again. We now see how wicked
is the intention of those 3
“who . . . spy out our liberty, which we have in Christ
Jesus, that they might bring us into bondage.”
And we understand warnings like this 4 in the letters :—
‘For freedom did Christ set us free: stand fast there-
fore, and be not entangled again in a yoke of bondage,”
and the still more moving exhortation 5 :—
“Ye were bought with a price, become not slaves of men.”
Christians cannot become slaves of men because they have
become “ slaves of Christ ”’ ὁ by purchase, and have entered
1 Gal. ν. 17, iva μὴ ἃ ἐὰν θέλητε ταῦτα ποιῆτε. Note the context; ‘ under the
law ’”’ (v. 18) also points to slavery.
2 καταδουλίζειν or -εσθαι, and similar formulae, cf. Curtius, p. 43. The
prohibition of re-enslavement was hard to kill. It was known to St. John
Chrysostom (p. 327 below); it goes over into medieval Christian law, and
is found, for instance, in a formulary of manumission of the Byzantine period
(published by Giannino Ferrari, Formulari Notarili inediti dell’ Eta Bizantina,
Estratto dal Bullettino dell’ Istituto Storico Italiano n. 33, Roma, 1912,
Pp. 24); similarly, under pain of the curses of the 318 Fathers of Nicaea,
anathema and heavy fines, in the Codex Vaticanus Palatinus Graecus No. 367
(a formulary of the 8th [?] cent. a.p.; Calderini, p. 448f.); and even in a
decree of Frederick the Great: ‘‘ With regard unto this present case I call
to mind how that His late Majesty my Father hath many years since decreed
that, when a born serf hath served his country for a considerable time in the
wars, the same shall on his dismissal, provided he hath established himself
in a.town as a burgess, in addition receive his freedom without payment of
any redemption-money therefor to his former lord, nor shall he again be able
to be reclaimed by the latter to the slavery of serfdom’ (Gustav Mendelssohn
Bartholdy, Der Kénig Friedrich d. Gr. in seinen Briefen und Erlassen,
Ebenhausen, 1912, p. 264). ὰ
3 Gal. ii. 4, κατασκοπῆσαι τὴν ἐλευθερίαν ἡμῶν ἣν ἔχομεν ἐν Χριστῷ ᾿]ησοῦ, ἵνα
ἡμᾶς καταδουλώσουσιν.
4 Gal. ν. 1.
5 1 Cor. vii.23. The allusion is to moral slavery to human lusts and desires.
Christians should be slaves of the brethren.
6 The expression δοῦλος Χριστοῦ is so common in St. Paul that there is no
need to give instances. It is not a consequence of the metaphor of manu-
mission, but older; it suggested the metaphor, however, and fits in admirably
with it.
326 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
into the “slavery of God” or “ of righteousness.‘ ’’ But,
as in every other case of purchase by a god, the slave of
Christ is at the same time free: indeed, he is “ the Lord’s
(i.e. Christ’s) freedman,”’ 2 even when in the outward meaning
of the word he is the slave of a human lord. When, further,
in numerous documents the pious obligation of παραμονή, or
remaining in the household of his former lord, is imposed
upon the enfranchised slave 3 :
“let him remain with N.N.” (his former master),
or when we hear occasionally * :—
“let Cintus abide with Euphronius . . . behaving
decently,”

we are reminded of expressions in St. Paul, e.g.

“let him abide with God,” ὅ

and especially of. this one :—

“that which is decent, and attending upon the Lord
without distraction.’ 6

If this last example is not fully parallel to the pagan formulae

because the reference in St. Paul is to the new master, it
corresponds nevertheless to the Jewish formulae of manu-
1 Rom. vi. 22, 18. The ἀπό, ‘‘ from,’ ” used in these two passages (and in
Rom. viii. 2, 21) after ἐλευθερόω is also a technical use of language; e.g. in
the documents of manumission in Heuzey and Daumet, Missions archéologiques
de Macédoine, Paris, 1876, p. 432 ff., we have ἀπελευθερωθέντος ἀπὸ e.g. Στράτωνος
(the master at the time of manumission).
3 ἀπελεύθερος κυρίου, τ Cor. vii. 22. So also Curtius, p. 24, is of opinion that
the expression “" freedman of the god Aesculapius” (libertus numinis Aes-
culapit) in a Latin inscription possibly originated in a sacred manumission.
On St. Paul’s expression see more below, p. 382.
3 παραμεινάτω and similar formulae, cf. Curtius, p. 39 f.; Mitteis, Reichsvecht
und Volksrecht, p. 386 {.; Rensch, p. 107 ff. A good example is the inscription
from, Delphi, 173-2 B.c., Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 850, παραμεινάτω “δὲ παρὰ
᾿Αμύνταν Σωτήριχος ἔτη ὀκτὼ ἀνεγκλήτως, “ but let Soterichus abide with Amyntas
eight years, blamelessly.”
4 Inscriptions recueillies ἃ Delphes, publiées par C. Wescher, P. Foucart,
Paris, 1863, p. 65, No. 66, παραμεινάτω [δὲ] Κίντος παρὰ Εὐφρόνιον. . .
εὐσχημονίζων.
δ Cor. vii. 24 (ἴῃ close proximity to the principal passage, “ ye were
bought with a price’), μενέτω παρὰ θεῷ.
® x Cor. vii. 35 (cf. also“ blamelessly ” in the inscription quoted in note 3
above), τὸ εὔσχημον καὶ εὐπάρεδρον τῷ κυρίῳ ἀπερισπάστως.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 327
mission from Panticapaeum,! which lay on the enfranchised
slave the obligation to be loyal to the synagogue.?
These parallels do not exhaust the cases in which the
apostle took his stand on this custom of the ancient world.
All that St. Paul and St. John 3 have to say about freedom
has this background; but, most important of all, the fre-
quently misunderstood conception of redemption,‘ i.e. buying-
off and hence deliverance (from sin, the law, etc.), belongs, as
St. Chrysostom knew and pointed out,® to the same complex
of. ideas. An inscription of Cos, already referred to, uses this
very word—a rare one—to describe sacral manumission.®
St. Paul’s predilection for this whole group of images
would be most beautifully accounted for if we knew him to
have been previously acquainted with the Greek form of our
Lord’s deeply significant saying about the vansom.? And
we have no reason to doubt that he was. But when anybody
heard the Greek word λύτρον, ‘‘ ransom,” in the first century,
it was natural for him to think of the purchase-money for
manumitting slaves. Three documents ® from Oxyrhynchus
1 Page 321 above.
2 On the technical terms there used cf. p. 102 above.
8 Cf. especially John viii. 36, ‘if the Son shall make you free, ye shall be
free indeed,”’ a beautiful saying, quite in the character of St. Paul. The word
ἐλευθερόω, which is here used, is found in innumerable documents of manu-
mission, and in the Epistle of Aristeas 27 and 37.—The metaphor has been
taken up also by other apostles, and in some cases further elaborated.
4 ἀπολύτρωσις. This rare word occurs seven times in St. Paul! Cf. also
Epistle of Aristeas 12 and 33.
5 On Romans iii. 24, καὶ ody ἁπλῶς εἶπε λυτρώσεως, ἀλλ᾽ ἀπολυτρώσεως, ὡς
μηκέτι ἡμᾶς ἐπανελθεῖν πάλιν ἐπὶ τὴν αὐτὴν δουλείαν, ‘and he said not simply
‘ransoming ’ (lytrosts) but ‘ransoming away’ (apolytrosis), so that we come
not again into the same slavery ” (cf. R.C. Trench, Synonyms of the New Testa-
ment, 7th ed., London, 1871, p. 273). With this sentence from St. Chrysostom
cf. the provisions in the records, as mentioned above, against reducing the man
to slavery again. In Theophylact, a late writer, we find the old apostolic
metaphor already varnished over (Trench, p. 274). Much material is given by
Joseph Wirtz, Die Lehre von dey Apolytrosis. Untersucht nach den heiligen
Schriften und den griechischen Schriftstellern bis auf Origenes einschliesslich,
Trier, 1906. Later ecclesiastical speculation generally inclined to the view
that redemption from the slavery of Satan was meant.
8 Paton and Hicks, No. 29 (=Herzog, p. 39f.). Itis called first ἀπελευθέρωσις,
and then ἀπολύτρωσις : those who perform the ἀπελευθέρωσις are not to
make formal record of the ἀπολύτρωσις until the priests have reported that the
necessary sacrifice has been made. See ἢ. 321, n. 4.
7 Mark x. 45 = Matt. xx. 28, λύτρον ἀντὶ πολλῶν, “ a ransom for many.”
8 x Tim. ii. 6 certainly sounds like an echo.
9 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri Nos. 48, 49, and 722.
328 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
relating to manumissions in the years 86, 100, and gI or 107
A.D. make use of the word. ‘‘ Under Zeus, Ge (= Earth),
Helios (= Sun) for a ransom,” is the phrase used in the first
two documents, and it is not impossible that all three adum-
brate traces of sacral manumission.?
I refrain from entering into a criticism here of the remark-
able obscurations and complications which this whole circle
of ancient popular metaphors has undergone at the hands of
modern dogmatic exegesis. I would rather point out that
St. Paul, in expanding and adapting to the Greek world?
the Master’s old saying about ransom, was admirably meeting
the requirements and the intellectual capacity of the lower
classes. For the poor saints of Corinth, among whom there

1 ὑπὸ Δία Γῆν Ἥλιον ἐπὶ λύτροις. The plural λύτρα is most usual. The singular
λύτρον for a slave’s redemption-monecy is found, however, several times (to-
gether with the plural λύτρα) in inscriptions from Thessaly, cf. Rensch, p. ror f.
—On λύτρον (λύτρα) cf. also Mitteis, Reichsvecht und Volksrecht, Ὁ. 388, and
Steinleitner, Die Beicht, pp. 36, 37 f., 59, 111. I give here only one example, a
remarkable inscription on a votive relief from Kéres (Keures) near Koula in
Asia Minor (Fig. 60), printed in Buresch, Aus Lydien, p. 197: Γαλλικῷ ᾿Ασκληπιὰς
κώμης Κερυζέων παιδίσχη Aroyévov λύτρον, “ΤῸ Gallicus [= the god Men],
Asclepias of the village of Ceryza, maidservant [cf. p. 200, n. 7 above] of
Liogenes (Diogenes ?), presents this ransom.”” The word here probably means
that Asclepias was releasing herself from a vow. Wiegand, who published
the first picture of the stone in the Athenische Mitteilungen, 1904, p. 318,
informed me (postcard, Miletus, c. 26 May, 1908) that the original now belongs
to the collection of the Lyceum Hosianum at Braunsberg. To the kindness of
a venerable colleague at Braunsberg, W. Weissbrodt (now alas! no more),
who actually offered to send me the stone for inspection at Berlin, I owe the
photograph (received 13 Feb. 1910) from which Fig. 60 has been made. By
it Buresch’s reading required some correction. [W. M. Calder, Classical
Review 38 (Feb.-March, 1924), p. 30, remarks that the inscription had been
correctly transcribed by W. H. Buckler, Annual of the British School at Athens
1914-16, p. 181 ff., who explains Γαλλικώ as a feminine proper name, like
Καλλιστώ, “]ερώ, etc., and clears away an unwarranted epithet of the god Men.
ef
Thus : Γαλλικὼ ᾿Ασκληπίας [= ᾿Ασκληπείας] κώμης Κερυζέων πα(ι)δίσχη (Δ)ιογένου
λύτρον,“ Galliko, female slave of the Asklepian village of the Keryzeis, (dedicates
this as) ransom of Diogenes.” TR.]
2 Οἱ. Mitteis, Hermes, 34 (1899) p. 104, and U. Wilcken’ 5 remark there on a
Christian document of manumission of the year 354 A.D. containing the
formula “‘free under earth and heaven according to [xar’, not καί the service
due to God the compassionate.”
3 It is a mattcr of great importance how gospel conceptions were expanded
and adapted to the world, when we try to understand Christianity as a world-
religion. The most important example is the expansion of the originally
Palestinian word “ the Christ ’’ (= the Messiah) into “ Christ ’’ as the world-
wide name of God. Further details will be found in a small work-by me, Die
Urgeschichte des Christentums im Lichte der Sprachforschung, Tibingen, 1910.
 Fic. 60.—Lytyvon (‘‘ransom’’) Inscription from Ké6res (Keures), near
Koula, in Asia Minor. Imperial Period. Now in the Lyceum Hosianum at
Braunsberg. Photograph kindly obtained by the late W. Weissbrodt.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 329
were certainly some slaves,! he could not have found a more
popular illustration ? of the past and present work of the
Lord. A Christian slave of Corinth going up the path to the
Acrocorinthus about Eastertide, when St. Paul’s letter
arrived,® would see towards the north-west the snowy peak
of Parnassus rising clearer and clearer before him, and every-
one knew that within the circuit of that commanding summit
lay the shrines at which Apollo or Serapis or Asclepius the
Healer bought slaves with a price, for freedom. Then in the
evening assembly was read the letter lately received from
Ephesus, and straightway the new Healer was present in
spirit with His worshippers, giving them freedom from
another slavery, redeeming with a price .the bondmen of sin
and the law—and that price no pious fiction, first received
by Him out of the hard-earned denarii of the slave, but paid
by Himself with the redemption-money of His daily new
self-sacrifice, rousing up for freedom those who languished
in slavery.
It is an extremely remarkable fact that St. Paul, who was
so strongly influenced by the idea and the formulae of manu-
mission as practised in antiquity, should have himself found
a place afterwards in the formularies of manumission of the
Christian period. A Byzantine formulary that we have
already had occasion to mention‘ adorns itself with the
words 5:
“Since, however, the most mighty-voiced Paul cries
clearly, ‘ there is no bond, ‘but free,’ behold, thee also, my
household-servant bought with money, ... thee will I
make free from this day forth.”
Moreover the other Christian book of formularies * which
we have mentioned cites the apostle as an authority :
1 Cf. 1 Cor. vii. 21 and the various names of slaves in 1 Cor.
2 Used occasionally also by Epictetus, Diatribae (Schenkl) I. 195, ἐμὲ ὁ Ζεὺς
ἐλεύθερον ἀφῆκεν (cf. P. Feine, Theologie des N.T.,? Leipzig, 1911, p. 489).
3 The assumption is rendered probable by 1 Cor. xvi. 8 and v. 7, 8.
4 Ῥ, 325, ἢ. 2 above.
δ Ferrari, p. 23: ἐπεὶ δὲ 6 μεγαλοφωνώτατος Παῦλος διαφανῶς Bog “᾿οὐκ ἔστι
δοῦλος ἀλλὰ ἐλεύθερος" [Gal. iii. 28 is meant], ἰδοὺ καὶ σὲ τὸν ἀργυρώνητόν μου
οἰκέτην... ἐλευθεριῶ σε ἀπὸ τὴν σήμερον ἡμέραν.
6 Calderini, p. 448 £. (cf. p. 320, n. 3 above): ὡς φησὶν 6 ἀπόστολος" ἀδελφοὺς
Χριστὸς ἡμᾶς ἐξηγόρασεν (Gal. iii. 13] τῷ ταμίῳ αὐτοῦ [probably a corruption of
τιμίῳ αὐτοῦ αἵματι: cf. τ Peter i. 19], τοίνυν καὶ σὺ ἔσοι ἀπὸ τοῦ viv ἐλεύθερος,
παντελεύθερος, Ρωμαῖος πολίτης,
 330 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

“ As saith the apostle, Christ hath redeemed us brethren

with His precious (blood), therefore also be thou from now
free, free altogether, a Roman citizen. . . ἢ

This formulary completes the circle yet more surely;

the Master Himself as the great Liberator imparts to the
act its real consecration: the text not only mentions Christ
in this quotation, but gives Him quite a great position in the
first part, such as had once, under the same sky, belonged to
Zeus, Ge, and Helios.1
The question how this ancient mnetaphior of St. Paul’s
from the practice of manumission is to be interpreted in detail,
I will merely mention. The chief point to examine is whether
St. Paul regards redemption through Christ merely as a
single summary act performed once for all in the past,? or
(which seems to me probable) also as an act of liberation
experienced anew, in each single case of conversion, by every
person newly incorporated in Christ. Further it may be
asked whether the rice is a necessary link in the chain of
thought, or merely a pictorial detail of no ulterior significance.
It is clear from 1 Peter i. 18, το that at a very early period
the price was understood to be the Blood of Christ. The
union of the idea of manumission‘ with the idea of sacrifice
was made easier for the ancient Christians by the fact that.
sacral manumission, ¢.g. at Cos, was not complete without
, sacrifice. Finally should be pointed out the affinity between
the idea of redemption (manumission) and the idea of for-
giveness (remission) of our trespasses which was established
for the ancients by the legal procedure they were accustomed
to. In cases of non-payment of a money debt the system
‘of personal execution ὅ allowed not only arrest but even
slavery for debt.®
The series of Gospel and Primitive Christian metaphors
1 The formula ὑπὸ Ata, Γῆν, Ἥλιον occurs fairly frequently; cf. p. 328,
n. I, 2 above.
2 Cf. Gal. iii. 13.
5. Cf. redemption in Christ, Col.i.14; Eph.i.7; Rom. iii. 24 (like manumissio
in ecclesia, p. 322, n. 3 above).
4 Cf. the inscription, p. 321, ἢ. 4 above.
5 Cf. p. 270 above.
° Cf. Τῷ, Mitteis, Reichsvecht und Volksvecht, pp. 358f., 445 ff., and his
observation on the Reinach Papyrus No. 7 (see p. 270, n. 1 above),
 Fic. 61.—Note of Hand for 100 Silver Drachmae,
Ist cent. A.D. Papyrus from the Fayim. Now
in the Berlin Museum. By permission of the
Directors of the State Museums.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 331
to which we have thus alluded—metaphors connected with
debt and forgiveness (or vemission)—are likewise taken from
the legal practice of antiquity, and might receive many an
illustration from the new texts. I have pointed out else-
where that the word ὀφειλη, “‘ debt,” supposed to be peculiar
to the New Testament, is quite current in the papyrit So
too there are plenty of original documents on papyrus to
teach us the nature of an ancient acknowledgment of debt.
A large number of ancient notes of hand have been published
among the Berliner Griechische Urkunden, and probably
every other collection of papyri contains some specimens.
A stereotyped formula in these documents is the promise to
pay back the borrowed money, ‘I will repay’? ; and they
all are in the debtor’s own hand,‘ or, if he could not write, in
the handwriting of another acting for him with the express
remark, “1 have written for. him.’’ Thus, for instance, in
a very vulgar note of hand for 100 silver drachmae written
in the Fayiim ὅ in the first century A.D. for two people who could
not write by one Papus, who was himself not much of a
writer, we have (Figure 61 δ) :—

[as καὶ ἀϊἸποδόσωμεμϑ — — .... Which we will also

repay ... . beside? any other
[. - - - χωρὶς ἄλλων ὧν ὀφίλοε[. . 5° that we may owe....I
-- —. Πάπος ἔγραψα ὑ[πὲρ Papus wrote for him [sic ; at
should be them], who is not
aitlwi®!’ ἀγραμμάτου. able to write.

It now becomes clear that St. Paul, who had playfully

given the Philippians a sort of receipt,® is in the letter to

1 Neue Bibelstudien, p. 48; Bible Studies, p. 221.

2 Cf. Mitteis, Reichsrecht und Volksrecht, pp. 484, 493f.; Gradenwitz,
Einfihrung, I. p. 109 ff. One technical expression, among others, for a
memorandum of debt is the word χειρόγραφον, ‘ hand-writing,” “ a writing by
hand,” which is also used for other private contracts.
3 Generally ἀποδώσω.
4 Hence the technical name, “ hand-writing,” ‘‘ writing by hand” [cf.
English “‘ note of hand ’’]. See Neue Bibelstudien, p.67; Bible Studies, p. 247.
5 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 664. Wilcken recommends me, as
a better example, the Oxyrhynchus Papyrus No. 269 (57 A.D°).
6 T am indebted for the photograph to the kindness of W. Schubart.
7 Or “ apart from ” (W. H. P. Hatch, letter, New York, 2 Dec., 1911).
8 Phil. iv. 18; cf. p. 112 above.
 332 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

Philemon (18 f.) humorously writing him a sort of acknow-

ledgment of debt 3 :—
εἰ δέ τι ἠδίκησέν σε ἢ ὀφεί. “Tf he hath wronged thee
λει, τοῦτο ἐμοὶ éAAdya.2 ἐγὼ
Ν or oweth thee ought, put that
ae ae , , « |on mine account.? I Paul have
Παῦλος ἔγραψα τῇ ἐμῇ χειρί, ©Y | written it with mine own hand,
ἀποτίσω.8 I will repay it.”

The parallelism between the legal formulae and the letters of

St. Paul becomes still clearer when we observe that the ancient
note of hand generally took the form of a Jettey acknowledging
the debt.4
Some ancient customs connected with the law of debt must
be at the root of the celebrated passage in Col. ii. 14 where the
technical expression ‘‘ handwriting ’’ (= bond) is employed
in a religious sense and brought into a remarkable connexion
with the cross. Christ, says the apostle, has forgiven us all
the debts incurred by our trespasses. Then, with a piling-up
of cognate metaphors,® the writer continues :—

ἐξαλείψας τὸ Kal’ ἡμῶν χει- “Having blotted out the

Ld
Oypamov ...
x
Καὶ
oN
αὐτό
>
ω] KEY
3
εκ
handwriting
5
. . . that was
ἰὼ ψι λώ Ρ. _. | against us...and He hath
τοῦ μέσου, προσηλώσας αὐτὸ τῷ |taken it out of the way, nailing
σταυρῳ. it to the cross,”

“ The handwriting nailed to the cross ’’—does that simply

1 Eger, Rechtsgeschichtliches zum N.T., p. 44, shows that legally this is not a
case of agency or guarantee (Hugo Grotius and Schraderus had considered it,
from the point of view of Roman law, a constitutum debiti alien), but a
private ‘‘ intercession,” a releasing adoption of the debt such that the old
debtor is acquitted of his debt and another takes his place as debtor [something
of the kind was the idea before me in previous editions]. Hans Reichel,
Neue Zircher Zeitung, No. 1731, 9 Nov., 1919, considers it a kind of novation
(replacement of an existing debt by a new one, resting on a new basis).
? On this technical word, see p. 84 above. ἐλλόγα has arisen by confusion
of the -ἂν and -eiv types of inflexion (Blass-Debrunner, ὃ 90, 'p. 50).
* 3 On this word, which is much stronger than ἀποδώσω, cf. Gradenwitz,
Einfihrung, I. p. 85; also Moulton and Milligan, The Expositor, August 1908,
p. 191 f.
4 Eger is quite right in pointing out (p. 45) that, by adding “ albeit I do not
say to thee how thou owest unto me even thine own self besides,’’ Paul does
away with the legal and business character of what he has just written.
_ 5 Such piled-up metaphors, not admirable in point of style, but not
ineffective in a popular sermon, often occur in St, Paul. Cf, my Paulus, p. 103,
ΞΡ. 138; St. Paul, pp. 153 f., 2p, 176,
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 5333
mean “‘ it is crucified,” 1.6. dead, ineffective? That would be
possible. But probably the image is a much livelier one!:
there must be an allusion to some custom which is not yet
known to us.2. If we are unable to point to the source of
“the bond nailed to the cross,” it may at least be allowed
in passing to refer to “‘ the cross on the bond.’ We have learnt
from the new texts that it was generally customary to cancel
a bond (or other document) by crossing it out with the Greek
cross-letter Chi (X).3 In the splendid Florentine papyrus,‘

1 It was at least a right instinct for the technical something that led many
commentators to conjecture that bonds were cancelled in antiquity by perfora-
tion with a nail. As far as I know, nail perforations have been found hitherto
only on inscribed leaden rolls, e.g. the leaden tablet from Hadrumetum (Bzbel-
studien, frontispiece and p. 26; not given in Bible Studies); but the nails were
not meant to annul the text. [On the use of nails in magic cf. Richard
Wiinsch, Antikes Zaubergerat aus Pergamon, Jahrbuch des Kaiserlich Deut-
schen Archdologischen Instituts, Erganzungsheft 6, Berlin, 1905, p. 43 f.;
and Franz Boll, Griechischer Liebeszauber aus Agypten, Sitzungsberichte
der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Heidelberg, 1910, p. 3 f.]
Moreover, as Erich Haupt very rightly points out in his note on the passage
(Meyer’s Kommentar, 8/9°-’., Géttingen, 1902, p. 96), the main point with St.
Paul is not the nailing in itself, but the nailing to the cross.
2 A. H. Sayce, The Nation, Supplement, Nov. 12, 1910, p. 296, thinks that
a parallel may be produced : ‘‘ Slips of wood on which the household accounts
were kept have been found in Theban tombs of the second century, with the
previous week’s accounts similarly ‘ blotted out.’ The holes in the slips
suggest that they may have been suspended on pegs or nails when not wanted
for use, and so explain the reference to ‘nailing to the cross’ (Col. ii. 14), to
which Professor Deissmann is unable to find a parallel.’’ Merely from this
hint I am not able to judge the nature of the facts; but at present the parallel
is not very convincing to me. For the rest cf. the detailed investigation by
Franz Josef Délger, Die Sonne dev Gevechtigkeit und dey Schwarze, Minster i.
W., 1918 (Liturgiegeschichtliche Forschungen, Part 2), p. 129 ff. [Professor
Sayce, writing on 16 and 18 July, 1923, kindly stated that the rectangular
tablets of various sizes, all in Greek, of the 2nd cent. a.b., were in his own
collection of Egyptian antiquities. He had published one or two many years
ago, but could not remember where. He thought there might be similar tablets
or ‘‘ boards ” in the British Museum; but Sir F. G. Kenyon, writing on 1 Aug.,
1923; knew nothing of them, and could only refer to perforated wooden tablets
for school use, e.g. one containing lines from the Hecate of Callimachus, in
the Rainer collection at Vienna, and a grammatical tablet, British Museum,
Add. MS. 37516. TR.]
3 A correspondent, Dr. R. Kluge (Charlottenburg, 9 June, 1910), suggested
that a connexion between cross (substantive) and cyoss out was only possible
in German. But that is not so [not to mention other modern languages,
_such as English: ¢.g., ‘“‘his (the tailor’s) book uncross’d,’’ Shakespeare,
Cymbeline 111. iii. 26. Tr.] The letter Chi was identified with the shape
of the cross in antiquity, and plays a great part in graphic representations.
4 No. 61e5¢.; p. 269 f. above.
334 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
of the year 85 A.D., of which use has been made before (Figure
50), the governor of Egypt gives this order in the course of a
trial :—
‘Let the handwriting be crossed out.” ὦ

The same technical word, χιάξω, “ T cross out,”’ occurs in other

similar contexts in papyri of New Testament age,? but the
Florentine passage is especially valuable as showing that the
custom of crossing out (which has endured down to our own
day) was not a mere private one, but also official. We have
moreover recovered the originals of a number of “ crossed-
out’? 10.0.5: there are several at Berlin,t some at
Heidelberg,’ and in other collections. The subject is perhaps
not without some bearing on the origin of later allegorical
and mystical trifling with the cross-letter Chi among
Christians.

Starting once more from the 1.0.1]. formulae of the Epistle

to Philemon we can touch on yet another conception of
Hellenistic law which was early applied - metaphorically
within the Christian range of religious ideas, viz. the con-
ception of agency. Here also the new texts have opened up
quite new views.
“Roman law, as is generally and according to the sources
in the Corpus Juris rightly taught, gave on principle no
recognition to direct agency, 1.6. acting in the name and at
the expense of the principal, in whose person arise the rights
and duties resulting from the business. Certain exceptions,
especially direct agency in the acquisition of property, were
1 καὶ éx[élAevce τὸ χειρ[ὄγραφον χιασθῆναι : the last two lines in the facsimile
(Fig. 50). ᾿
2 Grenfell and Hunt, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Part II. p. 243, quote it as
occurring in Nos. 36215 (75 A.D.), 363g (77-79 A.D.); they admit it in a restored
reading, No. 266, (96 A.D.). ι
8 Of course the simple Chi is often somewhat altered, and no doubt other
forms of erasure will be discovered.
4 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, Nos. 101 (114 A.D.), 272 (138-139 A.D.),
179 (¢. Antoninus Pius). This last has been reproduced in facsimile and
explained by Gradenwitz, Einfihrung in die Papyruskunde, I. frontispiece and
p. 95 ff. [but see Wilcken, Deutsche Lit.-Ztg. 21 (1900) col. 2469]. It exhibits
a whole network of Chi-strokes, like the Heidelberg specimens (see next note)
and the London Papyrus No. 336.
5 Nos. 8c, and 26, unpublished.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 335
gradually acknowledged, ‘ but the most important depart-
ment of private law, that of obligatory contracts, remained
entirely closed to direct agency.’’’ In these words Leopold
Wenger 1! sketched what was known of agency in antiquity
before the papyri came to enlighten us. Afterwards he
himself in a very informing monograph on Die Stellvertretung
im Rechte der Papyri ? worked up the material so far accessible
in the newly discovered legal documents of Hellenistic and
Roman Egypt, explaining from the original records, which are
sometimes wonderfully well preserved, the facts concerning
agency in public law, agency in actions, and agency in private
law. It follows that the idea of agency must certainly have
been one of the best-known elements of popular law in
‘Egypt, and from many other analogies we may perhaps
assume that Egypt, whose bundles of documents have been
re-discovered, is here also only the paradigm for the other
portions of the former Empire of Alexander, whose records,
so far as they relate to actions and private law, have almost
entirely disappeared.
The supposition is perhaps confirmed by the use which
St. Paul, the man of Asia Minor, makes of the idea of agency,
which had certainly become dear to him also through his
Jewish education.? The wish expressed (Philemon 13) that
Onesimus, the slave who has run away from his master
Philemon at Colossae, and is now with St. Paul, might serve
the apostle in his captivity as the agent * of Philemon, would
be, if there is really a legal allusion here at all, explainable
even on Roman principles—the slave represents his master.®
But when St. Paul, after speaking of his convert Onesimus
in verse 10 as his child, goes on to put himself in his place
financially in terms of the adoption of a debt, this is best

1 Papyrusforschung und Rechtswissenschaft, Graz, 1903, p. 26f. At the end

he is citing Josef Hupka, Die Vollmacht, Leipzig, 1900, p. 7.
2 Leipzig, 1906.
® On agency in the religious contemplation and speculation of Judaism cf.
Ferdinand Weber, Jiidische Theologie auf Grund des Talmud und verwandter
Schriften,? pp. 292 ff., 326 ff., 361. Here again one can see how closely the
“ Semitic ’’ may come in contact with the Hellenistic in matters of culture.
4 That is the meaning of ὑπὲρ σοῦ in Philemon 13, just as inso many papyri
the scribe representing an illiterate debtor writes ὑπὲρ αὐτοῦ, ‘for him,” ‘‘ as
his agent,” ¢.g. p. 166, n. 6 above, letter 6, and p. 331.
5 Cf. Wenger, Die Stellvertretung, p. 157 #.
 336 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
understood as a father’s agency for his son, according to the
Greek law and Hellenistic law of the papyri.?
Altogether, therefore, the idea of agency, which is employed
in several important statements of St. Paul about the past
and present work of Christ, cannot be regarded as a foreign
body: inside Hellenistic Primitive Christianity, but must be
reckoned one of the many thoroughly popular means to make
things plain which the earliest propaganda adopted. More
important than single passages on the vicarious work of
Jesus in the past is the general view taken of His vicarious.
present activity. This view, hinted at in the gospels,? was
probably started by St. Paul ® ; it grew to full maturity and
attained classical formulation? in the Johannine writings.
Christ is our Paraclete,® 1.6. advocate, our representative in
the trial, our intercessor, comforter. Again the new texts
help us to understand what a thoroughly popular conception
was covered by this primitive and deeply expressive element:
of our religious vocabulary. The work of the advocate in the
Hellenistic world has been illustrated by. Mitteis,* Graden-
‘witz,? and Wenger® with so many speaking examples,,
notably the reports of actual cases, which have lost nothing
of their freshness and colour, that it has become simply.
tangibly clear.® It should be specially pointed out that the
1 Cf. Wenger, Die Stellvertretung, pp. 169 f., 235.
2 Mark xiii. 11; cf. Matt.x.19f.; Luke xii. 11 f., xxi. 14 f.
8 As it happens, St. Paul has not used the word Paraclete in his letters; but
the idea is clearly there in Rom. viii. 26-34.
4 John xiv. 16, 26, xv. 26, xvi. 7; 1 Johnii. 1.
5 A new instance of the use of the word in Greek, which is phonetically
remarkable, occurs in a fragment of a mime in the British Museum, No. 1984
(2nd cent. a.D., Fayfiim ?), published by A. Kérte, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung
6, p. 1 ff., and Plate 1. One of the characters, 4, says: πάτερ “Iwv, od χρῶμαϊί
σοι οὔτε κριτῇ [οὔτε] παρακρήτῳ, and is then corrected by A: παρακλήτῳ. (4:
“Father Ion, I need thee not, neither as judge [nor] as paracrete.” A:
“ Paraclete ! ’’).—I here recall the memory of a promising -young theologian,
Berthold Lohr, of Elberfeld, who just before the outbreak of the Great War
had begun an extensive work on the concept παράκλητος, and who laid down
his life for his country in 1915. The passage quoted from the mime was one
of the latest joys in his life as a scholar.
ὁ Reichsrecht und Volksvecht, pp. 150, 189 ff. τ Einfihrung, 1. p..152 ff.
8 Die Stellvertvetung, pp. 123 ff., 150 ff.
® For Asia cf. Dio Chrysostom, Or. 35, 15 (von Arnim, Ὁ. 335 f.).—The
popularity of this particular word is perhaps best shown by the fact that it has
gone over as a borrowed word (peraklit) into Hebrew and Aramaic. It is used
as a name of power in an Abyssinian magical text (W. H. Worrell, Zeitschrift
fiir Assyriologie 24, p. 94).
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 337
Pauline formula “ through Christ,’’ so often wrongly ex-
plained, but recognised by Adolph Schettler! in its true
character and relative unambiguity, is in many passages
intelligible only if we start from the thought of the Paraclete.?
Much more might be said about the background of the
New Testament figurative language, but I am not aiming
here at completeness of statement. I am content to have
shown by some examples*® the importance of the whole
subject. Perhaps the most necessary investigation still
waiting to be made is that relating to the word διαθήκη,
which so many scholars translate unhesitatingly ‘‘ cove-
nant.’”’ Now as the new texts help us generally to recon-
struct Hellenistic family law and the law of inheritance, so
in particular our knowledge of Hellenistic wills has been
wonderfully increased by a number of originals on stone or
papyrus. There is ample material to back me in the state-
ment that no one in the Mediterranean world in the first
century A.D. would have thought of finding in the word
διαθήκη the idea of “covenant.” St. Paul would not,
and in fact did not. To St. Paul the word’ meant what it
meant in his Gree Old Testament 4, “‘ a unilateral enactment,”
in particular ‘‘a will or testament.” This one point concerns
more than the merely superficial question whether we are to
1 Die paulinische Formel ‘‘ Durch Christus,” Tubingen, 1907.
3 Cf, p. 121, n. 16 above, and Schettler, p. 28 f.
3 T have given other examples elsewhere already; cf. the notes on υἱοθεσία
(adoption), Neue Bibelstudien, p. 66 ἴ., Bible Studies, p. 239; on evictio and
arvha, Bibelstudien, p. 100 f., Neue Bibelstudien, p. 56, Bible Studies, pp. 108 f.,
183 £., 230 (also Moulton and Milligan, The Expositor, Sept. 1908, p. 280);
on dyyapevw, B. St., p. 811., B. Studies, p. 861.; ἀξίωμα, B. St., p. 87f.,
B. Studies, p. 92 £.; γέγραπται, B. St., p. tog f., N. B. St., p. 77 £., B. Studies,
pp. 112f., 249f.; δίκαιος, B. St., p. 112 f., B. Studies, p. 115 £. (also Moulton
and Milligan, The Expositor, Dec. 1908, p. 565 f.); εἰς τὸ ὄνομα, p. 123 above;
ἔντευξις, B. St., pp. 117 £., 143, B. Studies, pp. 121, 146; πράκτωρ, B. St.,
Ῥ. 152, B. Studies, p. 154; πρεσβύτεροι, B. St., p. 153 ff., N. B. St., p. 60 ff.,
B. Studies, pp. 154 £., 233 ἴ.; εἰς ἀθέτησιν, N. B. St., p. 55 1.,ὄ Β. Studies, p.
228 f.; ἀκατάγνωστος, N. B. St., p. 28£., B. Studies, p. 200; ἀπόκριμα, N. B.
St, p. 85, B. Studies, p. 257 (also Moulton and Milligan, The Expositor, Aug.
1908, p. 187); ἐμμένω, N. B. St., p. 761., B. Studies, Ὁ. 248 ἴ.; τὸ ἐπιβάλλον
μέρος, Ν. Β. St., p. 57, B. Studies, p. 230; ἐπίσκοπος, N. B. St., p. 571., Β.
Studies, pp. 156, 230f.; πρᾶγμα, N. B. St., p. 60, B. Studies, p. 233; ἐκ
συμφώνου, N. B. St., Ῥ-. 82 1., B. Studies, p. 255; τήρησις, N. B. 51., p. 95, Β.
Studies, p. 267; χωρίζομαι, N. B. St., p. 67, B. Studies, p. 247. Several new
examples are given in Chapters II. and III. of this book. Note also the works
of Otto Eger and the new examples in Moulton and Milligan’s “ Vocabulary.”
4 (Jer. xxxi (xxxviii.) 31 ff. TR.]
338 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
write “‘ New Testament ” or ‘ New Covenant ” on the title-
page of the sacred volume; it becomes ultimately the great
question of all religious history: a religion of grace, or a
religion of works? It involves the alternative, was Pauline
Christianity Augustinian or Pelagian ? }

g. Closely connected with the lower classes by the ties of

popular language and non-literary culture, by the realism of
keen-sighted religious imagery, by popular morality and
popular law, Primitive Christianity displays moreover in
one group of its most characteristic utterances a tone that
might be interpreted as one of protest against the upper
classes, and which certainly has that effect, although it arose
less from conscious political or social antipathies than from
the passionate determination of the monotheistic cult of
Christ to tolerate no compromises. I mean the strongly
pronounced tone of protest against the worship of the Caesar.?
In so far as the religious adoration of the sovereign is the
crown and summit of the culture of the ruling classes,’
1 See the hints in my little sketch, Die Hellenisierung des semitischen Mono-
theismus, Leipzig, 1903, p. 175 [15]. Future investigators will find matter
of great importance in Eduard Riggenbach’s ‘‘ Der Begriff der AIAOHKH im
Hebraerbrief ” in Theologische Studien Theodor Zahn zum 10 Oktober 1908
dargebracht, Leipzig, 1908, pp. 289-316. Cf. also Moulton and Milligan, The
Expositor, Dec. 1908, pp. 563, 565. Frederick Owen Norton’s ‘‘ Lexicograph-
icaland Historical Study of 4IA@HKH from the earliest times to the end of the
classical period,’’ Chicago, 1908, does not get far enough to deal with the
period of the Greek Bible. Since then much valuable work has been done on
the problem: Franz Dibelius, Das Abendmahl, Leipzig, 1911, especially Ῥ.
76 ff.; Joh. Behm, Der Begriff διαθήκη. τι N.T., Leipzig, 1912; Ernst
Lohmeyer, Diatheke, Leipzig, 1913 (a Berlin University Prize Essay of 1909) ;
Mitteis, Grundziige, p. 234 ff.; O. Eger, Zeitschrift f. die neutestamentliche
Wissenschaft 18 (1917), p. 98 ff., and Rechtsgeschichtliches p. 31 ff.
2 H. A. A. Kennedy’s “ Apostolic Preaching and Emperor Worship,” The
Expositor, April 1909, pp. 289-307, takes a similar view. His article was
written before the publication of this book (letter, Toronto, 13 October, 1908),
and appeared in the Expositor, April 1909. Cf. also Otto Weinreich, Lyhische
Zwiolfgdtter-Reliefs (Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissen-
schaften, phil.-hist. Klasse, 1913, 5. Abhandlung), Heidelberg, 1913, pp. 13,
31; the writings of Wilhelm Weber; and especially E. Lohmeyer, Christuskult
und Kaiserkult, Tibingen, 1919; fora later period: Erich Becker, ‘‘ Protest
gegen den Kaiserkult,” offprint from F. J. Délger’s Konstantin dey Grosse,
Rom-Freiburg, 1913. The newly published texts, especially papyri, contain
much fresh material. [Cf. article ‘‘Caesarism’’ by Principal James Iverach
in vol. iii. of the Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by James
Hastings and John A. Selbie, 1911. TR.]
8. Cf. the brief but comprehensive account of emperor worship by U. von
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, “‘ Geschichte der griechischen Religion,” in the
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 339
the Primitive Christian abhorrence of emperor worship does
form an upper line of demarcation, and in course of time it
unites here and there with those political and social instincts
of the oppressed which had long been present in Judaism.
Politically the earliest Christianity was comparatively
indifferent,1 not as Christianity, but as a movement among
the humble classes, whose lot had undoubtédly been on the
whole improved by the Imperium. The fire of national
hatred of the foreigner which smouldered in Palestine re-
mained practically confined to this area, and seems to have
gained no hold among the disciples of Jesus at the outset.
Their opponents were none other than His opponents, viz.
the leaders of the nation itself, and the expectation of the
coming kingdom of God is much more of a polemic against
the Scribes and Pharisees than against the Romans.
St. Paul, too, in spite of occasional conflicts with Roman
officials on his journeys, had probably in his own person
more often experienced the blessings than the burdensome
constraint of State organisation. In what was to him
personally the most momentous legal affair of his life he
asserted his rights as a citizen ? and appealed to the Caesar.
He sees no theoretical difficulties in all the small political
questions that affect the humble individual: to respect and
pray for the powers in authority is as natural to him as the
payment of tribute and custom.’ It is no right view of the
subject to say that Paul was indifferent to political problems
because of his religious expectations of a coming end; if

Jahrbuch des Freien Deutschen Hochstifts, 1904, Frankfurt am Main, p. 23 ff.

(cf. Wilcken, Grundztige p. 117). More recent than the works mentioned at
Pp. 290 above: H. Heinen, Zur Begriindung des rémischen Kaiserkultes, Klio
11 (1911) p. 129 ff.; P. Riewald, De imperatorum Romanorum cum ceteris
dis et comparatione et dequatione (Dissertationes philologicae Halenses, 20,
pars 3), Halle, 1912.
1 Heinrich Weinel, in his otherwise excellent work, Die Stellung des Urchris-
tentums zum Staat, Tibingen, 1908, exaggerates the political antipathies of
the earliest Christianity. ἷ
2 Acts xxii.27. On the whole subject cf. Theodor Mommsen, ‘‘ Die Rechts-
verhaltnisse des Apostels Paulus,” Zeitschrift fir die neutestamentliche
Wissenschaft, 2 (1901) p. 81 ff. On appealing to Caesar cf. the important
remarks of O. Eger, Rechtsgeschichtliches, pp. 20 ff., 24 ff., where new texts
bearing on the right of appeal in the Imperial period are made use of.
8 The first book of Wilcken’s Griechische Ostraka, with its evidence of
218 different kinds of dues payable in Egypt, is a splendid commentary on
Rom. xiii. 7.
340 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
anything, those expectations were calculated to make him
interested in politics. The fact is that political interest and
political activity were on the whole remote from the class
to which he belonged. The comparatively marked in-
difference of St. Paul to politics is not specifically connected
with Primitive Christianity, its causes are secular and social.
All the more sensitive, however, was Primitive Christianity
in its own most special field, the religious, on which all its
passion was concentrated. The deification of the Caesars
was an abomination to Christianity from the beginning. It
is very probable that this antipathy was inherited by the
daughter from monotheistic Judaism.1 In those words of
quiet delicacy in which Jesus names both the Caesar and
God, we see already the place reserved for God which belongs
to Him alone.2- Two generations later the Book of the
Revelation, coming from the classical land of emperor -
worship, gives most powerful voice to the religious contrast,
which by that time was heightened by the political resent-
ment of the oppressed. This access of passion would be
historically unintelligible were it not for the years that lie
between the calm dignity of Jesus and the volcanic ardour of
the Apocalypse. With the lapse of time, the religious |
antithesis must have been felt more and more acutely until at
length imprinted on the Christian conscience in indelible
characters.
And so it really was. If it has not been seen before, that is
because the literary sources of the Imperial age are par-
ticularly deficient on the point. The new texts, however—
some of which are themselves direct evidence of the cult of
the Caesar—enable us to judge of the feelings aroused by
exhibitions of the cult of the sovereign even at the time of
St. Paul’s mission in the minds of those who had nothing but
their God in Christ and their conscience.
It must not be supposed that St. Paul and his fellow-
believers went through the world blindfolded, unaffected
by what was then moving the minds of men in great cities.
These pages, I think, have already shown by many examples
? Cf. Tacitus, Hist. v. 5, on the Jews: non regibus haec adulatio, non
Caesaribus honor. Abundant material on Judaism and the cult of the Caesars
in Juster, I. p. 339 ff.
2 Cf. p. 214 above.
 Fic. 62.—Original Limestone Plate (sha-
vagma) inscribed with the seal of Augustus.
Egypt, 5-6 αν. Now in the Berlin Mu-
seum. By permission of the Directors of
the State Museums.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY _ 341
how much the New Testament is a book of the Imperial age.
We may certainly take it for granted that the Christians
of the early Imperial period were familiar with the institu-
tions and customs that the Empire had brought with it.
That they were familiar even with apparently out-of-the-way
points is shown, for instance, by the allusion in Rev. xiii. 16 f.
to the custom, now known to us from the papyri, of imprinting
on deeds of sale and similar documents a stamp which
contained the name and regnal year of the Emperor and
was called, as in the Revelation, a charagma.1_ To the
examples previously given * from Augustus to Trajan there
now comes a welcome addition in the form of an imperial
stamp affixed to documents ὃ from the Fayim, dated 48 a.p.
As a concrete illustration I reproduce * here an actual-size
facsimileof one of the original stamps of Augustus (5-6 A.D.),
a soft plate of limestone now in the Berlin Museum (Figure 62).
The legend, the letters of which are of course reversed, runs :—

L de Καίσαρος In the 35th year of the Emperor

γρ(αφεῖον ὃ) Scribe’s chamber (9)

If such superficial details were known among the people,

how much more so the deification of the emperor, with its
glittering and gorgeous store of the very loftiest terms em-
ployed in worship, compelling every monotheistic conscience
to most powerful reaction! Such jewels were never intended
for mortal brow! And so from out the despised mass of
the unknown Many the hard and deformed hands ὅ of the
saints in Christ stretch forth and appropriate from the
1 Hiller von Gaertringen (postcard, Westend, 16 May, 1914) referred me to
an inscription from Antigonea (Mantinea), after 27 B.c., afterwards discussed
by him in Dittenberger, Sylloge? No. 78325, which says of a meritorious
citizen: μέχρι τῶν Σεβαστείων εὐπλόησε χαρακτήρων, ‘he made a successful
voyage to the August Persons (Augustus and Livia).”” I translate “‘ Persons,’
because clearly an audience at the Imperial Court is referred to—as in the
decree of the Byzantines, Ὁ. 378, n. 6 below; that is to say, χαρακτήρ is
already being used here in a transferred sense. For a man of that period
the transition from Emperor’s stamp to Imperial Person was not very
circuitous; the Caesar was present to him even in the chavagma.
2 Neue Bibelstudien, pp. 68-75; Bible Studies, p. 240f.; cf. also Wilcken,
Archiv ἢ. Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 76, and J. C. Naber, zb7d. pp. 85 f., 316 ff.
3 Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 748.
« Neue Bibelstudien, p. 71; cf. Bible Studies, p. 243.
5 Cf. p. 246 above.
342 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST -
crown of the Caesars such old and new divine insignia as
offered, and deck therewith their Son of God, whose they are,
because before He was set over them He had stood beside
them; who became poor with the poor, who humbled Him-
self with the lowly and humble and had lived submissively
in the likeness of a slave, and who after a shameful death on
the cross had been raised by God and had received a name
which is above al] names.
And that is what we may actually observe. The cult of
Christ goes forth into the world of the Mediterranean and soon
displays the endeavour to reserve for Christ the words already
in use for worship in that world, words that had just been
transferred to the deified emperors (or had perhaps even
been newly invented in emperor worship).? Thus there
arises a polemical parallelism between the cult of the emperor
and the cult of Christ, which makes itself felt where ancient
words derived by Christianity from the treasury of the
Septuagint and the Gospels happen to coincide with solemn
concepts of the Imperial cult which sounded the same or
similar.
In many cases this polemical parallelism, which is a clear
prophecy of the coming centuries of martyrdom, may be
established by very ancient witness. In other cases the word
-which corresponds with the Primitive Christian term of-wor-
ship may turn up only in later texts relating to the cult of the
emperors. It could hardly be otherwise considering the
fragmentary nature of the tradition. I am sure that in
1 2Cor. viii.9; Phil. ii. 5-11. These two passages certainly give the strongest
outlines of Pauline “ Christology,” at any. rate those most effective with a
popular auditory. Cf. my Paulus, pp. 112f., 2149 ff.; Paul, pp. 168 ff., 5192 ff.
2 A particularly fine appreciation of these facts was shown many years ago
by Ferd. Kattenbusch, Das apostolische Symbol 2, Leipzig, 1900, p. 611 ff., and
more recently by the Abbot of Maria Laach, Ildefons Herwegen, Das Kénig-
tum Christi in dey Liturgte (offprint from ‘‘ Ehrengabe deutscher Wissenschaft ”’),
Freiburg i. Br., 1920.
8 The New Testament also uses technical terms of contemporary con-
stitutional law which by accident are not known to us from other sources.
until later, e.g. Acts xxv. 21, εἰς τὴν τοῦ Σεβαστοῦ διάγνωσιν, “‘ for the decision
of Augustus.’ διάγνωσις is a technical expression for the Latin cognitio, but
is not found elsewhere until 144 a.p. (Berliner Griechische Urkunden, No. 891) ;
and again at the end of the 2nd cent. a.D. in the title of an official ina Roman
inscription, Inscriptiones Graecae, XIV. No. 1072 (also with the genitive τοῦ
Σεβαστοῦ, as in the Acts), ἐπὶ... διαγνώσεων τοῦ Σεβαστοῦ, “a . . . cogni-
tionibus Augusti.”
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 343
certain cases a polemical intention against the cult of the
emperor cannot be proved; but mere chance coincidences
might later awaken a powerful sense of contrast:in the mind
of the people.
It cannot be my task to collect together the whole gigantic
mass of material in even approximate completeness; 1 I
can only offer a selection of characteristic parallelisms.?
Those versed in the subject will agree with me that it is not
always possible in such cases to distinguish between the
Imperial cud¢ and the Imperial Jaw; the Imperial cult was
in fact a portion of the law of the constitution.
I begin with the family of ideas which groups itself round
the word θεός, “God.” There can be no question of
any kind of Christian borrowings from the language of the
Imperial cult, because both the cult of Christ and the cult of
the emperor derive their divine predicates from the treasure-
house of the past. But the words compounded with or
derived from “God” in the Imperial cult were the most
likely to arouse the sensation of contrast; they were known
to every plain Christian man by reason of their frequent
occurrence, and their lack of all ambiguity brought even the
very simplest souls, in fact the very simplest souls rather than
others, into the most painful conscientious difficulties. Even
St. Paul declared one of the signs of Antichrist to be that he
would proclaim himself as God. We may leave to themselves
all the minuter side-issues, ¢.g. the date when the divine
titles were first bestowed on the living sovereign. As we are
specially concerned with what the Primitive Christians felt,
we need only point out that the difficulties of this contrast are
older than the Imperial period. Under the successors of
Alexander, who handed on to the Empire ready-made all the

1 I have therefore in this new edition not attempted to work in all the new
material of which I have become aware in the interval. But besides the works
already mentioned I would especially refer to Fritz Blumenthal, ‘“ Der
Agyptische Kaiserkult,” Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 5, p. 317 ff., and W.
Otto, ‘‘ Augustus Soter,” Hermes 45 (1910), p. 448 ff.
3 The work, already referred to (p. 112, ἢ. 4), of David Magie on the official
formulae of the Imperial age has been of great help here. It does not, how-
ever, in the least exhaust the epigraphical and papyrological material; by
far the larger number-of my examples are derived from my own reading of
the texts.
3 2 Thess. ii. 4.
344 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

essential forms used in the adoration of the sovereign, exactly

the same problem confronted the pious Jew into whose hands
fell, let us say, the coins of the Seleucidae 1 with the legend
“God” upon them applied to the kings, or who drew up an
inscription, friendly in other respects to. the State, to be placed
on a synagogue in one of the scattered Jewish settlements ;
however great the respect shown to the sovereign, the title of
“God” is denied him.2. The Imperial age strengthened the
feeling of contrast, since all the titles formerly bestowed on
the various smaller rulers were now concentrated on one great
ruler, and the conjecture made above? that the apocalyptic
number 616 means “‘ Caesar God ”’ 4 appears in this connexion
fairly obvious.
A few examples will show with what force those titles must
have struck upon a monotheistic conscience. In an official
inscription ὅ of the year 48 B.c. the town council of Ephesus,
in conjunction with other Greek cities of Asia, spoke of Julius
Caesar, who was then Dictator, as ‘‘ the God made manifest,
offspring of Ares and Aphrodite, and common saviour of
human life.’ A formula for an oath, ‘“‘ by Caesar, god of

1 To take one example out of many: a coin of the city of Aradus in

Phoenicia has the legend Βασιλέως Δημητρίου θεοῦ Φιλαδέλφου Νικάτορος
(Demetrius II., Nicator, 144 B.c.), Journal internat. d’archéologie numis-
matique, 3 (1900) p. 148. The title ‘‘ god ” was however applied to Antiochus
II. in the 3rd cent. B.c., cf. J. Rouvier, ἰδία. p. 146; also to Antiochus IV.
Epiphanes, ibid. 4 (1901) p. 202.—Ptolemaic parallels are very plentiful.
The Attalidae of Pergamum seem to have been less assuming (Max L. Strack,
Rheinisches Museum, New Series, 55 [1900] p. 180 f.).—The best account of
the whole matter is given by E. Kornemann, ‘“‘ Zur Geschichte der antiken
Herrscherkulte,”’ Beitrage zur alten Geschichte [Klio] 1, pp. 51-146.
2 Examples of this in the Ptolemaic and Imperial periods in Johann Oehler,
‘ Epigraphische Beitrage zur Geschichte des Judentums,” Monatsschrift fir
Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums 53 (1909), p. 533; and cf.
Juster 1, p. 342.
8 Page 278, n. 3. Cf. also p. 356, ἢ. 2 below, Martyrium Polycarpt viii. 2.
4 Καῖσαρ θεός. The word ‘‘ Caesar” of course means ‘“‘ Emperor ᾿᾿ here.
5 Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 347, “ΝΟ. 760, τὸν ἀπὸ “Apews καὶ ᾿Αφροδε[[της
θεὸν ἐπιφανῆ «αἱ κοινὸν τοῦ ἀνθρωπίνου βίου σωτῆρα. The combination of σωτήρ and
θεός, which is also used of Augustus, Inschriften von Olympia, No. 53 [quoted
by Wendland, Zeitschrift f. d. neutest. Wissenschaft, 5 (1904) p. 342], is much
older: a votive offering at Halicarnassus, 3rd cent. B.c. (The Collection of
Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British Museum, IV. 1, No. 906), is dedicated
to the honour ‘‘ of Ptolemy the saviour and god,” Πτολεμαίου τοῦ σωτῆρος καὶ
θεοῦ. The double form “ God and Saviour” afterwards became important in
early Christian usage.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 345
god,” of the first year of Augustus,! and an inscription from
Socnopaei Nesus in the Fayim, dated 17 March, 24 B.c.,
which also gives to Augustus the title “ god of god,’ 2 are
particularly vivid examples. The calendar inscription of
Priene (Figure 71) speaks of the birthday of Augustus simply
as the birthday “ of the god” ; and, to mention one very
remarkable instance from the time of St. Paul, Nero is actually
called, in a votive inscription? of the before-mentioned 5
Gaius Stertinius Xenophon of Cos, “the good god,” with
which, for the sake of the contrast, one may compare the
passionate, classical saying in the gospel,* ‘‘ There is no man
1 Oxyrhynchus Papyri No. 145311, Katoap<a> θεὸν ἐκ θεοῦ (cf. Wilcken,
Archiv fir Papyrusforschung 6, p. 423).
2 Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 655, θεοῦ ἐκ θεοῦ.
This formula is Ptolemaic (cf. the Rosetta Stone in honour of Ptolemy Vv.
Epiphanes, tbid. No. 9010, ὑπάρχων θεὸςἐκ θεοῦ καὶ θεᾶς καθάπερ *Qposὁ τῆς "Ἴσιος
καὶ ᾿Οσίριος vids, ‘‘ he is god of god and of goddess, as Horus the son of Isis
and Osiris’) and becomes very important later in Christianity as a deeply
significant formula of belief. It appears to be first found in Gregory Thauma-
turgus (tc. 270), as I am informed by Karl Holl (1 Aug., 1922); then in
Lucian of Antioch, Eusebius of Caesarea, in the Nicene Creed, in Western
texts of the Creed of Constantinople, etc. (References in William A. Curtis,
A History of Creeds and Confessions of Faith, Edinburgh, 1911, pp. 55, 57,
71, 734.) In Gregory the influence of Origen is conjectured by Holl. That
would be Egyptian influence !
3. Inschriften von Priene, No. 1054o1. [ἡ γενέθλιος] τοῦ θεοῦ.
4 Paton and Hicks, No. 92; cf. Herzog, Koische Forschungen und Funde,
Pp. 196, ἀγαθῷ θεῷ. As far as I am aware, no other example of this title for an
emperor is known at present. I assume that in the case of Nero the expression
is somehow connected with the fact that immediately after his accession
. this Caesar was identified with the ’Aya@és Δαίμων (the god of the city of Alex-
andria). The notification of his accession in an announcement which is no
doubt official, Oxyrhynchus Papyri No. yo21 (17 Nov., 54 a.D.), calls him
᾿Αγαθὸς Δαίμων τῆς obxoupévys®* ἀρχὴ wv τε πάντων ἀγαθῶν: The title ᾿Αγαθὸς
Δαίμων remains with him in an inscription from Egypt, 56 a.p. (Dittenberger,
Orientis ἀγαθοὶ Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 666 =C.1.G. 4699). A coin
of the city of Alexandria in B.V. Head, Historia numorum,? Oxford, 1911,
p. 863, calls him Neo Aya. Aa. On the whole question cf. R. Ganszyniec
(Ganschinietz), De Agathodaemone, Warszawa, 1919 (Arbeiten der Gesell-
schaft der Wissenschaften zu Warschau II No. 17, 1919), p. 50; and Wilcken
in The Oxyrhynchus Papyvi, Part VII (1910), p. 149. Wilhelm Weber (letter,
Heidelberg, 9 Feb., 1911) conjectures with regard to Pap. Oxyrh. No. 1021
that the title was given in the decree of the governor of the Eastern Province,
and sees in the adaptation to the Alexandrian cult an intentional piece of
propaganda on behalf of the cult of the Emperor. Cf. also Blumenthal, p. 330,
who refers to Schiff, Festschrift fiir Hirschfeld, p. 377 ff.
5 Cf. pp. 253, 294 above.
5 Mark x. 18 = Luke xviii. 19 (cf. Matt. xix. 17), οὐδεὶς ἀγαθὸς εἰ μὴ
els ὃ θεός.
346 LIGHT FROM THE. ANCIENT EAST
good, but one, that is God.” Further quotations for the title
“ god” are unnecessary ; the nets break if we try to get them
all.1 Merely as an ocular demonstration of the way in which
the inscriptions dinned this term of worship every day into
the ears of everyone that could read, I reproduce here an
inscription of the Imperial age from Pergamum ? (Figure 63)
which mentions in line τὸ a Hymnodus of the god Augustus,
and in line 13 f. a priestess of the goddess Faustina (wife of
the Emperor Marcus Aurelius). - .
I have already treated of the title θεοῦ vids, “ son of God,”
in another place. I remember discussing with a librarian
friend of mine the fact that in many inscriptions and papyri of
the Greek East Augustus and (with the name of their divine
father inserted) his successors are called ‘‘ the son of a god.”
My friend, a classical scholar, smiled benignly and said there
could be no significance in that, ‘‘ for ’’ it was a translation of
the Latin divi flius.4 I do not think that a Christian out of
one of St. Paul’s churches would have smiled at the expression
or have considered it non-significant.5 St. Paul’s preaching
of the “son of God” had so quickened his religious feelings
that he was bound to protest against the adornment of any
other with the sacred formula. New individual quotations
are unnecessary here; I give, again for ocular demonstra-
1 Many instances from a single city, in Thieme, Die Inschriften von Magnesia
am Méaander und das Neue Testament, p. 28.
2 Die Inschriften von Pergamon, No. 523. The facsimile (Figure 63) is
reproduced by kind permission of the Directors of the State Museums, Berlin.
Cf. also Fig. 64.
3 Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 166 f.; Bible Studies, p.166f. Friedrich Pfister, Siidwest-
deutsche Schulblatter, 25 (1908) p. 345 f., tries to account for the legend that
Augustus dedicated an altar to Christ the Son of God by supposing that a
votive inscription dedicated to the Emperor as ‘‘ the son of a god” was
misinterpreted.
4 I may perhaps be allowed to interpolate another reminiscence (like that
recorded on p. 147). It was the θεοῦ vids in No. 174 of the Berliner Griechische
Urkunden that stimulated me, all in a flash, to a considerable part of the work
that has occupied my life as a scholar. Some thirty years ago I happened to
see the unbound volume in the hands of Wilhelm Schulze in the Marburg
library. Looking over his shoulder I noticed the text, which caught my eye
owing to its being an autograph reproduction. I was arrested, fascinated by
the θεοῦ vids, and found myself, as I continued to turn the leaves, everywhere
in the world of the New Testament and the world surrounding it.
5 Cf. U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Jahrbuch des Freien Deutschen
Hochstifts, 1904, p. 24: ‘‘ Whoever regards the divi filius as empty ornament,
or fraud, does not understand either the time or the man (Augustus).”
 ΤΠΚΛΙΜΕΛΔΙΤΊΝ ΗΝ
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ἈΘΗ͂ΝΑΣΈΝΔΟΞΩΣ ΚΑΙ φιλο
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Fic. 63.—Marble Pedestal from Pergamum

with an Inscription in honour of a Priestess
of Athene. Imperial Period. Now in the
Berlin Museum. By permission of the Direc-
tors of the State Museums.
«δὺς -d]
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 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 347
tion, only two inscriptions. Five fragments of a marble
pedestal from Pergamum ‘ (Figure 64) bear this inscription,
which was put up in honour of Augustus while he was still
alive :—
[Αὐτοκράτ]ορ[α K]aécapa [θ]εοῦ υἱὸν θεὸν Σεβαστὸ[ν]
[πάσης] γῆς κ]αὶ θαλάσσης [ἐ]π[ὀπ]τ[ην]
The Emperor, Caesar, son of a god, the god Augustus,
of every land and sea the overseer.

“ Overseer ’’ as a title of honour in this inscription recalls the

use of the same word as a predicate of God in Judaism and
Primitive Christianity.?
Then an example of St. Paul’s time—a votive inscription
for Nero on a marble slab at Magnesia on the Maeander ὃ
(Figure 65), between his adoption by Claudius and his acces-
sion to the throne (50 and 54 A.D.). Nero is called (line 3 ff.)
“ Son of the greatest of the gods, Tiberius Claudius,” etc.4
The adjective θεῖος, “divine,” belonging to the same
family-group of meanings, is, like the Latin divinus, very
common 5in the sense of “‘ Imperial’ throughout the whole
Imperial period. So firmly had it established itself in the
language of the court that it is found even in the period when
Christianity was the religion of the State—a period far removed
from the Primitive Christian standard of conscience. I will
give but one example from the earliest, and a few from the
later and latest period.* The calendar inscription of Priene
(Figure 70), about 9 B.c., speaks of the birthday of Augustus
“the most divine Caesar.” 7 The usage continues through
1 Die Inschriften von Pergamon, No. 381. The facsimile (Fig. 64) is
reproduced with authority from the Directors of the State Museums at Berlin.
2 ἐπόπτης used of God in Additions to Esther v. 1 (xv. 2); 2 Macc. iii. 39,
vii. 35; 3 Macc. ii. 21; and Clement of Rome, 1 Cor. lix. 3. Cf. p. 418 below.
Much material in C. Burk, De Chionis epistulis, a Giessen dissertation, Darm-
stadt, 1912, p. II. _
2 Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Mdander, No. 157b; the facsimile (Plate
VIII.) is here reproduced (Fig. 65) by kind permission of the Directors of
the State Museums, Berlin. The text on the left of the plate belongs to
another inscription.
4 τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ μεγίστου θεῶν Τιβερίου Κλαυδίου, etc. Cf. Thieme, Die Inschriften
von Magnesia am Μάσμάον und das Neue Testament, p. 33.
5 I cannot understand why Magie (p. 31) says the word was seldom used.
ὁ Cf. p. 91 above, and Neue Bibelstudien, p. 45 (= Bible Studies, p. 218).
7 Inschriften von Priene, No. 10529, τοῦ θηοτάτου Kaicapo[s].
348 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the centuries, e.g. in the phrases 1 ‘‘ divine commandments,”
“divine writings,” “ divine grace.’’ In the third volume of
Greck Papyri in the British Museum we have no less than ten
documents in which Christian emperors are called “‘ our most
divine Lord ” 3—Justinian twice, 558 and 561 A.D.; Justin II.
four times, 567, 568, 571, 576; Tiberius II. twice, 582;
Maurice once, 583; Heraclius once, 633 A.D. Similarly we
find θειότης, “ divinity,’ used of the (Christian) Emperor’s
majesty,4 this also, of course, being taken over from the old
language of religious observance.
In this connexion some light is perhaps thrown on the old
title θεολόγος, “ the theologian,’ bestowed on the author of
the Apocalypse.’ The well-known explanation, that he was
so called because he taught the divinity of the Logos, is so
obviously a little discovery of later doctrinaires, that it does
not merit serious discussion. The title is much more likely.
to have been borrowed from the Imperial cult. The theologi,-
of whom there were organised associations, were quite well-
known dignitaries in the Imperial cult of Asia Minor, against ©
which the Apocalypse protests so strongly. I have given the
quotations elsewhere,® and it is significant that the examples
come from the very cities mentioned in the Apocalypse,
Pergamum, Smyrna, Ephesus. These “ theologians’ seem
occasionally to have borne actually the name of sebastologi,’
as being the official special preachers in connexion with the
Imperial cult in Asia Minor, and when we further consider
1 Cf. ἐντολή, γράμματα, below, p. 375 f.
4 See the index of that volume, p. 333.
3 χοῦ θειοτάτου ἡμῶν Seandrov. The superlative is still used as under
Augustus.
4 Greek Papyri in the British Museum, Vol. 11. p. 273, No. 233 (345 A.D.).
Other quotations in E. A. Sophocles, Greek Lexicon, p. 572.
5 P, Wendland, Deutsche Literaturzeitung 31 (1910), col. 1942, refers to
Heidel, Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, XLV. 4
(1910). See moreover Reitzenstein, Historia Monachorum, p. 135 ff.
& Neue Bibelstudien, p. 58 f.; Bible Studies, p. 231 f. Cf. also Wilhelm Weber,
Untersuchungen zuy Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus, pp. 140, 214.
7 This new and extremely remarkable word ceBaoroAdyos turned up in an
inscription from Didyma (temp. Caligula), Wiegand, Siebentey vovldufiger
Bericht (1911), p.65. It seems to me to stand in the same relation to θεολόγος
as σεβαστοφόρος (recorded by Suidas) does to θεοφόρος. The inscription shows
the enormous extension of the cult of the Caesars in the West of Asia Minor,
which was the scene of apostolic missionary enterprise. Of New Testament
cities Miletus, Pergamum, Laodicea, Adramyttium, Smyrna and Sardis had
at that time already joined the cult of Caligula’s Philosebasti.
 Fic. 65.—Marble Slab from Magnesia on the Maeander with a Votive Inscription for
Nero, 50-54 A.D. Original at Pergamum; plaster cast in the Berlin Museum. By permis-
sion of the Directors of the State Museums.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 349
that they were often hymnodi! at the same time, the borrow-
ing of the title becomes all the more intelligible. John the
Theologian, the herald ? of the true and ovly 8 God, is at the
same time His great Hymnodus, leader of the choir of those
who sing 4 “a new ode’”’® and “‘ the ode of Moses, the slave
of God, and the ode of the Lamb.” 5
Most important of all is the, early establishment of a
polemical parallelism between the cult of Christ and the cult
of Caesar in the application of the term κύριος, “lord.” The
new texts have here furnished quite astonishing revelations.’
1 References, Neue Bibelstudien, p. 58 1.; Bible Studies, p. 231f. The
Greek expression is ὑμνῳδός, ‘singer of hymns,” e.g. Die Inschriften von
Pergamon, No. 5231), Figure 63 above, p. 346. Minute details of the
functions of the hymnodi are given in the Pergamum inscription No. 374,
which has been excellently commented on by Max Frankel, and two portions
of it are facsimiled below (Figs. 68 and 69). Hugo Koch, writing from Brauns-
berg, 25 November, 1908, referred me to his book Ps.-Dionysius in seinen
Beziehungen zum Neuplatonismus und Mysterienwesen, 1900, pp. 38-49.
More recent works: Franz Poland, Geschichte des griechischen Vevreinswesens,
Leipzig, 1909, p. 46f.; J. Keil, “ Zur Geschichte der Hymnoden in der
Provinz Asien,’’ Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archdologischen Institutes,
1910.
2 “ Herald of God ” is perhaps the best translation of θεολόγος. A memory
of this meaning lingers in John Chrysostom, who calls the author of the
Apocalypse θεολόγον θεοκήρυκα, ‘‘ theologian and herald of God,’’ Ovat. 36 (cf.
Suicerus, Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus, s.v. θεολόγος); so too an Anonymus in
Boissonade, Anecdota, 5, p. 166 (quoted in the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, s.v.
θεοκῆρυξ). In the word “‘theologus ’’ the primary sense is that of a prophet;
the doctrinal sense that now prevails among us is secondary.
3 In Rev. xv. 4 the word “only” has been inserted by John in the Old
Testament quotation. i
4 The quotation in Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. V. xxviii. 5, is still entirely the
utterance of the psyche of antiquity : τὰ yap Εἰρηναίου τε καὶ Μελίτωνος καὶ τῶν
λοιπῶν τίς ἀγνοεῖ βιβλία, θεὸν καὶ ἄνθρωπον καταγγέλλοντα τὸν Χριστόν, ψαλμοὶ
δὲ ὅσοι καὶ ῳδαὶ ἀδελφῶν an’ ἀρχῆς ὑπὸ πιστῶν γραφεῖσαι τὸν λόγον τοῦ θεοῦ
τὸν Χριστὸν ὑμνοῦσιν θεολογοῦντες ; “ For who knows not the books of Irenaeus
and Melito and the rest, preaching Christ as God and man? And how many
psalms and odes, written by faithful brethren from the beginning, sing hymns
unto Christ as the Word of God, proclaiming Him divine ?’’ Were we have
Christian hymnodi and theologi, and their θεολογεῖν does hot mean “‘theologise.””
5 Rev. v. 9, xiv. 3.
® Rev. xv. 3. Cf. the many other hymn-like portions of the Revelation.
Τ I pointed out the essential lines in the history of this word in Die Christ-
liche Welt, 14 (1900) col. 291; cf. also Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 27 (1906)
col. 588 f. Similarly Lietzmann, Handbuch zum N.T. III. (1906) p. 53 ff. Cf.
also Weinel, Die Stellung des Urchristentums zum Staat, p. 19; and W. H.
P. Hatch, Some Illustvations, p. 1391. There is also important matter in
Ferdinand Kattenbusch, Das apostolische Symbol, II., Leipzig, 1900, p. 605 ff.
The whole problem has since been opened up to the widest discussion by
Wilhelm Bousset’s Kyvios Christos, Géttingen, 1913, and the literature result-
ing therefrom. |
 350 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
It was previously known that Augustus and Tiberius
had scorned the title of ‘lord,’ because it directly contra-
dicted the Roman conception of the empire as a “‘ principate.”’
“ Lord ” is a term instinct with Oriental feeling ; the kings of
the East have from time immemorial been “ lords,” and their
subjects nothing better than slaves.
The same conception runs through the Oriental religions,
which delight to express the relation of the divinity to the
worshipper as that of the “lord,” or, as we saw in the in-
scription of the beggar-priest of the Syrian goddess from
Kefr-Hauar,! of the “lady” to the slave. In religious
history the most important illustration of this is undoubtedly
the Old Testament, especially in the Greek Septuagint trans-
lation, which, following Jewish custom, has even replaced
the divine name Jahveh by “ Lord.” ὃ
But we find “lord” or “lady” as divine names? ex-
tending also into a number of cults of the Graeco-Roman
world. ‘‘ The lord Serapis,” to take but one example, en-
countered us in the letters of Apion, the soldier,* and: the
prodigal son Antonis Longus.5 It may be said with certainty
that at the time when Christianity originated “‘ Lord” was’
a divine predicate intelligible to the whole Eastern world. St.
Paul’s confession of “‘ Our Lord Jesus Christ ’’ was his cosmo-
politan expansion of a local Aramaic cult-title, Marana, applied
to Jesus the Messiah by the apostolic Primitive Christians at
Jerusalem and occasionally even by Paul himself in the outer
world. Like the complemental thought, that the worshippers
are the “slaves ᾿ 7 of the Lord, it was understood in its full
meaning by everybody in the Hellenistic East, and it facili-
tated the spread of the Christian terms of worship and of the
1 Above, p. 109. Cf. also the inscription from the temple of Isis at Philae,
Pp. 352, n. 6 below; also p. 352, ἢ. 8.
2 On the far-reaching importance of this substitution see my little sketch
Die Hellenisierung des semitischen Monotheismus, p. 173 [13] ff.
8 I have already referred (bid. p. 174 [14]) to the article “‘ Kyrios” in
W. H. Roscher’s Ausfihrliches Lexikon dey griechischen und rémischen
Mythologie. ᾿
4 Page 179 and Fig. 32 above.
5 Page 187 and Fig. 34 above. Also Sempronius, p. 193, Fig. 35.
6 Marana = Our Lord, 1 Cor. xvi. 22. Cf. also Didache x. 6.
7 This thought, also Eastern in origin, was specially adapted to the Hellen-
istic world by St. Paul through the metaphor of sacral manumission; see
Pp. 319 ff. above. :
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 351
cult of Christ itself. This becomes still clearer if we compare,
for instance, St. Paul’s sacral expression “‘ the table of the
Lord (Jesus Christ),”” 1 Cor. x. 21, with the analogous Egyp-
tian expression,! “ the table of the lord Serapis,’’ which has
been discovered in the papyri? and can be traced in abbreviated
form as far as Cologne.®
This is no doubt a case of independent parallelism. St.
Paul’s expression was most probably influenced by such:
passages as Malachi i. 7, 12 and Ezekiel xxxix. 20, xliv. 16
in the Greek Old Testament. Another Pauline phrase, “ the
table of devils’ (1 Cor. x. 21), seems to be connected with
Isaiah Ixv. 11, Septuagint version. It is of course chrono-
logically possible, but not at all probable, that the Serapis
formula was influenced by the Christian one. All that can
be said at present is that the two formulae (like the parallel
“cup ’’-formulae ἢ are found side by side, and that no
genealogical connexion is perceivable. The Egyptian
analogy shows that in yet another vital point the language of
ancient Christianity was approached by a usage of ancient
paganism. St. Paul himself, wishing to make the Corinthians
realise the nature of the Lord’s Supper, alluded to the analogy
of the sacred feasts of the pagans (I Cor. x. 19-21).
Now it has generally been assumed hitherto that the Roman
emperors were first named “lord” or “our lord” from
Domitian onward, 1.6. not until after St. Paul’s time. That
may be true of Rome and the West. In the East, however,
as the records now show, the ancient title, which had long been
in use in the language of the native courts, and the soul of
which was of cult origin and nature, was bestowed on the
emperors much earlier. The subsequent victory of the
1 Cf. Die Christliche Welt, 18 (1904) col. 37.
2 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Nos. 110 and 523, 2nd cent. a.D., invitations to
“ sup at the table [literally ‘‘ couch” or “‘sofa’’] of the lord Sarapis,” δειπνῆσαι
εἰς κλείνην τοῦ κυρίου Σαράπιδοο. Wilcken refers to Archiv fir Papyrus-
forschung, 4, p. 211. These invitations are at the same time an excellent
illustration of 1 Cor. x. 27; cf. Die Christliche Welt, 18 (1904) col. 36 f.
3 Cf. the Cologne inscription Soli Serapi cum sua cline and Wilcken’s
remarks, Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 6, p. 424. For the adoption of the
Greek cult-word κλίνη into the Latin cult-vocabulary iin the form cline cf. the
parallel ἐκκλησία, ecclesia (p. 112 f.).
4 In St. Paul himself ποτήριον κυρίου and ποτήριον. δαιμονίων, 1 Cor. x. 21;
with which cf. for example ποτήριον ᾿Αγαθοῦ Aaipovos in Ganszyniec (Gan-
schinietz), De Agathodaemone, p. 28.
352 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
“‘ Dominate ” over the “ Principate ’”’ 1—ultimately a victory
of Oriental over Roman feeling—was thus foretold centuries
in advance.
Here too Hellenistic culture paved the way,? at least in
Egypt. As it had been usual to address the Pharaoh with
“Ὁ king, our lord,” * so a Munich Papyrus gives as one of the
official titles of King Ptolemy IV. Philopator (221—205 B.c.),
translated into Greek, ‘lord of the diadems’’4; and the
Rosetta Stone ὅ attaches the same title to Ptolemy V. Epi-
phanes (205-181 B.c.). Still more remarkable is it, how-
ever, when on 12 May, 62 B.c., a high Egyptian official in
an inscription on the door of the temple of Isis on the island
of Philae calls Ptolemy XIII. “ the lord king god,” ® or when
in an inscription from Alexandria of the year 52 B.c. the
co-regents with this king (Ptolemy XIV. and Cleopatra)
are called ‘‘the lords, the most great gods.” 7 In corre-
sponding fashion an inscription from Pselkis (Dakkeh), in
Nubia, 13 B.c., gives the title of “the lady queen ”’-to an
Ethiopian Candace. It cannot, therefore, have sounded
foreign to Egyptian ears when the Egyptian translators of
the Old Testament into Greek rendered quite literally 9
the Semitic “ Lord King” which occurs not unfrequently
in the original. Semitic and Egyptian here coincided, and
1.1.6. in constitutional law the victory of the theory that the Caesar is
“Lord ” over the other theory that he is ‘‘ First” in the State.
2 Lietzmann, op. cit., p. 54 middle, disputes this.
8. Cf. U. Wilcken, Zeitschrift fiir die Aagyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde,
35 (1897) p. 84.
4 κύριος βα[σιλειῶν]; cf. Wilcken, Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 481 ff.
5 Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 90.
8 Ibid. No. 186g, τοῦ κυρίου βασιλ[έ]ος θεοῦ. Before that he says ἥκω πρὸς τὴν
κ[υ]ρίαν *Iow, “1 came to the lady Isis ’’—a good example of ‘lady’ as a
divine title (cf. above, p. 350), but still more important as an analogue to the
use of ἥκω, “1 come,” in the language of worship, instances of which occur on
Orphic gold tablets, Lamellae Auveae Orphicae ed. A. Olivieri (Lietzmann’s
“ Kleine Texte,” No..133), Bonn, 1915, pp. 9, 11, and 5: cf. the Septuagint
Psalter and John vi. 37, πρὸς ἐμὲ ἥξει, ‘‘ shall come to Me.”
? Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
1902, p. 1096, τοῖς κυρίοις θεοῖς μεγίστοις (cf. the explanation by U. von Wila-
mowitz-Moellendorff, ibzd.). (Cf. «Ἑρμῆν μέγιστον in the Sedasa inscription,
p. 280,n.6. ΤᾺ]
8 Now in Wilcken, Chrestomathie, No. 4, p. 11, τὴν κυρίαν βασίλισσαν (the word
used for an Ethiopian Candace in Acts viii. 27). Afterwards there is mention
of the κύριος Ἑρμῆς.
® κύριος βασιλεύς is therefore commion in the LXX, including the Apocrypha.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 353
when we find the same title applied to the Herods in Greek
inscriptions 1 of Palestine (and other places), that is only
another instance of the parallelism already? insisted on
between Egyptian and Palestinian culture.
It is therefore in accordance with Egyptian or Egypto-
Semitic custom that in numerous Greek papyri, inscriptions,
and ostraca of the earliest Imperial period the title “ lord”
is attached also to the Caesars by Egyptians and Syrians.
Some temple accounts of the year I A.D. in the Oxyrhynchus
Papyri® mention sacrifices and libations for “‘ the god and
lord Emperor ”’ (Augustus). The Lysanias inscription from
- Abila in Syria (before 29 a.D.), which names “the lord
Cronos,’ speaks of ‘‘ the lords-Augusti,’”’ 4 by which Tiberius
and his mother Livia are meant. There is literary record that
Caligula allowed himself to be called “ lord.’’® An Egyptian
document’? of the year 49 and an ostracon ὃ from Thebes of
the year 54 call Claudius “ the lord.”
For Nero “ the lord,”’ 2.6. in the time of the most important
of St. Paul’s letters, the number of examples suddenly
rushes up tremendously. For a long while I was unable to
account for this uprush, but I now think it possible that it is
connected with the proclamation of Nero as Agathus Daemon
in Egypt on his accession.® At any rate the statistics are
quite striking; everywhere, down to the remotest village,
the officials called Nero Kyrios. Wilcken’s book alone con-
tains 27 ostraca dated after Nero “‘ the lord,’ among them the
1 A number of examples in Dittenberger, Ovientis Graecit Inscriptiones
Selectae, No. 415 (Herod the Great), 418 (41 A.D., Herod Agrippa 1.), 423, 425,
426 (Herod Agrippa IT.).
2 Cf. p. 268 ff. above.
3 No. 1143: ὑπὲρ τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ κυρίου Αὐτοκράτορος.
4 Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 606, τῶν κυρίων
Σε[βαστῶν]. Better now, after the discovery of a new copy of the inscription
(R. Savignac, Revue Biblique, 1912, p. 533 ff.), in Bleckmann, Zeitschrift des
Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins 36 (1913) p. 220. See p. 5, n. 1 above.
~ 8 So among others Schiirer, Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes, 1.*p. 603,
34p, 7184. [Eng. trs., Div. I., vol. 2, by John Macpherson, Edinburgh, 1890,
p. 338], Cagnat, Inscriptiones Graecae ad ves Romanas pertinentes, note on
No. 1086.
® Aur. Vict. Caes. 3; cf. Christoph Schoener, Ueber die Titulaturen der
rémischen Kaiser, Acta Seminarii Philologici Erlangensis, 2 (1881) p. 476.
7 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, No. 37ει.
8 Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka, No. 1038. _
5 Cf. p. 345, ἢ. 4 above, and p. 365, ἢ. 2 below.
354 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST

one of 4 August 63 which is facsimiled above.* My own

collection also contains 8 Neronian Kyrios-ostraca, among
them one with ‘“‘ Nero Kyrios” quite in the manner of a
‘formula? (without article, like the “ Kyrios Jesus” in
1 Cor. xii. 3). We find the title “ lord ” applied to Nero also
in papyrus documents, of which a good example is the letter of
Harmiysis, 24 July 66, of which a picture is given above®
(Figure 29). The officials who sign the document use the
title three times. It is a very important fact that under
Nero we first find the Kyrios-title in an inscription in Greece.
The marble tablet of Acraephiae in Boeotia* which has
yielded such an extraordinarily rich harvest, and which
immortalises, among other things, a speech made by Nero
at Corinth in November 67, contains a decree of honour in
which the Boeotian town calls him once “lord of the whole
world,” and then, what is in my opinion more important,
simply “‘ the lord Augustus,” divine honours being awarded
him by the decree. This important inscription shows how
far the East had already penetrated on its march of conquest
into the West. A living illustration of the inscription and
the forebodings it arouses is supplied by the journey under-
taken a year before (66 A.D.) by the Persian king Tiridates to
do homage to the Emperor. Tiridates came from the East to
Italy and did homage to Nero at Naples as “ the lord” and
in Rome as “‘ the god.’’ 5
The fact that a New Testament writer ® well acquainted with
this period makes Festus the Procurator speak of Nero simply |
as “‘ the lord’ now acquires its full significance in this con-
nexion. The insignificant detail, questioned by various
commentators, who, seated at their writing-tables in Tiibingen
or Berlin, vainly imagined that they knew the period better
than St. Luke, now appears thoroughly credible.
1 Page 105 (Fig. 12).
2 Ostraca in the Deissmann collection (printed iin P. M. Meyer’ 5 Griechische
Texte), Nos. 22, 23, 24, 25, 36a, 37, 76 Νέρων6 κύριος, 39 Νέρων κύριος.
3 Page 173.
4 Most easily accessible in Dittenberger, Sylloge®, No. 37651, °8145;, ὁ τοῦ
παντὸς κόσμου κύριος Νέρων; 55, τοῦ κυρίου Σεβαστοῦ [Νέρωνος].
5 Albrecht Dieterich, Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft,
3 (1902) p. 9 ff., has seen in this journey, which is recorded by Dio Cassius and
others, one of the motives of the gospel story of the Adoration of the Magi.
6 St. Luke, Acts xxv. 26.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 355,
Further examples of the Kyrios-title down to Domitian
could be easily given, especially from the ostraca,! but they
are not necessary: It-is sufficient for our purpose to have
realised the state of affairs in the time of Nero and St. Paul.
And then we cannot escape the conjecture that the Christians
of the East who heard St. Paul preach in the style of Phil. ii.
9, Ir and τ Cor. viii. 5, 6 must have found in the solemn
confession 2 that Jesus Christ is “ the Lord” a silent protest
against other “lords,” and against “the lord,’ as people
were beginning to call the Roman Caesar. And St. Paul
himself must have felt and intended this silent protest,—
as well as Jude, when he calls Jesus Christ ‘‘ our only master
and Lord.” ὃ ;
Not many years later, soon after the destruction of Jeru-
salem, Jewish rebels in Egypt, Sicarii from Palestine, so
Josephus£ tells us (doubly credible when one thinks of what
we were describing above—the Egyptian use of the title
“lord” at this time), refused to call the Caesar “ lord,”
because they ‘‘ held God alone to be the Lord,’’—and gave
their bodies to be burned, men and boys.® Surely these
Kyrios martyrs had. not yet: passed out of memory when,
on 31 March, 116 A.D., an Egyptian Jewess, Mary, the
daughter of Abietas, paid her Jewish poll-tax, and the
collector dated her receipt by the year of the Kyrios
Trajan. The ostracon,® which chance has preserved, is
mentioned here only for the sake of its typical significance,
reminding us vividly of two facts: the merciless march of

1 For instance, the Deissmann ostraca Nos. 17, 18, 47, 59, 86, 87 are Ves--
-pasian-ostraca with the title Kyrios; Nos. 40, 44, 77 are similar Domitian-
ostraca; so also numerous ostraca in Wilcken.
2 “ God hath given Him [Jesus Christ] a name [ = Kyrios] which is above
every name . . . that every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord
{Kyrios],” Phil. ii.9, 11; ‘‘. . . as there be gods many, and lords many; but
to us there is but one God . . . and one Lord Jesus Christ ” (1 Cor. viii. 5, 6).
3 τὸν μόνον δεσπότην͵ καὶ κύριον ἡμῶν, Jude 4.
4 Jewish Wars, VIL. x. τ. Already under Caligula Jews had been martyred
for refusing to worship the Caesar (Schiirer I*-* p. 499 [Eng. trs., Div. L,
vol. 2, Ῥ. 9171). [Sicarii are the'‘ Assassins ” of Acts xxi. 38 R.V. ΤᾺ]
5 Windisch (Neue Jahrbicher fir das klassische Altertum 25 [1910],
p. 204 f.) well contrasts this Jewish refusal with a Deissmann ostracon, No. 17,
now in his possession, which is of this period (74-75 A.D.) and calls Vespasian
Kyvios (P. M. Meyer, p. 137).
4 Deissmann ostracon No. 33 (P. M. Meyer, p. 151).
356 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the Imperium over the conscientious objections of Jewish
monotheism, and the nevertheless persistent mental anguish
of the Jews, in whom secretly the old question would present
itself poignantly at every fresh occasion when the tax fell due.
At the period when their historic separation was about to be
completed, Judaism and Christianity, in this inner sanctuary
of their convictions, clung with equal fervour to the best
belonging to their joint inheritance.
Though the grief and resentment of those Sicarian wit-
nesses was not yet burning in those who loved Jerusalem
before the catastrophe of the year 70, yet St. Paul and his
friends were one with them in the religious protest against
the deification of the Caesar. And a hundred years later the
Christian exclusive confession of ‘‘ our Lord Jesus Christ,’’ which
could not but sound politically dangerous to a Roman official
(since from Domitian onwards the title “our lord” was
applied to the Caesars),1 led to Christian martyrdoms, in
repetition of the sufferings of the martyred Egyptian Sicarii.
In the case of Polycarp, at Smyrna in the year 155, it was a
question of the “lord’’-formula. ‘“ What is the harm in
saying ‘lord Caesar’? ”’ the Irenarch Herod and his father
Nicetes asked the saint seductively.2_ The scene enacted on
17 July 180 at Carthage before the judgment-seat of the
Proconsul P. Vigellius Saturninus stands out even more
plainly. The Roman official commands the Christian
Speratus of Scili (Scilli) in Numidia 4: ‘‘ Swear by the genius
of our lord the Emperor!’ And the Christian answers:
“IT know no imperium of this world, . . . I know my Lord,
the King of kings, and Emperor of all nations.”’ 5
1 Alfr. Fincke, De appellationibus Caesarum honorificis et adulatoriis, Diss.
Regimonti Pr. [1867] p. 31 f.
2 Martyrium Polycarpi, viii. 2, τί γὰρ κακόν ἐστιν εἰπεῖν - κύριος Καῖσαρ;
Extraordinarily characteristic of the Christian sense of the contrast is the
date of this Martyrium (c. 21)—month, day, hour, names of the high priest
and the proconsul, and then in the place where one would expect the Imperial
regnal year : βασιλεύοντος δὲ εἰς τοὺς ἀἰῶνας ᾿Ιησοῦ Χριστοῦ ᾧ ἡ δόξα, τιμή, μεγαλωσύνη,
θρόνος αἰώνιος ἀπὸ γενεᾶς εἰς γενεάν" ἀμήν, ‘‘ and Jesus Christ reigning for ever, to
whom is the glory, honour, greatness, and an eternal throne from generation
to generation, Amen.”
Passio Sanctorum Scilitanorum, in R. Knopf’s Ausgewdhlte Martyreracten,
p. 341. Quoted in this connexion by Lietzmann, p. 55.
4 Iura per genium domni nostri imperatoris.
5 Ego imperium huius seculi non cognosco, . . . cognosco domnum meum,
regem regum et imperatorem omnium gentium,
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 387
That the old polemical parallelism was felt even after
Christianity became the state religion is shown perhaps by
the fact that the Christian emperors, though they did not
drop the title of “lord,” often chose another Greek word
instead. In Greek titles of Christian emperors in the papyri
the word Kyrios is conspicuously eclipsed by the title Despotes
(which occurs towards the end of the 3rd cent.1), as though .
Kyrios was intended to be reserved for the heavenly Lord.
The Church of England prays “ through Jesus Christ our
Lord ’’ for “ our most gracious Sovereign Lord” the King,
and there is no offence in the collocation, but few users of
this and similar prayers in modern Western liturgies ever
dream of what lies behind those words—that there were times
in which the most earnest among Christians went to execution
rather than transfer to a man the divine title of their Saviour.
Still more strikingly than with the substantive, the parallel-
ism between the language of Christianity and the official
vocabulary of Imperial law shows itself in the use of the
adjective κνυριακός, “ belonging to the Lord,” “ Lord’s.”
Familiar to every reader of the New Testament from 1 Cor.
xi. 20 and Rev. i. 10, where it occurs in the phrases “‘ the Lord’s
supper ” and “ the Lord’s day ”’ (i.e. probably 2 Sunday), it
may certainly be described as a very characteristic word of
the early language of Christian worship, and it was formerly
considered as a specifically Biblical and ecclesiastical word.
some even going so far as to regard it as a coinage of St.
Paul’s. But as a matter of fact St. Paul took it from the
language of contemporary constitutional law, in which it
meant ‘‘ Imperial.” I have shown elsewhere? on the
authority of papyri and inscriptions that the word was
common in Egypt and Asia Minor during the Imperial period
in certain definite phrases, eg. ‘‘the lord’s treasury’ =
imperial treasury, ‘‘ the lord’s service’ = imperial service,
and I could now multiply the number of examples from the
2nd cent. A.D. onwards. :
1 Cf. Wilcken, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 4, p. 260.
2 The Old Testament “ day of the Lord ’”’ might perhaps be meant. Later,
however, the expression is often used for Sunday.
3 Neue Bibelstudien, p. 44; Bible Studies, p. 2171. For the two mistakes
“in the spelling of the place-names at the end of paragraph 1 in the German
edition I am not responsible. Read, of course, ‘‘ Aphrodisias” and
“ Thyatira.” Cf. also W. H. P. Hatch. Some Illustrations, p. 138 f.
358 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Instead of doing so here, I will only show a picture (Figure
66) of the inscription containing the oldest example yet known
of the official use of the word in the Imperial period. It is
an edict of the Praefect of Egypt, Ti. Julius Alexander,
6 July, 68 a.p., inscribed on the wall of the propylon of a
temple at El-Khargeh in j the Great Oasis.1
In this edict the high Roman official, who was also a Jew
like St. Paul, uses the word κυριακός twice. In line-13 he
speaks of the “‘ imperial finances,’ ® and in line 18 of the
“imperial treasury.” ® In their bearing on the methods of
research these passages are extremely instructive. Scholars
who only believe in the borrowing of secular words for purposes
of the Christian religion when they are shown pre-Christian
quotations,* will hardly wish to assert here that the Praefect
of Egypt had borrowed the remarkable word which he uses’
a few years later than St. Paul from Christianity and intro-
duced it into his own vocabulary of constitutional law. It is
much more likely to be the case that the presumably older
Hellenistic (perhaps Egypto-Hellenistic) ὅ word κυριακός was
in use as a technical expression of constitutional law before
St. Paul, though it happens not to be discoverable in con-
stitutional use until after St. Paul had introduced it into the
language of Christian worship.
In line 3 of the same inscription the Strategus of the
Great Oasis, Julius Demetrius, who had to publish the Prae-
fect’s edict, distinguishes the day of publication (x Phaophi
= 28 September, 68 A.D.) by aname which must also be noted
in this connexion, viz. julia Sebaste.® Moreover Sebaste
1 The best edition so far is that of Dittenberger, Onisnets Graect Inscrip-
tiones Selectae, No. 669; all further literature 2bcd. The photograph of this
important inscription is due to Professor Moritz, formerly of Cairo. A
diapositive of this (lines 1-46), which I received from Baron F. W. von Bissing
through Wilcken’s kind mediation, has been used for Fig. 66. The gigantic
inscription can here only be given in a greatly reduced form; but with a
magnifying glass even inexperienced persons can probably check the text
toughly to some extent.
3 ταῖς κυριακαῖς ψήφοις; cf. Wilcken, Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 4, p. 240.
3 τὸν κυριακὸν λόγον.
4 Cf. p. 77 above.
5 Cf. the Egypto-Hellenistic use of the substantive κύριος in sacral language,
Pp. 352 f. above.
5 ᾿Ιουλίᾳ Σεβαστῆι. Wilcken, Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung 43 (1909)
P. 504, shows that it means the eponym-day of the Empress Livia, who had
borne the name Julia Augusta since 14 A.D.
 Te jo ay} uojAdoig
10 911 e[dweay
18 Yosreyy-[q
}eaIH) (sIseO Poqurosur
YYMUe PIPY
JO 98} pOoJoRIg
TL snipnf ‘rapuexopy
9 “ΑἸΠ[
go “αὙ sour ᾿ΟΥ̓́ΞΙ ὑπο.
Β aarzisoderppoutezqo
Aq “A ΓΙΘΣΌΠΛΛ
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 359
alone occurs very frequently in the Imperial period as a name
for a day, both in Egypt and in Asia Minor. It was first
made known to us by the new texts, and although the problems
it raises are not all solved yet, it may be said with some
certainty that it means something like ‘‘ Augustus Day ”’;
that is to say, a certain day 4 of the month received the name
Sebaste in honour of the Emperor Augustus. On collecting
the examples known to me many years ago,? I said that this
name, formed probably after some Hellenistic model,? was
analogous to the Primitive Christian “ Lord’s Day” as a
name for Sunday.* But the more I regard this detail in con-
nexion with the great subject of ‘‘ Christ and the Caesars,”’ the
more I am bound to reckon with the possibility that the
distinctive title ‘ Lord’s Day ’’ may have been connected
with conscious feelings of protest against the cult of the
Emperor with its ‘‘ Augustus Day.”
The “‘ Sebaste Day,” although never mentioned in literature,
cannot have been a passing fancy of the “ adulators.” > The
ostraca show it as an Eastern institution familiar even to the
lower orders in the period which saw the birth of Christianity.
Wilcken δ was able to refer to seven ostraca, ranging from 15
to 44 A.D., which are dated by the Sebaste Day. My own
collection (No. 36) contains an eighth example, from Thebes,
23 September, 33 A.D. (Figure 67), which Wilcken deciphered

1 Or certain days of the month? Or (later) a certain day of the week ?

2 Neue Bibelstudien, p. 45 1.; Bible Studies, p. 218 f.; and Encyclopaedia
Biblica, 3, col. 2815 1. References there to other literature; cf. Wilcken,
Griechische Ostraka, 1, p. 812f.; H. Dessau, Hermes, 35 (1900) p. 333 f.;
Thieme, Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Mdander und das Neue Testament,
p.15f. A great advance was made by Blumenthal, p. 337 ff., who showed
that in Egypt from 30 B.c.to Trajan the 24th [sic;? 26th. Tr.] of every month
was kept as ἡμέρα Σεβαστή in memoryof the birthdayofAugustus (23 September),
which in 30 B.c. fellon the 24th [26th? Tr.] of the month Thoth.
3 Cf. the ‘‘ King’s Day ”’ in the time of the Ptolemies, Encyclopaedia Biblica,
3, col. 2815 f.
4 E. Schiirer expressed himself in agreement with this, Zeitschrift fir die
neutestamentl. Wissenschaft, 6 (1905) p. 2. A. Thumb, Zeitschrift fir
Deutsche Wortforschung, I (1900) p. 165, and Archiv fir Papyrusforschung,
2, Ῥ. 424, came also to my conclusion.
5 Earlier investigators misunderstood many of, the institutions of the
Imperial age by dismissing their technical expressions as ‘‘ adulatory ᾿᾿ and
occasional.
ὁ Griechische Ostvaka, 1, p. 812; and the Strassburg Ostracon No. 203,
Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 4, p. 146.
360 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
for me.! As a document from the hand of a simple money-
changer it may serve to supplement the high official’s inscrip- -
tion in the Oasis :—
διαγεγρά(φηκεν) ae Hepes ὑπ(ὲρ) χοϊματυκοῦ)
ιθ 1. <8 ἐξ γἀρόβοῖ καὶ Ba(avxos) νετρέβο9
ιὅ [8 <3 ¢—7 L5 καὶ τὰ τοὐύτ(ων) προσδ(ιαγραφόμενα)
ἐξ —8 L5 L? κ Τιβερίου Καίσαρος
Σεβαστοῦ μηνὸς Σεβαστοῦ
Σεβαστῆι. Πετεμε(νῶφις) Πικ(ῶτος.)

Horus, the son of Permamis, has paid for embankment tax 9

of the 19th year six drachmae four obols, and for bath tax 1°
four obols $: they are 7 drachmae, 2} obols; and of these the
further levy of τᾷ obols.11_ In the year 20 of Tiberius Caesar
Sebastos, in the month Sebastos, on Sebaste Day.!2 Peteme-
(nophis), the son of Picos.!8

I have already hinted that these examples from Egypt are

not isolated. Here, as so often, corresponding examples
from Asia Minor 15 prove the unity of the culture on the
eastern and southern shores of the Mediterranean. To
illustrate the uniformity I give here (Figures 68 and 69) two
portions of the inscription at Pergamum, of the reign of
Hadrian,!5 which has been mentioned already in connexion
with the hymnodi. The name Sebaste is here assumed to be

1 In P. M. Meyer, Griechische Texte, p.155. I have taken advantage of

Meyer’s new reading of the ostracon.
3.1.6. ἔτους. 3 I.e. δραχμάς. 4 I.e. τετρόβολον.
5 Ie. ᾧ obol. 8.1.6. γίνονται. 7 I.e. 2 obols.
8.1.6. τ obol. The beginning of the line is to be extended: ἐξ ὀβολοῦ
ἡμιωβελίου.
9 For the embankment tax cf. Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka, τ, Pp. 333 ff.
10 For the bath tax cf. Wilcken, ibid. p. 165 ff.
11 7.9. 14 obols per stater of 4 drachmae, cf. Wilcken, Archiv fiir Papyrus-
forschung, 4, p. 147. ‘
12 Note the cumulation of Sebastos = Augustus. The month Sebastos is
the Egyptian month Thoth, 29 August—27 September,
13 This collector’s name appears on other ostraca.
14 Neue Bibelstudien, p. 45 1.; Bible Studies, p. 218 f.; Encyclopaedia Biblica,
3, col. 2815 f.
16 Die Inschriften von Pergamon, No. 374 B and Ὁ. The drawing there
given (p. 261) of sides B and D, on a scale of 1 : 6%, is here reproduced by
kind permission of the Directors of the State Museums at Berlin (Figures
68 and 69). Cf. p. 349, n. 1 above.
 Fic. 67.—Ostracon, Thebes. Dated Sebaste Day, 23 Septem-
ber, 33 A.p. Receipt for Embankment and
in the Author’s collection. Bath Tax. Now
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 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 361
so well known that it is not written out in full but abbreviated
in three places (B. 4, 8; D. 10) as Σεβ or Σεβ.
In these three passages where the Sebaste Day is mentioned
in the inscription the reference is to money payments of a
religious nature which two officials, the Eukosmos and ‘the
Grammateus, of the association of hymnodi have each to
make on this day. Money payments due on Sebaste Day are
heard of again on an inscription at Iasus,! and all the ostraca
that mention the Sebaste Day are receipts for money. Were
then the Sebaste Days, I would ask, favourite days for effect-
ing payments in the Hellenistic East? And I would further
ask, with all caution ἐπ When St. Paul advised the Christians
of Galatia and Corinth 2 to raise their contributions to the
collection for the saints by instalments payable every Sunday,
was he linking them with some such custom then prevalent
in the world around him? The question is at least justifiable.
For my own part I hesitate to return an affirmative answer,
because it seems to me more probable to assume that St.
Paul’s advice was connected with some system of wage-
paying (of which, however, I know nothing) that may have
been customary in the Imperial period.
If at the pregnant words “ God” and “ Lord ” all manner
of sensations of protest were roused in the Christian worshipper
against the cult of the Caesar, this was of course also the case
with the still more impressive combination κύριος καὶ θεός,
“Lord and God,’’ which, as the confession of St. Thomas,?
is one of the culminating points (originally the climax and
concluding point) of the Gospel of St. John. In Christian
worship it was probably a direct suggestion from the Sep-
tuagint.t It probably made its way into the Imperial cult
from Mediterranean cults: an inscription at Socnopaei
Nesus in the Fayim, 17 March, 24 B.c., already cited,®
mentions a building dedicated “to the god and lord®
1 Neue Bibelstudien, p. 46; Bible Studies, p. 219.
2 1 Cor. xvi. I, 2. ¢ § John xx. 28.
4 E.g. Psalm Ixxxv. [Ixxxvi.] 15, Ixxxvii. [Ixxxviii.] 2.
5 Page 345. τῶι θεῶι καὶ κυρίω Σοκνοπαίωι.
* Two quite gross and quite individual instances of purely adulatory
usage are furnished by the petitions of Egyptian priests : Berliney Griechische
Urkunden, No. 1197 (26th year of Augustus), which attaches to an official
who obviously controlled the financesof thetemple the lofty formula’ Ασκληπιάδῃ
-τῶι θεῶι καὶ κυρίωι (pointed out to me by W. Schubart, letter, Berlin, 31 July,
362 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Socnopaeus,”’ and an inscription of the Imperial period at Thala
in the Province of Africa1 is consecrated to “ the god lord
Saturnus.” Under Domitian (i.e., in New Testament terms,
in the Johannine period) we have the first example in the
cult of the Caesars. Domitian himself arranges to be called
“our lord and god.’’? Received not without protest at the
outset,? the phrase becomes quite official in the third century,
but its use had continued meanwhile in the East, as shown
by an inscription from the Tauric Chersonese 4 in which the
Emperor Antoninus Pius is called “ our god and lord.”
A whole chain of sensations of contrast and protest’ is
dependent on the central thought in Primitive Christian
worship, that Jesus is the βασιλεύς, the “ King.” In the
Hellenistic East, which received its stamp from the post-
Alexandrian kings, the title “king’’ had remained very
popular,’ and was even transferred to the Roman Emperor,
as we see for example in the New Testament. It has been
well shown by Weinel’ that in the age of the Revelation of

1909), and No. 1201 (31st year of Augustus), in which a (priest?) Soterichus
receives the same predicate (pointed out by Schubart at the same time).
Mammon-worship, it seems, in the literal sense !
1 Cf, Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift, 21 (1901) col. 475: deo domino
Saturno. ;
2 Sueton., Domit. 13, dominus et deus nostey. Further examples in Schoener,
p. 476f., and Harnack, Lehrbuch dey Dogmengeschichte, 15, Freiburg i. B:,
1888, p. 159 [History of Dogma, trans. by Neil Buchanan, I, London, 1894,
pp. 120, 189].
3 Franz Morth, in the Festschrift der 50. Versammlung Deutscher Philologen
und Schulmanner, Graz, 1909, p. 191, refers to Martial X. 7235: dicturus
dominum deumque non sum.
4 Inscriptiones Antiquae Orae Septentrionalis Ponti Euxini Graecae et
Latinae, ed. Latyschev, IV. No. 7177. τὸν [θε]ὸν ἁμῶν καὶ δεσπόταν.
5 The expression νόμος βασιλικός, ‘‘ the royal law,” James ii. 8, occurs also
in the technical usage of the surrounding world. The law of astynomy at
Pergamum, carved on stone in the time of Trajan but going back probably
to a time before the Christian era, has a heading, formulated perhaps by the
donor of the inscription in the time of Trajan, which says: τὸν βασιλικὸν νόμον
ἐκ τῶν ἰδίων ἀνέθηκεν, ‘he set up the royal law out of his own means”’; cf.
Athenische Mitteilungen, 27 (1902) p. 48 ff. 1 saw the original at Pergamum
on Good Friday 1906. The law is called ‘“ royal’”’ because it was made by
one of the kings of Pergamum. So too in the Epistle of James we must
probably understand the term in the first place with reference to the origin
of the law.
δα Tim. ii. 2; 1 Peter ii. 17. Numerous examples from inscriptions, etc.,
in Magie, p. 62.
7 Die Stellung des Urchristentums zum Staat, pp. 19, 21 f., 50 ff.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 363
St. John to confess the kingdom of Jesus was to set vibrating
a tense polemical feeling against the Caesars. The clearest
example is perhaps the apocalyptic formula 1 “ Lord of Lords
and King of Kings.” The title ‘‘ king of kings”? was
originally in very early Eastern history a decoration of actual
great monarchs and also a divine ° title, especially well known
as applied to the Achaemenidae in Persia. It was suggested
to the Christians not only because it was attached to God
in the Greek Bible,* but also because according to the evidence
of parchments, coins and: inscriptions it was actually borne
at the period in question by the Arsacidae,® and by princes
of Armenia,* the Bosporan kingdom,’ and Palmyra.®
It would be possible in the case of many individual words 9
belonging to the retinue of “ king” to prove the parallelism
between the language of Christian worship and the formulae
of the Imperial law and the Imperial cult. But I wish only
to emphasise the characteristic main lines and accordingly
dispense with details.
In the case of the word σωτήρ, “ Saviour,” the parallelism
1 Rev. xvii. 14, xix. 16. Cf. also the confession of the martyr Speratus,
Pp. 356 above.
2 βασιλεὺς βασιλέων. .
3 Cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Das Christusbild des urchristlichen Glaubens in veligtons-
geschichtlicher Beleuchtung, Berlin, 1903, p. 95 ff. Samuel Brandt (postcard,
Heidelberg, 10 December, 1908) refers for the profane use to Humann and
Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien, p. 281.
4 2 Macc. xiii. 4; 3 Macc. v. 35.
5 The parchments from Kurdistan facsimiled above (Figs. 4 and 5, facing
PP. 32, 33) are particularly fine examples; both of these ist cent. docu-
ments begin in 1. 1 with βασιλεύοντος βασιλέων *Apadkov. Much material
bearing on the title is collected in Minns, p. 38 f. :
6 A Tigranes has it occasionally on his coins from 83 to 69 B.c., Wochen-
schrift fiir klassische Philologie, 20 (1903) col. 218.
7 Inscriptiones Antiquae Ovae Septentrionalis Ponti Euxini, ed. Latyschev,
IV. Nos. 200, 202 (probably Sauromates I., 93-123 A.D.); II. Nos. 27, 358.
8. Septimius Herodianus, the second son of Zenobia, has the title in an
inscription at Palmyra, Lidzbarski, Ephemeris ΝῺ semitische Epigraphik,
ΤΣ, p. 85. ‘
® E.g. ἐξουσία, κράτος, ἰσχύς, δύναμις, μεγαλειότης, θριαμβεύω, λάμπω, δόξα, τιμή,
χάρις, δωρεά, φιλανθρωπία (on this word cf. Weinreich’s Halle ‘’ Habili-
tationsschrift,”-De dis ignotis, Halis Saxonum, 1914, p. 50 ff.), ἀρετή, αἰώνιος.
See in Bibelstudien, p. 277 ff., Bible Studies, p. 360 ff., the parallel between
2 Peter i, 11, ‘the everlasting kingdom of our Lord and Saviour Jesus
Christ,” and a Carian inscription, Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum No.
2715 a, b (Stratonicia, earliest Imperial period), “ the everlasting dominion
of the lords the Romans.” There is also material in Thieme, Die Inschriften
von Magnesia am Mdander und das N.T.
364 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
a

is particularly clear. I will simply refer to the splendid

articles by Harnack,! Wendland,? Lietzmann,° and W. Otto,
and will myself call attention to one special point only.
The ample materials collected by Magie ὅ show that the full
title of honour, ‘‘ Saviour of the world,” with which St. John ὃ
adorns the Master, was bestowed with sundry variations in
the Greek expression 7 on Julius Caesar, Augustus, Claudius,
Vespasian, Titus, Trajan, Hadrian, and other Emperors in
inscriptions of the Hellenistic East. The exact Johannine
term § is specially common in inscriptions for Hadrian.®
Another fact, the great importance of the Emperor Nero
in the establishment of the idea of a Saviour of the world,
has only recently come before me with due clearness. On
his accession Nero was venerated in the East as “ saviour of
the world.” 105. This was no mere isolated excess of adula-
tion; it points to the institution of a cult, as suggested by
the fact. that this cult of Nero as ‘“‘ saviour of the world”
left its creative mark on language. The Emperor himself
coined a catchword that would have been inconceivable apart
from the cult as an institution, viz. σωσικόσμιος, ‘‘ world-
saving, world-rescuing,”’ or rather, “ of or belonging to the
world-rescuer, the world-saviour.” 14 The word, it is true,
has been found no earlier than the time of Hadrian,” when

1“ Der Heiland,’ Die Christliche Welt, 14 (1900) No. 2; now in his

Reden und Aufsdtze, I., Gieszen, 1904, p. 307 ff.
2 ΣΏΤΗΡ, Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 5 (1904)
P- 335 ff.
3 Der Weltheiland, Bonn, 1909.
4 P. 343, n. 1 above. 5 Op. cit., p. 67 1.
8 John iv. 42, 1 John iv. 14, σωτὴρ τοῦ κόσμου.
7 σωτὴρ τῆς (ὅλης) οἰκουμένης, σωτὴρ τοῦ κόσμου, etc. Cf. H. Lietzmann,
Der Weltheiland, Bonn, 1909.
8 On the combination ‘‘ God and Saviour ” cf. p. 344, n. 5 above. _
9 Wilhelm Weber, Untersuchungen zuy Gesch. des Kaisers Hadrianus,
ῬΡ. 225, 226, 229.
10 On this cf. Blumenthal, p. 330 f., who refers to Dittenberger, Orientis
Graecit Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 668, and examines the question why Nero
was hailed as saviour of the world.
11 When a phyle is called σωσικόσμιος, the translation is not ‘‘ world-rescuing
phyle,”’ but ‘ World-rescuer’s phyle,’’ as it were ‘‘ phyle with the sign,
token, colours, ‘arms’ of the World-rescuer.”
12 Weber, Untersuchungen zur Gesch. des Kaisers Hadvianus, pp. 241, 250;
Kenyon, Archiv f. Papyrusforschung, 2, p. 70 ff., especially pp. 73, 75.
Σωσικόσμιος is the name of a deme of the city of Antinoé which Hadrian
had founded in Egypt. Cf. also W. Schubart, Archiv f. Papyrusforschung,
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 365
it occurs as the name of a deme or phyle in Egyptian towns;
but Wilcken 1 has shown, in a manner as convincing as it is
concise, that it was Nero himself, at the very beginning of
his reign, who coined not only this σωσικόσμιος in allusion to
himself as saviour of the world, but many other similarly
fervid names for phylae of Alexandria.2 It is specially
worth noting that in this point also the parallelism between
the cult of the Caesars and the cult of Christ afterwards
took effect practically. In later Christian usage? we find
Nero’s σωσικόσμιος (and σωσίκοσμος) in the language of the
cult ‘—a curious chapter in the history of the world’s estimate
of Nero, which in antiquity passed through all stages from
saviour of the world (a title advanced gratis) to Antichrist.®
The word ἀρχιερεύς, “ high priest,” to which the Epistle
to the Hebrews gave currency as a worshipful term applied
to Christ, shows how easily a cult-word that was certainly
developed within Primitive Christianity from Jewish premises
entered as if spontaneously into the usual parallelism as
soon as it found itself in the world. It was by this Greek
5, pp. 94-103; P. M. Meyer on the Hamburg Papyrus No. 14 (Griechische
Papyrus-Urkunden der Hamburger Stadtbibliothek I. 1, p. 59), and on
Papyrus No. 6 in the library of the New Testament Seminar, Berlin (Grie-
chische Texte, p. 45, with a note by me). Friedrich Pfister, Siidwestdeutsche
Schulblatter, 25 (1908) p. 345, points out the importance of the expression
σωσικόσμιος in the history of cosmopolitanism.
1 Archiv 5, p. 182 ff.
2 Comparing this fact with the two others, viz. that Nero was at the
beginning of his reign elevated to the position of god of the city of Alexandria
(p. 345, 0. 4 above), and that he was the first to whom the title of Kyrios
was given on a very large scale (p. 353 f. above), we may venture to say that
in the East at any rate the year 54 constitutes quite a big notch in the history
of the cult of the Caesars. But that is the classical period of Kyrios con-
fessions in the Pauline cult of Christ, which thus acquire their most real
and striking background of contrast. We must not forget the fragmentary
nature of the tradition in the case of both cults: but even the fragments
speak a very clear language.
8 Cf. E. A. Sophocles’ Lexicon, 5.0. σωσικόσμιος (and σωσίκοσμος), and the
Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, 5.0. σωσίκοσμος.
4 E.g. as adjective attached to εὐχή. Specially characteristic is John of
Euboea, Sermo in conceptionem Deiparae, in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, 96,
col. 1476 A: ἡ σωσικό ἐκ παρθένου γένεσις τοῦ παμβασιλέως Χριστοῦ τοῦ
θεοῦ ἡμῶν.
5 In this connexion the points of contact between the Roman idea of a
saviour of the world and the Jewish idea of the Messiah should not be over-
looked. Flavius Josephus, viewing them both together, proclaimed Vespasian
the rescuer of the world (cf.-W. Weber, Josephus und Vespasian, Stuttgart,
1921, pp. 40 ff. and 80).
366 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
word, as numerous inscriptions 1 have shown, that the title
pontifex maximus, borne by the Emperors, was translated in
the East.
The parallelism exists not only with sacred titles in the
narrower sense, it goes further. Several examples are now
forthcoming to prove that the word εὐαγγέλεον, “gospel,
good tidings,’’ which was in use in pre-Christian times in
the profane sense of good news, and which then became a
Primitive Christian cult-word of the first order, was also
employed in sacral use in the Imperial cult. The oldest
example is that calendar inscription of Priene, about 9 B.c.,
which we have mentioned ? twice already, and which is now
in the Berlin Museum. Discovered by German archaeologists
on two stones of different kind in the north hall of the
market-place at Priene, and published for the first time by
Theodor Mommsen and Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff
with other allied texts and a commentary,? this inscription,
designed to introduce the Asian calendar, has already been
appreciated by Adolf Harnack * and Paul Wendland ὅ as of
great importance in the history of the sacred language of
Asia Minor. Harnack translated the most important parts
into German. H. Winnefeld kindly obtained for me a
photograph of lines 1-60, from which, with the consent of
the Directors of the State Museums, our Figures 70 and 71
have been made, their size being less than one-quarter of
the original. As far as I know these are the first facsimiles
to be published of these important texts.? Here we find
(line 40 f., Figure 71) this remarkable sentence referring to
the birthday of the Emperor Augustus :—
ἦρξεν δὲ τῶι κόσμωι τῶν & | But the birthday of the god was
αὐτὸν εὐανγελίζων ἡ γενέθλιος] |rod | for the world the beginning of
θεοῦ. tidings of joy on his account.®
1 See Magie, p. 64. 2 Pages 345, 347 above.
3 Athenische Mitteilungen, 24 (1899) p. 275 ff.
4“ Als die Zeit erfiillet war,” Die Christliche Welt, 13 (1899) No. 51; now
in his Reden und Aufsdtze, I. p. 301 ff.
5 Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 5 (1904) p. 335 ff.
6 The Greek text is now most easily accessible in Dittenberger, Ovientis
Graect Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 458, and Inschriften von Priene, No. 105.
7 The whole inscription consists of 84 lines.
* Hans Lietzmann, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1909, p. 161, trans-
lates differently. Eduard Norden wrote to me (postcard, Berlin-Lichterfelde,
 ἢἃ
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 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 367
Several centuries later we hear the echo ofthese festal
trumpets. An Attic inscription! uses the word with refer-
ence to Septimius Geta, the Caesar. Still later, on the
receipt of the “ joyful tidings ” that G. Julius Verus Maximus
had been proclaimed Caesar, an Egyptian, probably a high
official, wrote to another a letter, preserved on a fragment
of papyrus in the Prussian State Library at Berlin, calling
for a procession to be arranged for the gods. The fragment,
which was written not long after the death of Maximinus
Thrax (238 A.D.), reads :—
ἐπεὶ γν[ώ]στίης ἐγενόμην τοῦ] Forasmuch as I have become
εὐανγελ[ίο]υ ὃ περὶ τοῦ dyy-| aware of the tidings of joy
a
;
γορεῦσθαι Καίσαρα τὸν τοῦ
as a
concerning the proclaiming as
Emperor of Gaius Julius Verus
- θεοφιλεστάτου κυρίου
Maximus Augustus, the son
5 ἡμῶν Αὐτοκράτορος Καίσαρος of our lord, most dear to the
Tatov Ἰουλίου Οὐήρου Μαξιμίνου gods, the Emperor Caesar
Εὐσεβοῦς Εὐτυχοῦς Σεβ[αστο]ῦ | Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus,
παῖδα Tdiov Ἰούλιον Οὐῆρον pious, happy, and Augustus, it
Μάξιμον Σεβαστόν, is necessary, O most honourable,
that the goddesses4 becelebrated
IO χρή; τιμιώτατε, τὰς
in festal procession. In order,
Geds* κωμάζεσθαι. ἵν' therefore, that thou mayest
[o]év εἰδῆς καὶ παρατύχης know and be present .. .
[Here the papyrus breaks off.

6 Dec. 1922) : ‘‘ Von Wilamowitz agrees with me in thinking that the words
τὰ δι᾿ αὐτὸν εὐαγγέλια can only mean ‘the tidings of joy that have gone
forth on his account.’ By that we are to understand the prophecies See
to Augustus in Sibylline and other oracular literature.”
1 Inscriptiones Graecae III. No. 10 = *No. 1081, as restored recently by
Kirchner: βουλὴ συνήχθη ἐπὶ τοῖς [εὐαγγ]ελίοις, ἀναδειχθέντος [Αὐτοκράτορος
Καίσαρος Ποπλίου Σεπτιμίου Γέτα . . .J. 1 quote from Weinreich (De dis ignotis,
p- 43f.), who had access to the advance proofs of the second reprint. Cf.
also the use of εὐαγγελίζω in the Giessen Papyrus No. 27 and Kornemann’s
observations thereon; also Moulton and Milligan, Vocabulary, p. 259.
2 Published by G. Parthey, Memorie dell’ Instituto di Corrispondenza
Aycheologica, 2, Lipsia, 1865, p. 440. Ulrich Wilcken revised the text some
years ago, and very kindly supplied me with his readings, which I have
adopted here (letter, Leipzig, 4 October, 1907).
8 Lines 1 and 2 are so restored by me. Parthey read y[wlor after ene;
when Wilcken re-examined the fragment these letters were no longer there.
For γνώστης cf. Acts xxvi. 3. A possible reading would be ἐπεὶ γν[ω]στ[εία
ἐγένετο τοῦ], ‘‘now that confirmation has come of the good news’; for
youorela οἱ. Faydm Towns and their Papyri, No. 65, (2nd cent. a.p.),—The
(For continuation of notes see next page.
 -368 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Yet another of the central ideas of the oldest Christian
worship receives light from the new texts,* viz. παρουσία,
“advent, coming,” 2 a word expressive of the most ardent
hopes of a St. Paul. We now may say that the best inter-
pretation of the Primitive Christian hope of the Parusia is
the old Advent text,’ ‘‘ Behold, thy King cometh unto thee.”
From the Ptolemaic period down into the 2nd cent. A.D. we
are able to trace the word in the East as a technical expres-
sion for the arrival or the visit of the king or the emperor.‘
The parusia of the sovereign must have been something
well known even to the people, as shown by the facts that
special payments in kind and taxes to defray the cost of
the parusia were exacted, that in Greece a new era was
reckoned from the parusia of the Emperor Hadrian, that
all over the world advent-coins were struck after a parusia
of the emperor, and that we are even able to quote examples
of advent-sacrifices.®
The subject of parusia dues and taxes in Egypt has been
1 Even Cremer,’ Ὁ. 403, could only say: ‘‘ How the term came to be
adopted, it would be difficult to show.” He inclines to think it was an
adaptation of the language of the synagogue.
a The translation ‘‘ coming again ”’ is incorrect.
8 Zech. ix. 9; Matt. xxi. 5.
4 Or other persons in authority, or troops. On the history of the word
cf. G. Milligan, St. Paul’s Epistles to the Thessalonians, London, 1908, p. 145 ff.;
E. Ὁ. Wood, The Life and Ministry of Paul the Apostle, London [1913],
p. 123f. Interesting material also in G. Plaumann, Griechische Papyri der
Sammlung Gradenwitz, Heidelberg, 1914, p. 22 ff. There will be found
Gradenwitz Papyrus No. 2 (225-224 B.C.) : πρὸς τὴν τοῦ Δωσιθέου pera τοῦ
βασιλέως παρουσίαν, “for the parusia of Dositheus, who is with the King
(i.e. attached to the court).”” How thoroughly established the word was is
shown by the fact that it is used, for shortness, to denote the expenses usual
in connexion with the parusia of high officials. Cf. the complaint of the
priests of Isis at Philae (Ptolemaic period) in Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci
Inscriptiones Selectae No. 139, ἀναγκάζουσι ἡμᾶς παρουσίας αὐτοῖς ποιεῖσθαι.-
5 Otto Immisch (letter, Giessen, 18 October, 1908) refers to the λόγοι
ἐπιβατήριοι, “speeches on entering a place,” for the forms of which see
Menander in the Rhetoves Graect, ed. Spengel, 3, p. 377 ff.

Continuation of notes to page 367 :—

first word of the second line was wrongly read by Parthey εὐανγέλθαι. The
restoration εὐανγελ[ίο]υ, suggested by Wilcken’s reading edaryeA. .v, suits
best.
4 (The reviewer of the first edition of this book in The Times, 15 Dec.
(Literary Supplement, 16 Dec.), 1910, proposed to read θέας, ‘‘ spectacles.”’
The translation would then be, “ that the spectacles (or games) be celebrated.’
Tr]
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 369
treated in detail by Wilcken.!. The oldest passage he men-
tions is in the Flinders Petrie Papyrus II. 39 6, of the 3rd
cent. B.c., where, according to his ingenious interpretation,
contributions are noted for a crown of gold to be presented
to the king at his parusia.2_ This papyrus supplies an excep-
tionally fine background of contrast to the figurative language
of St. Paul, in which Parusia (or Epiphany, “‘ appearing ’’)
and crown ® occur in collocation. While the sovereigns of
this world expect at their parusia a costly crown for them-
selves, ‘‘ at the parusia of our Lord Jesus ’”’ the apostle will
wear a crown—the “‘ crown of glory” (1 Thess. ii. 19) won
by his work among the churches, or the “‘ crown of righteous-
ness ’’ which the Lord will give to him and to all them that
have loved His appearing (2 Tim. iv. 8).
I have found another characteristic example in a petition,
circa 113 B.C., which was found among the wrappings of the
mummy of a sacred crocodile. A parusia of King Ptolemy,
the second who called himself Softer (‘‘ saviour ’’), is expected,
and for this occasion a great requisition has been issued for
corn, which is being collected at Cerceosiris by the village
headman and the elders of the peasants.’ Speaking of this
and another delivery of corn, these officials say :—

. καὶ προσεδρευόντων did τε . .. and applying ourselves

νυκτὸς καὶ ἡμέρας μέχρι τοῦ τὸ | diligently, both night and day,
΄ 2 a unto fulfilling that which was
\ ᾿
προκείμενον ἐκπληρῶσαι καὶ τὴν
set before usand the provision of
ἐπιγεγραμμένην πρὸς τὴν τοῦ βασι- |80. artabae which was imposed
λέως παρουσίαν ἀγορὰν 7... for the parusia of the king .. .

Are not these Egyptian peasants, toiling day and night

in expectation of the parusia of their saviour king, an admir-
able illustration of our Lord’s words (Luke xviii. 7) about
1 Griechische Ostvaka, I. p. 274 ff. Cf. also Grundziige, p. 356f.; and
E. Biedermann, Studien zur dgyptischen Verwaltungsgeschichte, Berlin, 1913,
p. 83 f.
2 ἄλλου (scil. στεφάνου) παρουσίας 8, “‘ for another (crown) on the occasion
-of the parusia, 12 (artabae).”’ Cf. also Griechische Ostraka I. p. 296.
3 Cf. also p. 309 above.
4 The Tebtunis Papyri No. 489.
5 πρεσβυτέρων τῶν yew(pydv). This is a new quotation to show the age of
the title ‘‘ presbyter,” cf. Bibelstudien, p. 153 £.; Neue Bibelstudien, p. 60 ff.;
Bible Studies, pp. 154 f., 233 f.
370 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
the elect who cry day and night to God, in expectation of
the coming of the Son of Man (Luke xviii. 8) ?
Again among the Tebtunis Papyri? there is a bill, from
the end of the 2nd cent. B.c., which mentions “ the parusia
of the king,”’ while an ostracon 2 of the 2nd cent. B.c., from
Thebes, reckons the expenses of the “ parusia of the queen.”
As in Egypt, so also in Europe and Asia: the uniformity of
Hellenistic civilisation is proved once more in this instance.
An inscription of the 3rd cent. B.c. at Olbia® mentions a
parusia of King Saitapharnes, the expenses of which were a
source of grave anxiety to the city fathers, until a rich citizen,
named Protogenes, paid the sum—goo pieces of gold, which
were presented to the king. Next comes an example of great
importance as proving an undoubted sacral use of the word,
viz. an inscription of the 3rd cent. B.c., recording a cure at
the temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus,4 which mentions a
parusia of the healer (saviour) god Asclepius. Other examples
of Hellenistic age known to me are a passage in Polybius 5
referring to a parusia of King Antiochus the Great, and two
letters of King Mithradates VI. Eupator of Pontus at the
beginning of his first war with the Romans, 88 B.c., recorded’
in an inscription at Nysa in Caria.6 The prince, writing to
Leonippus the Praefect of Caria, makes twofold mention of
his own parusia, 1.6. his invasion of the province of Asia.’
It is the legitimate continuation of the Hellenistic usage
that in the Imperial period the parusia of the sovereign
should shed a special brilliance. Even the visit of a scion
of the Imperial house, G. Caesar (ft 4 A.D.), a grandson of

1 No. 11657, βα(σιλέως) παρουσίας.

2. Wilcken, No. 1481, λόγος παρου(σίας) τῆ(ς) βασιλ(ίσσης).
3. Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 226, ®No. 49585¢., τήν τε παρουσίαν ἐμφανισάντων
τοῦ βασιλέως, “᾿ when they announced the parusia of the king.”
4 Dittenberger, Sylloge,2 No. 803, 8No. 116094, τάν τε π[α]ρουσίαν τὰν
αὑτο[ῦ π]αρενεφάνιξε ὁ ᾿Ασκλαπιό[ς], ‘and Asclepius manifested his parusia.”
For the combination of parusia with manifestation see 2 Thess. ii. 8.
5 Hist. xviii. 314 Dibner: ἀποκαραδοκεῖν τὴν ᾿Αντιόχου παρουσίαν, “ to expect
earnestly the parusia of Antiochus.’’ The verb is very characteristic, cf.
Rom. viii. 19, and p. 373, n. 3 below, the petition of the small proprietors of
the village of Aphrodite.
5 Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 328,2 No. 74121, 90, »γ[Ὁν] τε τὴϊν ἐμὴ]ν παρουσίαν
ἐπιγνούς (OF πυθόμενος), ‘‘ and now, having learnt of my parusia.”
? This is Theodor Mommsen’s explanation of the expression, Athenische
Mitteilungen, 16 (1891) p. ror f.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS ‘HISTORY 371
Augustus, was, as we know from an inscription,! made the
beginning of a new era in Cos. In memory of the visit of
the Emperor Nero,? in whose reign St. Paul wrote his letters
to Corinth, the cities of Corinth and Patras struck advent-
coins.? Adventus Aug(usti) Cor(intht) is the legend on one,
Adventus Augusti on the other. Here we have corresponding
to the Greek parusia the Latin word advent, which-the Latin
Christians afterwards simply took over, and which is to-day
familiar to every child among us. How graphically it must
have appealed to the Christians of Thessalonica, with their
living conception of the parusiae of the rulers of this world,
when they read in St. Paul’s second letter * of the Satanic
“‘parusia ’’ of Antichtist, who was to be destroyed by “ the
manifestation of the parusia’”’ of the Lord Jesus! A whole
host of advent-coins resulted from the numerous journeyings
of the Emperor Hadrian; we have specimens,® I suppose,
from most of the Imperial provinces, and these, it may be
remarked, were official coinages of the Empire.* The arrival
of Hadrian at Rome on 9 July, 118, was even celebrated by
the Arval brothers with solemn sacrifices in the Eniperor’s,
presence, to which the inscriptions containing the Acts of
their college bear record.’ At Didyma the day of Hadrian’s
visit was called a “holy day.”’& The parallelism between
the Hellenistic and the Imperial period is seen also in the
.

1 Paton and Hicks, The Inscriptions of Cos, No. 391, [ἐνιαυτοῦ πρώτου τᾶς
[Γαΐ]ου Καίσαρος ἐπιφανείας, ‘in the first year of the epiphany [synonymous
with parusia, cf. p. 373 below] of Gaius Caesar.” This prince enjoyed a regular
cult in Cos, cf. Herzog, Koische Forschungen und Funde, p. 145.
2 For this visit cf. the inscription of Acraephiae, p. 354 above.
3 Weber, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus, p. 93, cites
the two coins (= Cohen I. 307, No. 403/4).
4 2 Thess. ii. 8, 9, 6 ἄνομος, ὃν ὃ κύριος ᾿Ιησοῦς . . . καταργήσει τῇ ἐπιφανείᾳ
τῆς παρουσίας [cf. the inscription of Epidaurus, p. 370, n. 4 above] αὐτοῦ, οὗ
ἐστὶν ἡ παρουσία κατ᾽ ἐνέργειαν τοῦ Σατανᾶ, “ the lawless one, whom the Lord
Jesus . . . shall destroy by the manifestation of His parusia, whose parusia
is according to the workings of Satan.”
5 Examples in Weber, Untersuchungen, pp. 81 (Rome), 109 (Britain), 115
(Spain), 125 (Bithynia), 130 (Asia), 150 (Moesia), 155 (Macedonia), 197
(Sicily), 198 (Italy), 201 (Mauretania), 227 (Phrygia), 247 (Alexandria).
6 T have this on the (unwritten) authority of Wilhelm Weber.
1 Weber, Untersuchungen, p. 81 ff. The Acts read 0b adventum I(mp(era-
tovis) etc.] and ob adven(tum faustum eiusdem].
8 Inscription from Didyma (hand-list No. 350; printed in Wiegand’s
Bericht VII. p. 54; see p. 13, ἢ. 6 above): ἱερᾷ ἡμέρᾳ τῆς ἐπιδημίας (cf.
Ῥ. 372, notes 6 and 7) τοῦ Αὐτοκράτορος Τραιανοῦ "Αδριανοῦ Καίσαρος.
372 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
fact that the expenses attending a parusia of the sovereign
were considerable.1 How deeply a parusia stamped itself
on the memory is shown by the eras that were reckoned
from parusiae. We have heard already of an era at Cos
dating from the epiphany of G. Caesar,? and we find that
in Greece a new era was begun 8 with the first visit of the
Emperor Hadrian in the year 124;—the magnificent monu-
ments in memory of that parusia still meet the eye at Athens *
and Eleusis. There is something peculiarly touching in the
fact that towards the end of the 2nd century, at the very
time when the Christians were beginning to distinguish the
“ first parusia ”’ of Christ from the ‘‘ second,” ὅ an inscription
at Tegea ® was dated :—

ἔτους £6’ ἀπὸ τῆς θεοῦ ‘A-| in the year 69 of the first
: Spravpd τὸ πρῶτον is τὴν Ἑλλάδα | parusia of the god Hadrian
παρουσίας. in Greece,

To make the circle of Hellenism complete once more, this

inscription from Arcadia gives us again the word parusia,
which we found in Egypt, Asia Minor, and the New Testa-
ment. In Greece, however, a synonym, epidemia, is more
usual.”
Even in early Christian times the parallelism between the
parusia of the representative of the State and the parusia
of Christ was clearly felt by the Christians themselves.
This is shown by a remarkable petition 8 of the small pro-
prietors of the village of Aphrodite in Egypt to the Dux of
1 Weber, Untersuchungen, p. 183 ¢54-
2 Page 371, n. 1 above.
3 Weber, Untersuchungen, pp. 158ff., 183, 186.
-4 The gate of Hadrian and the Olympieum, which was then begun (Weber,
Untersuchungen, p. 164).
5 Cf. for instance Justin Martyr, Dialogue with the Jew Trypho, c. 14
(Otto, p. 54) τὴν πρώτην παρουσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ, and similarly in c. 52 (p. 174).
The Christian era was afterwards reckoned from the first parusia.
6 Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 25 (1901) p. 275. Quite similar
formulae occur in Attic inscriptions of earlier date, but with another sub-
stantive: ‘‘in the year x of the first epidemia of the god Hadrian,” cf.
Weber, Untersuchungen, p. 159.
7 ἐπιδημία. Cf. p. 371, n. 8; p. 372, n. 6; other examples are quoted
from inscriptions by Weber, Untersuchungen, pp. 159, 183, 188.
§ T owe this excellent example to Ulrich Wilcken (letter, Leipzig, 6 February,
1g09); cf. Archiv, 5,p. 284.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 373
‘the Thebaid in the year 537-538 A.D.,1 a papyrus which at
the same time is an interesting memorial of Christian popular
religion in the age of Justinian.
“It is a subject of prayer with us night and day, to be held
worthy of your welcome parusia.’”’?
The peasants, whom a wicked Pagarch has been oppressing,
write thus to the high official, after assuring him with a
pious sigh at the beginning“that they awaited him
“as they watch eagerly from Hades for the future parusia
of Christ the everlasting God.” ὃ
Quite closely related to parusia is another cult-word,
ἐπιφάνεια, “ epiphany,” ‘‘ appearing.” 4 How’ closely the
two ideas were connected in the age of the New Testament
is shown by the passage in 2 Thess. ii. 8, already quoted,
and by the associated usage of the Pastoral Epistles, in which
“epiphany τ᾿ or “appearing” nearly always means the
future parusia of Christ,5 though once® it is the parusia
which patristic writers afterwards called “΄ the first.” Equally
clear, however, is the witness of an advent-coin struck by
Actium-Nicopolis for Hadrian, with the legend ‘‘ Epiphany
of Augustus" 7; the Greek word coincides with the Latin
word ‘‘ advent” generally used on coins. The history of:
this word“ epiphany’’ goes back into the Hellenistic period,
but I will merely point out the fact, without illustration:
the observation is not new, but the new proofs available are
very abundant.®
1 Published by Jean Maspéro, Etudes sur les papyrus d’Aphrodité, Bulletin
de l'Institut francais d’archéologie orientale, t. VI., Le Caire, 1908.
~ 2 ΤΙ. 16, καὶ εὐχῆς ἔργον ἡμῖν ἐστὶν νυκτὸς καὶ ἡμέρας ἀξιωθῆναι τῆς κεχαρισμένης
ὑμῶν παρουσίας.
81, 2, ἐκδέχομεν . . . οἷον οἱ ἐξ “Αδου καραδοκοῦντεςτὴν τότε τοῦ Χ(ριστο)ῦ ἀενάου
θ(εο)ῦ παρουσίαν. For the Greek text cf. Rom. viii. 19, and p. 370, n. 5 above.
4 Cf. Milligan, Thessalonians, p. 148 f. ᾿
δ 1 Tim, νἱ. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 1, 8; Titus ii. 13. 6 2 Tim. i. 10.
7 Weber, Untersuchungen, p. τοῦ, ἐπιφάνια Αὐγούστου.
8 Cf. [Sir] W. M. Ramsay, ‘‘ The Manifest God,” The Expository Times,
Vol. 10 (1899, February) p. 208; Thieme, Die Inschriften von Magnesia am
Madander und das Neue Testament, p. 34 ff.; Weinel, Die Stellung des Urchris-
tentums zum Staat, pp. 20, 50.—Parallels are traceable also in the Christian
and secular use of the adjectives ἐπιφανής and ἐμφανής. There is much material
relating to the Christian use in Hermann Usener, Religionsgeschichtliche Unter-
suchungen, Erster Theil, Das Weihnachtsfest, Kapitel I.-III., Bonn, 1889.
374 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
The same parallelism that we have hitherto been observing
is found again in the names applied to persons standing in
the relation of servants to Christ and the Caesars, and in
other similar points. The proud words of St. Paul, “ We
are ambassadors for Christ ’’ (2 Cor. v. 20; cf. Eph. vi. 20),
stand out in quite different relief when we know that
πρεσβεύω, “1 am an ambassador,” and the corresponding
substantive πρεσβευτής, “ ambassador,’’ were the proper
terms in the Greek East for fhe Emperor’s Legate.1
In the same way πεπίστευμαι, “1 am entrusted (with
an office, with the gospel),’’ which is repeatedly ? used by
St. Paul, recalls the Greek name (known from literary sources)
of the Imperial secretary for Greek correspondence,’ especially
when we remember the beautiful figure in 2 Cor. iii. 3, accord-
ing to which St. Paul has a letter to write for Christ.4 This
characteristic expression includes a parallel to the technical
term “letter of Augustus,’”’ 7.6. Imperial letter, which is
found in an inscription of the Imperial period at Ancyra.®
The seven letters of Christ in the Revelation to Ephesus,
Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and
Laodicea,* which as regards their form must be reckoned
with the letters from heaven,’ find a background in the
social history of the time in the numerous Imperial letters
to cities of Asia Minor or to corporations in those cities,
which were immediately published in the form of inscriptions,
and so became known to everybody. To mention only
1 Examples of the verb from inscriptions, etc., Magie, p. 89; innumerable
examples of the substantive, ibid. p. 86 ff.
3. Gal. ii. 7; 1 Cor. ix. 17; cf. 1 Thess. ii. 4; 1 Tim. i. 11; Titus i. 3.
* In Latin ab epistulis Graecis; in Greek ὁ τὰς “Ἑλληνικὰς ἐπιστολὰς πράττειν
πεπιστευμένος, and τάξιν ἐπὶ τῶν ᾿Ελληνικῶν ἐπιστολῶν πεπιστευμένος ;examples.
from Galen and Josephus, Magie, p. 71.
4. ὅτι ἐστὲ ἐπιστολὴ Χριστοῦ διακονηθεῖσα ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν, ‘that ye are a letter of
Christ, ministered by us.”
5 Cagnat, Inscriptiones Graecae ad ves Romanas pertinentes, 111. No. 188,
ἐπιστολῶν 'Ἑλληνικῶν [Σε]β(αστοῦ), ‘‘ of the Greek letters of Augustus.”
5 The question of the sequence of the names of these cities will have to
be examined some day; it seems that the writer is conforming with official
usage. In an inscription from Miletus (56-50 B.c.) a Roman Propraetor
mentions his letter to the public authority (κοινόν) of the Hellenes and
specifies eight cities by name, among them Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum,
Sardis (in this order !); cf. Th. Wiegand, Milet, Heft 2 (Das Rathaus von
Milet), p. ror f.
7 Cf. p. 245 above.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 375
addresses that occur in the Apocalypse, we possess at the
present day in inscriptions larger or smaller fragments of
at least six Ephesus letters,1 three Smyrna letters,? at least
seven Pergamum letters,? and perhaps one Sardis letter,‘
from Roman Emperors. The introductory formula in those
letters of Christ—the solemn “ Thus saith’ '—comes most
assuredly from an Oriental (Old Testament) usage, but it is
certainly not without interest to find at least ‘‘ Saith”’ δ
as the formula at the beginning of Imperial letters already
of the first century.’
Philo, Josephus,® and 2 Tim. ili. 15 have made us familiar
with the name ἱερὰ γράμματα, “sacred writings,” ‘‘ holy
scripture,” as a title of dignity for the Old Testament. The
parallelism between letters of Christ and letters of the
Emperor becomes still. clearer when we find the same term
in technical use in the East 9 for Imperial letters and decrees.
In pre-Christian inscriptions it often 1° means the “ hiero-
glyphs.” But an inscription from Nysa in Caria of the
time of Augustus?! uses it probably of an Imperial ?

1 References in Léon Lafoscade, De epistulis (aldisque titulis) imperatorum

“[p. 149, n. 5 above], pp. 12, 14 f. (Hadrian), 23, 24, 25 (Antoninus Pius), 34
(Septimius Severus and Caracalla).
2 Lafoscade, pp. 29 (Marcus Aurelius), 28 (Antoninus Pius), 29 f. (Marcus
Aurelius and Lucius Verus); all three are addressed to religious associations
(σύνοδοι) at Smyrna. —
8 Lafoscade, pp. 7 f. (Nerva or Trajan), 9 (Trajan), 10, 17 (Hadrian), 23
(Antoninus Pius), 35 (Caracalla), 58 (various emperors).
4 Lafoscade, p. 59 (uncertain).
5 τάδε λέγει. Cf. next note but one.
ὁ dicit and λέγει. References to inscriptions in Lafoscade, p. 63.
7 Independently of me Gunnar Rudberg, “ Zu den Sendschreiben der
Johannes-Apokalypse,’’ Eranos 11 (1911) p. 170 ff., pointed out the resem-
blance to the letters of Persian kings. The same writer (p. 173 ff.) has more
to say about τάδε λέγει.
8 References to both authors in Cremer,® p. 275 f.
® Cf. A. Wilhelm, Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archdologischen In-
stitutes in Wien, 3 (1900) p. 77.
10 Examples in Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, II. p. 642.
11 Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, No. 2943.0- I think it also possible
that τὰ ἱερὰ γράμματα here means old temple documents.
12 Ample illustration of the use of the word “ holy”’ or “ sacred” (sacer,
sanctus, sanctissimus, sacvatissimus) as a designation of the Emperor and
Imperial institutions in pagan and Christian times is given by W. Sickel,
Géttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1901, p. 387 ff. Cf. also H. Delehaye, Sunctus,
Analecta Bollandiana 28 (1909) p. 145 ff.; Guil. Link, De voci's * sanctus’ usu
pagano, a doctoral dissertation, Regimonti, 1910.
 376 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
decree; and this is certainly the case with an inscription
from Aezani in Phrygia of the time of Hadrian, an unpub-
lished inscription of the Imperial period at Athens,? and a
bilingual inscription at Paros,? 204 A.D., which translates
the Greek term in Latin as sacra[e littjerae. The Latin
Vulgate employs exactly the same phrase in rendering
2 Tim. iii.15! The phrase θεῖα γράμματα, “ divine writings”’
(used of the Bible by patristic writers), is applied quite
synonymously to letters of the Emperor in an inscription
from Tyras on the Dniester, 17 February 201, a.p.,4 and
an inscription from Scaptopare in Bulgaria, 238 a.p.° The
latter refers to Imperial ordinances as ‘‘ divine command-
ments,” ® which resembles the New Testament term “ God’s
commandments.” 7
In this connexion attention may once more be called.
to the Primitive Christian’s designation of himself as δοῦλος
Χριστοῦ, “ slave of Christ,” which we have already 8 looked
at against another background. Though not designed
originally as a formula of contrast to the cult of the Caesar,
it certainly aroused sensations of contrast when heard
beside the frequent title of “slave of the Emperor ” :—
there were Imperial slaves all over the world. One example
out of many is an inscription ® from Dorylaeum in Phrygia,
Imperial period, which mentions “ Agathopus, slave of the
lord Emperor.’’ The same observation applies to the parallel
formulae δεώκονος Χριστοῦ, ‘ minister of Christ” (2 Cor.
xi. 23; Col. i. 7; 1 Tim. iv. 6) and minister Augusti.!
1 Le Bas-Waddington, No. 860,3, τῶν ἱερῶν τοῦ Καίσαρος γραμμάτωϊν].
2 Cf. A. Wilhelm, loc. cit.
§ Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 415 (3No. 881) = Inscriptiones Graecae, XII.,
V. 1, No. 132.
4 Inscriptiones Antiquae Ovae Septentrionalis Ponti Euxini Gyraecae et
Latinae, ed. Latyschev, I. No. 33, ἀντίγραφον τῶν θείων γραμμάτων, “ copy of the
divine writings.”
5 Dittenberger, Sylloge,? No. 418,3 No. 88895, τὰ θεῖά σου γράμματα, “ thy divine
writings.”
δ Line 51, rats θείαις ἐντολαῖς.
7 ἐντολαὶ θεοῦ, 1 Cor. vii. 19; Rev. xii. 17, xiv. 12.
8 Page 325 ff.
® Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 28 (1904) p. 195, ᾿Αγαθόποδι
δούλῳ τοῦ κυρίου Αὐτοκράτορος.
10 Examples from Pompeii ἀγα given by E. Bormann in the “ Wiener Eranos,"
Wien, 1909, p. 314ff. They seem to have been officials connected with
the cult of the Emperor.
 Fic. 72.—Marble Stele from Cos, Tombstone
of Hermes, an Imperial Freedman, after 161
A.D. Now in the house of Said Ali in the
town of Cos. By permission of Rudolf Herzog
and the publishing house of Theodor Weicher
(Dieterich'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung).
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 377
The same order of parallelism obtains between the genitive
Χριστοῦ, “belonging to Christ” (Gal. iii. 29, v. 24;
1° Cor. i. 12, iii. 23, xv. 23; 2 Cor. x. 7), and the simple
genitive Καίσαρος, ‘“‘ belonging to the Emperor.” The
latter, first revealed by the new texts, goes back to the
Latin elliptic Caesaris, and can be established for Egypt
by several papyri of the reign of Augustus and by inscriptions
of the reign of Hadrian.1 The analogy which has been
already ? claimed on linguistic grounds between the oldest
name for the followers of Christ, Χριστιανός, “ Christian,”
and Καισαριανός, “ Caesarian,’”’ ‘‘ Imperial (slave),” ὃ receives
in this connexion new and remarkable illustration.
Characteristic too is the parallel between St. Paul’s phrase
ἀπελεύθερος κυρίου, “freedman of the Lord” (1 Cor.
vii. 22), and the frequent title ‘‘ freedman of the Emperor.”
It appears, for instance, in a Latin inscription of the 2nd
-century at Cos ὁ (Figure 72), on the tombstone of the Imperial
freedman Hermes, who had been an official of the inheritance-
duties department. In the third and fourth lines he is
called Augustor(um) n(ostrorum) lib(erto), ‘‘freedman of
our Augusti.” In Greek the title is also of frequent occur-
rence, with many variations,’ from the first century A.D.
onwards.
Finally, when Christ says in St. John’s Gospel ® (xv. 14 f.):—
“Ye are My friends. . . . Henceforth I call you not slaves ”—

the collocation of “slave” and φίλος, “ friend,” reminds

us that the Emperor also had “ friends,” as well as “‘ slaves.”

1 The first examples were given by Wilcken, Griechische Ostraka, I. p. 661 f.

(the London Papyrus No. 256 is now accessible, Greek Papyri in the British
Museum, Vol. II. p. 95 ff.); cf. also Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 1, p. 145.
New examples are given by W. Schubart, Archiv, 5, p. 116 ff., who thinks
they refer to freedmen.
2 Winer-Schmiedel, § 16, 2c, note 18 (p. 135).
3 References for Caesavianus in Theodor Mommsen, Hermes, 34 (1899)
p. 151 f., and Magie, p. 73.
4 Rudolf Herzog, Koische Forschungen und Funde, p. 106f., No. 165. The
facsimile there given *(plate V. 4) is here reproduced (Fig. 72) by kind per-
mission of the editor and his publisher. The teyminus post quem for the
inscription is 161 4.D. : ;
5 Σεβαστοῦ ἀπελεύθερος or ἀπελεύθερος Καίσαρος. Many examples in Magie,
p- 70. .
ὁ ὑμεῖς φίλοι μου ἐστέ...
378 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
“Friend of the Emperor” is an official title,1 going back
probably in the first place to the language of the court
under the successors of Alexander,? and found, for instance,
in two inscriptions of the Imperial period at Thyatira.®
The parallelism becomes still clearer afterwards if we compare
the adjectives φιλοκαῖσαρ and φιλόσέβαστος, “ friend of the
Emperor,” which are frequent? in inscriptions, with the
similarly formed word φιλόχριστος, “friend of Christ,”
which is a favourite with patristic writers,’ or if we compare
the extraordinary word seBactoyvworos,® ‘‘ acquainted with
the Emperor,’ with the Christian θεόγνωστος,7 “ acquainted
with God.”

to. Have the gold coins regained somewhat of their old

clearness of definition? Looking back on the parallelism
between the cult of Christ and the cult of Caesar, the lines
of which might be yet further prolonged, we may say this :
1 Latin amicus Caesaris, Greek φίλος τοῦ Σεβαστοῦ (cf. the two inscriptions
from Thyatira),or φίλος τοῦ Καίσαρος, John xix. 12.
2 Cf. Bibelstudien, p. 160; Bible Studies, p. 167 ff. (The note in Bibelstudien,
p. 161, Bible Studies, p. 168 f., about John xv. 15 should be cancelled.)
J. Leipoldt, Theologisches Literaturblatt, 29 (1908) col. 561, shows that the
title is an ancient Egyptian one. W. H. P. Hatch (letter, New York, 2 Dec.,
1911) refers me to Cumont, The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism,
Chicago, 1911, p. 137, where examples
are given of the title in use at the
court of ancient Persia.
3 Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum Nos. 34994, and 3500,.
4 Many examples in Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, II.
Index, p. 719.
5 φιλόχριστος also made its way among the people, as shown by Christian
inscriptions, 6.6 Ὁ. 459, ἢ. 4 below, and one from Zorava in Syria, 22 March,
515 A.D. Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, No. 610;. And on
the lion cloth from the shrine of St. Anno [Archbishop
of Cologne, 1056-75]
in the treasury of the church at Siegburg [on the Sieg, which enters the
Rhine opposite Bonn] I read: f ἐπὶ ‘Pwpavod καὶ Χριστοφόρου τῶν φιλοχρίστον
(sic) δεσποτῶν.
6 Inscriptions from Olbia Ὁ. 200 a.p., Latyschev I. No. 24,; from Panti-
capaeum 249 A.D., Latyschev II. No. 46;; from Prusias on the Hypius in
Bithynia c. 215 a.D., Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 25 (1901) p. 62 ff.
The word receives some explanation from a decree of the Byzantines, rst cent.
A.D., Latyschev I. No. 47¢¢,, which boasts ofa citizen of Olbia that μέχρι τᾶς τῶν
Σεβαστῶν γνώσεως προκόϊψ]αντος, ‘‘ he had advanced to personal acquaintance
with the Augusti (Augustus and Tiberius)’: cf. p. 341, n. τ above. This
inscription helps us moreover to understand some yvdors-passages in the N.T.
In Phil. iii. 8, for instance, the word does not denote speculative knowledge
of Christ, but personal and pneumatic acquaintance with Christ.
7 References in Thesaurus Graecae Linguae and Sophocles’ Greek Lexicon.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 379
it is one of the historical characteristics of Primitive Chris-
tianity that it made religion a serious business. Its un-
compromisingly religious } character, tolerating no conces-
sions to irreligion, is never seen more clearly than when
we try to realise the oppressive sensations of contrast that
tortured the saints in Christ even in the days of Nero when
confronted with the glittering formulae of the cult of the
sovereign. :
In fact one abiding result of every really close study of
the religious records of the world contemporary with the
New Testament is this: they quicken our sense of religion,
especially of the simple, vigorous, popular forms of the
religion which is seen at work in the.gospel and in the earliest
‘ cult of Christ, and which is still a living force in the New
Testament to-day. Our learned forefathers used most -
commonly to pursue a retrospective method in their study
of the sacred volume, looking backward into the earliest
ages of Christianity from the point of view of churchmen
and theologians of their own day. They judged the primitive
age accordingly; and the New Testament, containing the
relics of that age, they conceived and. made use of as the
classical textbook of dogma and ethics. But if we approach
our sacred Book from the very world that surrounded the
New Testament, 1.4. from the Imperial age and from the
middle and lower classes of society, then with the same eyes
that modern theological prejudices had previously blinded
to religion we shall see that the New Testament, really a
sacred Book, is not a creature of theology, but of religion.
The written memorials of the New Testament age quickened
our sense of the characteristics of the popular language,
and of the nature of things non-literary, and now they make
clear to us the nature of things non-theological.
I speak of course of theology and things theological in the
sense that we connect with the words nowadays. If we still
felt and appreciated the ancient meaning of the word “ theo-
logus,” 2 we might unhesitatingly call the New Testament a
theological book; for that would mean practically nothing
1 This side is rightly emphasised by Franz Cumont and Albrecht Dieterich;
cf. Bonner Jahrbicher, Heft 108, p. 41.
2 Cf. p. 348 f. above.
380 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
more than that it was a prophetic and religious book. But
that was certainly not the meaning of those scholars who laid
stress on the theological character of the New Testament.
They wanted to display its (in the main) didactic, considered,
systematic contents. If religion is to us an inner life in God,
theology is scientific consideration about religion and its
historical effects. But the considered element in the New
Testament falls very much behind the unconsidered naiveté
of the purely religious, the prophetic, and the devotional.
And though we may be inclined, in the atmosphere of our
Western doctrinairism, to spread the grey nimbus of system
over the New Testament, the sun of its Anatolian home affords
us joyful glimpses of the breadth and depth of that divine
strength grown human which streams immeasurable from the
confessions in this Anatolian book. The mere paragraphs
vanish; personalities rise before us, heroes from the multi-
tude of despised and forgotten ones: Elias is come again to
prepare the way, then the Anointed of the Lord in His first
parusia, and lastly His world-evangelist, St. Paul, and our
other Apostolic Fathers.
Like John the Baptist, Jesus of Nazareth is altogether
non-theological.1_ He is not a speculative doctrinaire. He is
altogether religion, spirit, fire. It would be a mistake to
speak of a theological system in the case of Jesus. He never
thought out a paragraph, never penried a single tractate. He
is so simple that the children cry out with joy at His approach,
and the very poorest understand Him. Insignificant persons,
unknown by name, who had no idea of the value of literal
accuracy, handed on His “ doctrine ’’ in the homely garb of the
popular language. Jesus thought nothing of the theology of
His age: He even thanks His Father for having hidden His
profoundest revelations from the wise and prudent. The
lightnings of His prophetic scorn descend upon the theological
authorities who paid tithe of mint, and anise, and cummin,
but omitted mercy and faith. Contemplative theology, the
offspring of doubt, was completely outside the sphere of
1 For what follows cf. my sketch entitled Theologie und Kirche, Tibingen
und Leipzig, 1901, p. 6, and two others, Evangelium und Urchristentum,
Minchen, 1905, and Tvagende und stdhlende Kvrafte des Neuen Testaments
(presentation volume, ‘‘ Festgabe,” for Julius Kaftan, Tibingen, 1920,
ῬΡ 44~55)-
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 381
His nature, because He was in daily personal intercourse
with the higher world, and the living God was in Him. To
this latter fact His confessions, His words of controversy,
consolation, and reproof bear witness. It is impossible to
unite all these sayings into the artistic mosaic of an evan-
gelical system: they are the reflection of an inner life full
of unbroken strength, full of purity, full of devotion to God
and His human family.
Again Paul the Apostle, the other great figure that stands
sharply outlined historically at the beginning of our religion,
belongs, best part of him, to the age before theology. It
is true he is the disciple of a theological school, and as a
Christian missionary he not unfrequently makes use of the
traditional theological methods. But the tentmaker of
Tarsus must not for that reason be numbered with Origen,
Thomas Aquinas, and Schleiermacher, but with the herdman
of Tekoa, the shoemaker of Gérlitz, and the ribbon-weaver
of Miilheim.? Are we really listening to the pulsations of
his heart when we hear him interpret allegorically the story
of Hagar and Sarah? Are we not infinitely nearer to his
soul, his personality, the best that is in him, when we behold
him on his knees, crushed, annihilated, and new-created by
the grace of His God? His sentences concerning the Law
—are they calm, pointed theses from a theological debate,
or are they not rather confessions of a tortured and liberated
‘ soul? Is Paul the inventor of a dogma of Christ, or is he
not rather the witness of the Christ experienced by him?
Is to him the glory of the Living One a theory thought out
in the study, or was it not rather flashed upon him in a
sacred hour of revelation? Paul the theologian belongs to
the history of Rabbinism: his interpretation of Scripture,
in which his theology for the most part concentrates, is in
no way original or historically distinctive. Paul the theologian
vanishes beside Rabban Gamaliel and the other Tanaitic
1 Cf. Theologie und Kirche, p. 6 ff., and my Paulus, Tiibingen, 1911,
21925; St. Paul, London, 1912, 71926.
2 (The prophet Amos is fairly recognisable, but English readers may be
reminded that Jakob Béhme, the mystic, 1575-1624, lived and died at Gérlitz,
Gerhard Tersteegen, the devotional writer, 1697-1769, at Milheim. The hymn
“Thou hidden love of God, whose height,’’ was translated by John Wesley
from Tersteegen. TR.]
 382 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
fathers.! It is not in the history of theology that Paul is a
characteristic figure, but in the history of religion. And
there his importance lies essentially in the fact that, being
wholly un-rabbinic and wholly pre-dogmatic, he planted the
living roots of religion in the to him spiritually present
Person of the living Lord Jesus Christ. This he did, not by
any new artifices of speculative theology, but by the power
of his experience of Christ, from which faith streamed forth
’ with triumphant strength of attraction. From the time of
St. Paul there is, not Christology, but a Christolatry recog-
nisable as such by the historian of religion 2—a Christianity
of Christ. Paul is not like the many Christological specu-
lators among us, who attain to the worship of Christ on a
Sunday only if they have somehow during the week assured
themselves of a Christology.
Primary with St. Paul are his mystic appreciation of
Christ, kindled by his experience at Damascus, and the cult
of Christ which was quickened at that flame. Out of the
mysticism and the cult there springs his contemplation of
Christ, which, though occasionally employing the forms of
older Messianic dogmatic, is in its whole tone different from
later Christological speculation. The subject upon which
Christological speculation exercises itself so painfully is
Christ as experienced by other people in the past; St. Paul’s
contemplation of Christ proceeds from his own experience
of Christ and is nourished by the spiritual strength of the
present Christ. Doctrinaire Christology looks backward into
history as if under some spell; St. Paul’s contemplation of
Christ gazes clear-eyed into the future. Christology stands
brooding beside an empty grave; St. Paul sees piercingly
into a heaven full of the Living Presence. Even the cross,
as viewed by the apostle, is not a bald, lifeless “ fact ” in the
past, but a portion of the living present. To him there is
no such thing as a completed “ work” of Christ: Christ is
working still perpetually, and in fact the best is yet to come,
for Christ Himself shall come.
1 (The Tanaim, so called from tana, “ to repeat,’’ were the scholars, over 100
in number, who ¢. 10-210 A.D. helped to make the tradition which was finally
embodied in the Mishna (‘ repetition,” from shana, “to repeat’). Tr] —
3. St. Paul did not create the cult of Christ; he took it over from the
Primitive Church. But the earliest Primitive Apostolic cult of Christ can
be traced by us only in very fragmentary lines.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 383
Ultimately, therefore, it is the religious content! that
gives its stamp to Primitive Christianity. The Epistle to
the Hebrews, being marked by a strongly theological character,
with artistic literary form to match,? cannot be assigned to
the classical age of Primitive Christianity. Modern scholas-
ticism has turned confessions of the inspired into chapters of
the learned, and in so doing has worked the same change on
the subject-matter of the New Testament as was produced
in its form when its non-literary letters were treated as works
of literature and its popular language as a sacral variety of
Greek. If, however, we approach the sacred Book by way
of the ancient world contemporary with it, our preconceptions -
vanish.
Far away in the East there rises up before us, higher and
higher above the thronging crowd of poor and lowly, a Sacred
Form. To His own He is already the Saviour and giver of
light ; to the great world He is invisible as yet in the morning
twilight, but it too shall one day bow before Him. In His
profound intimacy with God and in manly strength of con-
_sciousness of His Messianic mission Jesus of Nazareth is the
sheer incarnation of religious inwardness fixed solely on the
Kingdom of God, and therefore He is strong to fight and
worthy of the highest grace in store for Him—that of
being allowed to lay down His life for the salvation of the
many.
Not as second beside Him, but_as first after Him and first
in Him, stands the great convert in whose ardent soul all
the Paschal experiences of the first disciples, with their
insistent trend towards a cult of Christ, were focussed.
Paul of Tarsus, having experienced in his own person more
than any other man the mysteries of the cult of Christ, creates
classical forms for their expression, and goes out to the
Mediterranean world from which he sprang to gain adherents
for the gospel that is being so gloriously extended.
1 It was significant in the history of New Testament scholarship that the
venerable Nestor of the subject, Bernhard Weiss, should crown his life-work
on the New Testament with a book (1903) entitled Die Religion des Neuen
Testaments [Eng. trs. by G. H. Schodde, New York, 1905]. Cf. my notice
of the book in the Preussische Jahrbiicher, 134 (1908), p.159f. To investigate
the religion of the New Testament remains the last and highest task of every
specialist in these studies.
2 Cf. pp. 70 f., 249, 251, above.
 384 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
rz. What were the forces enabling this infant cult of
Christ to gain its converts? Let us attempt to view the
new propagandist religion as it presented itself character-
istically to the men of the Hellenistic Mediterranean world.
Our survey of Primitive Christianity on its way from the
East can of course take account only of the most strongly
marked lines. Microscopic examination is as impossible as
when we view some great antique sculpture in relief. We
have to step backward; then, and not till then, we see what
gave to the propagandist religion of Primitive Christianity
its historic character. And so we will not make ten, a dozen,
or maybe scores of longitudinal sections through Primitive
Christianity, legitimate as such work is in itself, but we will
take one single transverse section through Primitive Chris-
tianity conceived as a whole and a unity. For even though
the religion of the apostles does display an abundance of
different personal types, the men of antiquity were influenced
first of all not by the abundance of individual elements, but
by the style and spirit of the common element.
I have a lively sense of the difficulty we encounter, as
men of another epoch, in taking this rapid survey of Primitive
Christianity from the point of view of an ancient, and I shall
be glad to receive instruction if I have seen wrongly. But
to prove that the main result of my inspection is not alto-
gether wrong I may mention an observation of mine made
after I had myself ventured on that rapid survey. I found
that the greatest missionary document in the New Testament,
St. Paul’s speech on the Areopagus at Athens,! which aimed
at exhibiting to pagans of a great city in the Mediterranean
world what was characteristic of the new religion as con-
cisely as possible, has selected as characteristic just the very
things which seem to us by the aid‘of recent discoveries to
be so. The speech is not a verbatim report, but it is no less
certain that it reveals the spirit of St. Paul, and that it is a
manifesto of worldwide importance in the history of religions
and of religion.
Before pointing out positive characteristics of the ethical
and religious order certain preliminary questions must be
touched upon.
1 Acts xvii. 22-31.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 385
In the first place we must refer once again to the great fact
of social history which has so often engaged our attention in
these pages—the popular character of Primitive Christianity.
Unless this fact is known and well emphasised it is impossible
to explain historically the success of the attractive power of
the gospel. St. Paul’s mission was the mission of an artisan,
not the mission of a scholar. The gospel call, intelligible to
the many because uttered in the popular colloquial language
of the world, never implied the social uprooting 1 of anybody
by renunciation of his native stratum and elevation to the
regions of anaemic theory. On the contrary, we shall see
that it only strengthened and ennobled the feeling of solidarity
among the humbly situated.
There is one other fact closely connected with this. The
characteristic features of the propagandist religion were not
contained in separate novel ‘‘ideas.”” The book which
most strongly insisted on the supposed novelty of countless
“ideas ᾿᾿ and ‘‘ meanings” in the New Testament—I mean
Cremer’s Lexicon—has been by reason of this dogmatic
tendency one of the greatest hindrances to an_ historical
grasp of the real expansive forces of Primitive Christianity.
In all that relates to the forms and meanings of words
Primitive Christianity is more in contact than in contrast
with the surrounding world:
“Christians are distinguished from other men neither by
country, nor by language, nor by customs. For nowhere
do they inhabit cities of their own, nor do they make use
of any exceptional dialect, nor do they practise a con-
spicuous mode of life.”
In these words a Christian writer 2 of a very early period,
almost contemporary with the New Testament, has sketched
for us the intergrowth of his co-religionists with the sur-
rounding world.
Nor to the men of antiquity did those features appear
characteristically Christian which the common sense of a
modern agitator generally seizes upon as the really remark-
able thing about the New Testament, and which, modestly
1 1 Cor. vii. 20.
2 Epistle to Diognetus, 5 : Χριστιανοὶ γὰρ οὔτε γῇ οὔτε φωνῇ οὔτε ἔθεσι διακεκρι-
μένοι τῶν λοιπῶν εἰσὶν ἀνθρώπων. οὔτε γάρ που πόλεις ἰδίας κατοικοῦσιν οὔτε δια-
λέκτῳ τινὶ παρηλλαγμένῃ χρῶνται οὔτε βίον παράσημον ἀσκοῦσιν.
 386 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
content to annihilate Christianity by means of common
sense alone, he cheerfully proceeds to refute while their no
better equipped apologist as excitedly defends them—I mean
the miracles. As a matter of fact the miracles gave to the
New Testament a singularly popular position in the world
around it. The whole ancient world is full of miracles;
definite types of miracle become fixed by the tradition of
thousands of years and occur again and again in all sorts- of
places.1_ Viewed amid the surroundings of its own age and
social stratum the New Testament is seen to be shy, rather
than otherwise, of narrating miracles.2, With Jesus, St. Paul,
and St. John we even find occasionally an ironical attitude
towards the popular taste for miracles,? and it is highly
significant that the great mass of the sayings of Jesus in the
synoptic tradition are not brought into any organic con-
nexion with miracles. Nevertheless the New Testament,
as it was bound to be, 7s a book of miracles. If, however,
we have once grasped historically the nature and necessity.
of the miracles in the New Testament, we realise also how
dear they are to the heart of the people, how childlike in
their piety, how sincerely beautiful, and what high value
they can even possess as revelation. But the miracles, as
such, have nothing to do with the historical peculiarity of
Primitive Christianity.
-First and foremost among the historical characteristics of
Primitive Christianity we should rather place that which the
theological journalism of our day, as ignorant as it is impious,
1 Much material will be found in Th. Trede, Wunderglaube im Heidentum
und in der alten Kirche, Gotha, 1901 (cf. my remarks in Die Christliche Welt, 20
[1906] col. 291 f.); R. Lembert, Dey Wunderglaube bei Réomern und Griechen,
I. Teil :Das Wunder bei den rémischen Historikern, Augsburg, 1905; R. Reitz-
enstein, Hellenistische Wundeverzdhlungen, Leipzig, 1906 (on aretalogy cf. also
my Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 88 ff.; Bible Studies, p. 93 ff.); P. Fiebig, Jiddsche
Wundergeschichten’ des neutestamentlichen Zeitalters, Tiibingen, 1911; Rab-
binische Wundergeschichten (Lietzmann’s ‘‘ Kleine Texte,’ No. 78), Bonn,
1911; Antike Wundergeschichten (ditto, No. 79), 1911; Hermann Jordan,
“Was verstand das 4lteste Christentum unter Wunder ? ” Neue kirchliche
Zeitschrift, 23 (1912), p. 589 fi.
8 This point is very properly emphasised by G. Heinrici, Dey littevarische
Chavakter dey neutestamentlichen Schriften, p. 41 f.
5 Luke xi. 29 with parallels; Matt. xvi. 1 ff.; 1 Cor. i. 22; 2 Cor. xii. 8 £;
. John iv. 48, xx. 29. :
4 This problem (λόγια and σημεῖα, ‘ sayings and signs’) is in urgent need
of investigation.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 387
often dares to represent as a perfectly obvious triviality, viz.
the One living God. The solemn and impressive presence of
the One God pervades the lines of that powerful manifesto
on the Areopagus. Not that the world was unprepared for
the One God: the Greek thinkers, Plato especially, had pre-
pared the way for Him, and the Christian orator speaks thank-
fully of certain among their poets who had had vision of the
Divine.1 These had been helped by the propaganda of the
Greek Jews of the Dispersion with their cosmopolitan Bible.?
And now He came, the One and Eternal, on the way pre-
pared by Greeks and Jews, ‘came to souls drawn hither and
thither by the worship of many gods; to souls restlessly
seeking and feeling after Him;* and came as a God who,
though Creator and Lord of Heaven and of earth,‘ is yet
worshipped without image and without temple,® and is always
accessible even to the poorest, in a spiritual presence,®
“ For in Him we live, and move, and have our being.” ?

But the new cult took this One God seriously. No com-
promises detracted from the Christians’ faith in God, and in
their protest against the deification of the Sovereign they
were ready before long to face even martyrdom.
And second we should place the object of the cult in the
narrower sense, Jesus Christ, who did not displace the One,
but was in the eyes of the worshippers His incarnation.
All the preaching of the missionaries was, like the speech on
Mars’ Hill,? a preaching of Christ; and every hearer of the
missionaries felt that they were introducing the cult of
Christ. Of course it was the cult of a Living Person.? The
cult of Christ is no feeble meditation upon “ historical ”
facts, it is the outcome of pneumatic communion with One
Present. The facts of -the past first receive illumination
from the heavenly transfiguration of the Present One. But
thus illumined they appeal to the souls of those who are
touched, thrilling, comforting, transforming, edifying them.
1 Acts xvii. 28.
3. Cf. my sketch Die Hellenisierung des semitischen Monotheismus, Leipzig,
1903.
3 Acts xvii. 27. 4 xvii. 24. 5 xvii. 24 f., 29.
5 xvii. 27. 1 xvii. 28. 8 xvii. 31.
xvii. 31.
388 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
The eternal glory of the Divine Child with His Father, His
coming down to earth in voluntary self-abnegation and
servitude, His life of poverty with the poor, His compassion,
His temptations and His mighty works, the inexhaustible
riches of His words, His prayers, His bitter suffering and
death, and after the cross His glorious Resurrection and
return to the Father—all these episodes in the great divine
drama, whose peripeteia lay not in hoary antiquity, but
had been witnessed a score or so of years ago, were intelligible
to every soul, even to the poorest, and particularly to the
poorest. And the titles! with which the devotee decked
the beloved object of his cult could, many of them, claim
domicile in the souls of the poor and the simple: titles such

1 ‘Cult words ”’ these titles may be called, and my choice of this term
to describe them was at first dictated solely by my general impression of the
earliest Christianity as it would present itself to the historian of worship.
That my impression was a right one is strikingly shown by a passage in the
Acta Petri (1. p. 68), brought to my notice by Rostalski (letter, Myslowitz,
25 Dec. 1911), where the predication assumes a genuine cult form: “ This
Jesus ye have, brethren, the door, the light, the way, the bread, the water,
the life, the resurrection, the refreshment, the pearl, the treasure, the seed,
the abundance (harvest), the mustard seed, the vine, the plough, the grace,
the faith, the word : he is all things and there is none other greater than he.
Unto him be praise, world without end. Amen.” [The Vercelli Acts, ch. 20,
as translated by Montague Rhodes James, The Apocryphal New Testament,
Oxford, 1924, p. 322; where, however, pearl is misprinted feast;, but see p. 268,
Acts of John 109, the passage which ‘‘ Peter’’ was copying. ΤῊ. (Rostal-
ski conjectures that plough (in the Latin avatrum) probably arose from ἀρότην,
‘‘ plougher,”’ in the original.) [But we have “ the plough, the net ”’ in Acts of
John 109. ΤῈ. Cf. also Irenaeus, Contva haeveses, Migne, 7, 540 ff. These
cult words have, in the sphere of unaffected contemplation purely for purposes
of worship, again and again been recognised as such, and have been assembled
in similar sequences, as shown for instance by the Moravian Hymn-book of
the year 1900, No. 749, verse 4: ‘‘ Er ist unser Hirte, Haupt und Konig,/
Schépfer, Bruder, Herr und Freund,/Hilf und Rat und Trost und Fried’
und Freude,/Schutz und Habe, Leben, Licht und Weide,/Hoherpriester,
Opferlamm,/unser Gott und Bradutigam.” (Quoted from the Tdgliche
Losungen und Lehrtexte dey Briidergemeine, 1914, p. 102.) A little English
book, Ada R. Habershon’s The New Testament Names and Titles of the Lord
of Glory, London, 1910, likewise exemplifies this contemplation carried out
purely as an act of worship. [An obvious illustration for English readers
would be John Newton’s Olney hymn, ‘‘ How sweet the Name of Jesus sounds ”
(1779): ‘‘ Jesus! my Shepherd, Husband, Friend,/My Prophet, Priest, and
King,/My Lord, my Life, my Way, my End,/Accept the praise I bring.”
The German quoted runs almost like this: ‘‘ He to us is Shepherd, Head and
Monarch,/Maker, Brother, Lord and Friend,/Help and Counsel, Comfort,
Peace and Pleasure, /Life and Light, and Pasture, Guard and Treasure,/High
Priest, Lamb of Offering, /God and Bridegroom, thus we sing.” ΤᾺ]
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 389
as Lamb of God, the Crucified, Shepherd and Chief Shepherd,!
Corner Stone, Door and Way, the Corn of Wheat, Bread and
Vine, Light and Life, Head and Body, Alpha and Omega,
Witness, Mediator arid’ Judge, Brother, Son of Man, Son of
God, Word of God and Image of God, Saviour, High Priest,
Lord, King. Unfathomable in intellectual content, giving.
scope to every variety of personal Christian experience and
every motive of self-sacrificing obedience, this series contains
not a single title that was likely to impress by mere sacer-
dotal associations or unintelligibleness. In the same way
the gospel tradition of worship, with its sturdy, popular tone,
was far superior to the fantastic, hysterical mythologies of
the other cults, which piled one stimulant on another. So
too the celebration of the mysteries of Christ required no
magnificent temple or awe-inspiring cavern: it could take
place wherever two or three were gathered together in His
name. All great movements in the history of our race have
been determined by conditions of the heart of the people,
not by intellect. The triumph of the cult of Christ over all
other cults—the point must here be once more emphasised—
is in no remote degree explainable by the fact that from the
first Christianity took deep root in the heart of the many,
in the hearts of men and women, old and young, bond and
free, Jews, Greeks, and Barbarians.* In its early days
Christianity made conquest of hearts not because it was a
“religion of redemption,” as people are fond of saying
nowadays, substituting the impersonal for the personal,—but
because it was the cult of a Redeemer. :
The Primitive Christian cult of Christ was. preserved from
doctrinaire congelation not only by the tendency to realise
daily the presence of the living Master, but—and this is the
third characteristic feature—by the expectation of His
second parusia and the hope of Eternity that grew therefrom.
The climax of the speech on the Areopagus was a proclamation
of the approaching Last Judgment.* This is not the simple
extension of the belief in immortality which had long been

1 Cf. pp. 99 ff. above.

2 The popular universality of the cult of Christ is reflected by such passages
of St. Paul’s writings as Gal. iii. 28, Col. iii. 11, 1 Cor. xii. 13.
3 Acts xvii. 31.
390 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
quickening here and there in men’s hearts; it is a clamping
together of the fortunes of this world with the future of the
Kingdom of God such as probably no other religion could
show. Not only were souls upheaved and brought to a
state of tense excitement, but consciences were filled with
profound earnestness.
And that is the last feature: the moral earnestness of
Christianity. The moral element is not a foreign body
within the cult, still less is if external to the sacred precinct ;
it is indivisibly united with the religion and the cult—indeed,
far from being ruled out by the mystical element, it receives
from the communion with Christ the strongest encourage-
ments. No artist versed in things of the soul, whether of
the earlier or of the subsequent period,—not Sophocles, nor
Augustine, nor Dante, nor Shakespeare, nor Goethe has
succeeded in disclosing deeper depths of guilty consciousness
than the apostolic pastors foundin themselves. No one has
borne more convincing testimony concerning personal
responsibility, ‘the necessity of inward regeneration and
reconciliation with God, than the missionaries whom the
Spirit of Jesus Christ impelled through the world. The
organic connexion of religion with morality, which from the
first formed part of the essence of Christianity, and might
be experienced anew daily in the realisation of the presence
of God and of Christ, was intelligible even to a plain man
when next to love of God love of one’s neighbour was
demanded, and next to fellowship with Christ the following
after Him. Moreover, the organisations of the earliest
churches were visible embodiments of such social ethics as
fairly filled the soul of ancient man with enthusiasm. The
idea of the unity of the human race, classically expressed
in the speech on the Areopagus,! united with St. Paul’s
preaching of the Body of Christ to strengthen and ennoble
the feeling of solidarity which then, as the inscriptions have
shown, pervaded the lower orders of society like a healthy
arterial current and had led to the formation of numerous
guilds 2 among the common people. In the “ assemblies ”
1 Acts xvii. 26.
* The literature relating to ancient guilds (including religious guilds) is
well summarised in Schiirer, Geschichte des jtidischen Volkes, 111.8 p. 62 ff.
(Cf. E. V. Arnold, ‘‘ Roman Trade Societies,’’ Discovery 1 (1920) 55 ff. Tr.]
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS HISTORY 391
of the Christians, which were doubtless looked upon as guilds
of Christ 1 by the men of the time, that brotherhood which
proved itself effectual by charitable gifts dispatched over
land and sea took shape. Considered even from the general
point of view of social history they were probably the most
vigorous organisations, and the richest in inspiration, of the
whole Imperial period. We must never forget that for them
those pages were penned whose remains were afterwards
saved from destruction in the New Testament. A cult in
whose conventicles a prayer like the Lord’s Prayer could be
offered and an ethical text be read such as the 13th chapter
of r Corinthians, simple in form as it is mighty in ethos,
possessed powers of gaining converts which were irresistible.

12. The paean of love chanted under Nero at Ephesus for

the poor saints of Corinth has not perished with Corinth.
Annihilated for ever, the magnificence of Nero’s Corinth
lies buried to-day beneath silent rubbish-mounds and green
vineyards on the terraces between the mass of the Acro-
corinthus and the shore of the shining Gulf: nothing but
ruins, ghastly remnants, destruction. The words of that
paean, however, have outlasted the marble and the bronzes
of the Empire, because they had an unassailable refuge in the
secret depths of the soul of the people. The Corinthian
Christians, who suffered other writings of St. Paul to be lost,
preserved these; copies were taken and circulated; at the
turning-point of the first and second century 1 Corinthians
was already.known at Rome,? and probably St. Paul’s other
letters were also in circulation then in the Christian con-
gregations of the great Mediterranean coast-cities, guarded
with the gospels and other texts of the fathers as an heirloom
and treasure, separated from the false texts, becoming more
and more identified with the books, and finally incorporated
in the Book of the sacred writings of the New Testament.
Without shutting our eyes to the dangers that lay in the
Book when it came to be judged as a book, we may never-

1 Cf. the works (quoted by Schiirer, op. cit., p.-62) of Georg Heinrici, who
was the first to point out this analogy with proper emphasis.
2 [It is quoted by Clement of Rome in his first Epistle to the Corinthians,
6.96 a.D. TR.]
302 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
theless confess that this Book of the New Testament has
remained the most valuable visible possession of Christendom,
down to the present day. .
A book from the ancient East, and lit up by the light of
the dawn,—a book breathing the fragrance of the Galilean
spring, and anon swept by the shipwrecking north-east
tempest from the Mediterranean,—a book of peasants,
fishermen, artisans, travellers by land and sea, fighters and
martyrs,—a book in cosmopolitan Greek with marks of
Semitic origin,—a book of the Imperial age, written at
Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, Rome,—a book of pictures,
miracles, and visions,—book of the village and the town,
book of the people and the peoples,—the New Testament, if
regard be had to the inward side of things, is the great book,
chief and singular, of human souls.
Because of its psychic depth and breadth this book of
the East is a book for both East and West, a book for
humanity: a book ancient but eternal.
And because of the figure that emerges from the book—
the Redeemer, accompanied by the multitude of the redeemed,
blessing and consoling, exhorting and renewing, revealing
Himself anew to every generation of the weary and heavy-
laden, and growing from century to century more great—
the New Testament is the Book of Life.
 CHAPTER V
RETROSPECT—FUTURE WORK OF RESEARCH
1. ABouT mid-day on Easter Sunday, 1906, at Ephesus, I
was crossing in company with Friedrich von Duhn and other
friends a wildly luxuriant field of acanthus on our way from
the Library of Celsus to the luncheon tent hospitably erected
for us by the Austrians, when my eye fell on an antique marble
acanthus capital that lay to the left of the path completely
embedded in the thick, exuberant greenery of living acanthus
leaves.
That little episode kept recurring to my mind, and its
symbolism revealed itself afterwards when, as we sailed the
waters of Crete and the Cyclades, we found leisure to meditate
upon what we had seen. ;
The contrast between the conventionalised marble acanthus
leaves and their verdant wild originals seemed to me an image
of the contrast between the methods of research characteristic
of my own special studies. _
On the one hand the method which conventionalises the
New Testament by isolating and canonising its language, by
turning its non-literary texts into literature and its religious
confessions into hard and stony dogma ;—on the other hand
the method which takes possession in the work-room of every-
one who studies the New Testament historically and psycho-
logically as the ancient East at large can and must be studied
at the present day.
This method does not look upon the New Testament as a
museum of statues in marble and bronze, but as a spacious
garden, God’s garden, thriving in luxurious growth under the
spring sunshine of the East. No painter can reproduce the
pale green of its young fig-leaves and the blood-red of its
Easter anemones; the sombre melancholy of its olive groves,
the gentle tremor of its vine tendrils cannot be described;
304 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
and in the sacred precinct, where for the pure a fountain of
living water springs beneath primeval cedars, the solemn
silence bids the surveyor avaunt who had approached with
line and measuring staff.
Some day, when yet stronger waves of light come flooding
over to us from the East, it will be recognised that the restora-
tion of the New Testament to its native home, its own age
and social level, means something more than the mere repatria-
tion of our sacred Book. It brings with it new life and depth
to all our conceptions of Primitive Christianity. But already
perhaps we may say that when theologians engage in the study
of inscriptions, papyri, and ostraca of the Imperial period,
their work is not the pastime of cranks, but is justified by the
imperious demands of the present state of scholarship. For
a long time the theologians were content to don the cast-off
garments of the philologists, and to drag with them through
the New Testament critical methods that had long been given
up by the masters of the scientific study of antiquities, until
they fairly dropped to pieces. Are we now to wait another
twenty years, and then go limping after the philologists, who
by that time will have struck still better sources? Or
shall we not rather, undeterred by the absurd and deprecia-
tory remark about being ‘“‘ mere” philologists, ourselves
lay hands on the mighty mass of material for research that a
bountiful Providence has bestowed on our unworthiness?
In particular, the one great historical fact which must be
recognised if a man is to be either a good exegetist and
systematist or a good preacher and pastor—the fact of the
close inward connexion between the gospel and the lower
classes—cannot be realised by visionary speculation, however
ingenious, working solely upon the commonplaces of obsolete
monographs. Such knowledge must be deciphered and pain-
fully deduced from the thousands and tens of thousands of
lines of torn and. mangled writing newly recovered from the
age of the New Testament. Albert Kalthoff 1 was certainly
a gifted writer, and he certainly had a heart for the lower
1 [The Bremen pastor (1850-1906). TR.] Author of Das Christusproblem.
Grundlinien zu einer Sozialtheologie, Leipzig, 1902, 71903; Die Entstehung
des Christentums, Jena, 1904 [translated by Joseph McCabe under the title,
The Rise of Christianity, London, 1907. TR.]; Was wissen τοῖν von Jesus ?
Schmargendorf-Berlin, 1904.
 RETROSPECT—FUTURE WORK OF RESEARCH 395
orders of the people, but he was not fitted to be the historian
or even the historical philosopher of the origins of our faith,
and his attempt to democratise Primitive Christianity was
doomed to failure because he had not by the tedious process
of detailed work made himself at home among the mass of
humanity in- the Imperial period. Instead of investigating
the real psyche of the masses and ultimately discovering
within the masses the leading personalities who made the
individual to be an individual indeed and raised him out of
the masses, Kalthoff and his works ended like an unhappy
“ stickit minister ” 1—with a witches’ sabbath of homeless
ideas.”

2. The method of research suggested by the new texts is

valuable also in tracing the later history of Christianity. I
merely mention the fact, and may be allowed to refer to the
hints given in Chapter III., in the course of interpreting certain
early Christian letters emanating from the lower classes.
Even when Christianity had risen from the workshop and the
cottage to the palace and the schools of learning, it did not
desert the workshop and the cottage. The living roots of
Christianity remained in their native soil—the lower ranks
of society—and regularly in the cycle of the years, when
autumn had gathered the topmost leaves and the dry boughs
had snapped beneath the storms of winter, the sap rose
upward and woke the buds from slumber, with promise of

1 [German, wie ein missvatener Stiftley, ‘‘ like an unsuccessful alumnus of

the (Tabingen) Seminary.” The Protestant Seminary or ‘‘ Stift ” at Tubingen,
founded in 1537, has a very high reputation and is recruited from the pick of
the schools of Wiirttemberg. F.C. Baur and D. F. Strauss (the theologians},
F. T. Vischer (writer on aesthetic), Eduard Zeller (the philosopher), and
MGrike (the poet) were among its distinguished pupils. But of course there
are also failures. TR.]
2 Karl Kautsky’s theory must be similarly criticised: Dey Urvsprung des
Christentums. Eine historische Untersuchung, Stuttgart, 1908. Cf. my
review in Die Hilfe 125 (1909), p. 123, translated in Appendix XI below; also
Hans Windisch, Der messianische Krieg und das Urchristentum, Tibingen,
1909; Rudolf Leonhard, Einige Betrachtungen iiber Religion und Wirtschaft
(im Anschluss an K. Kautskys “‘ Ursprung des Christentums ’’), Archiv fir
Geschichte des Sozialismus, 8, p. 116 ff.; but particularly the ripe judgments
of Ernst Troeltsch, inspired by real familiarity with the modern scientific study
of antiquity, Die Soztallehren der christlichen Kirchen und Gruppen, Tiibingen,
1912; ‘‘anastatic”’ reprint, 1919, p. 1 ff. See moreover pp. 7 ff. above,
and Ernst Lohmeyer, Soziale Fragen im Urchristentum, Leipzig, 1921.
396 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST |
blossom and rich days of fruitage.1 Jesus the carpenter and
Paul the tentmaker mark the beginnings, and again at the
most momentous crisis in the history of later Christianity
there comes another homo novus in the person of Luther, the
miner’s son and peasant’s grandson.
The history of Christianity, with all its wealth of incident,
has been treated much too often as the history of the Christian
literary upper class, the history of theologians and ecclesiastics,
schools, councils, and parties, whereas Christianity itself has
often been most truly alive in quarters remote from councils
and outside the polemical tractates of Protestant zealots.
One great merit of the book on German Church History in
the nineteenth century by Christian Tischhauser,? lecturer
at the Bale Missionary College,® is that it takes account of
undercurrents which are usually ignored either because
they erect themselves no literary monuments, or because the
humble literature produced by them is overwhelmed, if it
ever survives the day for which it was written, and crowded
out into the worst-lighted rooms of the b:bliotheca christiana
by the collected works of writers on academic Christianity
and church politics.
From gospel times down to our own day Christian piety,
simple and vigorous, has been most alive in the middle and
lower classes. There its own popular forms of expression
were created and its own popular types of personality were
experienced. To investigate the laws determining the forma-
tion of these expressions, to study the psychology of the
inner life of spontaneous Christian piety, is a task of great
charm and value to the scholar and an absolutely indispensable
1 Since writing the above I have come across the following beautiful
quotation from Raabe’s Hungerpastor in a review by Wilhelm Kosch (Deutsche
Literaturzeitung, 29 [1908] col. 2826) of August Sauer’s Litevaturgeschichte
und Volkskunde, Prag, 1907, a book with an important bearing on our subject,
as regards the methods to be employed. Raabe says: ‘‘ The deliverers of
humanity rise from the depths, and as the springs of water come from the
depths to make the land fruitful, so the field of humanity is perpetually being
refreshed from the depths.” [Wilhelm Raabe (1831-1910) published his most
characteristic novel, Der Hungerpastoy, in 1864. TR.]
2 Geschichte der evangelischen Kirche Deutschlands in der ersten Halfte des
19. Jahrhunderts, Basel, 1900. See the important review of the book by
W. Walther, Theologisches Literaturblatt, 21 (1900) col. 282.
3 It is no mere accident that this task should haye been taken up by one
connected .with missionary work.
 RETROSPECT—FUTURE WORK OF RESEARCH 397

pre-requisite in the training of a popular pastorate. The

- training of our candidates for the ministry is as a rule far too
scholastic for the actual work they are called upon to do in
practice. Most of us criticise the forms of expression chosen
‘by popular Christianity in the past and in the present, much
as Blass did the letter written by the bad boy Theon 1—as if it
were a case of degeneration. There are very few people, for
instance, who can enter into sympathetic relation with the
popular art of the Catacombs and with the naiveté, true-
hearted as it often is, of the early Christian popular literature
that has come down to us in the remains of “‘ apocryphal”
gospels and acts of apostles. Deluded by the belief that there
is no value except in things that have really happened and
can be proved to have happened, we cast out the miracles
in these popular books, and with them the books themselves,
upon the dust-heap.
As a matter of fact, however, the child Jesus healing the
woodman who had been injured by the falling axe,? and the
Jesus who restores the withered hand of a stonemason,® are
striking proofs of the intenseness of the confidence with which
the various handicrafts did homage to the carpenter’s Son,
each in its own place of work. We know how it will be:
to shepherds He will. become the Chief Shepherd, to sailors
the steersman, to travellers the guide, to soldiers the com-
mander; He will bless the seed for the peasants, and He will
sit at table with us, a daily invited guest, in the breaking of
bread.

3. Thus I have already been led to speak of the work in

store for research. Further to speak on this subject is at
the same time easy and yet difficult forme. Itis easy because
I believe I can discern problems in plenty, because I am con-
1 Cf. p. 201, above.
2 Cf. p. 41, n. 3 above.
3 Special addition in the Gospel according to the Hebrews to Matt. xii. τὸ
and parallels. [See M. R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford,
1924, pp. 4,5. TR]
4 Of course I speak here only of problems connected with the subject of
this book. For other New Testament problems see the programme suggested
in an important work by Johannes Weiss, Die Aufgaben der neutestamentlichen
Wissenschaft in der Gegenwart, Gottingen, i908; and Paul Fiebig, Die Aufgaben
der neutestamentlichen Forschung in dey Gegenwart, Leipzig, 1909.
 398 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
vinced that*they must be solved, and because I would fain
regard a humble fraction of them as filling a part of my own
life. On the other hand I find it difficult to speak of problems,
because to do so is to speak of things unfinished. It raises a
vision of books by the dozen lying open upon one another, of
hundreds of written slips and sheets of MS., of library dust and
work done by artificial light on dull days, of hopes raised only
to be dashed, and of the investigator’s sorry bartering day
after day a single problem solved for ten others unsolved.
This last part of my book is difficult more especially because
I know that what the student strives to attain is something
- great, whereas what he actually does attain will be but the
poor work of man after all, and by speaking.of the great thing
too soon he awakens expectations which he cannot fulfil.}
But this, I take it, is the fate, and I do not hesitate to say the
happy fate, of all real research, showing how closely akin it
is to the work of the artist : its powers must be strengthened
by struggling towards an ideal which is unattainable, because
ideal, but which nevertheless always remains the goal to be
attained.
The most obvious task has reference to the written records
themselves. As many new texts as possible must be discovered
and published with all care.
The period of excavations for papyri in Egypt is by no
means ended, and many workers are still required for the
systematic collection and preservation of the despised ostraca.
New editions of the inscriptions on stone, metal, etc. are,
as was shown in the first chapter, in active preparation on a
large scale. But the amount of inscriptions still lying under-
ground or built into the walls of mediaeval and modern edifices
is beyond computation; the lime-kilns fortunately have not

1 In preparing this new edition I find it particularly hard, for an obvious

reason, to speak once more of problems for the future. When I first did so,
in 1908 and 1909, I was able to hope sub conditione Jacobea [James. iv. 15
TR.] that I might have myself solved some portion of these problems by the
beginning of the nineteen-twenties. The fate that overtook the world in
1914 forced me, however, for full seven years upon another path, the path
taken in my Evangelischer Wochenbrief (1914-1921) of working for international
understanding and enlightenment through the churches. This led me spirit-
ually, it is true, deeper than ever before into the N.T., but I was obliged to lay
aside much of the work on the N.T. to which my life as a scholar had been
devoted. Cf. Evangelischer Wochenbrief III No. 92/104 (Nov. 1921) p. 275 f.
 RETROSPECT—FUTURE WORK OF RESEARCH 399
swallowed up everything. The remark may be added that,
whereas the acquisition of new texts, especially where excava-
tions have to be made, is largely a question of funds, the
comparatively small sums with which before 1914 it was
possible to accomplish so much to-day count for nothing.
The appeal must be made to government authorities and
private benefactors to recognise and meet this pressing need,
from which research, especially under the conditions at present
prevailing in Germany, is suffering.
The next duty of scholars is to discuss the texts scientifically’
in their bearings on language, literature, religious and general
social history. Editors ought to facilitate this discussion:
by making the arrangement of the printed texts as convenient
and clear as possible. There should be no false shame about
providing (always, if possible) translations of the texts;
many hidden difficulties first show themselves, even to the
specialist, when he really begins to translate sentence by
sentence.
Of the many individual problems which the new texts can
help to solve there are some to which I would call special
attention. The types of popular narrative style must be
traced throughout the extent of the ancient civilisations,
particularly the following: narratives of miracles,! accounts
of healing and deliverance from danger,? narratives of expia-
tion,? dreams, visions, travellers’ tales of adventure, and
stories of martyrdom. The history of ancient letter-writing,
accompanied by careful reconstruction of autograph letters
and fragments, must be continued further with special
attention to the formal phraseology which is of such import-
ance in problems of chronology. The letters and allied texts
must moreover be interpreted as reflections of the family life
and soul-life of antiquity, particularly with the object of
investigating the emotions at work among the lower classes.
All the resources of ancient folklore are to be pressed into
the service of this research: it is not to be a mere collection
of curiosities enabling us to feel the contrast between ourselves
and antiquity; it must be reconstitutive psychology of the
1 Cf. the works of Reitzenstein and others mentioned at p. 386, n. 1 above.
2 (Cf. p. 179, n. 7, 8 above, and Index IV., s.v. Narratives. Tr.]
3 Hints in Buresch, Aus Lydien, p. 111 ff., and especially in Steinleitner,
Die Beicht.
 400 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
people, enlightening us as to our permanent contact with
antiquity.

4. Most of these problems, no doubt, will find their solution

beyond the pale of the Faculties of Theology, although the
hard-and-fast divisions between the guilds of learning have
vanished here and there, and are still vanishing, greatly to the
advantage of research. But there will be quite enough for the
theologians todo. The tasks presented to us may be summed
up in a single sentence: We have to establish, with the aid
of the authentic records of the ancient world, the positive
position, based on social history and psychology, on which
scholarship may take its stand for the study of the New
Testament. The one-sided method of retrospection, which
has too often blinded us to religion by its insistence on dogma,
must give way to inquiries concerning the history of religion
and the psychology of religion. That is the motto, as it were,
and in it more stress is to be laid than usual upon the word
religion. The study of purely religious texts—manifestations
of piety that certainly did not proceed from learned medita-
tion—must inevitably open our eyes to the living piety with
which the New Testament is instinct.
These historical and psychological inquiries will lead on to a
new problem, the solution of which has an equally important
bearing on the detailed exegesis and on the collective criticism
of the classical texts of Christianity, viz. the problem of defin-
ing the various types of religious production within the. New
Testament. What many have taken to be one vast expanse
of neutral tint will be seen to be a harmionious succession of
1 Including, of course, the authentic records of ancient Judaism and the
other Semitic religions, of which we had not to speak in the present context.
[An illustration after the author’s own heart, showing the persistence of the
great ideas among simple folk of all ages, occurred on 12 March, 1923, when
The Times, reviewing (on p. 13) Egyptian Hievatic Papyri, Second Series,
published by the British Museum, quoted, among other striking proofs of the
personal religion of Amenemapt, a moralist of the 18th dynasty, the saying:
‘Though the tongue of a man steers the boat, it is God who is the captain thereof.”
The Daily News of the same day reported the arrival of the trawler “ Sargon ”’
at Grimsby with her crew of 12, for whom memorial services had been held
when the ship was given up for lost. The German trawler « Schleswig
Holstein’ had towed them to safety when they were storm-tossed, without
fuel to make steam, and without food. ‘‘ Theve was only one man in charge,
and that was God,”’ said the skipper of the ‘‘ Sargon.”’ .Tr.]
 RETROSPECT—FUTURE WORK OF RESEARCH 401
the most varied shades of colour. What injustice, for instance,
has been done to the great Evangelist, St. John, by demanding
from him a “ progress of thought ” in the speeches of Jesus in
his gospel, and a “‘ consecutive plan ” in his epistle,! as if his
were a doctrinaire, a systematic nature. St. John has no
liking for progress along an unending straight road; he loves
a circling flight, like his symbol, the eagle. There is something
hovering and brooding about his production; repetitions are
in no wise abnormal with him, but the marks of a mystic cult-
contemplation which he cherishes as a precious inheritance
from St. Paul and further intensifies. The other types of
religious production may be worked out with the same clear-
ness of definition—Jesus most certainly, Paul also, and the
rest of the seers, consolers, and evangelists.
In far higher degree than is possible to any kind of dogmatist
exegesis, the historical and psychological exegesis will help
us to understand why the cult of Christ was destined to mark
the turning-point in the world’s religion. And the forces
of inward life which this exegetical method sets free once
more in the New Testament will bring forth fruit in quite
another manner in our own generation, bestowing refresh-
ment on the weary and heavy-laden (not on the well-filled
and the bored) to-day as on the first day.

5. Finally, among the multitude of particular problems there

_ 1s one which may be specially selected as probably the most
important task of New Testament research at the present time,
viz. the preparation of a new Lexicon to the New Testament.
A lexicon is only another name for a dictionary. A
dictionary, most people would say, is a very simple thing—a
book containing foreign words in alphabetical order, with their
English meanings. So there is nothing remarkable about it,
nothing remarkably learned or scientific; it is in the first
place a business enterprise, a book to meet the requirements of
practical life, ranking with Bradshaw and the Post Office
Directory : a portly volume perhaps, but its inside merits
more dependent on the printer than on the author; the chief
thing is to find a publisher, and all the rest will follow.
Memory reverts, perhaps, to our schooldays. That awful
1 [I.e., 1 John. Τα]
402 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
passage in Caesar, where he describes how he bridged the
Rhine—how unintelligible it all was, until we looked up the
hard words in the dictionary and saw in an instant what each
one of them “ meant.” Nothing could have been simpler
for a boy who knew his A B C and had the gumption to look
for trabs under the letter T.
If there is a tendency in some quarters to despise dictionaries
as “‘ unscientific,” there exists a no less widespread tendency
to bow slavishly to their pronouncements. “It is in the
dictionary, so it must be right ’’—that is the spoken or
unspoken thought in innumerable cases where a person
hurriedly consults the dictionary to settle the meaning of a
foreign word.
The scientific attitude towards lexicography begins the
minute we learn that the meaning of a given word cannot
always be got straight from the dictionary, that every word
presents a problem in itself, and that we have no right to
speak scientifically about a word until we know its history,
i.e. its origin, its meaning, and how meanings have been
multiplied by division or modification.
Scientific lexicography undertakes, therefore, to reconstruct
the history of words from the earliest times to which our
sources go back, in fact from the primitive prehistoric period
of the language which comparative philology establishes
theoretically, down to the time when we find the words spoken
or written by a given individual.
Hence it follows that lexicography, in spite of many techni-
cal appendages, in spite of the fact that the customary
alphabetical arrangement of words is dictated by practical
and technical, and not by scientific considerations; is after
all one of the historical sciences. It compiles the historical
statistics of the language.
Lexicography in this sense is still a young science. Lexicons
were first made thousands of years ago, dictionaries on his-
torical principles not until the nineteenth century. As
examples I may mention two of the latest big dictionaries,
which are still incomplete: the Egyptian Dictionary prepared
by the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and the Thesaurus
Linguae Latinae,1 a great Latin Dictionary which has the
joint support of a number of associated Academies.
1 Cf. the Hamburg address by Hermann Diels quoted below, p. 404, n. 2.
 RETROSPECT—FUTURE WORK OF RESEARCH 403
A Thesaurus Graecae Linguae also exists, and has often
been cited in this book. It is a costly work in nine huge
folios, but it by no means fulfils the requirements of scientific
lexicography,1 and it is altogether out of date. The same
may be said of all Greek dictionaries whatever, even of the
‘Great Lexicon ’”’ 2 published at Athens, which is only great,
and not a lexicon at all. There is probably no department of
classical philology in so backward a state at the present day
as this of Greek lexicography. There is not a single manual
Greek lexicon which takes adequate account of the great
advances that have been made in etymology,? or of semasio-
logical problems, or of the enormous additions to our statistical
materials furnished by the new texts,‘ though it is to be hoped
the new edition of Franz Passow’s old Lexicon begun by
Wilhelm Crénert ὅ will mark the beginning of an improvement.
1 Information on the history and requirements of Greek lexicography will
be found most conveniently in Leopold Cohn’s appendix on the subject
contributed to Karl Brugmann’s Griechische Grammatik,’ Minchen, 1900.—A
very useful book is Hermann Schone, Repertorium griechischer Worterver-
zeichnisse und Speziallexika, Leipzig, 1907.
2 Meya Λεξικον τῆς Βλληνικης Γλωσσης Avectn Kwvotavrindov, ev Αθηναις,
190I~10 (4 volumes).
3 A good beginning among lexicons for school use has been made by Her-
mann Menge, Griechisch-Deutsches Schulwérterbuch, Berlin, 1903.—For the
scientific lexicographer the most important works are Walther Prellwitz,
Etymologisches Wérterbuch dey Griechischen Sprache,*? Gottingen, 1905, and
Emile Boisacq, Dictionnaive etymologique de la langue grecque, Heidelberg and
Paris, 1907-1916.
4 In recent years H. van Herwerden, following an example set by others,
has done most towards collecting the new details (Lexicon Graecum Supple-
torium et Dialecticum, Lugduni Batavorum, 1902, τοῖο; Appendix Lexici
Graeci . . ., Lugd. Bat., 1904; Nova Addenda .. . in the Mélanges Nicole,
Genéve, 1905, p. 241 ff.; second edition of the whole work, 1910. A great
advancement is to be expected from the Wérterbuch der griechischen Papyrusur-
kunden mit Einschluss der griechischen Inschriften, Aufschriften, Ostraka,
Mumienschilder usw. aus Agypten, vol. I (A-K), Heidelberg and Berlin, 1924-
25, vol. II, Berlin, 1925-, which is being prepared by Friedrich Preisigke
(t1924) and Emil Kiessling, with the support of the Heidelberg Academy, the
Strassburg Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft and private friends. I have already
(p. 21 above) called attention to the extreme importance of Moulton and
Milligan’s Vocabulary.
5 Passows Worterbuch dey griechischen Sprache, vollig neu bearbeitet von
Wilhelm Crénert, parts 1-3, Gottingen, 1912 ff. Cf. my review, Theologische
Literatur-Zeitung 38 (1913) col. 614f. [Since the interruption of his great
work by the war Crénert has lent generous aid to an English undertaking which,
though smaller, is likely to cost altogether nearly £20,000: A Greek-English
Lexicon compiled by H. G. Liddell and R. Scott. A new edition... by
Henry Stuart Jones . . . with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie. Parts I,
II: Α---διαλέγω, Oxford, 1925-6. Eight more parts willcomplete the work. It
contains less etymology than the old Liddell and Scott, but a greatly increased
404 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
The fact that our present lexicons hardly ever suggest an
opening for learned discussion, and hardly ever hint at the
existence of open questions, gives them a more dogmatic
than scientific character.
The problems that modern lexicography is called upon to
solve have been illustrated in a masterly manner by Hermann
Diels in the case of a single word,! and the same authority
has elsewhere shown how impossible it would be to carry out
the gigantic proposals for a new Greek Thesaurus.* The
expenses preceding publication, he estimated in 1905, would
amount to £500,000; the work would extend to 120 volumes,
and the probable selling price of this monster would be £300.
Instead of one single-comprehensive lexicon it would be more
advisable, he suggested, to compile about ten separate lexicons.
One of these great lexicons would have to deal with the whole
of the Biblical and early ecclesiastical writings, both literary
and non-literary, beginning with the Septuagint Bible and
extending over the New Testament to the Gréek Fathers—not
in order to isolate these texts linguistically once again, but
for the sake of their inner relationship and congruity.

vocabulary of the language down to the reign of Justinian. Among the

voluntary helpers are P. Jouguet, V. Martin, and H. I. Bell for papyri, and
M. N. Tod for inscriptions. If words from Patristic writers are intentionally
omitted by the revisers, this is partly because a ‘‘ Lexicon of Patristic Greek,”
the idea of which originated with the Central Society of Sacred Study, and its
Warden, Dr. H. B. Swete, has long been in preparation in England. It is
hoped that this may be published, when the Liddell and Scott is completed,
under the editorship of Dr. Darwell Stone. TRr.]
1 Elementum : Eine Vorarbeit zum griechischen und lateinischen Thesaurus,
Leipzig, 1899. Cf. Theologische Literaturzeitung, 26 (1901) col. 1 ff.
2 Der lateinische, griechische und deutsche Thesaurus, Bericht, erstattet auf
der Hamburger Philologenversammlung [1905], Neue Jahrbiicher fiir das klas-
sische Altertum etc. 1905, I. p. 689 ff. The question of the Greek Thesaurus is
further discussed by Paul Kretschmer, Der Plan eines Thesaurus der griechi-
schen Sprache, Glotta, Vol. I. pp. 339-348.—A plan has been set on foot in
Greece for a great historical lexicon of the Greek language from the earliest
times down to the present day; cf. Karl Krumbacher, Internationale Wochen-
schrift, 2 (1908) 19 December, and 3 (1909) 29 May; also Krumbacher’s essay
in lexicography, KTHTQP, Strassburg, 1909 (an offprint from vol. 25 of the
Indogermanische Forschungen); further, Internationale Wochenschrift 5
(1911) No, 5, Munich letter. [It seems likely that Krumbacher’s suggestion
(Byzantinische Zeitschrift 18 [1909] 708 ff.) will be adopted, and that only a
lexicon of the later Greek language will be attempted. So far the publication
ofan ᾿Αρχεῖον, which comes out as a series of supplementary volumes of ᾽Αθηνᾶ,
has been the result, TR.]
Fic. 73.—Onomasticon sacrum. Papyrus from Egypt, 3rd or 4th cent. a.p.
Now in the University Library, Heidelberg.
 RETROSPECT—FUTURE WORK OF RESEARCH 405
First, however, there is much preliminary work to be done
for this Thesaurus of Biblical and Christian Greek. The
chief thing is to place the lexicography of the Septuagint and
of the New Testament on the new foundations afforded by the
vocabulary of the contemporary world as we have it in the
inscriptions, papyri, etc.; and the practical needs of Biblical
students suggest that at the present time the more necessary
of these two special tasks is the production of a revised New
Testament Lexicon which shall promote the work of research
without ceasing to be valuable for purposes of study.
The lexicography of the Greek Bible can look back upon
a venerable history. Philo of Alexandria, the contemporary
of Jesus and St. Paul, was in all probability the author of a
work explaining the Hebrew names in the Septuagint, which
was afterwards used by Origen and St. Jerome. Portions
of this earliest lexical tradition made their way among the
Christian common people at an early date, as is shown by a
precious papyrus fragment ! of the 3rd or 4th century A.D.
(Figure 73) from Egypt, now in the Heidelberg University.
Library. This fragment—one of the few quite early Christian
relics extant—is inscribed, probably for use as an amulet,
with powerful and comforting Biblical names and phrases,
accompanied by a Greek translation which is dependent on
the learned lexical tradition.2, The text, transliterated, is as
follows :—.

Apia ἴησους ἰωσωτηρια Arima. Jesus: 7763 salva-

: tion.
ApmA φωσμουθυ Ariél: my light of God.
Aland ισχυσθυ Azaél: strength of God.
pastes (a word crossed out) . ... . (a word crossed out)
5 ἴωμαν lawmoris 5 Joman: Jad? faith.
Ιωβαβ Iw πατὴρ ᾿ Jébab: Jo father.
Ηλι Ηλι σαζαχθανι: θεμουθε Eli ἘΠῚ sazachthani : my God,
μονεστιμεενκατελιπες my God, to what purpose
hast Thou forsaken me?
1 Published by me in the Verdffentlichungen aus dey Heidelberger Papyrus-
Sammlung I. No. 5 (p. 86 ff.).
2 Cf. my detailed commentary, bd.
Jo and Jao are divine names, derived ultimately from Jahveh.
 406 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
Avand χαρισθὺυ Anaél : grace of God.
10 fovda[s] Ἰαωεξο[μο]λογησις Io Juda{s] : Ja6 confession.°
[YepayA οἰκτιρμου [Jleraél : of mercy.
[{Πεφθαε ἴαωδιανοιξις [JJephthae ; Jad opening.
[i]wvaday Ἰαωδομα [J]onathan : Jao gift.
[Περοβοαλ Stxacpocavwrepo[s] [JJeroboal: higher giving of
judgment.
15 [[]wond ἰαωπροσθεμα 15 [J]éséph: Jaé addition.
[Ho]atov επαρσισιαω [Es]aiu : rising of Jad.
[...]. λαμ καταπαυσις [- - .].lam: rest.
Ἰαχαζ Tawkparos Jachaz : 75 might.
[Tax Jawavacraces [JJakin : 116 resurrec-
tion.
20 Taw 20 Jao.

Karns αγιον Katés: holy.

Maava ἐκπαρακλησίεως] Maana : from consola-
tion.
Μαγαβαηλ διαγαθονθ] ς] Magabaél: how! good
God !
25 Μελεχειηλ βασιλευο[μουθς] 25 Melecheiél: my King God.
HA[e] θσμου ἘΠῚ: my God.

In spite of the great age of the Biblical lexical fragments

that have come down to us, the scientific lexicography of the
Greek New Testament is still young. Its founder was Georg
Pasor,? a theologian of Nassau, who printed the first lexicon
to the New Testament at Herborn in 1619 (Figure 74), and
by means of this book exerteda powerful influence on New
Testament studies in all Protestant countries down to the end
of the eighteenth century. It appeared in a constant succes-
1 [δὲ is a phonetic spelling for τί, and the translation is confirmed by Jerome,
quam bonus Deus. See the author’s commentary, Verdffentlichungen, I.
p.93. TR.) :
2 A biographical study of Pasor, who did eminent service in other ways to
Biblical philology (he is also the author of the first grammar of the New
Testament), is much to be desired. Some details will be found in my little
work, ‘‘ Briefe eines Herborner Classicus aus den Jahren 1605 und 1606,”
published as a “ programm ”’ in the Denkschrift des Kgl. Preuss. ev.-theo-
logischen Seminars zu Herborn fiir die Jahre 1893-1897, Herborn, 1898.
Further information in Heinrich Schlosser, Die erste Grammatik des neutesta-
mentlichen Griechisch und das erste Septuaginta-Wé6rterbuch, in ‘‘ Neutesta-
mentliche Studien fiir G. Heinrici,”’ p. 254 ff. Herborn was in the seventeenth
century a centre of Biblical philology: the first dictionary and the first
grammar of the N.T. and the first dictionary of the Septuagint (by Zacharias
Rosenbach, 1634) were all produced there.
 LEXICON GR&ACO.
LATIN UM,
ΓΚ
NOVUM DOME
NI NOSTRIJE-
SU CHRISTI TESTA.
MENT UM,
Ubi omnium vocabulorum Grecorum themata in.
dicantur, & utraque tam themata quam derivata
Grammaticé refolvuntur.
Cum INDICE COPLIOSISSIMO;
In quo omnes N. T. voces Grecz ordine alphabetico pete
¢enfentur, fingularumd; loci indicantur:
In gratiam facr. litt. & lingua Grace
ftudroforum :
Authorey

Georcio Pasore.
1

Herbornz Nafloviorum,1 619.

Fic. 74.—Title-page of the first New Testament Lexicon,
by Georg Pasor, Herborn, 1619. From a copy in the Uni-
versity Library, Heidelberg. (Actual size.)
 RETROSPECT—FUTURE WORK OF RESEARCH 407
sion of reprints, pirated editions, and new editions, and was
the parent of two abridgments, one (Manuale) of medium and
the other (Syllabus) of small size.
For the amplest enrichment of New Testament word-lore
we are indebted to the eighteenth-century compilers of
“ Observations,’ the most remarkable of whom, Walch, has
been already mentioned above.? It was chiefly their material
that supplied the later lexicographers, including those whose
books we still use to-day: Wilke and Grimm, Cremer,’
Joseph Henry Thayer, etc. Of these Thayer, working upon
the solid foundation of Wilke and Grimm, produced the best
and maturest results. But even Thayer is now out of date.
The first main task of the future lexicon will be to place
the New Testament vocabulary in living linguistic connexion
with the contemporary world. Only in this way can the right
place be found for every word, the place to which it belongs
in the complete history of the Greek language,. and only in
this way can the points of contact and of contrast be estab-
lished between the contemporary world and the cult-words
used in the gospels and apostolic writings. An author who
undertakes a New Testament Lexicon at the present day
without sketching in each article the history and statistics
of words and meanings, is tearing the world-apostle from his
world and the gospel from history, shutting off the New
Testament from the light of research, and taking up his own
position far behind Thayer and Grimm, even behind Cremer,
along with Stellhorn and Schirlitz, 1.6. outside the pale of
scientific lexicography altogether.’ The second main task
1 I myself possess altogether 36 different editions of the Lexicon, Manuale,
and Syllabus, and should be very grateful for information about any copies of
Pasor’s works.
2 Page 12, n. 2.
3 The revised edition of Cremer by Julius Kégel, Gotha, 1911, constitutes a
welcome improvement in.many details, though it was not the task of the
reviser to interfere with the organic structure of the book.
4 Cf. my review in the Géttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1898, p. 920 ff.
[Fourth edition, 1901; reprinted, Edinburgh, 1905, 1908, 1914. TR.]
5 E, Preuschen’s Handwérterbuch, Giessen, 1910, was a most regrettable step
backward of this kind. Cf. my reviews, Deutsche Literatur-Zeitung 1908,
col. 1879 ff.; 1909, 476 ff; 1910, 1181 ff.; and Theologische Rundschau 1911,
p. 356 ff. (where further details will be found concerning other recent lexicons
by Sophronios Evstratiadis, F. Zorell and others). [The extremely thorough
révision of Preuschen by Walter Bauer, Griechisch-Deutsches Worterbuch zu
408 LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST
is to ascertain carefully the phases in the changes of meaning.
It will first be necessary,it is true, to bestow some more
reflection on the nature and laws of the changes to which
religious concepts are liable—this being perhaps the most
interesting branch of the whole subject of semasiology.?
The third main task is to simplify once more and put warmth
again into the popular concepts ‘of Primitive Christianity,
which have been artificially complicated and deprived of
life by scholastic prejudice and a too anxious process of isola-
tion. The new Lexicon must bring out once more afresh
the simplicity, inwardness, and force of the utterances of
evangelists and apostles. Withal let it serve practical needs
in like degree with learning. Perhaps the new Lexicon will
meet with that best of all rewards, far exceeding even scholarly
recognition, the privilege of exerting an influence in real life.
It may be that in a lonely parsonage in the Westerwald,? or
in the hired lodgings of the city preacher, it will help on
Saturday mornings to unfold the thought in the sacred text
to the benefit of the Sabbath congregation, rendering actual
as living forces for this present age the treasures of the sacred
past.
Inspired by such objects to work for, the New Testament
researcher wrestles with one difficulty—the risk that amid
the chaos of paper-slips he may lose his own self, while the
age he lives in calls for men who can do more than decipher
old handwriting, excerpt words on paper-slips, and read proof-
sheets. In the midst of his learned labours comes the ques-
tion: Is not more accomplished by the men who hoe the vine-

den Schriften des Neuen Testaments, Giessen, 1925-. of which four instal-
ments (a — εὐχαριστία) have so far appeared, was reviewed with hearty
approval by Deissmann in the Deutsche Literatur-Zeitung, 1925, cols.
r105 ff. TR.] An attempt to carry out my programme, without naming me
as its author, was made with inadequate equipment by Heinrich Ebeling,
Griechisch-deutsches Wovterbuch zum Neuen Testamente, Hannover u. Leipzig,
1913; cf. my review, Deutsche Literatur-Zeitung, 1913, col. 1245 ff.
1 Detached problems of religious semasiology are touched on in my lexical
studies on ‘‘ Elements ” (στοιχεῖα) in the Encyclopaedia Biblica II., London,
1gor, col. 1258 ff., and on “' ἱλαστήριος und ἱλαστήριον,᾽᾽ Zeitschrift fir die neu-
testamentliche Wissenschaft, 4 (1903) p. 193 ff. Cf.also p. 219, ἢ. “, etc. above.
2 (A rather bleak hilly district of Nassau, north-west of Coblenz, bounded
by the Dill (p. 112, n. 3 above) and the Lahn. The author was born at a
village on the Lahn, and Herborn, where he and Pasor worked (pp. 237 n., 406
above), ison the Dill. TR.] ,
 RETROSPECT—FUTURE WORK OF RESEARCH 409
_yard, who descend the mine, repair the steamer’s screw, help
a degenerate back to the right path, exhaust themselves as
teachers, leaders, and evangelists among the masses, or plant
on fields strewn with the ruins wrought by international hatred
the apostolic banner of reconciliation—do they not all do
more work for God’s cause than the man who proposes to
write a new book, thus adding to the hundredweights which
already bind our generation in slavery to the past? .. .
It is always the New Testament itself that calls the man
of research back from his wandering thoughts to work on the
New Testament again. Daily it bears witness to him of its
own veriest nature : the little Book is not one of the paralysing
and enslaving forces of the past, but it is full of eternal and
present strength to make strong and to make free.
APPENDICES
 APPENDIX I
JEWISH PRAYERS FOR VENGEANCE FOUND AT RHENEIA
(Reprinted, with slight alterations and with the addition of illustrations, from
Philologus 61 [1902] pp. 253-265) ᾿
oe
THE “prayers for vengeance”’ from Rheneia (Rhenea), though
published long ago and several times discussed, at least in part,
were first made really accessible in rgo1, by Adolf Wilhelm.
He not only reproduced them in facsimile, but also for the first
time settled with certainty the questions of their connexion,
their provenance, and their age. They are inscribed on two
gravestones, one of which is now in the Museum at Bucharest,
and the other in the National Museum at Athens.2 That the
stele at Athens originally came from Rheneia (Magna Delos),
the burial-place of the inhabitants of ancient Delos, Wilhelm
was able to show from a note which he re-discovered in the first
publication 3; and he proved clearly that the stone at Bucharest
was of the same origin. Wilhelm also recognised that the
inscriptions were Jewish and closely connected with the text
of the Septuagint, yet even after his fundamental labours the
texts still require to be interpreted, and their high value for
the history of the Jewish religion in the Hellenistic world still
stands in need of appreciation.
I will first describe the stones and reproduce the texts accord-
ing to Wilhelm, checking his statements by my own observations
of the originals. The Bucharest stele, being the less damaged
1 Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archdologischen Institutes in Wien, 4
(1901) Supplement, cols. 9-18. The whole previous literature is there referred
to. In col. 9, n. 1, read LX XVII instead of XXXVII. See now J. Berg-
mann, Die Rachegebete von Rheneia, Philologus 70 (1911) pp. 503-510.
2 Even Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum,? II. (1900) p. 676 f.,
considered the Bucharest stone as identical with the Athenian, and said it
came from Aegina to Athens, and from there to Bucharest. This seems,
however, to have put Wilhelm upon the right track.—Newly reprinted in
Dittenberger, Sylloge®, No. 1181.
3 Expédition scientifique de Morée . . . Architecture, Sculptures, Inscrip-
tions et Vues . . . publiées par Abel Blouet, III., Paris, 1836, plate xiii., cf.
p. 7; and especially the exhaustive commentary by Le Bas in the separately
paged supplement to this work: Inscriptions copiées dans les fles de la mer
Egée, p. 41 ff.
. 413
414 APPENDIX I
of the two, had better be described first. I saw it on 5 April,
1006. It is made of white marble, broken at the top, provided
with a tenon underneath, and now still 163 inches high, 12 inches
broad, and 24 inches thick. Both sides of the stone have the
same inscription, but with a different division into lines and
other trifling variations (Figures 75 and 76). Above the written
words on both sides there is a pair of uplifted hands, with the
palms turned outwards. The text of the side A (Figure 75),
which still shows traces of having been originally picked out
in red, runs as follows (the words have been separated; accents
and punctuation are supplied, and the variant readings of the
side B are noted below; no attempt has been made to exhibit
the differences in the division into lines) :—
*Euxadodpat καὶ ἀξιῶ τὸν θεὸν τὸν
ὕψιστον, τὸν κύριον τῶν πνευμάτων
καὶ πάσης σαρκός, ἐπὶ τοὺς δόλωι φονεύ-
5 πὴ ’ + Ἃ, μὴ , δ

cavras ἢx φαρμακεύσαντας τὴν τα-

5, λαίπωρον ἄωρον Ἡράκλεαν ἐχχέαν-
ε

τας αὐτῆς
ἐς.
τὸἮΝ, ἀναίτιον
ἂν τ
αἷμα
e
ἀδί-
ἀδί.

κως, ἵνα οὕτως γένηται τοῖς φονεύ-

σασιν αὐτὴν ἢ φαρμακεύσασιν καὶ
τοῖς τέκνοις αὐτῶν, κύριε ὃ πάντα ἐ-
10 φορῶν καὶ οἱ ἄνγελοι θεοῦ, & πᾶσα ψυ-
χὴ ἐν τῇσήμερον ἡμέραι ταπεινοῦται
μεθ᾽ ἱκετείας, ἵνα ἐγδικήσης τὸ αἷμα τὸ ἀ-
re bs ν 2 δι , με * ἧς ὧν

ναίτιον ζητήσεις καὶ τὴν ταχίστην..

3 Sow: B δολω | 6 αναιτιον: B αν. .Jrwv [7 οὑτως : B of.Jras|
τὸ ὦ: Wilhelm ᾧ [τὰ τῇ : Wilhelm τῇ |ἡμέραι : Β ἡμέρα | 12 ἐγδι-
κήσης : Wilhelm ἐγδικήσῃς |aa: Β af. .1α
The Athenian stele, which I saw on 8 May, 1906, is also of
white marble, adorned with a pediment above, and provided
with a tenon below; it is much damaged above and on the
left side, but still 22 inches high, 13 inches broad, and 32 inches
thick. It is inscribed only upon one side, and there is not the
slightest doubt, judging from the general structure of the muti-
lated upper portion, and from certain remaining traces, that
above the inscription there was engraved a pair of hands similar
to those on the Bucharest stele} (Figure 77). The text, which
may be confidently restored with the help of the Bucharest
inscription, runs as follows :—
[Ἐπικ]αλο[ῦμαι καὶ ἀξιῶ τὸν θεὸν τὸν v-]
[ψεστο[ν, τὸν κύριον] τῶ[ν πνευμάτων]
1 Wilhelm, col. 12, 60ὺ
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 Fic. 77.—Marble Stele from Rhencia, inscribed
with a Prayer for Vengeance on the Murderers of
Marthina, a Jewess of Delos, civca 100 B.c. Now
in the National Museum, Athens. By permission
of the Austrian Archaeological Institute.
 APPENDIX I 415
[κ]αὶ π[ά]σ[ης capxd]s, ἐπὶ τοὺς [δόλωι]
φο[νεύσαντας] ἢ φαρμακεύσαν-
5. tals τὴν ταλαίπωρον ἄωρον Map-
[θ]ίν[ην ἐχχέαν]τας αὐτῆς τὸ ἀναίτι-
ον αἷμ[α
-
ἀδίκως,
250
ἵνα οὕτως
La NA
γένηται
,

τοῖς φον[εύσα]σιν αὐτὴν ἢ φαρμακεύ-Aa

~ ΄ aN x

σασιν καὶ [τοῖς τ]έκνοις αὐτῶν, κύριε

10 ὃ πάντα ἐΐφ]ορῶν καὶ οἱ ἄνγελοι θεοῦ, ὧι
πᾶσα ψυχὴ ἐν τῇ σήμερον ἡμέραι τα-
πεινοῦται μεθ᾽ ἱκετείας, ἵνα ἐγδικήση[ς]
a »-ς J 7 3 Ea

τὸ αἷμα τὸ ἀναίτιον καὶ τὴν ταχίστη[ν].

II τῇ : Wilhelm τῇ | 12 ἐγδικήση[ς] : Wilhelm ἐκδικήσῃ[ς].

The question of the age of these texts at Athens and Bucharest

shall be postponed until after their interpretation; but we may
remark here that according to Wilhelm they both originated not
only at the same spot, Rheneia, but also at the same time. There
is such close agreement between the two inscriptions throughout
that we are entitled to interpret them as two texts of the same
original.
It is evident at the first glance that the texts are either of
Jewish or of Christian origin, for they are a mosaic from the
Septuagint Bible which was common to the Greek Jews and the’
Greek Christians. The echoes of the New Testament observed
by Otto Hirschfeld? are in fact, as closer comparison shows,
echoes of the Septuagint. The texts contain nothing specifically
and exclusively Christian either in formula or in symbol; never-
theless decisive judgment must be suspended until the inter-
pretation has been attempted.
The pair of hands above the writing is, as Wilhelm 2 has already
shown,,a by no means uncommon symbol of the invocation of
divine help on pagan stones. It might very easily pass over
into the usage of Jews and Christians, since they too lifted up
their hands in praying.® In this case, moreover, a prayer is
being uttered—a prayer for vengeance on the unknown miscreants
by whom two murders had been committed. The rites prescribed
by Old Testament law for atonement in the case of murder by
an unknown hand facilitated the borrowing of the symbolic pair
1 Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-historischen Classe der kaiserl.
Akademie der Wissenschaften [zu Wien], 77 (1874, Parts IV.-VI.) p. 404 f.
2 Col. 16 f., where will be found the literature on this symbol. See also
Rudolf Pagenstecher, Die Auferweckung des Lazarus auf einer rémischen
Lampe, Extrait du Bulletin de la Société Archéologique d’Alexandrie, No. 11,
Alexandrie, 1908, p. 6 {—The literature might now be extended.
3 Besides the Old Testament passages cf. for example 1 Tim. ii. 8.
 416 APPENDIX I
of hands in this case.1 Though this ritual, as shown by our
texts, was not observed in the present case, we may nevertheless
suppose that here and there a devout person, who knew his
Bible, at sight of the uplifted hands. would think not only of
hands in prayer, but also of hands free from blood.? :
The prayer begins with the verb émxadotpa:, which occurs in
the same way very commonly in the LXX and in early Christian
texts,’ and often in the forms of prayer found in magical texts.‘
The combination ἐπικαλοῦμαι. . . τὸν θεὸν τὸν ὕψιστον has good
analogies, e.g. in Ecclus. xlvi. 5, ἐπεκαλέσατο τὸν ὕψιστον δυνάστην;
xIvii. 5, ἐπεκαλέσατο γὰρ κύριον τὸν ὕψιστον; 2 Macc. iii. 31,
ἐπικαλέσασθαι τὸν ὕψιστον. We also find ἀξιῶ used of prayer,
e.g. LXX Jer. vii. 16, xi. 14 (synonymous with προσεύχομαι),
Ecclus. li. 14, and frequently in the second book of
Maccabees. It is still more significant that both verbs are
found together in the same sentence in Jer. xi. 14, though not
in the same combination as in our text. On the expression τὸν
θεὸν τὸν ὕψιστον Wilhelm ὅ refers to E. Schiirer’s and F. Cumont’s
well-known researches on the cult of the ‘‘ Most High God,”
but what we have here is not a divine name in use among mono-
theistic worshippers who derived it only indirectly from the
Bible: it is in fact the direct equivalent of the Biblical why by.
Very remarkable too is the next divine name, τὸν κύριον
τῶν πνευμάτων καὶ πάσης σαρκός, Which is obviously (as also
in Clem. Rom. 1 Cor. lxiv., δεσπότης τῶν πνευμάτων καὶ κύριος
πάσης σαρκός) based upon the formulae, LXX Numbers xvi. 22,
XXvii. 16, θεός or κύριος ὁ θεὸς τῶν πνευμάτων Kal πάσης σαρκός.
The first part of the formula, ‘Lord οἵ the - spirits,”
is especially characteristic. Already in the Septuagint formula
the πνεύματα are the ministering spirits, the angels, who in
Hebrews i. 14 are expressly so called. In the second part of
the Book of Enoch “ Lord of the spirits’ is an almost constant
appellation of the Deity. Elsewhere the form is not to my
knowledge a common one, apart from the Greek liturgies and
1 Deut. xxi. 6, 7, καὶ πᾶσα ἡ γερουσία τῆς πόλεως ἐκείνης of ἐγγίζοντες τῷ τραυματίᾳ
νίψονται τὰς χεῖρας ἐπὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν τῆς δαμάλεως τῆς νενευροκοπημένης ἐν τῇ φάραγγι.
καὶ ἀποκριθέντες ἐροῦσιν: af χεῖρες ἡμῶν οὐκ ἐξέχεαν τὸ αἷμα τοῦτο κτλ.
2 The kohanim hands represented on late gravestones of the descendants
of Aaron (Immanuel Léw, Der Finger in Littevatuy und Folklore dey Juden,
Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an David Kaufmann, Breslau, 1900, p. 68) are of
course not to be thought of in this connexion.
5 Separate quotations are unnecessary.
‘ Often, for example, in the texts edited by Wessely.
> Col. 16.
® Max Lohr (letter, Kénigsberg, 18 Nov., 1915) thinks ‘‘ Lord of the souls ”
a more correct translation.
 APPENDIX I 417
magical texts; 1 of earlier date may be mentioned 2 Macc. iii. 24,
on good authority, and the above-cited passage from the first
Epistle of Clement.
For the construction of ἐπικαλοῦμαι καὶ ἀξιῶ with ἐπί I
have no Septuagint example to offer. But the sense of “ against,”
rightly advocated also in 2 Cor. i. 23 (μάρτυρα τὸν θεὸν ἐπικαλοῦμαι!
ἐπὶ τὴν ἐμὴν ψυχήν) by Heinrici and others,? is quite certain.
The phrase δόλωι φονεύσαντας at once reminds us of the old
Biblical law, which distinguishes between accidental homicide
(Deut. xix. 4, ὃς ἂν πατάξῃ τὸν πλησίον αὐτοῦ οὐκ εἰδώς, cf. verse 5,
τύχῃ) and deliberate murder (Exodus xxi. 14, ἐὰν δέ τις ἐπιθῆται
τῷ πλησίον ἀποκτεῖναι αὐτὸν δόλῳ). The word δόλῳ is also
used in Deuteronomy xxvii. 24 (ὃ τύπτων τὸν πλησίον δόλῳ) in
the forensic sense.
The words immediately following are all found in the LXX
(φονείω very often; φαρμακεύω, 2 Chron. xxxiii. 6, Psalm lvii.
[lviii.] 6, 2 Macc. x. 13; ταλαίπωρος frequently, e.g. of a woman
Psalm cxxxvi. [cxxxvii.] 8; ἄωρος frequently, e.g. with nothing
to correspond in the Hebrew, Proverbs x. 6, xi. 30, xiii. 2); but
none of them is specially characteristic; the same is the case
with the common word ἀδίκως.
On the names of the two murdered girls, Heraclea and Marthina,
Wilhelm,? who ‘correctly explains the latter as formed from
Μάρθα, has already made all necessary remarks. He conjectures
that two other gravestones discovered in Rheneia with the
inscriptions Ἡράκληα χρηστὴ χαῖρε (Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum
II, add. No. 2322 b. 69; Le Bas, fles, 2039) and ‘MapOeivy
Εὐτάκτου χρηστὴ χαῖρε (Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum 11, add.
‘No. 2322 b. 78; Le Bas, 7165, 2041) relate to the same two
murdered victims, but concerning this I do not venture to
pronounce with certainty; it is at any rate possible. But I
would at least raise the question whether we are to suppose two
separate murders at different times, or whether Heraclea and
Marthina met their death at the murderer’s hand simultaneously.
Seeing that the two inscriptions agree even in the decisive passage,
ll. τὸ ff., I take the latter assumption to be more probable, though
the other is of course not altogether excluded.
Very familiar to the reader of the Septuagint is éyxéavras
αὐτῆς τὸ ἀναίτιον αἷμα (A 5f., B 6 f.). αἷμα. ἐκχέω is ἃ phrase,
not indeed specifically ‘‘ Biblical,’’* but very common in the
1 Cf., for instance, Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 10, Bible Studies, p. 327. Rev. xxii. 6
[R.V.] is exceptional.
3 Cf. p. 304, n. 1 above.
3 Col. 14 ff.
4 The dictionaries quote it from Aeschylus.
ne
418 APPENDIX I
Greek Bible. αἷμα ἀναίτιον occurs five times, and in Deuteronomy
xix. τὸ we have the whole phrase, καὶ οὐκ ἐκχυθήσεται αἷμα ἀναίτιον.
After the two verbs of asking iva (line 7) is used instead of ὅπως,
as often in the Bible and other Hellenistic texts.1 The sense of
the petition ἵνα “οὕτως γένηται κτλ., which has a formal ring, is:
“May the guilty murderers be overtaken by a violent death like
that of their innocent victims ’’; οὕτως is strongly accentuated
and seems really to mean “in the same way,’’ a use which we
may understand as an abridgment of expressions like LXX
Judges i. 7, καθὼς οὖν ἐποίησα, οὕτως ἀνταπέδωκέ μοι 6 θεός. On the
subject of retaliation the prayer takes exactly the view of
Genesis ix. 6, ὁ ἐκχέων αἷμα ἀνθρώπου ἀντὶ τοῦ αἵματος αὐτοῦ ἐκχυθήσεται,
ὅτι ἐν εἰκόνι θεοῦ ἐποίησα τὸν ἄνθρωπον, and Deuteronomy xix. 10-13.
The addition of the phrase καὶ τῶν τέκνων αὐτῶν is thoroughly
Biblical, as in Exodus xx. 5, ἐγὼ γάρ εἶμι κύριος 6 θεός cov, θεὸς
ζηλωτὴς ἀποδιδοὺς ἁμαρτίας πατέρων ἐπὶ τέκνα ἕως τρίτης καὶ τετάρτης
γενεᾶς τοῖς μισοῦσί pe, cf. Exodus xxxiv. 7, Numbers xiv. 18.
“The all-seeing Lord” is also a not uncommon formula? in
the Bible: LXX Job xxxiv. 23, 6 yap κύριος πάντας (Cod. A τὰ
mavta)> ἐφορᾷ ; similarly 2 Macc. xii. 22, xv. 2: cf. Additions
to Esther v. 1 (xv. 2), τὸν πάντων ἐπόπτην θεόν; 3 Macc. ii. 21,
ὁ πάντων ἐπόπτης θεός; 2 Macc. vii. 35 (cf. iii. 39), rod παντοκράτορος
ἐπόπτου θεοῦ. Later echoes of this formula ar® very marked:
e.g. Epistle of Aristeas (ed. Wendland) τό, τὸν yap πάντων ἐπόπτην
καὶ κτίστην θεόν; Clem. Rom. 1 Cor. lxiv., 6 παντεπόπτης θεός,
cf. lv. 6, lix. 3, τὸν ἐπόπτην ἀνθρωπίνων ἔργων; Hadrumetum
lead tablet, 36,4 παντεφόπτου; a prayer in the Great Magical
Papyrus (Paris) calls the holy πάρεδροι of the Great God (the
angels) παντεπόπτας (1. 1369) and ἐφόπτας ὃ (1. 1353); in the same
papyrus God is called 6 δύσιν καὶ ἀνατολὴν ἐφορῶν καὶ μεσημβρίαν καὶ
ἄρκτον ἀποβλέπων ὃ (1. 2105 f.).
The invocation of the ἀνγελοι θεοῦ (line I0) does not warrant
us in assuming a special cult of the angels. The prayer, in fact,
keeps well within the bounds of the Biblical creed. An invocation
of the angels, and the assurance that the angels carry out God’s
will, are both found in LXX Psalm cii. (ciii.) 20, εὐλογεῖτε τὸν
κύριον πάντες οἱ ἄγγελοι αὐτοῦ, δυνατοὶ ἰσχύϊ ποιοῦντες τὸν λόγον αὐτοῦ.
1 E.g. Epistle of Aristeas (ed. Wendland) 17, 193, 226, ἐπικαλεῖσθαι ἵνα.
3 Cf. Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 47; Bible Studies; p. 293; and p. 347, n. 2 above.
Wilh. Michaelis refers to the Homeric és πάντ᾽ ἐφορᾷ (of Helios).
3 Codex A, therefore, as Wilhelm pointed out (col. 15 f.), has the same
reading as our inscriptions imply, but with the article added. The article,
however, is wanting in 2 Macc. xii. 22, xv. 2.
4 Bibelstudien, pp. 30, 47; Bible Studies, pp. 276, 293.
5 Wessely, pp. 79, 78. 6 Wessely, p. 99 f.
 APPENDIX I 419
The corresponding ideas on this subject in later Jewish belief
have already been pointed out by Wilhelm.!
The most important and, for the general criticism of the texts,
decisive passage is undoubtedly line τὸ ff.: ὧι πᾶσα ψυχὴ ἐν τῆ
σήμερον ἡμέραι ταπεινοῦται μεθ᾽ ixerefas. The phrases πᾶσα ψυχή,
ἐν τῇ σήμερον ἡμέρᾳ, ταπεινόω; ἱκετεία, are all more or less common
in the Greek Old Testament. The whole sentence has the sound
of LXX Leviticus xxiii. 29, πᾶσα ψυχή, ἥτις μὴ ταπεινωθήσεται ἐν
αὐτῇ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ταύτῃ, Which passage Wilhelm? probably had in
mind. But we should explain little by the bare reference to this
formal dependence on the Greek Bible. The question is: What
is to be understood by ‘‘ this same day, on which every soul is
humbled with supplication’’? It must refer to some day of
celebration—as remarked by Dittenberger,? though he gives no
further explanation. From the text itself it seems only to follow
that a general day of prayer is meant. But we find more than
this. The expression ψυχὴν ταπεινοῦν is obviously used, not
in the general ethical sense of “‘ humbling one’s self’ (as in LKX
Isaiah ii. 17; Psalm xlili. [xliv.] 26; Ecclus. 11. 17, vii. 17;
cf. the use of ταπεινοῦν in the Gospels and other early Christian
texts), but,.as the context surely shows, in the technical sense
of ‘mortifying the flesh’ = “ fasting.’’ The Greek expression is
an exact imitation of the Hebrew wb) my and is used thus in
LXX Leviticus xvi. 29, 31; xxiii. 27, 29, 32; Isaiah lviii. 3, 5 (in
verse 10 it means ‘‘ to hunger,” probably by an extension of this
sense); Judith iv. g (cf. verse 13). In Psalm xxxiv. [xxxv.] 13
it is expressly explained: καὶ ἐταπείνουν ἐν νηστείᾳ τὴν ψυχήν pov.
Thus our text speaks not only of a day of prayer, but of a
day of prayer and fasting. Are we then to imagine a day of prayer
and fasting specially appointed on account of the murder of the
two girls? The authorities frequently mention 4 public days of
fasting on the occasion of some great public danger or heavy
visitation; especially instructive, for instance, is the statement
in the Mishna (Taanith III. 6) that the elders of Jerusalem once
proclaimed a fast because the wolves had devoured two little
children. We might assume from the nature of things that
these days of fasting were also days of prayer, but the fact is
expressly confirmed by the account in Judith iv. 9-13.
On the other hand, against the assumption that the fellow-
believers of the two murdered maidens in Delos observed an
1 Col. 18. - 2 Col. 16.
3 Op. cit., p. 677, “ Quinam potissimum dies festus intelligendus sit, . . .
diiudicandum relinquo.”
4 The best collection of the evidence is still that in Winer’s old Bibl. Real-
worterbuch 1.8 (1847) p. 364 f.
420 APPENDIX I
extraordinary day of prayer and fasting whilst the awful shock
of the dark deed was still upon them,! we must set the words
πᾶσα ψυχή, Which point rather to a general day of prayer and
fasting. The word πᾶσα must of course not be pressed; it does
not mean every person whatever, but every one that raises his
hands in prayer to the ‘‘ Most High God, the Lord of the spirits
and of all flesh,” in other words, every Jew.
Thus we have already taken sides on the question whether
the text is Christian or Jewish. The fast day on which all
fast and pray is evidently the jm hakkippurim, the great Day
of Atonement, to which the above-mentioned provisions of the
law concerning ψυχὴν ταπεινοῦν relate. All the other expressions
in the texts might be either Jewish or Christian; the really
characteristic sentence, however, fairly provokes reference to
the Jewish Day of Atonement, whilst there is scarcely an early
Christian festival to which it could be made to apply without
forcing the meaning. Wilhelm’s conjecture that the texts are
Jewish is admirably confirmed by this explanation.
On this point a further remark must be made. That a prayer
for vengeance should be offered on the Day of Atonement is not
remarkable, when we find that later prayers for use on that day
also ask for vengeance for blood that has been shed.? I cannot
refrain from remarking that, while prayers such as these are
certainly below the level of the prayer in Luke xxiii. 34, the
prayer in Revelation vi. 10 is not a whit above them.
The last two lines also are in agreement with the whole tenor
of the rest. I suppose that the copy given to the stone-cutter
ran: ἵνα ἐγδικήσης τὸ αἷμα τὸ ἀναίτιον καὶ ζητήσης τὴν ταχίστην,
and can see no necessity for Dittenberger’s transposition
(adopted by Wilhelm 3) ἵνα ζητήσῃς τὸ ἀναίτιον αἷμα καὶ ἐγδικήσῃς
τὴν ταχίστην. The two verbs are synonymous, so that in LXX
Joel iii. [iv.] 21, for instance, Cod. A writes ἐκδικήσω τὸ αἷμα
instead of ἐκζητήσω τὸ αἷμα. αἷμα ἐκδικεῖν occurs elsewhere in
LXX Deuteronomy xxxii. 43, 2 Kings ix. 7; αἷμα ζητεῖν is used

1M. Meinertz, of Braunsberg, writing from Berlin, 5 September, 1908,

advocates this assumption, connects the fva-clause with ἱκετείας, and takes
πᾶσα ψυχή to mean the whole Jewish community of Delos.
2 A specialist would have more quotations to offer than I can command.
But I think a single quotation at second hand sufficient in this case. J. A.
Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judenthum, 1700, II. Ὁ. τοσ, quotes from the Dicke
Thephilla, Frankfurt a. M., 1688, fol. 50, col. 2, a prayer for the Day of Atone-
ment: ‘‘ Make me also worthy to behold the coming of Thine Anointed,
and avenge Thy people, the House of Israel; and avenge the blood of Thy
servants that has been shed, swiftly and in our days.”
3 Col. 13. ᾿
 APPENDIX I 421
like αἷμα ἐκζητεῖν, which.is very common in the LXX (cf. also
Luke xi. 50).
The ending τὴν ταχίστην, a formula found also in 1 Macc.
xi. 22, reminds one of the very common ἤδη ἤδη ταχὺ ταχύ of
many prayers of conjuration.! But similar formulae can be
cited from prayers in official use among the Jews: the twelfth
Berakah of the Shemoneh Esreh, to mention but one example,*
runs: “‘. . . May all they that do evil perish quickly, and may
they all right soon be rooted out; and do Thou cripple and break
in pieces and overthrow and bend the haughty, soon, with speed,
in our days.” ® We are also reminded of the early Christian
(and LXX 4) formula ἐν τάχει, Luke xviii. 8, Romans xvi. 20,
Revelation i. 1, xxii. 6, and ταχύ (frequent in Revelation). The
observation of L. Blau,> that in Jewish texts of conjuration (as .
might be expected) echoes of the prayer-book are not wanting,
receives new confirmation from this little touch.
The interpreter has yet another question to answer. Why is
the text repeated in duplicate on the Bucharest stone? We
must conjecture that the prayer was to be made more insistent
by this means. Repetition makes an incantation “ more
powerful,’ ὁ so we may suppose the same to hold good here.

The question as to the age of our text was answered by Le

Bas, the first editor, on the supposition that he was dealing
with a Christian epitaph. From its similarity to certain cursing
formulae in Christian epitaphs, or at the end of Christian manu-
scripts, or in the ritual of the Church, he felt obliged to conclude,
although the shape of the letters did not seem to suit the assump-
tion, that the inscription belonged to the r1th or 12th century
A.D.! A reflecting reader of his investigations might easily,
without recourse to other works, have observed two things.
The characteristic Christian phrases in the late cursing formulae
quoted by Le Bas were wanting in the text of the inscription,
and the actual resemblances between the inscription and the

1 Cf., for example, Bibelstudien, p. 43; Bible Studies, p. 289.

2 The later prayer-books furnish many instances; cf. ‘“ swiftly and in our
days ’’ in the prayer already quoted from the Dicke Thephilla.
3 The translation by Schirer, Gesch. des 74. Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu
Christi, 11.3 Ὁ. 461 has been followed. [1,655 literally in the Eng. trs. of
Schirer, Div. II., vol. 2, p. 86.]
4 As-pointed out to me by Weissbrodt (letter, Braunsberg, 25 April, 1910).
5 Das altjtidische Zauberwesen, p. 110.
8 Ibid., p. 86 with reference to Jewish conjurations. Eduard Norden (post-
card, Gross-Lichterfelde W., 4 September, 1908) confirms this conjecture, and
refers to his commentary on Vergil, Aeneid VI. 45 (p. 136).
. 422 APPENDIX I
late formulae occurred only in the gaps of the text which Le Bas
had filled up conjecturally.1 It was therefore quite right of
Wilhelm not to beg the question by assuming the Christian
origin of the text, but to start from the form of the letters and
the outward appearance of the stone. He arrived at.the result
that the writing was that of the second century B.c.! This
great difference in the opinions of two epigraphists might well
make us diffident, were it not that between 1836 and 1901 there
lies more than half a century of epigraphical research, which
brought an enormous increase of data and steady progress in
method. The history of the exposition of our texts is the
history of that progress. In 1874 Otto Hirschfeld? declared
that “to judge from the writing” the Bucharest text (the
chronology of which does not differ from that of the Athenian)
could scarcely be later than the second century a.p. In 1900
W. Dittenberger ὃ from the style of the writing placed it in the
first century A.D. Wilhelm has now set the date of the Athenian
text still further back, and three specialists, after inspecting
the stone, have corroborated his opinion. At his request, Th.
Homolle, P. Wolters, and Baron F. Hiller von Gaertringen
examined the writing, without regard to the subject-matter,
and assigned it to the second century B.c., “ without of course
excluding the possibility that it was written in the early decades
of the following century, but in any case before the pillage in
the year 88 B.c. and the fall of Delos.” 4
In this judgment we may have full confidence. The proba-
bility of a Christian origin has been already disproved by inter-
pretative criticism. The simplicity
.of the texts bespeaks a high
‘antiquity; the intricate confusion of the later incantations is
altogether wanting in these formulae. The contents afford not
the smallest inducement to dispute the date established by the
specialists in epigraphy. The prayers are Jewish inscriptions of
the end of the second or beginning of the first century B.c.
What is the importance of this fact? Jewish inscriptions
of the pre-Christian period are very rare, and merely on that
account every increase of material is of interest. But even in
details the texts yield a respectable harvest. They afford con-
firmatory proofs of the existence of a Jewish community at
1 Le Bas restores lines 2 and 3 thus: [af] ἀραὶ [τῶν ἁγίων πατέρων]; and
line 7, afu[a: καὶ ἀνάθεμ]α οὕτως γένηται. Out of all Le Bas’ material there
only remains the combination “΄ God and the angels ’’ common to the inscrip-
tion and a 1oth-century formula of excommunication. ' But it is self-evident
that this combination is extremely ancient.
2 ΟΡ. cit. p. 4041. 3 Op. cit. p. 677.
4 Wilhelm, col. 11.
 APPENDIX I 423
Delos in the time of the successors of Alexander!; they more-
over render it probable that the Jews of Delos also buried their
dead at’ Rheneia. That must have been in compulsory con-
formity with the customs of the place. But the name Heraclea,
the ending of the name Marthina, the shape of the gravestones,
the symbol of the two hands on the stones, and notably the
whole style of the prayer *—these are all adaptations to the
Hellenic surroundings. Hellenism is already at work on the
great task of peacefully secularising the Jewish faith, and this
at a time when in the old home of that faith men were still living
who had witnessed the great days when the Maccabean martyrs
poured out their blood for the law of their fathers.
This Hellenisation from outside was assisted from another
direction by the Hellenisation of the Bible which originated with
the cosmopolitan Jews of Alexandria. The Septuagint was
already in use among the Jews of the Diaspora when ‘the inscrip-
tions at Rheneia were composed. This is a very important fact.
Our inscriptions add to the literary evidence? of the existence
and use of the Septuagint in early times an original document that
is only a few decades later than the celebrated testimony of the
prologue to Ecclesiasticus. In this respect they are more valuable
than the tablet of Hadrumetum.
They show further that the great Day of Atonement was
actually celebrated by the Jews of Delos in the period about
100 B.c. We are not particularly well informed about worship
in the Diaspora, and we therefore welcome the evidence that our
stones give as to the celebration of the Feast of Feasts one hundred
and fifty years before the time when the apostle Paul sailed in an
Alexandrian ship on Cretan waters, shortly after the Fast 4 (i.e. the
Day of Atonement).
Finally the inscriptions from Rheneia afford us a glimpse of
the inner life of the Jewish community at Delos. Two girls,
Heraclea and Marthina, have been murdered; the murderers,
to whose guile or magic the poor things have fallen victims,
are unknown. The blood of the innocent cries aloud to Heaven,
for it is written, ‘‘ Whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall

1 Other evidence in Schiirer 111.8 p. 27.—Highly important is the discovery

of the synagogue of Delos which has since been made by the French archaeolo-
gists; cf. A. Plassart, La synagogue juive de Délos, in the ‘“‘ Mélanges Hol-
leaux,” Paris, 1913, and Juster I. p. 497 ff.
2 The old rite (Deuteronomy xxi.) referred to above (p. 416, n. 1) could not
be carried out amid foreign surroundings. Ancient analogies can easily be
found from the references in Wilhelm, col. 16 f. .
3 Schirer 111.8 p. 310 f. (Eng. trs., Div. 11., vol. 3, pp. 160 ff.]
4 Acts xxvii. Q.
424 APPENDIX I
his blood be shed.” So vengeance is left to Him who visits the
sins of the fathers upon the children. On the most solemn
festival of the year, when all Israel afflict themselves and the
prayers of the scattered children of Abraham rise everywhere
on the four winds of heaven to the throne of the Eternal, whilst
at Jerusalem the high priest enters the “ Holy of Holies ’—the
mourners bring their grim petition before God; in fervent prayer
on the Day of Atonement they consign the murderers to the
vengeance of the Omniscient and His angels :—
“T call upon and pray the Most High God, the Lord of the
spirits and of all flesh, against those who with guile murdered or
isoned the wretched, untimely lost Heraclea, shedding her
innocent blood wickedly : that it may be: so with them that
murdered or poisoned her, and with their children; O Lord that
seeth all things, and ye angels of God, Thou before whom every
soul is afflicted this same day with ‘supplication : that Thou
mayst avenge the innocent blood and require it again right
speedily !”
And the same prayer is recited for Marthina, and immortalised
in marble above the graves of the murdered maidens yonder in
the island of the dead; daily shall the words of the prayer, dumb
lines on the marble to the passer-by, but loud groans to the living
God, tell of the unexpiated blood of Heraclea and Marthina;
and even the Greek, to whom the formulae of the prayer seem
strange, observes the uplifted hands, and perceives with a shudder
the meaning of the writing on the Jewish graves.
 APPENDIX II

ON THE TEXT OF THE SECOND LOGIA FRAGMENT FROM

OXYRHYNCHUS

(First published in the Supplement to the Aligemeine Zeitung [Munich]

No. 162, 18 July, 1904, and now adapted.)

THE fourth volume of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri ! offers, in addition

to other theological texts, a new fragment with sayings of Jesus,
which is assigned to the third century.
The most important task in connexion with the’ venerable
document is the reconstruction of the text. Although more
easy to read for a non-expert than the first fragment with sayings
of Jesus from Oxyrhynchus, published in 1897, the new papyrus
presents harder riddles, because the number of missing letters,
and in consequence the number of possible restorations, is far
greater. Altogether there are five or perhaps six longer or shorter
sayings, which are said to be by Jesus. It is a fortunate circum-
stance that one of them was already known as an Agraphon
(from the Gospel according to the Hebrews as quoted by Clement
of Alexandria), Thus the approximate number of letters to be
restored was ascertained, and this part ? of the fragment could be
completed with tolerable certainty :—

I
5 [λέγει Ἰης
μὴ πιυσάσθω ὃ ζητῶν . . . .«..... ἕως ἂν]
εὕρῃ καὶ ὅταν εὕρῃ [θαμβηθήσεται καὶ θαμ-}
βηθεὶς βασιλεύσει κα[ὶ βασιλεύσας avarra-]
ἥσεται.
1 The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Part IV., edited with translations and notes
by Bernard P. Grenfell and Arthur 5. Hunt, London, 1904, No. 654, p. 1 ff.—
For further researches on the text cf. the work of H.G. Evelyn White mentioned
at p. 44, π. 1 above; also J. H. A. [not J. A. H.] Michelsen in Teyler’s
Theologische Tijdschrift 7, p. 214 ff.; W.Schubart, Einfithrung indie Papyrus-
hunde, p. 176f., and Zeitschrift fir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 20
(1921) p. 215 ff.; and M. J. Lagrange, Revue Biblique 30 (1921) p. 233 ff.,
and 31 (1922) p. 427 ff.; [M. R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament,
Oxford, 1924, pp. 25-28. ΤᾺ] No attempt is here made to discuss their
results : the appendix is reprinted as it stood.
᾿Ξ I pass over the first lines;.they contain a “ Saying of Jesus ” that is by no
means so interesting as the rest. -
425
426 APPENDIX II
Jesus saith: Let him that seeketh .. . not cease .. . until
he findeth, and when he findeth he shall be amazed, and having
been amazed he shall reign, and having reigned he shall rest.
Far less certain than this ? is the restoration of the two following
“Sayings.” The editors read and conjecture as follows :

λέγει [ys ww ee tives]

τ ΝΙΝ ΄,

10 of ἕλκοντες ἡμᾶς [εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν εἰ]

ἡ βασιλεία ἐν οὐρα[νῷ ἐστίν ;. .. eeee ]
€ ΄ 2 3 a ἃ Ld

τὰ πετεινὰ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καὶ τῶν θηρίων ὅ-]

a a a μὲ

τι ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν ἐστ[ὶν ἢ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς καὶ]

: Me ΝΑῚ lal > x a ἃ ἃ a iol ‘

οἱ ἰχθύες τῆς θαλάϊσσης οὗτοι οἱ éA\Kov-|

I5 τες ὑμᾶς, καὶ ἡ βασ[ιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν]
ἐντὸς ὑμῶν [ἐ]στὶ [καὶ ὅστις ἂν ἑαυτὸν]
ἀκ ΞΕ eon 2 ν ,4¢ A ε x

γνῶ ταύτην εὑρήσει... ee ee ]

ἑαυτοὺς γνώσεσθε 3 [καὶ εἰδήσετε ὅτι υἱοί]
ε Ἂ, Ἑ 8 εἰ ἰδ , ot ee

ἐστε ὑμεῖς τοῦ πατρὸς τοῦ τ΄. . - ee ee ee ]

20 γνώσ«εσ!θε ἑαυτοὺς ἐν [........ὐὐ νων ]
καὶ ὑμεῖς ἐστὲ nro [. . .]

Jesus saith : ... who are they that draw us into the Kingdom if
the Kingdom isin Heaven? . . . the fowls of the air, and of beasts
whatsoever is under the earth or upon the earth, and the fishes of
the sea, these are they that draw you, and the Kingdom of Heaven
is within you, and whosoever knoweth himself shall find it... .
Know yourselves, and ye shall perceive that ye are sons of the
Father of . . . Know yourselves ... andyeare...
The whole restoration is ultimately dependent on the inter-
pretation given to the word ἕλκοντες, which the editors understand
in a good sense, and at the same time an ethical sense, on the
analogy of ἑλκύω in John vi. 44 and xii. 32. I must confess that
this meaning was clear to me neither at first reading nor after
considerable reflection, and that in the whole passage as restored
by the editors I find much that to me scems unintelligible, extra-
ordinary in itself and doubtful linguistically. My first impression
of the word ἕλκοντες was that its meaning is the same as in
James ii. 6, etc., “ to drag,” “‘ to hale.” I thus agree as regards
1 [In the English renderings of these “ Sayings “’ it has not been considered
necessary to adhere to the translations given by Grenfell and Hunt. An
attempt has been made, as in dealing with the documents in the text of the
book, to harmonise the language of the translations with that of the English
Bible as far as possible. Tr.] ᾿
3 The meaning of the ‘‘ Saying’ may be disputed; cf. A. Harnack’s new
discussion in the Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1904, p. 175 ff.
3 Papyrus: γνωσεσθαι. 4 Papyrus: γνωσθε.
 APPENDIX II 427
the sense rather with Bartlet, who proposed another restoration
to the editors, taking ἕλκω in the sense of ‘to persecute.” 1
But I cannot bring myself to adopt Bartlet’s restoration. With
the same reservation that I expressed in restoring the supposed
Gospel-Fragment from Cairo? (a reservation that will seem
perfectly natural to everyone conversant with the subject), I
venture to submit the following attempted restoration, which is
to be judged, of course, not by the details (which are capable of
manifold and obvious variations), but by the idea underlying it.
The parallels of words and subjects, which furnish at least hypo-
thetical justification for my attempt, are noted below.

λέγει Ilys’ πῶς λέγουσιν 3]

IO οἱ ἕλκοντες ἡμᾶς3 [εἰς τὰ κριτήρια, ὅτι]
ἡ βασιλεία ἐν οὐρα[νῷ ἐστίν ; μήτι δύνα(ν)ται 5]
τὰ πετεινὰ τοῦ οὐρ[ανοῦ ἐπιγινώσκειν,
τί ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν ἐστ[ίν ; καὶ τί ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ]
fe ἐὶς ν a 7 A ἃς ,» aA > ~

οἱ ἰχθύες τῆς θαλάσσης Ἴ; οὕτως οἱ 8 ἕλκον-7

I5 τες ὑμᾶς. καὶ ἡ βασιλεία ὅμως μέντοι 3]
ἐντὸς ὑμῶν [ἐ]στί[ν. καὶ ὃς ἐὰν τὰ ἐντὸς ὑμῶν]
> * ε cat a 4 La 2k ἊΨ δὲς. Ἂν «ε an

γνῷ, ταύτην εὑρήσει 10... ee νος J

a o ε “ 10

ἑαυτοὺς γνώσεσθε 13 [ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ,᾽5 καὶ υἱοί]

ἐστε ὑμεῖς τοῦ πατρὸς τοῦ τ[ελείου εν
ἐ οὐρᾳνῷ.
13]
14)
20 γνώσ«εσ!θε ἑαυτοὺς ἐνώπιον τῶν ἀνθρώπων,
καὶ ὑμεῖς ἐστέ, ἡ πτο[εῖσθε.15]
1 George Wilkins (letter, Dublin, 24 October, 1908) takes the word in the
sense of “ carping at ’’ (Latin vellicave) and refers to Pindar, Nem. 7, 152.
2 See Appendix No. III. p. 434 below.
5. Mark xii. 35; Luke xx. 41.
§ μας might stand for ὑμας, as Grenfell and Hunt observed.
5 James ii. 6; συνέδρια of course would suit just as well, Matt. x. 17,
Mark xiii. 9.
§ Luke vi. 39.
? For the chiasmus in the arrangement of the clauses cf. Ed. Kénig, Stilistck,
Rhetovik, Poetik in Bezug auf die biblische Literatur, Leipzig, 1900, p. 146 f.
8 Luke xii. 21, etc. 9. John xii. 42; for the thought Luke x. 11, xvii. 21.
10 For the thought cf. Matt. x. 40.
11 The future is hortative; the following καί introduces the consequence:
“ Know yourselves ... ,andyeare . . a
12 Luke xvi. 15. 13 Matt. v. 48. 14 Luke xvi. 15.
15 7.0. “γα are there where ye must be terrified ’’ (Luke xxi. 9, xxiv. 37).
For the thought cf. Luke xvi. 15; ‘‘ Know yourselves before men” is the
preliminary step to “justify yourselves before men.” Closely akin to this,
only from a different point of view, is τ John iii. 1: ἴδετε ποταπὴν ἀγάπην
δέδωκεν ἡμῖν é πατήρ, ἵνα τέκνα θεοῦ κληθῶμεν καί ἐσμεν. διὰ τοῦτο 6 κόσμος
[in meaning identical with of ἄνθρωποι] οὐ γινώσκει ἡμᾶς..—The enigmatical ἥπτο
in line 21 might in itself be restored as ἡ πτοή (‘' the terror,” 1 Macc. iii. 25,
3 Macc. vi. 17 Cod. A) or ἡ πτόησις ( the terror,’’ LXX, τ Peter iii. 6). But
“ ye are the terror τ᾿ would be too extraordinary.
428 APPENDIX II
Jesus saith: How say they that draw us before the judgment
seats that the Kingdom is in Heaven? Can the fowls of the air
know what is under the earth? and the fishes of the sea what is in
the heaven? So are they that draw you. And the Kingdom
nevertheless is within you. And whosoever knoweth your inward
parts shall find it. . . . Know yourselves in the sight of God, and
ye are sons of your Father which is perfect in Heaven. Know
yourselves in the sight of men, and ye are there where ye are
terrified.
I regard the whole as being spoken to the apostles in the same
tone as the well-known words at the sending forth. As a mocking
objection to the message of the apostles, ‘‘ The Kingdom is at
hand,” a sentence like ‘“‘ The Kingdom is in Heaven’’ is well
conceivable in the mouth of opponents. The comparison with
the birds and fishes illustrates the opponents’ want of apprehension.
The next ‘‘ Saying’ may be restored more simply and, in my
opinion, with much greater certainty as regards the underlying
principle. The editors print it thus :—

III
[ λέγει Ins]
οὐκ ἀποκνήσει ἄνθρωπος... . ... .. ]
ρων ἐπερωτῆσαι mal... ee ]
ρὼν περὶ τοῦ τόπου THs. we ]
25 σετε ὅτι πολλοὶ ἔσονται π[ρῶτοι ἔσχατοι καὶ]
οἱ ἔσχατοι πρῶτοι καὶ [. . . ee ee J
ow.
In line 24 they incline to propose τῆϊς βασιλείας], and in
lines 26 £. [ζωὴν αἰώνιον ἕξου]σιν.
_ Jesus saith: Aman... willnot delay to ask . . . concerning
his place in the Kingdom. . . . [Know ye] that many that are
first shall be last, and the last first, and shall have eternal life.
Here too I feel bound to take quite another course; Luke xiv.
7 ff. gives me the hint :—
[ λέγει Tas
οὐκ ἀποκνήσει ἄνθρωπος κληθεὶς σώφ-]
ρων ἐπερωτῆσαι πάϊΪντως ἕνα τῶν κλητό-
pov? περὶ τοῦ τόπου τῆϊς δοχῆς ποῦ ἀνακλιθή-
1 Papyrus : ἐπερωτησε.
2 Cf. δειπνοκλήτωρ, Matt. xx. 28 Cod. D. For the plural number of
slaves who carry the invitations cf. Matt. xxii. 3 ff. The guest on entering
asks one of the house-slaves standing ready to wait (e.g., the one known to him
already as the bringer of the invitation) where he is to sit, or he inquires
directly he receives the invitation.
 APPENDIX II . 429
25 cera ὅτι πολλοὶ ἔσονται π[ρῶτοι ἔσχατοι καὶ]
οἱ ἔσχατοι πρῶτοι καὶ [δόξαν 3εὑρήσονυ-}
σιν.
Jesus saith: A man that was bidden will not delay, if he is
prudent, by all means to ask one of them that did the bidding,
concerning his place at the feast, where he shall sit. For many
that are first shall be last, and the last first, and shall find worship.

Thus we have a variation of the words concerning those who

chose out the chief rooms, and in this (new) context the saying
about the first and the last! The restoration that I have made
‘in line 26f., [εὑρήσου]σιν, is of course quite uncertain. I may
refer, however, to an observation that, so far as I know, has not
yet been made. In the Logia of 1897 there was frequent mention
of “ finding,” as now also in the two new “‘ Sayings ’’ I. and II.
The same applies to ‘‘ seeing " (and its synonyms). Is it possible
that we have here a hint of the method on which these collections
of apophthegms were arranged?
“ Saying ’”’ No. IV. is an interesting variant and enlargement
of Matthew x. 26 and its parallels. Here too the last word has
yet to be spoken concerning the text, but for the present I have
no independent proposals to make. ‘‘ Saying” No. V. is so
greatly mutilated that the combined work of many students is
necessary, before attempts at reconstruction can be made.
1 -gere in the papyrus may easily be meant for -cerat; cf. emepwryce
instead of ἐπερωτησαι above.
2 Luke xiv. ro.
 APPENDIX ΠῚ
THE SUPPOSED FRAGMENT OF A GOSPEL AT CAIRO
(Reprinted with slight alterations from the Archiv fiiy Religionswissenschaft,-
7, PP. 387-392.)
In the Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes du Musée
du Caire, Vol. X. (Nos. 10001~10869 Greek Papyri), Oxford,
1903, B. P. Grenfell and A. 5. Hunt publish a papyrus fragment
(No. 10735) with the following text written in a small uncial
hand of the 6th or 7th century. I print it with the editors’
restorations.
RECTO VERSO
ἄγγελος KU ἐλαλησεν Tolonp | we ee
παραλαβε Μαριαν τὴν γίνναικα 1. ερμηνευετω σοι οἷ
σου και ] φησι τη παρθενω ἴδου
φευγε εἰς Αἰγυπτον κοι o συγ͵γενης σου Ks αὐτὴ συν
lise wrt Jintia cree [-.7...[ 5. ]s ἐστι μὴν αὐτὴ τὴ xo [
57.Bol..-]-p--[ ]rw extw ο ἐστιν[
παν δωρον xs εανΐ Ἰωαννην συνελαβε
φίλους αὐτου καθ [ ἷ Ἴφειν τὸν apyigtpa
βασιλεως d [ Ἵν otkernv προβαδι
εἰφ ον} Io ] παρουσιας
TO των θὰ 7τα

The editors see in the sheet the remains of a book ‘‘ containing

apparently an uncanonical gospel. The verso (10 incomplete
lines) is concerned with the Annunciation (?); the recto (9 incom-
plete lines) with the flight to Egypt.”
Regarding the opinion here expressed, that the fragment
before us is part of an uncanonical gospel, certain doubts suggest
themselves.
In the first place the order in which the two pages stand is-
against it. If the fragment is a leaf from a book containing a
gospel, it was no doubt one of the first leaves in the book, as
we may conclude from the contents (flight to Egypt and annuncia-
tion of the birth of the Baptist to Mary); and in that case it
would belong to that half of the first quire in which verso follows —
430
 APPENDIX III 431
τϑοῖο.; We should thus have a gospel in which the annunciation
of the birth of [Jesus and] the Baptist to Mary followed after the
flight into Egypt, and that is very improbable.
Then the contents of the text, so far as they can be made out,
are not reconcilable with the assumption of Grenfell and Hunt.
If the fragment is part of a gospel, then the recto-text requires us,
after the words of the angel to Joseph, “ Flee into Egypt,” to
reconstruct lines in which there is mention of a “ gift,” ‘his
friends,” and a “ king.” Though we might imagine Herod as the
king, the other two legible fragments of lines hardly suit the
context in a narrative of the flight into Egypt. The verso-text,
on the other hand, requires, after the words of the angel Gabriel
announcing the birth of the Baptist to Mary, a sentence or sen-
tences with the words archistra[tegus],2 ‘‘ servant,” “ arrival.”
These also are elements which one would hardly expect to find in
“this place in a gospel.
The doubts vanish if we assume that the fragment contains
some kind of reflections on the flight into Egypt and the words
of Gabriel, reflections either of an exegetical or edifying nature,
and that instead of coming from a gospel it comes from a com-
mentary or a book of sermons.
On this supposition the verso-text may really be in great part
recovered. The problem of finding a text logically coherent
with the words of the angel and containing the above-named
elements became easier when προβαδὶ was recognised as the
remains of some part of the verb προβαδίζω; after words
referring to the conception of the Baptist it was quite appropriate
to find a sentence describing John as the “ servant ”’ who “ goeth
before’ the ‘‘ coming ”’ of the Master. Then when I had found
that in Byzantine writers the archangels Michael and Gabriel are
sometimes called by the name of ἀρχιστράτηγος,,Ὡ which
presumably goes back to LXX Joshua v. 14, the last doubtful
word in this curious passage was brought into connexion with
the rest, and it was possible to attempt restoration, provided
that the approximate length of the lines was ascertainable.
The length of the lines, however, followed with some probability
from lines 1 and 2 recto, which I thus completed 4 from Matthew ii.
13.:--
1 [In the second half of a quire recto follows verso. See the explanation
of these terms, p. 29 above. TR.]
3 This restoration of line 8 is perfectly obvious.
3 Ἐς A. Sophocles, Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods, New
York and Leipzig, 1888, p. 259.
41 had to remember that the abbreviation xs might be written instead of
καὶ (as in 1. 6 recto and 1. 4 verso). Iwon¢ I take as a vocative.
432 APPENDIX III
ayyeAos KU ἐλαλησεν᾽ Tolond εγερθεις]
παραλαβε Μαριαν την γίυναικα σου xs]
φευγε εἰς Αἰγυπτον, etc.
The lines 4 and 5 verso also gave the length with reasonable
probability, after I had thus restored them from Luke i. 36 :—
[Ελισαβετ ἡ συγ]γενης cov Ks αὐτὴ ov
[εἰληφε xs εκτοὶς ἐστι μὴν αντὴ τὴ κᾳ[λου]
[μενη στειρα, etc.
There are thus about 30 letters to the line.
The considerations that led to the further experiment of restoring
lines 6, 7, and 8 will appear from the little commentary below.
I first give the text as restored and punctuated :—

1. ερμηνενετω σοι. οἶδε

ἀρχιστρατηγος] φησι τὴ παρθενω" ἴδου
Ελισαβετ ἡ συγ͵γενης σον Ks αντη συν-
5. εἰληφε xs exto]s ἐστι μὴν αντὴη τὴ Ka[Aov-
μένη στειρα. εν ] τω εκτω, o ἐστιν [Θωθ, μη-
νι ἢ βῆΡ apa Ἰω]αννὴν συνελαβε.
ede δὲ προκηρυσΊσειν τον ἀρχιστρα-
τήγον ἰωαννὴν το]ν οἰκετὴν προβαδι-
10 ζοντα της του KU αντου] παρουσιας.
7τᾳ

A few remarks may be permitted on the above.

Line 3. The restoration is of course not certain; there are
other obvious possibilities.
Line 4. συγγενὴς in Luke i. 36 has the support of not a few
authorities; most read ovyyevs, cf. the apparatus criticus in
Tischendorf.
Line 4f. συνειληφεν in Luke i. 36 also has the support of several.
authorities (partly the same as those for ovyyevys), the more
general reading being συνειληφνια, cf. Tischendorf. The shorter
word is to be conjectured on account of the limited number of
the letters.
Line 51. The quotation 3 from Luke i. 36 must certainly have
been abridged : there is no room for υἱὸν ev γήρει αὐτῆς, nor for ovros.
Line 6f. rw exrw pretty certainly demands a preposition
Σ καὶ ov Ἐλισαβετ ἡ συγγενις σου Kat αὐτὴ συνειληφνια viov εν γηρει αὐτῆς Kat
OUTOS μὴν ἐκτὸς ἐστ'ν αὑτὴ Τὴ καλουμενὴ στειρα.
 APPENDIX ΠῚ 433
which governs the dative. The conjectural ἐν would, I think,
fix the point of time thus: “ in the sixth month (reckoned back-
wards).”’ ο eorw seems to be a sort of formula, “‘ that is to say ᾿᾿;
the neuter is therefore not surprising. The name of some month ὦ
is a very obvious-thing to supply. When we know that the time
of the Baptist’s conception was determined by Chrysostom
(II. 362 BCD ed. Montfaucon) after laborious calculation to be
September, we naturally think of this month, and I have inserted
above its Egyptian name. But it is evident that the restoration
of the two lines is uncertain. ᾿
' Line 8 ff. From the supposed infinitive . . .]σειν and the
accusative τὸν apxtorpa[. . . I have argued the existence of
a governing verb eda. That οἰκετὴν refers to John. is an obvious
deduction from the well-known saying of the Baptist about the
“ shoe-latchet.” An excellent parallel, both real and verbal, to
mpoBadi[fovra,? etc., is the passage quoted by Boissonade in
the Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, VI. 1647, from an unprinted
sermon by Chrysostom,? which calls John the Baptist τὸν τοῦ
ἀύλου φωτὸς προβαδίσαντα λύχνον.
Line 9. Instead of Ιωαννην we might have Γαβριηλ, and in line
10 instead of αὐτου we might have ἡμων.
There is little to be said with regard to the recto. What can
still be completed has been shown above. Lines 6-8 may have
contained a sentence like “‘ And if God protecting looks down
upon His friends, even the anger of a King is powerless.” The
form of the quotation 4 from Matthew ii. 13 is remarkable; the
Child is clearly not named, and instead of ‘‘ His mother” we
have ‘“‘ Mary thy wife.’”’ I have found the name Mary in this
context only in the Gospel of the Pseudo-Matthew xvii. 2, Tischen-
dorf, p. 84: ‘ tolle Mariam et infantem.” ®
If the interpretation here given of the Cairo fragment is right
in principle,it follows that we must be cautious in describing
fragments with gospel words as “ fragments of a gospel.”
I subjoin a translation of the restored verso-text :—
1 Cf. a Christian inscription from Akhmim (?) in Lefebvre, Recueil No. 297,
σήμερον ἥτις ἐστὶν Φαρμοῦθι R.
2 The word seems to be rare and to belong to the lofty style; so far it has
been found only in Plutarch, Mor. 11. p. 707 B, Grege Naz. I. 1248 C (Migne),
and the sermon by Chrysostom mentioned in the text.
᾿ ΒῚ ἀο not know whether this sermon has since been printed.
4... ayyedos κυρίου φαινεται κατ᾽ ovap τω Ιωσηφ λεγων" εγερθεις παραλαβε το
παιδιον Kat THY μητερα avTou Kat φευγε εἰς Αιγυπτον.
5 Quoted by A. Resch, Das Kindheitsevangelium, Texte und Untersuchungen,
X. 5, Leipzig, 1897, p. 156. For the form Mapia cf. above, pp. 121, n. 11
and 306, n. 6. [Also in the Gospel of Thomas, Latin text; see M. R. James,
The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford, 1924, p. 58. TR.]
 434 APPENDIX III
VERSO
... let... interpret! to thee. But the archistrategus saith
unto the virgin : “‘ Behold, Elizabeth thy kinswoman, she also hath
conceived and the sixth month it is with her that was called
barren.” In the sixth (month), therefore, that is in the month
Thoth, did his mother conceive John. But it behoved the
archistrategus to announce beforehand John, the servant who
goeth before the coming of His Lord. . . .
It only remains now for somebody to identify the Cairo fragment.
_I have not succeeded in discovering from what book it comes.
Should someone who is wider read succeed in identifying the
fragment, and thus perhaps put a speedy end to my restorations,
I should be the first to remember that, as St. Paul says, ‘‘ we know
in part.”
1 P. W. Schmiedel pointed out a slip that I made in the translation as
printed in the first edition of this book.
 APPENDIX IV
LUCIUS—LUKE

(First published in “Fesigabe fiiy A. von Harnack,’’ Tiibingen 1921, pp. 117-120,
and now reproduced with slight alterations and the addition of two illustrations.)

THE question as to what was the original name underlying the

contracted or pet form Λουκᾶς can now, I think, be answered
with certainty. The view long ago advocated by Wilhelm
Schulze,! that Λουκᾶς is the shortened form of Λούκιος, has been
confirmed by epigraphical discoveries made by Sir William M.
Ramsay.?
At Antioch in Pisidia a sanctuary of Men Ascaénus was dis-
covered by this great authority on Anatolia, with various votive
inscriptions dating from the Imperial period. One of these
inscriptions furnished in the first. place a welcome new example ?
of the form Λουκᾶς: a certain Λουκᾶς Τίλλιος Κρίτων performs,
jointly with his wife, a vow to the god Men.* But the sequence
of the three male names made it at once probable that the man’s
name was really Latin, Lucius Tillius Crito.
W. Schulze’s conjecture is, however, raised to a certainty by
two other inscriptions from the same sanctuary.§
1 Graeca Latina (a Gottingen ‘“‘ Einladungsprogramm,” ” 1901), p. 12.
2 Now most conveniently accessible in his James Sprunt Lectures of 1913,
The Beaving of Recent Discoveries on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament,
-London, etc., 1915, pp. 370-384. Sir William states (p. 372) that I had
called his attention to an article by V. Schultze, in which the connexion of
the names Lucius and Lucas was maintained, and that V. Schultze had sent
him a copy of the article, ‘‘ but,”’ he says, “1 am at present not able to find
the copy.” There must be some confusion here: I called Ramsay’s attention
to W. Schulze, and his essay is duly cited on p. 383. '
3 The number of examples (outside the N.T. and the other early Christian
writings) is not very large. So far I know only the following: two inscrip-
tions from Egypt, C.1.G. III. 4759 [= Lepsius, Monum. aegypt. inscr. No.
114] “Μουκᾶς (on the Memnon colossus), and C.I.G. III. Add. 4700 k Aouxés
(on a claw of the Great Sphinx); besides these C.I.L. VI. 17685 C. Iulius
Lucas (a marble tablet, now at Rome). The statement in Ramsay, p. 383 n.,
is misleading owing to a misapprehension of a quotation in W. Schultze,
p. 12.
4 P. 374, with drawing.
5 Pp. 376 ff., with drawings, which I here reproduce by Ramsay’s kind
permission (Figs. 78 and 79).
435
436 APPENDIX IV
The first (Fig. 78) runs :—
Myvi
εὐχήν].
ΤΓάμος ᾿Αβασκάϊντ-]
ov μὲ γυν[αικός,]
Λούκιος vids,
Πουμπούλιος
υἷός.
That is to say, Gamus the son of Abascantus (together with
his wife) and his two sons, Lucius and Pumpulius (= Pompilius),
have performed a vow to Men.
The second dedication, obviously later, but doubtless emanating
from the same family (Fig. 79), runs :—

Myvi εὐχήν.
Tépos ᾿Αβασκάντον
δὸς[5καὶ Λουκᾶς καὶ
ΠΙουμπούμλιος"ο
καὶ Ἑὔδοξος.

The Lucius of the first inscription is called Lucas in the second :

here we have the most authentic solution of the name-problem.*
There is no need to prove other instances of the normal form of
a name alternating with the pet name in the. same family;
examples are conspicuous in texts both ancient and modern and
will occur instantly to anyone who observes the daily habits of
his family and friends.
*

When St. Paul was wintering at Corinth before his last journey
to Jerusalem several representatives of his mission fields came to
him in order to accompany him on his projected voyage to Syria.®
The route was changed,‘ however, and led through Macedonia to
Asia Minor, etc.
1 Ramsay, pp. 377 ff., conjectures, no doubt rightly, that Eudoxus was a
third son born after the performance of the first vow; the mother probably
was no longer alive at the time of the second dedication.
2 [W. M. Calder, Classical Review 38 (1924) 30, remarks that the Antioch
inscriptions ‘ought not to be adduced ...as a proof that St. Luke’s
formal name was Lucius. It is highly probable that it was; but neither
can there be any doubt that Aouxds was short for Lucanus, Lucianus, possibly
even Lucilius; and these inscriptions have exactly the same relevance to
the problem as one proving the equivalence of Λουκᾶς and Lucanus would
have.’’—The proviso is needed, though the inscriptions are offered here not
as proof, but as evidence contributory to proof. Tr.]
2 Acts xx. 3. : 4 Acts xx. 3 f.
 48. |
H Wi
CVX
PAK OCAB A CKAM

G. 78.—Votive Inscription of Gamus and his family to the god Men at

och in Pisidia.. Imperial Period. By permission of Sir William M.
ay.
 «
va MHNIE YX HN ON
an ore “ae --.ὄ.

“FAMOCABACKANTOY
W OC KAIAQVRACKAI |

KY \X A
. -" So
TROYMTFOVMALOC

KALEVAS 20C

é——— ae
Fic. 79.—A second Votive Inscription of Gamus and his family to the god
Men at Antioch in Pisidia. Imperial Period. By permission of Sir William
M. Ramsay.
 APPENDIX IV 437
Two passages in-the New Testament, independent of each
other but unconsciously tallying in remarkable fashion, have
preserved for us the names of some of the comrades who gathered
round Paul at Corinth: one is in the apostle’s letter written at
that time to the Christians at Ephesus, and the other is in the
Acts of the Apostles.
In the little letter to the Ephesians which is contained in the
sixteenth chapter of Romans! St. Paul says: ‘“ Timothy my
fellow-worker saluteth you; and Lucius and Jason and Sosipater,
my kinsmen.” The assistant, Tertius, who was writing the letter
at the apostle’s dictation, adds a greeting of his own. Three
others also send greetings, two of them, the host Gaius and
Erastus the chamberlain of the city, being obviously Corinthians,
while the third, brother Quartus, cannot be more closely.
identified.
In Acts xx. 4 seven representatives of the churches are men-
tioned by name as prepared to travel with St. Paul: Sopater (of
Beroea), Aristarchus and Secundus (of Thessalonica), Gaius (of
Derbe), Timothy, and Tychicus and Trophimus (of Asia).
If we compare these lists of names, we see that at the time
when the letters were being written, before the plan of the voyage
to Syria had been changed, two of St. Paul’s travelling com-
panions, Timothy and So(si)pater ? were already at Corinth. Is
it possible to identify any other individuals? We may reasonably
decline to equate Gaius of Derbe with Paul’s host at Corinth;
but there is another identification which is at least possible.
For in Acts xx. 5 we have the plain indication that the author
of the “‘ we ’-narrative was also a member of the party—and he,
according to the tradition of the early Church, which I take to
be trustworthy, was Lucas (Luke).
In that case there were in St. Paul’s company before the
departure from Corinth a Lucius and a Lucas at one and the
same time. Or are the two really identical?
The identification is found already in Origen*; and the Pseudo-
1 Rom. xvi. 21. Into the grounds of this hypothesis, which has my entire
approval (cf. pp. 234 ff. above), I’shall not enter here. I would only remark
that the little letter to the Ephesians (and the letter to the Romans) must
have been written before the change in the plan for the Syrian journey; if
Paul had contemplated the route vid Asia Minor at the time of writing he
would surely have spoken about it in the letters. Rom. xv. 25 must be
taken to refer to the sea-route from Corinth to:Syria.
2 The identity of Sopater and Sosipater is not to be doubted. We have
here another method of abbreviating ἃ name: the shortening is medial
instead of final. An investigation of this type of shortening would be desirable.
3 IV. 686 a, de la Rue; cf. P. W. Schmiedel in the Encyclopaedia Biblica
III, col. 2833.
438 APPENDIX IV
Dorotheus, without any process of equating, calls the. Lucius of
Romans xvi Λουκᾶς.1
Against this equation of Lucius = Lucas it has been objected
by P. W. Schmiedel 3 that Luke was not.a Jew—it being assumed
as certain that Lucius was a Jew. That Luke was not a Jew is
concluded from Col. iv. 11; that Lucius was a Jew, from Rom.
Xvi. 21. ,
But neither conclusion is at all certain. In the first place we
do not know whether in the latter passage of συγγενεῖς μου refers
to Lucius; it might be in apposition nly to Jason and Sosipater.
Then too the passage in Colossians must certainly not be pressed
as if Paul were saying that, apart from Aristarchus,? Marcus,
and Jesus Justus, he had no Jewish fellow-workers whatever of
any value to him. In Romans xvi. 3 ff. we hear him praising a
number of Jewish fellow-workers, men and women, of high merit.
The pessimistic remark in Col. iv. 11 was thrown off in a mood
comparable with that of the peevish lines in Phil. ii. 20 f., which
also need not be weighed too nicely. I for my part, therefore,
would not venture to issue a birth-certificate for Luke on the
strength of the passage in Colossians : we do not know for certain
what his origin was. Thus the possibility that Lucius may be
identical with the author of the “ we ’’ narrative is by no means
to be rejected,* and the early tradition of the Church concerning
Luke finds confirmation, perhaps, between the lines of the New
Testament.
1 Encyclopaedia Biblica 111, col. 2828,
2 Jbid., 2833. ᾿
3 Here too it is not certain whether Paul is describing all three men as
Jews; Aristarchus might be a pagan convert to Christianity.
4 That Paul elsewhere uses the pet form “ουκᾶς is no argument to the
contrary. If the letters to the Colossians and to Philemon were written at
Ephesus when Luke (Lucas) was in Paul’s company (Col. iv. 14; Philem. 24),
the salutation of Lucius (= Luke) to the Ephesians in Rom. xvi, 21-becomes
particularly intelligible; Luke would be known personally to the Ephesians—
as is probable also on other grounds.
 APPENDIX V
‘THE SYNAGOGUE INSCRIPTION OF THEODOTUS AT JERUSALEM
In the course of his successful excavations in the city of David
at Jerusalem (November 1913 to March 1914) Raimond Weill 1
discovered the remains of some baths which he assigns, no doubt
correctly, to the period before the destruction of Jerusalem. In
a cistern belonging to the establishment he had the good fortune
to finda Greek inscription which may be regarded as one of the
most important discoveries of the last ten years. It has many
times already been mentioned, printed, and admirably commented
upon?; but concerning its age agreement has not yet been
1 Soon after the conclusion of his excavation Weill gave a public lecture
on the subject at Jerusalem, and on 29 May, 1914, he presented a provisional
report to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. The report of
his excavations (‘‘ La Cité de David. Compte rendu des fouilles exécutées,
ἃ Jérusalem, sur la site de la ville primitive. Campagne de 1913-14’)
appeared in the Revue des Etudes Juives, 69 (1919), 70 (1920), and 71 (1920),
with plates in the “ Annexe ’’ to vol. 69; the Theodotus inscription is on
plate XXVa. This report has also appeared in a separate edition published
by Paul Geuthner, Paris, 1920, with a portfolio of 26 plates (cf. Dalman,
Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins 45 [1922], p. 22, who presumably
had not seen the three volumes of the Revue des Etudes Juives),
37, I do not know the full extent of the literature, and have not myself
seen all of the following: facsimile in Rev. des Et. J., 69 (1919) ‘‘ Annexe,”
plate XXVa; R. Weill, 7bid. 71 (1920), pp. 30-34; Th. Reinach, 7bid., pp.
46-56, with mention of a communication by Clermont-Ganneau to the
Académie des Inscriptions on 11 June, 1920, to which Reinach himself replied
on 18 June, 1920; Weill, Reinach, and Clermont-Ganneau suggest a date
before 70 a.D.; Clermont-Ganneau published the gist of his communication
in a periodical, ‘Syria’ 1 (1920), pp. 190-197; cf. also Revue Bleue,
20 Aug., 1920, p. 590 f.; Samuel Klein, Jidisch-Paldstinisches Corpus Inscrip-
tionum, Wien, 1920, pp. 101-104; L. H. Vincent, Revue Biblique 30 (1921),
pp. 247 ff. (first suggested the reign of Trajan, but now assigns the inscription
to the period before 70 a.p.); H. Lietzmann, Zeitschrift fiir die neutesta-
mentliche Wissenschaft 20 (1921), pp. 171 ff. (say early Imperial period);
N. A. Bees, Byzantinisch-Neugriechische Jahrbiicher 2 (1921), p. 259 (reign
of Trajan); A. Marmorstein, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly State-
ment, 1921, pp. 23-28; X., Revue Archéologique 5° 5. 13 (1921), p. 142;
P. Thomsen, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins 44 (1921), pp. 143 f.;
4., Νέα Σιών τό (1921), pp. 43-46; G. Dalman, Zeitschr. d. Deutschen
Palastina-Vereins 45 (1922), pp. 29 f. (before 70 a.D., whereas in the Palastina-
jahrbuch 11 (1915), pp. 75f., he had suggested the late Roman period).
The inscription was mentioned (without text) further by G. L. Robinson,
American Journal of Archaeology 21 (1917), p. 84, and (with strange exuber-
439
 440 APPENDIX V ;
attained. I think, however, that this question is comparatively
very simple to solve. I will therefore here briefly indicate my
view of the subject, but without any intention of myself opening
a discussion of any of the other problems. To the obliging
courtesy of the Société des Etudes Juives at Paris I am indebted,
through the kind offices of Professor Heinrich Lowe, of Berlin,
for permission to reproduce here a facsimile of the inscription
(Fig. 80). Letters which seem to be legible with certainty, though
they may appear mutilated in the photograph, I have not enclosed
in brackets in the transcription which follows.

Θεόδοτος Overrynvod,! ἱερεὺς ? καὶ

ἀρχισυνάγωγος, vids ἀρχισυν[αγώ-]
γίο]υ, υἱωνὸς ἀρχισυν[α]γώγου,3 ᾧκο-
δόμησε τὴν συναγωγ[ὴ]ν εἰς dv[dy]vur-
5. σ[ω] νόμου καὶ εἰς [δ]ιδαχ[ὴ]ν ἐντολῶν 4 καὶ
τὸν ξενῶνα ὅ κα[ὶ τὰ] δώματα ὁ καὶτὰ χρη-
σ[τ]ήρια τῶν ὑδάτων 7 εἰς κατάλυμα τοῖ-
ς [χ]ροήζουσιν ἀπὸ τῆς ξέ[ν]ης, ἣν ἐθεμε-
A[tw]oav8 οἱ πατέρες [α]ὐτοῦ καὶ οἱ πρε-
IO σ[β]ύτεροι 9 καὶ Σιμων[(]δης.}9

Theodotus the son of Vettenus,! priest? and ruler of the

synagogue, son of aruler of the synagogue, son’s son of a ruler of
the synagogue,’ built the synagogue for reading (5) of the law and
for teaching of the commandments,? also the strangers’ lodging5
and the chambers ὁ and the conveniencies of waters? for an inn for
them that need it from abroad, of which (synagogue) his fathers and
the elders ὃ and Simonides 10 did lay the foundation.®

ances owing to disturbance of international communication between scholars

during the war) in my Evangelischer Wochenbrief (Protestant Weekly Letter),
No. 47 of 23 Oct., 1915, and No. 63 of 12 Feb., 1916.
1 Vettenus, the father of Theodotus, probably possessed Roman citizenship
through some member of the gens Vettena (Lietzmann, p. 172).
2 It does not appear to me probable that Theodotus was an active priest
at the Temple at Jerusalem; the word points rather to descent from a
priestly family; cf. the numerous examples from Rome in Nikolaus Miller,
Die Inschviften der jidischen Katakombe am Monteverde zu Rom, Nos. 35, 98,
113, 123, 152, and notes.
3 The congregation over which Theodotus presided had therefore seen the
rulership of the synagogue in the hands of the same family for three
generations.
4 Lietzmann, p. 171, refers aptly to Luke iv. 16-21 and Acts xiii. 15 ff.
5 There are other instances in antiquity of synagogues with a khan attached.
5 δώματα in the sense of ‘‘ chambers ”’ is suggested by Modern Greek [if not
by older usage, 6.6. in Homer. TR.]. ΄
1 For ritual washings. [For notes 8 to 10 see next page.
“ong onSoseuds—og
uondisosuy
Jo snzoOposyy,
70 ‘waresnial
ar0jaq
of “αν Ag uorsstuiad
10 911
ογοῖοος
sep sapnyq ‘saain[{ ‘suueg
 ᾿ΑΡΡΕΝΡΙΧΥ͂ 441
This inscription affords us an exceedingly vivid glimpse of the
religious life of the holy city as the central resort of pilgrims
from the Diaspora. The question of its age is not at all com-
plicated. It may be said of any and every Jewish inscription
that turns up in the rubbish heaps of Jerusalem, if it is in Greek
and in characters of the early Imperial period, that it must have
been written before 70 A.D. From that year onwards for a long
period no Jew could settle within the city area,1—to say nothing
of building, and even erecting a synagogue there. That seems to
be certain; and therefore the inscription (testifying as it does to
an undisturbed stream of pilgrims and an unbroken continuity
of the congregation’s office-bearers) must belong to the period
before 70 A.p.2. It is an important original fragment of the
actual background of the primitive apostolic cult of Christ at
Jerusalem.
That we have here in the synagogue of Theodotus the “ syna-
gogue of the Libertines ’’ mentioned in Acts vi. 9, as several of
the scholars cited here have assumed, is not impossible, but in
my view not probable. I have already pointed out elsewhere 3
that it is most satisfactory to consider the ‘‘ synagogue of the
Freedmen ”’ as made up of former Imperial slaves. It was only
their common membership of Caesar’s household (Καίσαρος οἰκία,
Phil. iv. 22) that furnished a principle for forming a congregation ;
there would have been little sense in a union of freedmen of
various private owners at random to form a particular synagogue.”
With regard to Theodotus we do not even know whether he was
descended from a freedman’s family.*
1 Cf. Schiirer, Geschichte des jiidischen Volkes 1 *4, pp. 649 and 703.
2 The shape of the letters is entirely consistent with this date.
8 In Nikolaus Miller, Die Inschriften der jiidischen Katakombe am Monte-
verde, Ὁ. 99.
4 Cf. Lietzmann, p. 172.

Continuation of notes to page 440 :—

81 take this quite literally : the foundation stone was laid by the father -
and (then still living) grandfather of Theodotus jointly with the college of
elders of the congregation and one Simonides (a specially munificent donor) ;
. but the completion of the building was reserved for Theodotus. It illus-
trates beautifully 1 Cor. iii. 10: “1 have laid the foundation, and another
buildeth thereon.”” Not so very many years (Lietzmann, p. 171) need have
elapsed between the laying of the foundation stone and the completion of
the building.
9 A very important example of the use of the title ““ presbyter’ in the
congregation of a Jewish synagogue in apostolic times.
10 The identification of this Simonides with one of the sons of Flavius
Josephus I consider quite impossible.
 APPENDIX VI
THE DIPTYCH OF M. VALERIUS QUADRATUS, A VETERAN OF THE
JERUSALEM CAMPAIGN

A SINGLE individual out of the otherwise unknown! thousands

in the army led by Titus against Jerusalem is revealed to us by
a wooden tablet which was discovered in March, 1909, together
with numerous papyri of the 2nd century A.D. at Philadelphia
in the Faydm, and is now preserved in the Museum at Alexandria.?
A generation after the destruction of the holy city a strange
shadow is cast by that tragedy of world-history upon the personal
fortunes of a simple veteran in Egypt.
We have in the tablet one half of a diptych (folded pair of
writing-tablets) dated 2 July, 94 a.p., which was covered with
writing both on the outer and on the inner side. The texts
thereon contained are made up of extremely various components
and present a number of most difficult problems for criticism,
1 It may be permitted here to remark that the idea of “the Unknown.
Warrior ’”’ goes back to Johann Gabriel Seidl (1804-75); cf. his poem, ‘“‘ Der
todte Soldat’ (‘‘ The Dead Soldier ’’) in Bifolien®, Wien, 1841, pp. 272 f.
(not in the first edition, 1836), beginning ‘“‘ Auf ferner fremder Aue Da liegt
ein todter Soldat, Ein Ungezahlter, Vergessner, Wie brav er gekampft auch
hat,’”’ etc. Seidl, I am informed by Max Herrmann, was inspired by these
words of Oliver Goldsmith which he prefixes as a motto to the poem: ‘‘ The
most precious tears are those with which Heaven bedews the unburied head
of a soldier.” [The Vicar of Wakefield, ch. 21, Globe ed., p. 50a. ‘‘ Afar in
a foreign meadow There lies a soldier dead, A man uncounted, forgotten,
Though bravely he fought and bled.” Thus the Vienna lyric poet—a classical
archaeologist moreover by profession—who is remembered as the successful
adapter of the words of the Austrian national anthem. His tribute to
Goldsmith deserves our gratitude, but—the idea of burying an Unknown
Warrior, a private soldier of unrevealed identity, in the national fane, is due
to the Rev. David Railton, M.C., vicar of Margate, who had served as a
chaplain in France. See ‘‘ Notes and Queries,” 12 S. vii. 449, on the authority
of The Times, 13 Nov., 1920. TR.]
2 Editio princeps by Gustave Lefebvre in the Bulletin de la Société Archéo-
logique d’Alexandrie, No. 12 (1910), pp. 39 ff., with the facsimiles reproduced
here in Figs. 81 and 82; cf. Wilcken, Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung 5, pp. 434 f.,
and Chrestomathie, No. 463; P.M. Meyer refers me also to Mispoulet, Revue
historique de droit frangais et étranger, 1911, pp. 5 ff.; E. Breccia,, Musée
d’Alexandrie, Iscrizioni greche e latini, No. 61a; Lesquier, L’armée romaine
d’Egypte, 1918, pp. 297 ff. :
: 442
 APPENDIX. VI 443
both in text and subject matter, which must here remain undis-
cussed.
For the following arrangement of the text I am indebted to
the kindness of Paul M. Meyer, to whom also is due the trans-
lation in all essential parts. He adopted the grouping of the
various portions of the text proposed by Lesquier :—
(a) and (δ) cols. I. and II. 1-9: Nine witnesses and a testatio
privata, with reference to (c) and (e), by M. Valerius
Quadratus, a veteran, 2 July, 94 A.D.;
(c) col. II. 10-20: Edict of Domitian, 87-88 a.p., relating to
concessions for veterans, the last part wanting;
(4) col. III. 1-7 : Ordinance of the Emperor (not before 93 A.D.),
based on a military diploma, the first. part wanting;
(6) col. III. 8-10: License by the Praefect, x July, 94 A.D.,
for drawing up the festatio privata ; :
(f) col. III. 1x-16: testatio privata of the veteran, 2 July,
94 A.D., relating to the birth of his children.

The outer side (Figure 81)

(a) Col. I. (The nine witnesses 1) :—
C. Epidius, C. F(tlius), Pol(lia tribi),
Bassus, vet(eranus).
L. Petronius, L. f(ilius), Pol(lia tribu),
Crispus, vet(eranus).
5 M. Plotius, M. f(ilius), Pol(lia tribu),
Fuscus, vet(eranus).
M. Antonius, M. f(ilius), Pol(lia tribu),
Celer, vet(eranus).
P. Audasius, P. f(tlius), Pol(lia tribu),
10 Paullus, vet(eranus).
11/12 M. Antonius Lon/gus Pull<us>*, vet(eranus).
13/14 L. Petronius Niger,|vet(eranus).
15/16 L. Valerius Clemen<s>,/vet(eranus).
17/18 M. Antonius Ger|manus, vet(eranus).

(b) Col. 11. 1-9 :-—

L. Nonio Calpurnio Torquato Asprenate, T. Sextio Magto
Laterano co(nsulibu)s, VI Non(as) Julias, anno XIII* Imp-
(eratoris) Caesaris Domitiant
1 It is remarkable that several of the cognomina of these veterans occur
also as early Christidn names of persons: Crispus, Paulus, Niger, Clemens.
2 Cf. p. 189, 0. I above.
3 2 July, 94 A.D.
444 APPENDIX VI
Aug(usti) Germanici, mense Epip, die VIII, Alex(andriae) ad
Aegyptum,
M. Valerius M. f(ilius) Pol(lia tribu) Quadratus, veteranus,
dimissus honesta
5 missione ex leg(ione) X Fretense, testatus est se descriptum
et recognitum fecisse ex tabula aenea quae est fixa
in Caesareo Magno}, escendentium scalas secundas
sub porticum dexteriorem secus aedem Veneris mar-
moreae in pariete in qua scriptum est, et id quod infra scripitum
es[t]: 3

(c) Col. II. 10-20 :—

10 Imp(erator) Caesar divi Vespasiani f(ilius) Domitianus Aug-
(ustus) Germanicus,
pontifex maximus trib(unicia) potest(ate) VII imp(erator) XIII®
censor perpetuus
p(ater) platriae) dicit:* “‘ visum est mihi® edicto significare
universorulm]
vestrorum ὃ υἱ veterant milites omnibus vectigalib[us]
portitoribus 7 publicis liberati immunes esse deben[t] ;
15. ipst coniuges liberique eorum parentes qui conubia [eo-]
rum sument ® omni optumo ture c(ives) R(omani) esse possint
et om[nt]
immunitate liberati apsolutique sint® et omnem i[mmu-]
nitatem q(ut) s(upra) s(criptt) 19 s(unt) parentes liberique eorum
tdem 11 iuri[s]
idem 11 condicionis sint utique praedia domus tabern[ae]
20 invitos intemniqui 15 veleranoss . .onis....... a8

1 With Wilcken I take this to be the temple of the Emperor at Alexandria.

2 On scriptum est = γέγραπται cf. the references given above, p. 337, ἢ. 3.
3 87-88 A.D.
4 Cf. the remarks about λέγει, Ὁ. 375 above.
5 Cf. the apostolic decree, Acts xv. 28: ἔδοξεν γὰρ τῷ πνεύματι τῷ. ἁγίῳ καὶ
ἡμῖν.
56. The text is corrupt. Lesquier conjectured that the original read vestrum.
Allowance has been made for this in the translation.
7 A mistake in writing for portitoriis (Wilcken).
8 The text is corrupt and requires emendation. Lesquier reads: convivi
[eo]rum sunt. ᾿
9. This sentence also is out of shape. Lesquier reads: [19] omnem immuni-
tatem. '
10 P, M. Meyer reads: s(ub)s(cripts).
41 A mistake in writing for eiusdem (Wilcken).
43 P.M. Meyer : indemnesque?
 Fic. 81.—Diptych of M. Valerius Quadratus, a veteran of the Jerusalem campaign, Alexan-
dria, 2 July, 94 A.D. Outer Side. Wooden Tablet from Philadelphia in the Fayim. Now in the
Museum at Alexandria.
Fic. 82.—Diptych of M. Valerius Quadratus, a veteran of the Jerusalem campaign, Alexandria, 2 July, 94 Α.Ὁ.
Inner Side. Wooden Tablet from Philadelphia in the Fayim. Now in the Museum at Alexandria.
 APPENDIX VI 445

The inner side (Figure 82).

(4) Col. III. 1-7 :—
eWay ρος ὦ vjeteranorum cum uxoribus et liberis s(upra)
s(criptis) 1 in aere in-
cist 3 aut si qui caelibes sint cum is quas postea duxissent
dumtaxat singult singulas qui militaverunt Hierosolymmts 5
in leg(tone) X Fretense dimmissorum honesta missione stipendts
eme-
5 ritis per Sex(tum) Hermetidium Campanum 4 legatum Aug(ustt)
pro praetore
V K(alendas) Ian(uarias) Sex. Pompeio Collega Q. Peducaeo
Priscino co(nsulibu)s > gai militare
coeperunt P. Galevio Trachalo Ti. Catio® εἰ T. Flavio Cn.
Aruleno? co(nsulibu)s.”

(e) Col. III, 8-10 :—

Ex permissu M. Iuni Rufi praefecti Aegypti L. Nonio Calpurnio
Torquato Asprenate T. Sextio Magio Laterano co(nsulibu)s,
K(alendis) Iulis, anno
το XIII Imp(eratoris) Caesaris Domitiani Aug(usti) Germanici
mense Epip die VII8

(f) Col. III. 11-16 :—

Ibi M. Valerius. M. f(tlius) Pol(lia tribu) Quadratus coraam ὃ
ac praesentibus eis
qui signaturt evant testatus est iuratusque dixit per I(ovem)
o(ptumum) M(aximum), et genium
sacratissimt Imp(eratoris) Caesaris Domitiant Aug(usti) Ger-
manict
in militia sibi L. Valerium Valentem et Valeriam Heraclun 10
et Valeriam
15 Artemin omnes tres s(upra) s(criptos) natos esse eosque in aere
incisos civitatem
Romanam consecutos esse beneficio eiusdem optumi principis.
1 P.M. Meyer : s(ub)s(criptis).
2 Pp. M. Meyer : incisz(s).
3 A vulgar formation on the analogy of Methymna, Calymna, etc.
‘ This is our first knowledge of this governor of Judaea, which became an
independent province in 70 a.p. (Wilcken).
§ 93 A.D. 86. 68 A.D. 7 69 A.D.
81 July, 94 a.p. 9. = coram.
10 The girl’s second name was ‘Hpakdois.
446 APPENDIX VI
The outer side (Figure 81).
(a) Col, I. (the nine witnesses). Cf. p. 443 above.
(6) Col. 11. 1-9.:—
In the consulship of L. Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas and Τὶ
Sextius Magius Lateranus, the 6th before the Nones of July in the 13th year }
of the Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus Germanicus, in the month
Epip, on the 8th day, at Alexandria by Egypt, M. Valerius (son of Marcus,
of the Pollian Tribe) Quadratus, veteran, discharged with an honourable (5)
discharge 2 from the 1oth Fretensian Legion, declared before witnesses that
he had made a copy and certification of the table of brass which is set up in
the Great Caesareum ὃ (on the wall beside the temple of the Marble Venus
under the porch upon the right hand as one goeth up the second stairs), on
which it is written even as it is written below :—
(c) Col. II. το--20 :—
(10) The Imperator Caesar (son of the divine Vespasian) Domitianus
Augustus Germanicus, Chief Pontiff, the 7th time invested with tribunician
power, Imperator the 13th,4 Perpetual Censor, Father of his Country, saith δ:
“Tt seemed good to me ὅ to signify by decree: The veteran soldiers among
you all (?) ought to be made free and exempted from all customs, haven-
dues and tolls; (15) they themselves, their wives and children and their
parents who are living in wedlock (?) shall be able to be Roman citizens with
every and the best right and shall be free and released with all exemption;
and with respect to all exemption their parents and children, who are written
above, shall be of the same right and of the same estate (as they); surely
their lands, houses, booths shall... . the veterans against their will and
without their fault (oy without damage?) ... .”
The inner side (Figure 82).
, (4) Col. ITI. 1--7 :— ᾿
. ..{? The Imperator has allowed the citizenship of those vJeterans
(with their wives and children above written, inscribed on brass, or if they
are unmarried, with-those whom they afterwards shall have married, each
severally) who have served at Hierosolymna 7 in the roth Fretensian Legion,
[having been] discharged with an honourable discharge, after full time served,
(3) by Sex[tus] Hermetidius Campanus, Imperial Propraetorian Governor,®
the 5th before the Kalends of January in the consulship of Sex[tus] Pompeius
Collega and Ὁ. Peducaeus Priscinus ®, and who began to serve in the consul-
ship of P. Galerius Trachalus and Ti. Catius 19 and in that of T. Flavius and
Cn. Arulenus.’”’ 11
(6) Col. IIT. 8-10 :—-
By permission of M, Junius Rufus, Praefect of Egypt, in the consulship
of L. Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus Asprenas and T. Sextius Magius Lateranus,
the Kalends of July in the (10) 13th year of the Imperator Caesar Domitianus
Augustus Germanicus, in the month Epip, on the 7th day.¥
(f) Col. III. 11-16 :-— :
There 13 M. Valerius (son of Marcus, of the Pollian Tribe) Quadratus in
his own person and in the presence of those who were about to seal [as wit-
nesses] declared and swore on oath by Jupiter Most Good and Most Great
and the genius of the most holy Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus Ger-
manicus that to him duting his service L. Valerius Valens and Valeria Hera-
clus and Valeria (15) Artemis, all three above written, were born, and that
they, inscribed on brass, have obtained Roman citizenship by favour of the
same most good prince.
1 2 July, 94 A.D. 2 [1.6., after serving his fulltime. Tr.]
3 At Alexandria, cf. p. 444, τι. 1 above. 4 87-88 a.D.
5 Cf. p. 444, π. 4 above. 6 Cf. p. 444, n. 5 above.
τ Cf. p. 445, 0. 3. 8 Of Judaea. Cf. p. 445, n. 4. 9. 28 Dec., 93 A.D.
10 68 A.D., i.¢., after the Jewish insurrection had begun.
1 69 A.D. 12 1 July, 94 A.D. 18. At Alexandria.
 APPENDIX VII
THE EPITAPH OF REGINA, A ROMAN JEWESS
In my remarks on the word ecclesia 1 I have pointed out that,
before the vocabulary of the Greek-speaking followers of the
Christ cult became latinised, a whole process of secular latinisation
had been going on, the results of which (in part at least) could
be simply taken over by Latin-speaking Christians when they
came to translate into Latin. Similarly among the Jews of the
Diaspora a praeparatio latina for the coming Latin Bible of the
Christians had been taking place. The language of the Diaspora
was, it is true, Greek as a rule, even at Rome; but there were
Jews who spoke Latin. The epitaph? of Regina, a Roman
Jewess (beginning of the 2nd cent. A.p., Figure 83), shows on an
extensive scale that Latin-speaking Jews possessed Latin render-
ings for Biblical language (or might it be translations of parts
of the Old Testament ?) at a time anterior to the Latin translation
of the Bible which is known to us.
I give here the text with translation, appending the notes
which I wrote for the edition by Nikolaus Miiller and Bees.
They show how strongly the Latin of the Vulgate Old and New
Testament is anticipated in the inscription, of course in con-
formity with the linguistic usage of the period.®
2 Pp. 112 f, above.
2 Nikolaus Miller, Die Inschriften der jiidischen Katakombe am Monteverde,
No. 145 (pp. 133 ff.). As regards the date see there (p. 133) the careful
examination of the evidence by several epigraphists.
3 For all other information I may refer to the searching commentary by
Bees. [The name Regina is first encountered here. Editors suggest that it
is a translation of the Hebrew nabp (malkah) ‘‘ queen.’’ In the Museum
at South Shields there is a sepulchral monument representing a woman seated,
with flowers in her lap, a jewel-box in her right hand, and implements of
needlework in the left. The ungrammatical inscription, probably of the 3rd
cent. A.D., reads: d.m. Regina liberta et coniuge Bavates Palmyrenus, natione
Catuallauna, an. xxx., ‘‘ sacred to the memory of Regina, freedwoman and
wife of Barate of Palmyra, she being of the (South British) nation of the
Catuallauni, aged 30.’’ There follows an inscription in Palmyrene characters :
“ Regina, the freedwoman of Barate. Alas!’’ Thus the theory of a Semitic
origin of the name Regina seems to find confirmation in Roman Britain.
Cf. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinas Selectae, No. 7063; J. Collingwood Bruce,
447
448 APPENDIX VII
Hic Regina sita est tali contecta sepulcro,
quod coniunx statuit respondens eius amori.
Haec post bis denos secum transsegerat annum
et quartum mensem restantibus octo diebus,
5 rursum victura, reditura ad lumina rursum.
Nam sperare potest ideo, quod surgat in aevom
promissum, quae vera fides, dignisque piisque,
quae meruit sedem venerandi ruris habere.
Hoc ἐϊδὲ praestiterit pietas, hoc vita pudica,
10 hoc et amor generis, hoc observantia legis,
coniugit meritum, cutus tibi gloria curae.
Horum factorum tibt sunt spberanda futura,
de quibus et coniunx maestus solacia quaertt.
Here Regina is buried, in sepulchre so fair, which her husband,
requiting her love, hath erected.’ She, after twice ten years with
him, had ended a year and a fourth month, eight days remain-
ing; (5) again she will live, she will return to the light again. For
she is able to hope that she rise again for evermore as hath been
promised—and this faith is true—to the worthy and the godly, she
who hath deserved to have a throne in that blessed country. This -
will thy godliness have gotten for thee, this thy grave life, (10) this
also thy love of thy stock, this thy observation of the law, thy
deserts in respect of marriage, the glory whereof was thy care. For
these things done thou mayest hope things to come, whence also
thy sorrowful husband seeketh consolation.
Discoveries in the Roman Camp on the Lawe, South Shields, 1884; Archaeologia
Aeliana 10(1885) 223 ff., with drawing. Thomas Hodgkin, History of England
from the Earliest Times to the Norman Conquest, London, 1906, p. 58, says:
“The blended nationality, the British girl bought, enfranchised, loved, and
too soon lost by the Syrian,—merchant perchance or usurer,—who followed
the flight of the eagles of Rome, are all brought before us by these few roughly
carved lines, and they tell a story of world-wide empire, in which, perhaps,
the Britain of our own day could offer the closest parallel to Rome.’’ ΤᾺ.
1 [The following is a rough attempt to suggest the metre of the original :—
Here Regina is laid, she is covered in sepulchre seemly,
Fitting her love, which her spouse, requiting it, here hath erected.
She, after twice ten years spent with him, yet another had ended,
Also four months of the next, save eight more days that were lacking.
5 Yet she shall live once more, once more come back to the daylight.
Yea, for she still may hope that she rise to the life everlasting
Promised afore—this faith is true—to the worthy and godly,
She who deserved her throne to possess in that country most blessed.
This will have gotten for thee thy godliness, graveness of living,
1o This thy love of the stock, thine observation of God’s law,
And thy deserts as to marriage, the glory whereof was thy study.
These things done by thee, thou canst hope for things to come after,
And from the same thy spouse now sorrowing seeketh his comfort. Tr.)
 1651
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10 q ‘ssudUPI3JET ΠΈΠΟΝ e Ἕ uiSay jo ydezidq—€g “Ol.
‘ssomof
ay} jo Suruut 596 WOY 38 ΘΡαΘΛΘΏΠΟΙΝ 911 UO Quiose}yeD 982} Ul
Q

"αν 1.90 pu
 APPENDIX VII 449
This Roman text of the early 2nd century, remarkable merely
as a Jewish inscription in hexameters,! reproduces in latinised
form no unimportant part of the religious vocabulary of Judaism.
I have collected instances :—
Line 1. contego referring to interment: Ecclus. xxxviii. 16,
contege corpus.
Line 3. évansigo in a temporal sense: frequently, 6.5. Gen.
xli. 53, transactis annis.
Line 5. rursum vivo: Job xiv. 14, rursum vivat. (The thought
is not parallel.) Jumen: Psalm lvi. 13 (lv. 12), eripuisti animam
meam de morte, . . . ut placeam coram Deo in lumine viventium.
Line 6. spevo, also in line 12, with eschatological content :
frequently, e.g. 2 Macc. xii. 44, nisi enim eos resurrecturos speraret
(cf. sperare quod surgat). surgo eschatologically : frequently in
the N.T. i aevom: Ecclus. xxiv. 46; xli. 16; Baruch iii. 3.
Line 7. promitio (and promissum) used of divine promises:
very frequently in O.T. and N.T. quae vera fides (a little sentence
in apposition) refers, not to the ‘“‘ true faith’’ of Regina (Bor-
mann), 2 but to the trustworthiness of God who makes the promise,
as in Rom. iii. 3, numquid incredulitas illorum fidem Dei evacua-
bit? For the whole sentence in lines 6 and 7, up to this point,
cf. Titus i. 2, in spem vitae aeternae quam promisit qui non
mentitur Deus. dignis in an eschatological context : Luke xx. 35,
qui digni habebuntur saeculo illo et resurrectione ex mortuis;
2 Thess, i. 5, ut digni habeamini in regno Dei.
Line 8. meruit: Esther xvi. 18, Deo reddente ei quod meruit.
sedes eschatologically : Matt. xix. 28, sedebitis super sedes duo-
decim; cf. Matt. viii. 11, recumbent in regno coelorum; Rev.
iii. 21, sedere mecum in throno meo.
Line 9. hoc tibi praestiterit pietas: Deut. viii. 17, fortitudo
mea et robur manus meae haec mihi omnia praestiterunt; 1 Tim.
ii. 10, quod decet mulieres promittentes pietatem per bona opera.
vita pudica: 1 Tim. iii. 11, mulieres similiter pudicas.
Line 10. genus used of the Jewish people: frequently, e.g.
Phil. iii. 5, ego ex genere Israel. observantia legis : 2 Macc. vi. 11,
propter religionem et observantiam.
1 This adaptation to the Gentile world surrounding them had been
attempted by the Jews in their literature long before this date (cf. the epic
poets Philo and Theodotus); but instances of it had very seldom been
observed in epitaphs before this one was found. The form here is fairly
non-literary. C. C, Edgar has recently published epitaphs of Greek Jews of
the time of Augustus from Tell el Yahoudieh (Leontopolis), Annales du
Service des Antiquités de l’Egypte, 22, pp. 7 ff. Five rather long ones
among them are in elegiac couplets, Extremely interesting texts.
2 Wiener Studien 34 (1912), pp. 368 f.
450 APPENDIX VII
Lines 11 and 12: cf. for instance Ecclus. xvi. 15, faciet uni-
cuique secundum meritum operum suorum; Rom. ii. 6f., qui
reddet unicuique secundum opera eius, iis quidem, qui secundum
patientiam boni operis gloriam et honorem et incorruptionem
quaerunt, vitam aeternam.
Line 13. de quibus . . . solacia quaerit : Heb. vi. 18, ut fortis-
simum solatium habeamus, qui confugimus ad tenendam proposi-
tam spem.

These parallels go’ far towards indicating the importance of

the Regina inscription in the history of religion. Bormann’s
original hypothesis } of Pauline influence discernible in the religious
utterance of the text was instructive, though mistaken: it was
only possible because of really great kinship existing between
St. Paul and the Judaism which speaks in this inscription. Paul
and the inscription are both in a like degree influenced, in their
religious hopes, by the best forces of Pharisaism, which (cf. Matt.
xxiii. 15) carried on propaganda even beyond the bounds of its-
mother-country. The opposition between Paul and the obvious
belief in requital shown by the inscription is not insurmountable;
Paul by no means did away with the idea of requital for good and
evil. The Regina inscription is also rich in contribution to the
history of the popular ideal of womanhood ? in antiquity, especially
as prevailing amongst the Jews.
1 Wiener Studien 34 (1912), pp. 368 f. 2 Cf. p. 314 ἢ. above.
ΘΙ uordrOsuT—bg
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jo Joposyy ‘purser
 APPENDIX VIII
A JEWISH INSCRIPTION IN THE THEATRE AT MILETUS

ON the 17th April, 1906, Theodor Wiegand showed us a number

of inscriptions on the seats of the theatre of Miletus, which dates
from the Roman period. Among them was the following Jewish
inscription in the fifth row from below in the second block (xepxés)
from the west. It is 4 feet broad, and with its letters 1} to 2}
inches in height partly reminds one of the Jewish inscription from
Corinth. I give it here in facsimile (Figure 84) from a squeeze
kindly made for me in 1907 by August Frickenhaus at the instance
of Wiegand.
The inscription, doubtless of Imperial age, runs thus :—

TOTIOSEIOYAEWNTWNKAIOEOZEBION
Τόπος Εἰουδέων ? τῶν καὶ Θεοσεβίον.8
Place of the Jews, who also are called God-fearing.

Of Jews at Miletus nothing was previously known except a

letter from the proconsul of Asia to the authorities of this town,
saying that the Jews are not to be prevented from keeping their
Sabbaths, practising their religious customs, and managing their
revenues after their own manner. Our inscription is an original
document proving the existence of the Jewish colony at Miletus.
St. Paul perhaps, when he stayed at Miletus,® came into some sort
of contact with the Jews living there.®
Very remarkable is the form of the name “ God-fearing.’’?
The form “ they that fear God’’ 8 is very well known, from the
Acts of the Apostles and other sources; ® it denotes pagans who
1 Cf. p. 16, n. 7 and Figure 2 above.
2 Te. ᾿Ιουδαίων.
3 Ie. Θεοσεβίων. Ziebarth, Kulturbilder aus griechischen Stddten, p. 73,
cites this inscription erroneously in the form τόπος Εἰουδαίων φιλοσεβάστων.
4 Josephus, Anit. XIV. x. 21; cf. Schiirer, III.* p. 68 [Eng. trs., Div. 11,,
vol. 2, p. 258].
δ Acts xx. 15,17; and
2 Tim. iv. 20.
6 It is probable that, wherever there were Jews, Paul first sought to open
communications with them.
7 Θεοσέβιοι. 8 φοβούμενοι OF σεβόμενοι (metuentes) τὸν θεόν.
® Cf. Schiirer, III? p.123f. (Eng. trs., Div. 11., vol. 2, p. 314.}
451
452 APPENDIX VIII
were in close touch with the Jewish worship, if not officially
connected as proselytes. In the Milesian inscription the Jews
themselves are similarly styled Θεοσέβιοι and the word must
have already been felt to be a proper name.1 So far as I know
it occurs elsewhere only as a proper name. As I read the actual
inscription there at Miletus I wondered that it did not run ‘“‘ Place
of the Jews and of those who are called God-fearing.” But there
can be no doubt that ‘‘ God-fearing ”’ is here an appellation of the -
Jews.2, The imperfect execution of the inscription allows us,
perhaps, to suppose that the Milesian Jewish community, like
that of Corinth,? was not very wealthy.
The inscription is important in social history chiefly as Showing
that the Milesian Jews did not share the antipathy of their strict
co-religionists to the theatre, of which there are frequent signs
elsewhere.4 The process of Hellenisation or secularisation that
we have frequently observed in Jewish inscriptions ὅ is reflected
also in this one, put up in a pagan theatre by worshippers of the
One God (or by the theatre authorities for them). We are
reminded of the Jew Philo of Alexandria, who relates ® that he was
once present at a performance of a tragedy by Euripides.
1 As shown by the τῶν καί, which should be regarded in the same way as the
"ὃ καί found as a stereotyped form with double names (Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 181 ff.;
Bible Studies, p. 313 8). [Cf. p. 280,n. 6 above. TR.]
2 The nearest parallel would be Θεοσεβεῖς used as a proper name for the
Hypsistarians (Schiirer, III.? p. 124).—But θεοσεβής has since turned up
in a Jewish synagogue inscription of the 3rd cent. a.p. from Lydia, which
mentions a benefactor Εὐστάθιος ὁ θεοσεβής (Keil and von Premerstein, Bericht
tiber eine dritte Reise in Lydien, No. 42). The man was no doubt a
proselyte.
3 Page 16,n. 7 above.
4 Abundant data in Schiirer, II. Ὁ. 45 f. [Eng. trs., Div. II., vol. 1, p. 32 f.].
5. Cf. the Jewish records of manumission, p. 321 ἔν above, and the prayers
for vengeance at Rheneia, p. 413 ff. above.
ὁ Opera (ed. Mangey) 11. p. 467; cf. Schiirer, II.® p. 45 (Eng. trs., Div. IT.,
vol. I, p. 32].
 APPENDIX IX
THE SO-CALLED “ PLANETARY INSCRIPTION "ΙΝ THE THEATRE AT
MILETUS A LATE CHRISTIAN PROTECTIVE CHARM

In the north-west corner of the same theatre which has given us

the new inscription described in Appendix VIII. there is on the
outer wall an inscription which has long been known and which
has often been discussed under the name of the “ planetary
inscription ’’ of Miletus. I had been long acquainted with it from
the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (No. 2895), and had no doubt
met with it occasionally in commentaries on the New Testament,
there quoted in proof of the worship of angels 1 in Asia Minor in
the time of St. Paul (Colossians ii. 18). When it was shown to us
in situ by Theodor Wiegand on 17 April, 1906, in the brilliant
light of an Ionian sun, I immediately perceived a strong contrast
between its real appearance and the picture left upon my memory
by the Corpus of Inscriptions. There was quite a late look about
the inscription, and its ‘“‘ mistakes’ in form reminded me of the
early Byzantine papyri.
My impression was confirmed by Wiegand’s opinion of the style
of the characters, and especially by his accurate reconstruction
of the architectural history of the theatre.2. Wiegand’s opinion,
shared also by Schiirer,? agrees with Cumont’s theory,‘ but stands
1 The late Christian character of the inscription once established, it follows
that it can no longer be thus appealed to. Moreover, the “ worshipping of
the angels ” of which St. Paul speaks is an ironical designation for strict Jewish
piety, regulated by the law (which originated with the angels).
3 Cf. Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1904,
p. 91. A fragment of the same text, agreeing with this, has been found
meanwhile in another part of the theatre. It is, as Frickenhaus writes to me
(letter, Miletus, 28 September, 1907) the left-hand upper corner of a block
of grey marble; two mortise-holes to the left on top; greatest height 7}
inches; greatest breadth 10} inches; greatest thickness 12} inches; greatest
height of the letters 1 inch. The remaining letters of the inscription are the
same as at the beginning of the great inscription: JEOYAI .(the last
letter is no doubt the remains of an); beneath this come A and the remains
ofan €; and, above, there is the same monogram as in the great inscription.
3 Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 6 (1905) p. 50.
4 Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire, 15 (1895) p. 273. See also Boll’s
article “‘Hebdomas” in the Real-Encyclopddie of Pauly, Wissowa and
Kroll.
453
454 APPENDIX IX
in sharp contrast to the traditional view, according to which the
text is either pagan or Judaeo-pagan.1 Rigid examination
.of
this important text, however, completely vindicates Wiegand’s
judgment.
My readers are indebted to Wiegand for the good facsimile—
the first, I believe, to be made from a photograph—here given in
Figure 85. The dimensions? are as follows: present breadth
41 inches, height 24 inches, height of the largest letters 1 inch,
height of the smallest letters 4 inch. The peculiar arrangement
of the iriscription is clearly seen from the figure. It begins with
a line consisting of symbols; originally no doubt there were seven,
but they are now reduced to five. Then comes a line carved in
large letters; it will be seen from the figure to what extent they
are separated 8 :—

IEOYAHWIAWAIEOYAHWIWAEHOYIAWIHEOYENON
[+ about 14 letters].

It consists, then, of a row of vowels, seemingly without recognisable

principle of permutation,‘ but perhaps to be thus divided :—

Ieovanw Iawal Eovayun Ὠαεηουι Αωιήεου ἐν ὀν[όματιδ

+ about 9. letters],
or thus :—
Teovaywi AwA Ιεοναηωι, etc.

Under the row of vowels there were originally no doubt seven

ovals, of which five and a half now remain. The outlines are
rudely drawn and the spacing is irregular, but each oval is placed
exactly below the foot of the corresponding symbol in the upper-
most line. Each contains an inscription in smaller characters,
and each inscription begins with the series of seven vowels arranged
in exact alphabetical permutation (aeyovw, eqiovwa etc.), and
ends with the prayer :—
1 Cf. for example Ernst Maass, Die Tagesgéttey in Rom und in den Provinzen,
Berlin, 1902, p. 244 f.: “Τὸ is no doubt a compromise between Jewish and
Hellenic ”’ (Ρ. 245).
2 Communicated to me by A. Frickenhaus (letter, Miletus, 28 September
1907).
8. The text of this line in the Corpus is very faulty, and moreover broken up
nto single words in a misleading manner.
4 On such series of vowels in magic cf. Bibelstudien, Ὁ. 1 ff.; Bible Studies,
p. 321 ff. No separation of this row of vowels into groups of seven is possible.
5 This restoration is not certain.
Early

Miletus.
Theatre
the
at
in
Wiegand.
Theodor
of
ion

permiss
By

Period.
Byzantine

Inscription
Archangel
85.—Christian
Fic.
 APPENDIX ΙΧ 455
ἅγιε, O Holy One,
φύλαξον 1 keep
τὴν πόλιν the city
Μιλησίων of the Milesians
καὶ πάντας and all
TOUS κατοι- that dwell therein.
κοῦντας.

At the bottom of all is the following, again in the large lctters

of the first line :—
᾿Αρχάγγελοι, φυλάσσεται 3 ἡ πόλις Μιλησίων καὶ πάντες of κατ[οικοῦντες.]
Archangels, keep the city of the Milesians and all that dwell therein.

Boeckh in the Corpus began his commentary with the remark

that no doubt the inscription originally had seven compartments
for the seven “ planets.” Since then the name “ planetary
inscription’ has been regularly employed, although Boeckh’s
assertion was a pure fetitio principii. And although Boeckh
himself showed that the symbols placed over the compartments
were by no means the stereotyped ones for the planets, the
descriptions always say that the inscription begins with the
“planetary symbols.” In order to be sure on this point I
submitted the symbols to the late Franz Boll, our best authority
on ancient astrology, and received from him the assurance that
they are not planetary symbols, or at least that up to that date
he had never met with any certain example of their use as such.
In interpreting the inscription, therefore, we must not begin
with the uncertainties—‘‘ planetary symbols ’’ which are really
nothing of the kind; we must begin with the certainties, which
are the word“ archangels "ὁ and the series of vowels. Are there
any other cases known where the archangels occur in combination
with series of vowels?
This question must be answered in the affirmative. Papyrus

1 This reading is certain; the Corpus gives an erroneous reading.

3.1.6. φυλάσσετε. The incorrect nominative which follows shows that
the inscription is vulgar and not official.
8 Letter, Wiirzburg, 19 October, 1907. Out of the stores of his learning
Boll provided me with abundant data relating to ancient symbols which I
unfortunately cannot utilise here.—It seemed to me when I was in Galilee,
in April 1909, that some of the ancient magical symbols are still in use
among the modern Arab population as tattoo marks.
‘ Iam well aware that elsewhere the archangels are frequently brought into
connexion with the planets by the ancients, but that is no reason for identifying
archangels and planets without special grounds.
456 APPENDIX IX
No. 124 in the British Museum,! written in the 4th or 5th century
A.D., gives a powerful formula consisting of four parallel columns,
each containing seven magic names. In columns 1 and 3 the
following series of vowels and names of archangels are found
exactly corresponding with one another :—

I αεηιονω Μιχαὴλ
2 εηιουωα Ῥαφαηλ
3 ηιουωαε Γαβριηλ
4 vovwaen Σουριηλ3
5. ουωαεῆι Ζαζιηλ
6 νωαεηιο Βαδακιηλ8
7 waentov Συλιηλ

These series of vowels in the Egyptian papyrus are, however,

down to the last letter, exactly the same as those carved in regular
alphabetic succession on the marble at Miletus in the several
(originally seven) compartments. On this account, and more
especially since the bottom line of large letters expressly addresses
the archangels, we must interpret the symbols over each of the
seven compartments as symbols of the archangels. Since the
names of the seven archangels vary ὁ and they do not always occur
in a stereotyped order, we are not bound to assign the seven
compartments of the Milesian inscription precisely to the seven
angels mentioned in the papyrus. The only thing necessary is
that in the symbols above the several compartments, which have
been hitherto regarded as planetary symbols, we should look for
monograms or tokens of the seven archangels. Experts in Byzan-
tine monograms and masons’ ligatures will do well to take account
also of the symbols and ligatures employed in astrological texts,®

1 Greek Papyri in the British Museum, ed. F. G. Kenyon (Vol. 1.), p. 123.
After completing my manuscript I saw that Wiinsch, Antikes Zaubergerat aus
Pergamon, p. 30, also compares this papyrus with the Milesian inscription.
2 This is perhaps equivalent to the stereotyped form Uriel. There are,
however, other instances of Surtel. ;
3 This is of course a clerical error for Zadakiel (Zadakael, Zidktel), cf. W.
Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitaltey, Berlin,
1903, p. 319.
4 Cf. the literature referred to in Schirer’s article, p. 21.
5 Franz Boll, as hinted above, had great store of material at his command;
ef. his hints in the Neue Jahrbiicher fir das klassische Altertum, 21 (1908)
Pp. 121, 126; also the plates of facsimiles in Ios. Heeg, Hermetica, an offprint
from the Catalogus codicum astrologorum Graecorum, VIII. 2, Bruxelles, 1911,
and the references at p. 24.
 APPENDIX IX 457
magical papyri,1 and Christian inscriptions? of other periods.
We may in any case expect the most popular of the archangels,
Michael, Raphael, and Gabriel; Michael, as the most powerful,
would perhaps be in the middle,? Raphael and Gabriel perhaps at
the beginning,‘ and in the fifth place perhaps (as in the papyrus)
Zaziel or Zadakiel. The distribution of the single names is,
however, for the present not at all certain, and remains of secondary
importance.
Further confirmation, importing a new factor into the dis-
cussion, is afforded by a Vienna magical papyrus of the 4th century
A.D. published by Wessely.® It consists of two columns; in the
left-hand column is the magic word αβλαναθαναλβα, written
out so that the letters form a triangle with the apex downwards; ?
in the right-hand column and at the bottom of the left column, a
large number of angelic 8 and Divine names promiscuously. The
end runs thus :—

Μιχαήλ, Αδηνι Οὐυσουρ, Michael, Adeni Usur,

Γαβριήλ, Σουριήλ, Ῥαφαήλ, Gabriel, Suriel, Raphael,
φύλαξον Yodia(sic) ἣν ἔτεκεν keep Sophia, whom
@ea[. . .?] ἀπὸ παντὸς... Thea(...?) bore, from all...

Here we have still more clearly the plan of the Milesian formula :
1 For example in Kenyon, pp. 90-122, there are a number of symbols,
some of them resembling the Milesian ones; similarly in the magical papyri
edited by Wessely and others.
* Some examples in the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, IV. pp. 395, 397.
* For the position of Michael in the middle cf. Bousset, Die Religion des
Judentums, p. 319; and especially the Jewish identification of Michael with
Mercury, over whose day, Wednesday (dies Mercurii), he is placed, U. F. Kopp,
Palaeographia critica, 111., Mannhemii, 1829, p. 334 f.; W. Lueken, Michael,
G6ttingen, 1898, p. 56.—Further, cf. James A. Montgomery, Aramaic Incanta-
tion Texts from Nippur, Philadelphia, 1913, p. 96 ff. ᾿
4 The series of archangels begins thus.occasionally elsewhere, Ferd. Weber,
Jiidische Theologie auf Grund des Talmud und verwandter Schriften,? p. 169.
The first symbol in the Milesian inscription seems to contain a P, the second
af. With the same serpentine ligature [ occurs as an abbreviation for part
of a word in an inscription (Inscriptiones Graecae, IV. No. 205) on a similar
subject quoted below, p. 459, n. 4.
5 There seems to be clearly a Z in the symbol.
6. Denkschriften der Kaiserl. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien,
Philos.-histor. Classe, vol. 42 (1893) p. 70 f.
7 Wessely says “‘ in the form of a wing”; that would be in the technical
language of magic mrepvyoedds, which, however, surely indicates an
arrangement of letters in this shape, q. The figure vy, which we have in the
papyrus,is called βοτρυδόν, ‘‘ shaped liked a bunch of grapes ᾿᾿ (Testamentum
Salomonis, ed. Fleck, p. 133; ed. McCown, Leipzig, 1922, p. 58*).
® In line 4 Wessely reads μελχιηα; it is certain to have been originally
Μελχιηλ.
458 APPENDIX ΙΧ .
—(z) magic letters, (2) invocation of the archangels, (3) the
prayer “keep...”
Those who attach importance to chance circumstances may
insist on the incorrect nominative Σοφία, which corresponds
to the incorrect nominative in the last line of the Milesian
inscription.
Thus the inscription at Miletus would seem to be a prayer made
more powerful by the use of magic symbols, and addressed to the
seven archangels, for the preservation of the city and its. inhabi-
tants. First of all the angels are indicated severally by their
secret symbols; then follows a great line of adjuration applying
to them collectively; and the compartments (originally seven in
number) contain the adjuration, strengthened by the magic
vowels, addressed to each of the Holy Ones in turn :

“Ὁ Holy One, keep the city of Miletus, and all that dwell therein.”

Last of all comes the prayer to them collectively :—

" Archangels, keep the city of Miletus, and all that dwell therein.”

The question whether this inscription is pagan, Jewish, or

Christian has a different meaning, according as we are thinking
of the contents, or of the men who had it carved on the wall of
the theatre-at Miletus. The contents do not in the least point
to paganism, and all the externals are against its having originated
in pagan times. In itself the inscription might be Jewish: the
archangels are Jewish, although not primitive Jewish, and in
ancient Miletus, where we even encounter St. Paul at a solemn
hour in his life,! there certainly were Jews.?
Moreover, as regards contents, the prayer has been influenced
by the Septuagint? Yet the prominent position of the inscription
and its repetition in another place make it very improbable that
the text was set up by the doubtless small Jewish minority or
even by a single Jew. What sounds Jewish in the contents of the
prayer has long become Christian by inheritance and adoption.
Prayer “ for the city ” particularly was an invariable concomitant
of Christian worship in Anatolia even in early times,* and must
1 Acts xx. 15 ff.
3 Cf. the remarks above, p. 451 f., on the Jewish inscription in the theatre
at Miletus.
3 Psalm cxxvi. [cxxvii.] 1, ἐὰν μὴ κύριος φυλάξῃ πόλιν, εἰς μάτην ἠγρύπνησεν ὁ
φυλάσσων, “᾿ except the Lord keep the city, the watchman waketh but in
vain.’ Again, πάντες of κατοικοῦντες is a common Septuagint formula, the
fixity of which perhaps helped to occasion the error in the last line of the
inscription.
The Greek Liturgies, ed. by C. A. Swainson, Cambridge, 1884, pp. 84,
92, IIo.
 APPENDIX IX 459
therefore have been something quite familiar. Furthermore,
the worship of the archangels, especially of Michael, was extremely
popular in early Christian Asia Minor.1 Theodor Wiegand, the
explorer of ancient Miletus, found some years ago between Didyma
and Miletus an early Byzantine basilica, in which an inscription
was discovered, built. into the mosaic of the narthex, and contain-
ing an invocation of an archangel.? To this day throughout
Greek Christendom innumerable evening prayers are uttered to the
guardian angel: “ O holy angel of God, . . . keep me from every
assault of the Adversary.”’ 3
In all probability, therefore, we have here before us a Christian
memorial of the period when the theatre was converted into a
citadel. Not indeed an official manifesto of the clergy of Miletus;
they would surely not have employed magic symbols thus publicly.
It is more likely to have been a private venture, perhaps the work
of the guardsmen of the Christian stronghold that was built on
the secure and massive foundation of the ancient masonry. The
“prayer on the stone imploring the princes of the heavenly host to
protect the city from all the dangers to which it was exposed in a
‘troublous age seemed to the faith of the soldiers more efficacious
in the form of a protective charm.
In the reign of Justinian an imperial official named Bictorinus
caused two very similar prayers for protection to be carved on
stone at Corinth or in the Isthmus, addressed to Christ and the
Virgin Mary. There are no magic lines, but there are similar
formulae and similar mistakes.4 These prayers seem to me to be
an additional confirmation of the Christian nature of the Milesian
inscription. They may even throw light on the exact date of its
origin, which will no doubt be more closely determinable as the
1 Lueken, Michael, p. 73 ff.
* Sitzungsberichte, 1904, p. 89.
3 ἅγις "Ayyede τοῦ Oeod,. . . διαφύλαξόν pe ἀπὸ πάσης ἐπηρείας τοῦ ἀντικειμένου
(Tepa ΣΖυνοψις καὶ τὰ ayia παθη μετα τῶν κυριακων ευαγγελιων εἐκδοσις vewrarn ὁμοία
κατὰ πάντα πρὸς τὴν ἐγκεκριμένην ὑπὸ τοῦ Οἰκουμενικοῦ Πατριαρχείου τελευταίαν
ἔκδοσιν, ev Αθηναις, 1094 sic [1904], p. 90).
.4 Inscriptiones Graecae, IV. No. 204 (discovered in the Isthmus, now lying
in front of the Demarchy at New Corinth): ἱ Φῶς ἐκ φωτός, θεὸς ἀληθινὸς ἐκ
θεοῦ ἀληθινοῦ, φυλάξῃ τὸν αὐτοκράτορα ᾿Ιουστινιανὸν καὶ τὸν πιστὸν αὐτοῦ δοῦλον
Βικτωρῖνον ἅμα τοῖς οἰκοῦσειν (sic) ἐν ᾿Ελάδι (sic) τοὺς κατὰ θεὼν (sic) ζῶντας Τ,
“+ Light of Light, very God of very God, keep the Emperor Justinian and his
faithful slave Bictorinus, together with them that dwell in Hellas and godly
livet.” Ibid., No. 205 (discovered at or near Corinth, now in the Museum at
Verona) : t ‘Ay(ia) Μαρία, θεοτόκε, φύλαξον τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ φιλοχρίστου
᾿Ιουστινιανοῦ καὶ τὸν γνησίως δουλεύοντα αὐτῷ Βικτωρῖνον Τ σὺν τοῖς οἰκοῦσιν ἐν
Κορίνθῳ κ(ατὰ) θεὼν (sic) t ζῶντας {, “1 Holy Mary, Mother of God, keep the
kingdom of Justinian, the friend of Christ, and Bictorinus t, who served him
truly, with them that dwell in Corinth and godly { live f.”
460 APPENDIX IX
study of laté inscriptions advances. The influence of the Christian
liturgy on these Corinthian prayers is likewise unmistakable.t
1Cf. for example the Liturgy of St. Chrysostom (Swainson, p. 92), μνήσθητι,
κύριε, τῆς πόλεως ἐν fi παροικοῦμεν καὶ πάσης πόλεως καὶ χώρας Kal τῶν πίστει κατοι-
κούντων ἐν αὐταῖς, ‘‘ Remember, O Lord, the city in which we dwell
and every city and district, and them that dwell in them in the faith.”
 APPENDIX X
UNRECOGNISED BIBLICAL QUOTATIONS IN SYRIAN AND MESOPO-
TAMIAN INSCRIPTIONS

(Reprinted with slight alterations from Philologus 64 [1905] pp. 475-478.)

In the Byzantinische Zeitschrift 14 (1905) pp. I-72, Baron Max

von Oppenheim and Hans Lucas published “ Greek and Latin
Inscriptions from Syria, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor.””1 The
majority of the Greek inscriptions are of Christian origin, and, as
most of them are dated, they are particularly valuable, especially
for the palaeography and textual history of the Greek Bible.?
The importance of inscriptional evidence as to the text of the
Bible in general has not yet been sufficiently recognised, but any-
one familiar with the present position of the problems relating
to the recensions by Lucianus and Hesychius will welcome every
Greek Biblical quotation that can be certainly located and dated.
The above-mentioned inscriptions contain a comparatively large
number of Biblical references, and almost all of them can be
located and dated. So far as they originate from places in Syria,
they arouse our interest on account of the text of Lucianus, the
sphere of whose influence is to be looked for especially in those
regions. Hans Lucas, the editor of the inscriptions, of course
recognised most of the quotations; in the following pages we shall
only bring forward a few inscriptions in which he either failed to
see, or perhaps intentionally left unnoticed, the Biblical quotations.
I content myself with merely pointing them out, without address-
ing myself'to the Lucianus problem or the general question of
the relationships of the text. The numbers are those used by
Lucas; the names denote the places where the inscriptions were
found; the illustrations referred to far comparison are in Lucas.
No. 15. ‘Ali Kasiin, 394 A.D., πάντα ἐκ θεοῦ comes from
2 Corinthians v. 18.
1 Cf. also the notes by Mercati in the same volume of the Byzantinische
Zeitschrift, p. 587, and by Clermont-Ganneau, ἐδία., 15 (1906) p. 279 ff., which
did not come to my notice until after my article was printed.
3 Cf. p. 23 above.
ABI
462 ΑΡΡΕΝΡΙΧ Χ
No. 21. Tamak, 559 Α.Ρ., thus read and transcribed by
Lucas :—
JONWCEIMPO ee ee ee ee
ἸΝΧΕΡΟΥΒΕΙ τῶ]ν χερουβεί[μ],

is a quotation from LXX Psalm Ixxix. [Ixxx.] 2 :—

[ὁ ποιμαίνων τὸν Ἰηλ πρόσχες, ὁ ὁδηγ]ῶν ὡσεὶ πρό-

[Bara τὸν Ἰωσήφ ὁ καθήμενος ἐπὶ τῶ]ν χερουβεὶμ]
[ἐμφάνηθι.......

No. 23. Kasr Νανᾷᾶ, undated, facsimile figure 4, is thus read

and transcribed by Lucas :—

Τ᾿ ΛΉΓΙΟ ? π]λησίο-
] TION vo... .}reov
JWPAIAWC . oe + + ὡραία ὡς
]PrOCAAA . «4 « Ίργος 8a8-
JIKAAHKAI . oe ee καλὴ καὶ
]NCOI Ἷ νον νον ἢν σοι

The editor remarks: ‘‘ The contents were probably of a religious

nature, but my attempts at restoration have not succeeded. One.
is much reminded of the Song of Solomon, cf. vi. 3; Καλὴ
εἶ πλησίον pov, ὡς εὐδοκία, ὡραία ds ᾿Ιερουσαλήμ (cf. also verses 5, 6).
Von Wilamowitz reminds me that AAA in line 4 might signify
Aafeié.” It is a. pity that this right clue was not followed up.
The inscription is in fact made up of words taken from the
Song of Solomon, viz. from chapter iv.; but only a selection,
not the full text, is given. This makes it much more difficult
to reconstruct the lines correctly. The following restoration on
the basis of LXX Song of Solomon iv. 1, 3, 4, 7, makes no claim
to have recovered the original arrangement of the lines; it merely
tries to hinge the endings of the lines together :—

I) ἰδοὺ εἶ καλὴny ἡ π]λησίο[ν

a
μι σου περιστεραί,
μου. ὀφθαλμοί ραί, (3 ὡς σπαρ]τίον
ρ
[τὸ κόκκινον χείλη σου, καὶ 7 λαλιά σου] ὡραία. ὡς
ἧς ῥόαςῥόας μῆλόν
[λέπυρον τῆς μῆλέ σου" 4 ὡς πύ]ργος py Δαδ
[τράχηλός cov. (7) ὅλη, ἡ πλησίον pov, εἼΐ καλὴ καὶ
μῶμος οὐκ ἔστιν ἐν σοί.t

With regard to AAA = Aaved it is to be noted that the mark

of abbreviation seems to be recognisable in the facsimile,
 APPENDIX Χ 463
No. 24. Kasr Νανᾷᾶ, undated, facsimile figure 5, is read and
transcribed by Lucas :—

Ἷ EICEAC| Εἰσελεύσ. 2 2. eee ἐξο-

ΜΟΛΟΓΕΪ μολογήϊ[σ . ..
€=OMO[ eEouolAoy . ..
MAAYT[ μα αὐτί...

It is added that “‘ the contents are at all events of a religious

nature’; the editor is reminded of passages such as LXX Psalm
ΧΙ]. [xliii.] 4 and Revelation iii. 5. The inscription is, however,
.a quotation from LXX Psalm xcix. (c.) 4 :—

Εἰσέλθ[ατε εἰς τὰς πύλας αὐτοῦ ἐν ééo-]

, ν᾿ “»λ > nx» κ« Z
μολογή[σει, τὰς αὐλὰς αὐτοῦ ἐν ὕμνοις "]
ἐξομο[λογεῖσθε αὐτῷ,Y αἰνεῖτε τὸ dvo-]
pa adz[od*

It is very improbable that there was «is before rus in line 2 (as
there is in Codices 8 A R T etc.).
No. 25. Kasr Nawd, undated, is read, transcribed, and trans-
lated by Lucas :—
Vip, ACYMOYKPC[ -. σύ pov, K(¥)p(vo)s, . . Thou to me, O Lord,
JMOYTIAHCIC/,,,[ ... μου πλησίο[ν] .... to me art near,
JIHK €®AAHM[ .. . ἡ κεφαλή plov] ... my head
1 ommoyy [ ot μου ψ[υχῆς 9] alas, my soul (9)

The inscription is, however, again a quotation from the Song of

Solomon,! LXX v. 2 :—

[φωνὴ ἀδελφι]δοῦ pov κρού[ει ἐπὶ τὴν θύραν. avor-]

Edv μοι ἀδελφή] μου, πλησίον μου, περιστερά pov,]
[τελεία μον. ὅτ]ι ἡ κεφαλή plov ἐπλήσθη δρόσου]
[καὶ οἱ βόστρυχ]οί μον ψ[εκάδων νυκτός.] ᾿ ᾿

No. 39. Kasr el Beriidj, undated, ᾿Εμανονὴλ μεθ᾽ ἡμῶν ὁ θε[ό]ς..

Cf. Matthew i. 23. For the spelling Ἐμανονήλ see Onomastica.
Sacra, ed. Lagarde,? 4930 Cod. F.
No. 49. Kasr ibn Wardan, 564 A.D., πάντα εἰς δόξαν θ(εο)ῦ.
Quotation from 1 Corinthians x. 31.
No. 99. Diarbekr, 437 (?) A.D., ὧ[ν] τὰ dvdu(ata) ἐν β(() β(λῳ)
1 Probably an inscription for a door, with
a religious application; the words
of the Song of Solomon were probably connected with Rev. iii. 20 and inter-
preted allegorically of Christ,
464 APPENDIX Χ
[this, and not βιβλίῳ, would be the proper extension] -fu(js).
Quotation from Philippians iv. 3.

Apart from their importance as witnesses to the text, Biblical

quotations in inscriptions are always full of interest for the history
of devotion. They show what books of Holy Scripture were the
favourites, and what were the really popular texts. Not infre-
quently they enable us to see how they were interpreted. But
none of this has yet been worked out; people still prefer to cite
the Biblical quotations in the Fathers from bad editions of their
‘works. Let us hope that in the Corpus of Christian Inscriptions?
to. which we look forward the Biblical material will be treated in a
manner satisfactory alike to the demands of epigraphy. and of
modern Biblical philology.
1 A beginning has been made by Henri Grégoire, Recueil des inscriptions
Brecques chrétiennes d’Asie Mineure, Paris, 1922 ff. Cf. also Diehl’s Inscrip-
tiones Latinae Christianae Veteres, p. 23, n. 3 above.
 APPENDIX XI

KAUTSKY’S “‘ ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY ”’

STARTING from the doubtless correct premise that practical

association with modern movements within the lower classes
deepens our insight into the movements of the common people
in antiquity, Kautsky feels that he is qualified to investigate
by historical methods the problem of the origin of Christianity.
In doing so he is returning to an old love. Christianity was
“in its beginnings undoubtedly a movement among unpropertied
classes of the most varied type ’—he lays this down at once in
his preface, and here for the present I could agree with him,
even though I might feel obliged to insert a qualifying “ on the
whole.” From the obvious danger that a practical politician,
in taking up the pen of the historian, might be inclined to model
the past on the pattern of the present, or according to present-day
needs, Kautsky thinks that he is protected by the materialistic
method of his research.
Here already doubt arises whether a “‘ method ” so vigorously
cried up at the beginning really is a protection, or whether it does
not constitute a hindrance. But let us leave methodological
controversies alone; they are always a sign of uncertainty.
The great historians make no long speeches about the method
of, their work: they work. He who, having a method, does
violence to the sources, must be rejected, and his method with
him, be it even the method of the angels. He who with no pre-
tentious methods, but with keen eye and sure hand, extracts
all that is possible from the sources—he will conjure up the spirits
of the past.
In the question of sources Kautsky’s method seems to me to
have deserted him. He argues against the “ traditional concep-
tion’ of Christianity as the creation of one man, Jesus Christ.
Against this conception he first urges the well-known fact that the
profane historians of the early Roman Empire scarcely mention
the founder of Christianity. But this non-mention is the direct
1 Karl Kautsky, Der Ursprung des Christentums. Eine historische Unter-
suchung. Stuttgart, 1908. Pp. xvi, 500.—This review is reprinted from
** Die Hilfe "15 (1909) p. 123; cf. p. 395, n. 2 above.
Light from Ancient East. 465 HH.
466 APPENDIX ΧΙ :

result of the specifically non-literary nature of. Primitive Chris-

tianity—a movement among the weary and heavy-laden, men
without power or position, ‘‘ babes,’’ as Jesus Himself calls them,
the poor, the base, the foolish, as St. Paul with a prophet’s sym-
pathy describes them. Kautsky himself knows the passage.
The profane historians of the world contemporary with Primitive
Christianity were thoroughly aristocratic spirits, representatives
of the thin educated stratum, looking down and not up at the world.
The insignificant, despised movement that followed the appearance
of Jesus, the unknown Galilean, could not attract the attention
of these historians of state affairs, nor, if it had attracted their
attention; could it have seemed interesting to them.
If, therefore, the knowledge that the earliest Christianity was
in the main a movement of the lower orders be taken seriously,
Gibbon’s mockery, which Kautsky makes his own, becomes
altogether groundless.
Moreover, the Christian sources of the primitive period are
judged by Kautsky, not from the level of his own fundamental
conception, but from that of a sated Berlin rationalism which
looks. down genteelly and unhistorically upon the “ ignorance ”’
of the evangelists and their mania for miracles. Many passages
in the book read as if written, not by one who knows the lower
classes and their simple-heartedness, their enthusiasm, their
delight in the massive, the crude, and the palpable, but by some
pale anaemic representative of the bourgeois press, in whom the
rude strength and native vigour that a labour leader should possess
have been shrivelled by the atmosphere of the modern city. If
Primitive Christianity is a movement of the lower orders, how
could its literary relics be other than they are? We have learnt
just lately to look on them as books of the people; their lack of
literary affectation, their unconcern for doctrinaire reflectfon
and artificial refinement are too obvious. To the man who really
thinks historically, these birthmarks of the gospels are marks of
genuineness; and the whole apparatus of miracles is but the frame,
inevitable in antiquity, for the portrait that those simple narrators,
sprung from the people, are sketching, the portrait of Jesus.
This portrait is seen to be historically genuine when one has learnt
to look upon picture and frame as things distinct. It is the simple
souls that are capable, better perhaps than the sophisticated
historians,of seizing upon the characteristic featuresof a leading
personality. ᾿
Kautsky’s attitude towards the second great stratum of Primi-
tive Christian documents, the letters of St. Paul, is also incom-
prehensible on his own premises. From his point of view he ought
to have regarded these letters as fiery pamphlets in the agitation
 APPENDIX XI 467
conducted by an enthusiastic leader of the proletariat. Actually
he saddles himself with the opinions of certain curious critics,
who, mistaking the volcanic nature of the letters, treat and mal-
treat the tentmaker of Tarsus as if he were a Professor of Dog-
matics, and proceed with their scissors to carve out the genuine
Paulinism from the false.
Kautsky fails as an investigator of sources at yet another point.
His main thesis, that the origin of Christianity is to be accounted
for materialistically, is founded on a detailed description of the
state of society under the Roman Empire. I have no desire—it
would not be reasonable—that he should join the specialists and
himself become a professional historian. But even though he
takes his information at second and third hand, he ought never-
theless to have a look round the vast field of research that has been
opened up by modern epigraphy and papyrology. His picture
of Roman society is in my opinion out of date, because it is essen-
tially based upon the literary evidence. Such evidence does not
take us very far into the strata of society where the origins of
Christianity lie. Thanks to the newly discovered evidence con-
cerning the men of the Hellenistic East, as recorded by themselves,
we are now in an altogether different position for studying their
moods and feelings; and I do not find that Kautsky’s picture
becomes any more credible in the light of these documents.
The chief point of disagreement between Kautsky and myself
lies in our fundamental judgment of the Primitive Christian
movement. He sees in it a movement for the emancipation of
the proletariat, accompanied by a tendency to communism; and
thus he underrates quite considerably the effects of the creative
personality of Jesus and of St. Paul. The longer I work at these
subjects, the more strongly do I realise the popular religious
enthusiasm of Primitive Christianity; and it would all be unin-
telligible to me without Jesus as its power-centre—Jesus, whose
inmost life goes on thrilling and pulsating in Paul and all the others.
What Kautsky saw by instinct, namely the connexion of Primitive
Christianity with the ranks of the people—that is correct. But
what he calls an historical inquiry, what he calls a materialistic
explanation of the origin of Christianity, is an interesting attempt
at construction, but remains after all—construction.
 INDICES
(The references ave to pages and footnotes. E.g., 269,= p. 269,ἢ. 1; and
2699 = the portion of note which has overlapped from p. 268)

I.—PLACES.
ABERDEEN, Vii, 139 Antinoé, 382, 36449
Abila, 51, 3534 Antioch in Pisidia, 5,, 435 ff., 436,
Abilene, 5; Antioch on the Orontes, xiii, 1, 65,
Abyssinia, 3355 48» 785, 86, 90, 41, 95, 281g,
Acraephiae, 3544) 3712 2827, 3452, 392
a me 281,, 282, 286, 329, Antipatris, 255
Antiphellus (Lycia), 90,;
ἂς ρον (Athens), 286 Apamea, ΟῚ
Actium-Nicopolis, 373 Aphrodisias, 3575
-Adramyttium, 348, Aphrodite, village in Egypt, 3705,
Aegean, 20 372
Aegina, 286, 413, Pie (Arabah), valley, 14,
Aegira, 273, Arabia, 14,4, 136, 138
Aeolia, 17, Aradus, 2538. 3441
-Aetolia, 321, Arcadia, 372
ες Aezani, 376, Areopagus, 384, 387-390
Afghanistan, 144 Arethusa, Fountain of, 28
Afium-Kara-Hissar, xiii Arles, 221
Africa, 25, 66; Province of, 362, Armenia, 153, 363.
ΑΚΒταῖπι, 42.,
Ala-shehr
433 ς΄.
(Philadelphia),
cg
xiii, 244,
Arsinoé ({τοροά!ο 0115); 31, 92, 190,
2685, 36419
311, 374
Alexandretta, xiii
Arsinoite nome, 18723, 190, 205, 207,
20949, 210 ff. See Fayim.
Alexandria, xiii, 28, 56,, 163,, 167 ff., Ashmunén (Eshmunein), ft 305
1804, 182, 184,, 201 ff., 206-213, Asia, Province of, 237, 2784, 300, 344,
3245, 442 ff 3491) 379, 3715, 437, 451
advent-coin, 3715 Asia Minor, xiii, xvi, 4371
Alexandrian O.T., 48, 423 archaeology and inscriptions, 5, 6,
Biblical lexicography begins, 405 13-19, 221, 3, 6, 8, 3034, 328,
bishop and clergy, 452, 206-213 374, 461, 4644
god of the city, 3454, 3652 cult of archangels, 459
graffito, 303, culture and civilisation, 275, 278,
inscription, 352 280 ff., 286, 287.
Jews at, 459, 1204, 423, 452 difficulties of travel in, 279
papyri written at, 84, 152 ff., 167, influences St. Paul, 308 f., 335
1925, 19319, 195 Kowy, 89 ff., 104, τοῦ f.
‘Ali Kasiin, 461 languages, 651
Amalfi, 235, south-west, 171, 9010, 114, 115,
Amorgus, 1178 3122
Amphissa, 3215 special words: διατάσσεσθαι, 909;
Anapo, river, 28 πάπας, 2192; , κυριακός, 357;
Anathoth, 34 Sebaste Day, 359, 360f.;
Anatolia, xiii, 14,, 380, 458 παρουσία, 370
Ancyra, 282,, 3745 western, 144, 348,
Andros, 1391, 1425, 143 Aspendus, 152, 154, 155
Angora, xiii. See Ancyra. Assiout, 445
Anticythera, 293 Assuan. See Syene.
Antigonea, 341; Assur, 523
46a
470 INDEX
Athens, the Acropolis, 286 Bosporan kingdom, 363,
antiquities preserved there, 52,, Braunsberg, xi, 328), 420,
563, 286, 2932, 413 ff., 422 Bremen, 116, 394,
+ author’s visit, 563, 245,, 2814, 414 Breslau, 265
Hadrian at, 372 Britain, 12, 448); ancient, 300, 371,
inscriptions, 859,971, 376, . 4473 |
oldest Greek letter found there, 150 Bubastis, 138,
ostraca at, 52 Bubon, 312,
publications, 2451, 4032, 404, Bucharest, xvi, 413 ff., 422
St. Paul at, 99, 254, 384, 387-390 Buda-Pesth, xvi
Attica, 955, 130, 150;, 287, 303,, Bulgaria, 376,
3047, 305, 3671, 3726 Bushey, 3133
Austria, 230,, 442,. See Vienna. Byzantium, 378.4, 456
Avroman, 32; 36
Caesarea, 753, 237, 279, 3452
Baalbec, xiii Cairo, xi, xili, xvi, 40, 423, 505;
Baden, 1243 152, 162, 4275, 430 ff.
Baetocaece, 101 Calymna, 4453
Baiseira, 33 Cambridge, xi, xvi, I, 172
Baithabarta, 33 edition of LKX, 424, 437
Bale, 311, 40, 2052 Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A., [240 (Fig.
Balik-laou (Balyklagho), 2804 46)]
Beersheba, 36 Cambridgeshire, 225,
Behnesa. See Oxyrhynchus. Campania, 275
Berenice (Cyrenaica), 115, Candia, 280,
Berenice, Port of, 154, 1551 Capernaum, xiii
Berlin, xi, xvii, xix, 354 Cappadocia, 192 ff.
Academy, 123, 13¢, 375, 137 Caranis, 187 ff., 268,
Botanical Gardens, 26,, 29 Caria, 171, 116g, 3630, 370ς, 37511
inscriptions, 106, 3121, 3152, 341, Carmel, xiii
3455, 3462, 3471) 5, 30015, 366 Carpathus, 81
Museum, glass goblets, 130 Carthage, 3563
Museum, lead tablet, 95, 150 Cerceosiris, 369
Museum, oldest Greek letter, 150 Cerigo, 293, _
Museum, papyri, 28, 373, 43f., Cerigotto, 2932
170 ff., 179 ff., 184 ff., 187 ff. Ceryza, 328,
Museum, parchments, 45, Chaeronia, 321g
Museum, publications, 135-5 Chaidari, near Athens, 150
names and tombstones, 279, Chalia, 321
New Testament Seminar, ostraca, Chersonese, Tauric, 362,
5τι; Ppapyri, 46,, 1844, 186,, Chicago, 40
3950 Chile, 254
ostraca, 54, 105 Chinili Kiosk, 80,
papyri (‘ Berliner Griechische Ur- Cibyratis, 17,
kunden’’), 40, 54, 741 845, 85, Cilicia, 174, 91, 975, 115
865, 7» 89, 94, TI75, IIQs, 6» 1350, Cnidus, 153 f., 156 ff
1729, 185,0, 186,, 1977, 2117, Coblentz, 408,
2342) 2354) 2693, 2705, 298,, 3245, Coelesyria, 153»
3315) 3344) 3413, 3423 Cologne, 3513, 3785
Prussian State Library, papyrus, Colossae, 237, 279, 335
367 Congo, 29,
Reichspost Museum, xvii, 170 Constantinople, xiii, xvi, 80
Beroea, 437 Corinth, 1, 300, 4371
Bethel (Bielefeld), 51 advent coin, 371
Bethlehem, xiii, 271, archaeology and inscriptions, 19,,
Beyrout, xiii 4591.
Bielefeld, 51 Christian church at, 193, 276,
Bingerbriick, 74 301 ff., 328 f., 361
Birmingham, 313, 129, Gulf of, 287
Birseba, 36 the Macellum at, 276
Bithynia, 87, 3156, 3715, 3786 Nero at, 354, 371
Black Sea, 152, 3, 88, 300, 310, 315. St. Paul at, 240, 276, 279, 392, 437
See Latyschev in Index V. St. Paul's letters to, 21,, 107, 236f.,
Bocotia, 2819, 354 239, 246, 279, 301 ff., 329, 351,
Bonn, 262, 378, 361, 391
 INDEX 471
Corinth, situation of, 281,, 286, 391 Egypt, soul-types, 296-299
synagogue inscription, 8, 16, special words: κύριος, κυριακός,
4511. 350-358; Sebaste Day, 358 ff.;
Coronia, 3214 σωσικόσμιος, 364 f.; παρουσία,
ΟΟ5,145,19,115,2535, 280,,294,,294., 368 ff., 372; Καίσαρος, 377.
3214) 327ς, 330ς, 3455, 3711, 3722» topography of, 45, 173 f.
3774 Upper, 31, 429, 451, 57, etc.
Cremona, 131, village life, 267 f.
Crete, 98, 1009, 107, 2794, 2801, 293, wooden tablets, 99 f., 124,
, 423 See also Index IV.
Crimea, 129, ΄ Elatia, 3214
Crocodiles, City of, 31 Elephantine, 31, 371, 2, 524, 1759
Cyclades, 393 Eleusis, 286, 372
Cyprus, 235, 1594 El-Fayam. See Fayim.
Cyrenaica, 115, El-Hibeh. See Hibeh.
Cysis, 213 f. El-Khargeh, 358
Ephesus, xiii, xv, 1, 282, 286, 300
Dakkeh, 514, 117, 3524 archaeology and inscriptions, 13,,
Damascus, xiii, 14,, 282, 382 92, 112 f., 141, 269,, 2815, 309,
Daulis, 84,, 321 344) 3751
Dead Sea, xiii Isis cult, 141,
Delos, 15,, 61,, 156,, 2803, 286, St. Paul at, 160, 237,, 246, 254,
413 ff., 4221. ἢ 279, 2815, 329, 392
Delphi, 5,, 13, 14, 82, 873, 111, 227)», St. Paul’s letter to, 234 ff., 3134,
286, 311,, 320 ff., 322 f. . 4371 4384
Derbe, 437 in the Revelation, 244, 348, 374
Dessau, 7; Ruphus of, 89
Detroit, 42, sculpture from, 293
Diarbekr, 463 theatre of, 113, 281,, 309
Didlington Hall, Norfolk, 205 Epidaurus, 16,, 136, 280,, 286, 303,,
Didyma, 14ς, 2792, 282,, 286, 348,, 37%
᾿ 3718, 459 Eregli, 359, 36
Dill, river, 112, Erfurt, 265
Dionysias (Fayim), 216 ff. Erythrae, 12049
Dniester, 376, Eshmunein. See Ashmunén.
Dora, 715 Eski Shehr, xiii
‘Dorylaeum, 376, Euboea, 234, 96, 3654
Dublin, 40, Euhemeria, (Kasr-el-Banat), 134,,
298,
Ebedjik, 312, fuphrates, 12, 36
Eden, 260,
Edinburgh, xi Fayim, 189
Egypt, xiii, 6, 138, diptych from, 442-446
census papers, 69 inscriptions from, 2693, 345, 361
Christianity in, 211ff., 213 ff., papyri from, 31f., 43, 47, 741, 81,
218 ff., 224 86, 907, 94, 1344, 7, 152, 162, 170,
diptych from, 442-6 179, 183 f., 187, 188,,, 189), 205,
Goths in, 38, 216, 219, 2342, 2984, 331, 3365,
hellenised, 9,, 66, 275, 341, 3675
inscriptions, 1385, 176, 270, 34524, Florence, 40, 190,, 269 f., 333 f..
358, 361, 4034, 4355 France, 442,
_ Kowy, 83, 86, 104 ff. Frankfort on the Main, xvi
lena! docaments: 34, 335 Freiburg im Breisgau (Germany), 40
Lower, xiii
Middle, 31 Galatia, inscription from, 219,;
ostraca, 50-60, 105, I10f., 166, πάπας, 3045; St. Paul’s letter to,
200, 204, 221, 224, 398, 403, 237, 246, 361
Pagan piety in, 155-161, 284 f. Galilee, xiii, 1,.64, 252, 392, 4553
papyrus and papyri in and from, Geneva, 40, 218, 271
21-32, 36-50, 255-263, 398, 4034, Germany, Roman, 74, 300
405 f., 425-429, 430-434 Giessen, 382, 40, 18915, 218,
papyrus letters, 149, 152, 162, 164, Gomorrah, 262,
167, 170, 172, 174, 176, 179, 184, Gorgippia, 321
187, 192, 197, 201, 205, 213, 215, Gorlitz, 381
216, 234 f., 296-299, 367 Graz, 62,
 472 INDEX
Greece, xvi, 6, 1323, 275, 352, 368, Jaffa, xiii
, 4042 ; Jéme, 221
Grimsby, 400, Jena, 434, 5, 483
Jericho, xili, 343, 1347
Bee ee ay 233, 26345, 3331 4184, Jerusalem, xiii
f., 1, 36,, 80, 1025,
1347, 1539» 160, 248,, 258, 26245,
Hatit κε ‘Audsha, 36 2031, 276, 3551. 419, 436,
Hagios Elias (monastery in Thera), 439 ff., 442 ff., 462
XV, 280, Jordan, xiii, 256, 262
Haifa, xiii Judaea, xiii, 1, 4454, 4463
Halicarnassus, 96;, 232, 3035, 3445
Halle, 515 Karlsruhe, 124,
Hamburg, 40, 462, 823, 1891, 36412 Kasr el-Banat. See Euhemeria.
Harvard University, 240, Kasr el Beriidj, 463
Hauran, 23, 90 f.
Kasr ibn Wardan, 463
Heidelberg, xvii, 1, 274, 542, 1249, 2319,
Kasr Naw4, 462 f.
2321, 2991, 4034, 406 (Fig. 74) Kefr Hauar, 109, 350,
Botanical Gardens, 26, Keures, 328,
ostraca, 541 Kigali, 25,
PapyTi, 30, 373, 4, 40, 442, 59, 21019, Kitega, 25
215, 2361, 2 γ» 25910 2984, 3344) 5» Konieh, Xili, 359, 2825
405 Kopanis, village in Parthia, 33 ff.
parchments, 59
Kores, 328,
Heraclia on the Black Sea, 2954
Koula, 328,
3157 Kreuznach, 74
Herborn, 127,, 237;, 406 f. Kuh-i-Sélan, one of the Avroman
_ Herculaneum, 753, 117 f., 118, Mountains, 32
“Hermonthis, 31, 221 f., 224 Kurdistan, 32, 3635
Hermopolis or Hermupolis Magna,
835, 5» 1901, 218, 236,, 2685
Hermupolis, village, 216 ff., 234 Lahn, river, 1123, 408,
Hermupolis Parva, 218 Laodicea, xiii, 237, 244, 282,, 348),
Hibch, 40, 87, 111, 164, 208, 374
Hierapolis, xiii, 14), 909, οι, 96,, Lebanon, 266
278,, 2823, 2 Leipzig, 31, 29, 40, 783, 91g, 100,
Hierapytna, 106 Leontopolis, 449,
Hileh, lake, 25, Letopolis, 31
Levant, 1
Tasus, 361, Leyden, 54, 1246, 137g, 3014
Ibedshik, 312, ΓῚ Libya, 174
Iconium, 6). See Konieh. Lille, 235,
Ida, Mount, 280, London, xi, xvii
Illyricum, 276, British Museum, 56.
Tonia, 311, Egypt Exploration Fund, ostraca,
Ios, 135 ff., 142, 288, 505, 221, 224; papyri, 164,, 167,,
Irbid, 90 , 4728, 1971
Ireland, 128, inscriptions in-B.M., 13, 2, 19, 80,,
Islands, xvi, 14, 20, 279 f. 922, 967, 1118, 141}, 3092, 5»
See also Aegean, Aegina, Amorgus, 344:
Andros, Anticythera, Calymna, ostracain B.M., 54
Carpathus, Cos, Crete, Cyprus, papyriin B.M., 30, 373, 40, 463, 83>,
Delos, Iasus, Ios, Myconos, 935 1373, 142}, 174, 192, 213,
Mytilene, Paros, Rhencia, Rhodes, 2144, 216, 218, 2214, 2357, 2707,
Salamis, Samos, Sicily, Syme, ae 306, 3344 3365, 3484, 3771
Thera.
Isthmus of Corinth, 459, parchments in B.M., 32
Istropolis, 85 S.P.C.K. “ revised Wettstein,” 3,
Italy, 753, 2003, 211, 275, 297, 354, the late F. Hilton Price’s collection,
3715 fo)
Southern, xvi, 275. See also Cam- igen, 2804
ania, Florence, Herculaneum, Lycia, 171, 904}, 104,, 113f., 294,
isenum, Naples, Pompeii, (3129, 338,
Rome, Tiber, Turin, Venice, Lydia, 141, 171, 1925, 2251, 3113, 328),
Verona. 45 2
Itanus, 106 Lystra, 280¢, 2810
 INDEX 473
Macedonia, 14,4, 300, 3715, 436 Olney, 388,
Maeander, 279,. See Magnesia. Olympia, 13, 286, 3445
Magdola, 268,. Orchomenus, 1119
Magnesia on the Maeander, 134, 20%, Oxford, 41,, 197, 201 f., 2354, 430
106 f., 2784, 3461, 3473, 3639, 3739 Oxyrhynchus (Behnesa), 203.4, 268
Manchester, 20., 46, bishop of, 223
Mantinea, 341, Logia from, 30, 413, 425-429
Marburg, 3, 346, nome of, 164,, 173
Margate, 442, ,other apocrypha, 41,4, 5
Mars’ Hill, 387 papyri from, 32, 40, 452 46 4911
Mauretania, 371, 753 817, 834, 85, 86, 90, 931, 116,
Medinet el-Fayim, 31 II7, 1105, 123, 134, 135, 141,
ce enean world, 55, 65f., 79, 167, 172, 176, 1772, 188), 197,
304 201, 2044, 208), 2143, 21744, 239
Megara, 563, 57a, 95, 144 288,, 308,, 3217, 3279, 3342
Melbourne, 320, 345u 4, 3518, 3533 7
Memnonia, the (=Jéme), Thebes, Biblical papyri, 30, 42, 230 f.
221
Memphis, 31 Palestine, xiiif., 6, 6,, 144, 146, 253
Menas, shrine in Egypt, 56, 36, 162, 253, 268 £., 2751, 353, 355
Menuthis, 76, Ι Palmyra, 81, 3633, 4473
Merom, waters of, 253 Pamphylia, 17;, 155
Mersina, xiii Panagia Kapuli, 281,
Mesopotamia, 144, 233, 461 ff. Panopolis, 31, 429
Methymna, 4453 Panticapaeum, 1029, 5, 321,8, 3271
Miletopolis, 31T, 3786
Miletus, 139, 157, 1146, 121, 282), Paris, Academy, 151
286, 328,, 348;, 3746 451f,, Great Magical Papyrus, 85, 254--
453 ff.
Milyas, 17,
264, 3024, 418
Mandaean inscription, 305
Misenum, 179 ff. ostraca, 54
Moesia, 3715 papyri, 40, 83, 134
Monodendri, cape, 134 Société des Etudes Juives, xi, 440
Milheim (near Cologne), 381 Parnassus, 321, 329
Munich, 40, 3524, 404, Paros, 266, 3153, 3703
Minster, 51, Patras, 3713
Myconos, 15, Pergamum, xv, 244, 286, 374
Myra (Lycia), 1145 archaeology and inscriptions, 13,,
Mytilene, 99, 20, 87, 90, QI, 1977, 264,, 278,
2815, 312, 315, 3331 3441, 3462,
Nahr el-Falik, 25, 3471 3486, 7 3491, 360f.,. 362,,
Nahr el-Kelb, 159 3758
Naples, 28, 753, 1799, 276, 354 Persia, 144, 354, 363, 3757 378:
Nassau, 406 Petersburg, St., 644, 152,
Naupactus, 321, 3245 Petra, 146
Nazareth, xiii, 8, 64, 73, 245, 291, Petrograd, 152,
_ 380, 383 Phaedriads, 286
New Corinth, 459, Philadelphia (Fayim), 152, 162,
New Haven, Conn., U.S.A., [176] 179 ff., 186, 189,, 442 ff.
New York, 40, Philadelphia (Lydia), xiii, 244, 311,
Nicaea (Bithynia), 87,, 3252 374
Nile, 12, 27, 29,, 174, 207 Philae, 350,, 352, 368,
Nippur, 457s Philippi, 237 f., 3313
Norfolk, 205, 225, Phmau, 200,
Notion, 321, Phoenicia, 74, 1539, 2535: 3441
Nubia, 234, 50, 514, 1176, 352s Phrygia, 192, 3715, 376 9
Numidia, 356, ; Phthochis, 173
Nysa (“‘ Arabia”), 137 £., 138, 142 Physcus, 321,
Nysa (Caria), 3706, 37511 Pisidia, 69, 171, 223, 3155
Plainfield, New Jersey, U.S.A., 131,
Oasis, Great, 46, 213 ff., 2144, 228, Plétzensee, xix
_ 2702, 358 Polydeucia, 134
Oenoanda, 9049 Pompeii, 117, 276 f., 37619
Ogowe, 25, Pompeiopolis, xiii
Olbia, 883, 152, 310, 3703, 378, Pontus, 153, 370
474 INDEX
Port Said, xiii Smyrna, xiii, xvi, 106, 107, 244, 266,
Prague, 36, 2697, 2814, 3487, 356, 3746
Priene, 135, 205, 86, 1062, 1155, 12049, Socnopaei Nesus, 134, 2681, 3452,
2784, 2953, 3103 3615
oe inscription, 3453, 3477 Sodom, 262,
3 South Shields, 4473, 4480
Prusias on the Hypius, 3155, 3789 Spain, 3715
Pselkis. See Dakkeh. Sparta, 84
Ptolemais (Acre), 2535 Stiris, 321
Strassburg, 37a 49, 43, 445, 541 564,
Qau-el-Kebir, 44, 4034,
Stratonicia, 1164, 3639
Rakhlé, 84, Stuttgart, 144 f.
Red Sea, 257 and 262 (1. 3054) Sudan, 25
Rheneia, 15;, 233, 1162, 3222, 413-424, Syene (Assuan), 31, 372 48, 1215,
_ 4525 1758»
Rhine, 12, 744, 3785 Syme, 103 f.
Rhodes, 23, Syracuse, 25, 27
Rhodiapolis, 171, 104}, 2943 Syria, xiii, 6, 11, 14, 158, 841, I01,
Rome, 448, 109, 1134, 1295, 1303, 1311, 1553»
1 Cor. known at, 391 275, 300, 350, 353, 3785, 436,
Hadrian at, 371 4489, 461-464
inscriptions, 16,, 914, 135, 2791 North, 144, 233
313, 3423, 371, 4353
Jewish inscriptions οὗ Monteverde, Talmi, 197,
185, 4402, 447-450 Tamak, 462
Jews at, 66 Tantura, 753
‘lord” emperor, 351 Taphis (Tehfah, Nubia), 23,
oldest(?) Christian -papyrus letter Tapotheca, 235,
written at, 47, 205-213 Tarsus, xiii, 8, 159, 2825, 291 , 381,
ostraca, 54 383, 467
St. Paul at, 237, 238, 392 Tauric Chersonese, 362
St. Paul’s letter to, 91, 235, 239 f., Tebtunis, 40, 83, 85, 987, 1977, 3242»
279 3094, 3701
Tiridates at, 354 Tefeny, 223
Rosetta, 3452, 3525 Tegea, 3154, 372
Ruhleben, xix Tehfah (Taphis), °N ubia, 234
Russia, 233, 64,. See Black Sea. Tekoa, 381
Tell el Yahoudieh (Leontopolis), 449,
Saba, 266 Tell Hum (Capernaum), xiii
St. Petersburg, 644, 152, Telmessus, 144
Sais, 1749 Termessus, 315,
Salamis, 286 Thala, 362,
Salihiyeh, on the Euphrates, 36 Theadelphia, 134, 189;
Samaria, xiii, 52, Thebaid, 2185, 3731
Samos, 1025 Thebes, the Memnonia, 221
Santiago de Chile, 25, ostraca from, 57, 105f., 110 f.,
Sardis, xiii, 155, 903, 91, 244, 348, 121f., 124,, 166, 200, 204 f.,
3746 3754 353 1., 359 1., 370
Scaptopare, 376, papyri from, 31
Scili (Scilli, Numidia), 2525, 356 Themistes division of the Arsinoite
Scotland, 46, nome, 134
Sedasa, 2805, 3527 Thera, xv, 142, 280,, 2804, 286
Seeland, 12, Thessalonica, 925, 172, 2199, 237, 3143,
Selinus, river, 315 (Fig 58) 371, 43
Serapeum 83, T. hessaly, ae
Sicily, 25,27, 87, 3715 This, 31
Diodorus of, 136 f. Thonis, 75,
Sidon, 74 Thyatira, 244, 3575» 374, 378,
Sieg, river, 3785 Tiber, river, 135
Siegburg, 378, Tiberias, xiii
Silesia, 124 Tiberias, lake, 253
Siloam, 1347, 135 Tithora, 321, 324.
Sinai, 144 Toéto, 214,
Siwa(h), oasis, 17415 Toledo, 227,
 INDEX. 475
Toronto, 76, Vienna, xvi, 442,
Tours, 128, Archaeological Institute, xvii, 103,
Trachonitis, 91 150f.,3047, 414f. (Figs. 75-77)
Transjordania, 162 papyri at, 373, 2354, 457
Trasimeno, lake, 254 publications, 13,, 17
Troas, 152 statue at, 293
Tibingen, 354, 3951 tablets at, 1004, 3332
Turin, 54
Tyana, 291 Washington, 420, 61,
Tyras, 376, Wiesbaden, 53.
Tyre, 2535 i

Yale University, 176 f.

Valparaiso, 25, Yonuslar, 6
Venice, 43,
Vercelli, 388, Zorava, 3785
Verona, 4594 Zululand, 29,

\
 Π.---ΑΝΟΙΕΝΤ PERSONS
(The names of persons mentioned in the Bible ave IN SMALL CAPITALS)

AARON, 416, Antonius Longus, decadarch, 189,

Aaron, 221 f. M. Antonius Longus Pullus, 189,, 443
Abascantus, 2819, 436 Anubas, 236 °
Abdes, father of Cottio, 74, Aphaea, 286
Abietas, 355 Aphrodisias, 168 f,
Abinnaeus, Flavius, 47, 216 ff., 234, Aphrodite, 3445
298, priests of, 156,
Abos, 89 Aphu, Bishop, 223
Abraham, Bishop, 221-227 Apion, a soldier, 172, 179-186, 227,
Achaemenidae, 363 297, 350
ApDaM, 260, Apolinarius; 211
Adrastia, 321 Apollo, god, 321 ff., 329
Aeschylus, 122 f., 4174 Apollo Nesiotes, 321
Aesculapius, 3265. See Asclepius. Apollo, presbyter, 46, 213 ff.
“ Agathobulus, 209 (11. 24, 25), 210 Apollodorus, son of Pyrrhus, 312
21r . Apollonarin, 167, 169
Agathopus, 376. See Aurelius. Apollonis, 207 (1. 16), 20913
Agathus Dasnon, 1791. (1. 25), 255 Apollonius, 189,5
and 259 (1. 3000) Apollonius Dyscolus, 552
Alexander Aegus, 37, Apollonius, minister of finance, 152-
ALEXANDER I., BALA, 2535 163
ALEXANDER THE GREAT, 22, 65, 149 Apollonius, scribe, 173
Greek world begins with, 4, 67 f. Apollonius, son of Irene (?), 176
“letters ” of, 233 Apollonius of Tyana, 291
successors of (1.6. the Diadochi), APOLLOS, 1598
_ 233, 343, 378, 423 Appion, Bishop, 48
Alis, 167 ff., 297 Apuleius, 1373, 170,
Ambrosius (St. Ambrose), 19849 AguiLa, husband of Priscilla, 117 f.,
Amenemapt, 400, 2791
Amerimnus, 1938» 13, 277 Aquila, translator of Old Testament,
Ammon, 17510) 11, 30641 302, 206
Ammonius, 2343 Archelaus, 202, 204. See Aurelius.
Amos, 381 Archonica, 98,
Amyntas, a slave, 320, Ares, 255 and 259 t.2998), 3445
Amyntas, 326, ARISTARCHUS, 437f
ANASTASIS, 99 Aristeas, Epistle of, 755, 1977s 3273) ἃν
Anticles, son of Antiphanes, 305 418, 418,
Antinous, 291 Aristion, 165
Antiochus, King, 101 Aristotle, 113, 1159, 2281, 231, 233
Antiochus IT., 344, Arsacidae, 32, 34, 363,
AntiocHus III., THE GREAT, 370, ARTAXERXES, 372
Antiocnus IV., EPIPHANES, 3441 Artemidorus, interpreter of dreams,
ANTiocHuUs VII., EUERGETES, 2535 977, 104
Antiphanes, son of Patrocles, 305 ARTEMIS, 98, 281,, 309. See
Antoninus, 184, 186 Diana.
Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 86, 3344, Artemon, 228,
362, 37528 ’ Cn. Arulenus, 445 f.
dntpnis (Antonius) Longus, 1359, Asclepiades, an official, 361,
1785, 187f.,, 216, 227, 229, Asclepiades, son of Charmagon, 166
298 f., 350 Asclepias, 328,
Antonis Maximus. See Apion. Asclepius, 135, 280,, 308, 321, 329,
M. Antonius Celer, 443 310. _Asclepian village, 328,
M. Antonius Germanus, 443 Assa, King, 26
476
 INDEX 477
Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, 45, ΟΑΙΝ, 226
215 : Caligula, Emperor, 348,, 3554
Athanasius, Bishop of Tapotheca, Callimachus, 333,
2351 Callisto, 328,
Athene, 255 and 259 (1. 2999), 321, Caor, 2024, 21049, 216-221
346 (Fig.
63) Capiton, 179 f., 183
Athene Polias, 321 Caracalla, Emperor, 3751, 9
Athenodorus, 184,, 186, C. Caristanius, 5 (Fig. 1)
Atre, 222 CaRPUS, 152
Attalidae, 344,, 362, Carzoazus, son of Attalus, 88
Attalus, 88 Castor, 190,
Attalus ITI., 324, Tit. Catius, 445 f.
Attis, 289, Celsus, 393
P. Audasius Paullus, 443 Charis, 96
Aufidia, 184, 186 Charmagon, 166
Augustine, 161, 240, 390 Chrestophorus, 2155
AucGustus, Emperor, 291, 299, Christophorus, son of Romanus I.,
“ Augustus Day,” 359 3785
charagma of, 341 Chrysogonus, 294 f.
grandson of, 370 f. Chrysostom, St. John, 3252, 3275,
inscriptions in honour of, 99, 346 f. , 3492 4332» 3» 460,
inscriptions mentioning him, ΙΟῚ, Cicero, 231, 233
_ 345s 347, 366, 3786. Cintus, 326,
‘inscriptions of his reign, 124, 139, CLaupius, Emperor, 91,, 171, 347,
394, 375, 4491 353, 364 :
“letters of Augustus,” 374 Cleanthes, the Stoic, 55
papyrus mentioning him (“the CLEMENS, 4431
Caesar ’’), 168, 3614 Clemens, a soldier, 443
refuses the title ‘‘ lord,’’ 350 Clement of Alexandria, 1155, 425
“saviour of the world,” 364 Clement of Rome, 23, 3241, 3479 3912»
“the god Augustus,” 344f., 353, 416 f., 418
361 (Fig. 69) Cleochares, 305
Aurelia Arsinoe, 308, Cleopatra, 352
Aurelius, 123 Clisthenes, 52
M. Aurelius, Emperor. See Marcus. Clodius Culcianus, Praefect, 92
M. Aurelius Agathopus, 309 Constantine the Great, 4
Aurelius Archelaus, 197 ff., 228,, 297 Copres, 184,, 186
Aurelius Demareus, 308, Cottio, son of Abdes, 74,
Aurelius Demetrius Nilus, 92 Crates, 109,
M. Aurelius Eutychus, 97 Crinupelis (?), 306,
Aurelius Paulus, 239 Crispus, 121
Aurelius Victor, 3539 Crispus, a soldier, 443
CRISPUS, 121g, 4431
Bacchylides, 2075 Cronos, 138 f., 306, 353
Badakiel (clerical error), 456, CYRENIUS, 270, 2714. See QUIRINIUS.
Ballio, 317 Cyril of Alexandria, 126,
BaRaBBAS, 269,
Barates; 4473 Damoxenus, 134
BarNnaBaS, 280,; Epistle of, 244, DANIEL, 226,
Barucu, 34; Epistle of, 242 Danoilos (a false reading), 122,
Bassus. See Epidius, Julius, Daphnus, 312 f.
Ump.tuleius. Darius, 37, ~
Batasis, 2810 Davip, 462
Baucis, 280, Decius, Emperor, 46
L. Bellenus Gemellus, 189,,, 298, DEMETRIUS, 113
Beriis, 167, 169 Demetrius, author of De Elocutione,
Bictorinus, 4594 228, 296,
Blastus, 170 J. Demetrius. See Julius.
Bretasis, 2819 Aurelius Demetrius Nilus. See
Brutus, 233 Aurelius.
Bulla Felix, 291 Demetrius Phalereus (?), 178s, 7
Demetrius II., NICATOR, 344
G. Caesar, grandson of Augustus, Democritus, δὶς
370 1. Demophon, an Egyptian, 164 f.
J. Caesar, 344, 364, 402 Demosthenes, 71, 132, 233
478 INDEX
Diadochi (=post-Alexandrian kings), Gatus (3 John 1), 1804, 242
See ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Gaius (of Corinth), 437
Diana, 113. See ARTEMIS. Galen, 990, 374s
Didymas, 176 f. P. Galerius Trachalus, 445 f.
Didyme, 173 Gallico, female slave, 328;
Didymus (?), 1894; Gallicus (?=the god Men), 328,
Dio Cassius, 3545 Ga.tio, Proconsul, 51
Dio Chrysostom, 23, 336, Gallonius, 179 f.
Diocletian, Emperor, 4, 465, 841 GAMALIEL, 381
\ 211, 213, 273 f., 291 f., 2090, Gamus, 436
Diodorus of Sicily, 87, 136 ff., 1635 Ge, 328, 330
Diogenes, 173 GEHAZI, 226, 2274
Diogenes (?), 328, Gemellus. See Bellenus. :
Diogenes Laertius, 23, 552 Gemellus, assistant to Sempronius,
Diognetus, 170, 385, 19319, 195 ?
Dion, 2352 Gemellus, brother of Sempronius,
Dionysia, 2393 193 f., 196
Dionysius of Alexandria, 229, Graecus Venetus, 437
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 232 Gregorius Thaumaturgus, 345
Dionysius, son of Harpocration, 83 Gregory Nazianzen, 4339
Dionysus, τό, 321 Gregory of Tours, 128,
Domitian, Emperor, 246,, 351, 355:»
362, 443-446 Hadrian, Emperor, 348¢, 36432
Donata, 2523 his face, 2933
Dorcalion, 317 inscriptions of his reign, 315, 360,
Dositheus, 368, 364, 376, 377
“letters ” of, 37513
Exias, 380 papyri of his reign, 84
ELIZABETH, 432, 434 parusiae of, 368, 371 ff.
Elpis, 1844,, 186 verses to his soul, 292
ENocH, 416 Hanameel, 34
Epagathus, 1891} , Harmiysis, 172 ff., 354
Epaphroditus, an Beet 176 Harmonia, 2775
EPAPHRODITUS, 49,, 8 Harpocras, 200, 229
Epicharmus, 20743 Harpocration, father of Dionysius,
Epictetus, 82, 97, 329s 3
Epicurus, 2313 Harpocration, writer, 85
C. Epidius Bassus, 443 Hatros (?), 306
Epimachus, 179 ff., 183, 186 Hecate, 3031, 3332
ERASTUS, 437 Helena, 193 f.
Erinyes, 96, 303 Heliodorus, 174, 298
Euctemon, 179 f. Heliodorus, son of Sarapion, 236,, ,
Eudoxus, 436 Hetioporvs, Syrian favourite, 61,
Euergetes II. See Ptolemy VII. Helios, 2819, 328, 330, 418,
Eumelus, 166 Hémai, 222
Eumnastus, 323 Hera, 102
Eumoerus (?), 176, Heraclea, 414, 417, 423 f.
Euphronius, 326, Heracles, 135,
Euripides, 452 Heraclides 190,
Eusebius, 343, 703, 1264, 2292, 246,, Heraclius, Emperor, 348
3494 Herais, 189,
Eustathius, 452, Hermes, god, 138f. 255 and
Eustathius of Thessalonica, 219, 258 f. (11, 2993, 2999), 280¢, 305,
Eutychides, 236 3523; Hermes Most Great,
Eutychis, 92 2810, 352). See MERCURY.
Hermes, Imperial freedman, 377
Faustina, 346 Hermes Trismegistus, 83, 288,
Fe.ix, Procurator, 5 Sextus Hermetidius Campanus, 445 f.
Festus, Procurator, 5, 354 Hermodorus, 111 ,
T. Flavius, 445 f. Hermogenes, 116,
Fortunata (?), 184,,, 186 HEROD THE GREAT, 3531, 431
Fortunatus (?), 1844; Herop Acrippa [., 353;
Herop Aarirpa II., 353;
GABRIEL, 431, 433, 4561. Herod, Irenarch, 356
Gatvus (of Derbe), 437 Herodotus, 132, 142,, 9
 INDEX 479
Herondas, 82, Jesus or ΝΑΖΑΒΕΤΕ---
Herostratus, son of Dorcalion, 317
Hesychius, lexicographer, 1019, 225 (iii) Sayings :
Hesychius, Egyptian bishop and ‘they have their reward,’ 110 f,
Biblical critic, 573, 461 “judge what is right,” 117
Hiero, 328, “‘render unto Caesar,” etc., 252 ff.,
Hilarion, 167-170, 227, 229, 297 264, 340
Homer, 132 f., 4185, 440, parable of the wicked servant, a
Hor, 306 arallel, 270
Horace, 233 other parables and parallels, 134,,
Horus, god, 138, 2172, 255 and 258 272, 299
the price of sparrows, 272-275
(1. 2995), 3,353. “a ransom for many,” 327 f.
Horus, son of Permamis, 360
Hygeia, 96 “ Logia ”’ of, 425-429
other apocrypha, 44,
Tanthe, 170, popular tone of His sayings, 69,
Ignatius, 43 1350
‘wherefore art thou come? ” 125-
Ion, 3365 131
Iphis, 170
Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, 43, 3494 (iv) As viewed by Primitive
388, Christians and ancients :
Irenaeus, corn merchant, 211 popular titles applied to, 346, 349-
Irene, 134, 176 ff., 297
ISAIAH, 39g. See also Index VI.
366, 388 f., 397
‘the Chief Shepherd,’ 99 ff., 397
Isidorus, 123 “ High Priest,”’ 365 f.
Isis, 74, 136-140, 2885, 345, 3501, 352 ‘the King,” 362
Isis collections, 105, 110,'285
“ Lord,” 349-362
Isis, prayer to, 753, 1410, 2885 “ Saviour,” 363 ff.
Isis, priest of, 10513, 3684 “Son of God,’’ 346
Isocrates, 231 His vicarious present activity, 336
IsRAEL, 226, 256,, 257 and 262 His coming expected, 240, 339f.,
(1. 3055), 260, 368-373, 382, 389 f.
‘the marks of Jesus,’’ 301
acob, 221 ff. ‘Jesus and Anastasis ’’ preached
acob, son of Job, 222 by Paul, 99
AHVEH, 34, 1373) 359 4053 legendary altar dedicated to Him
J AMES, 233, 242 f. by Augustus, 346,
5
ASON, 437 f. name = 888 (gematria), 278,
EREMIAH, 34, 257 and 261 (1. 3041) name interpolated in a magical
JEROBOAM, 226 papyrus, 256 (1. 3020), 260,
Jerome, 429, 78, 128, 405 invoked in execrations, 302 f.
ESUS JUSTUS, 438 invoked in inscriptions, 459
ESUS OF NAZARETH—
(v) As viewed by modern criti-
(i) Personality : cism :
a son of the East, 1 altogether unliterary, 245, 246, 380
a carpenter, 8, 160, 396, 397 altogether untheological, 380
spoke Galilean Aramaic, 64 embodies the most primitive
a man of the people, 246 f., 291,, Christianity, 250 f., 382
314, 397, 466. the object of the Primitive Chris-
country-bred, 246 f., 275 tian cult, 387 ff.
friend of children, 170, 380 His care for individual souls, 290,
friend of animals, 275 299
the Redeemer, 389, 392
(ii) Life: ‘the sheer incarnation of religious
date of Nativity, 5, inwardness,” 383
Jewish legends of His birth, 73 politically indifferent, 339
an inscription He may have seen, 80 His attitude towards miracles, 386
sends fprth the apostles, 108 ff. His type of religious production
healing of the blind man, 135, 307 to be worked out, 400 f.
healing of the deaf and dumb man, certain critics try to wipe out the
304 name, 246,, 266 f.
healing of the crooked woman, 307 not included in the Berlin Proso-
betrayal, etc. of, 125 ff., 225 f. pographia, 291, 300
scourged by Pilate, 269 See also Christ in Index IV.
 480 INDEX
Jochanan, Rabbi, 260, Lucas (Lucius), son of Gamus, 436
Johannes Eleemon, 126, Lucas (on the Memnon colossus),
Johannes Moschi, 126,
JOHN THE Baptist, 291, 380, 430— mie Se C, Julius Lucas..
434 : Lucianus, 436, .
JouN THE EvancELIsT, ST. JOHN THE Lucianus, praepositus cubiculorum,
Divine : 232
at Ephesus, 281, Ljactanea,priest of Antioch, Biblical
his attitude towards miracles, 386 critic, 3452, 461
his title ‘‘ Theologus,’”’ 348 f. Lucilius, 233
his type of religious production, Lucius, 4362. See Lucas, LuKE.
400 f. , i LuKE, 51., 272. *
parataxis in, 131-136 accuracy, 270, 354
sclemn use of “ I,” 136-143 his dedications, 248
taste for strong effects, 287 his name, 435-438
uses metaphor of ‘‘ redemption,” language, 87, 90, I16, 135,
327 not in the Berlin Prosopographia,
uses the form πλήρης, 123 ff. 291
See Apocalypse, John, Revelation pious exaggeration (?), 254
in Index IV. style, 69
John of Antioch, 48, unacquainted with St. Paul’s
John Chrysostom, St. See Chrysostom. letters, 246
Jordanes, 92, Lysanias OF ABILENE, 51, 353
JOSEPH OF NAZARETH, 431
Josephus, 77, 80, 82, 87, 102, 115, Macrinus, 2810
1211}, 291, 3082, 355. 3655, Magarius (Macarius), 216
3748 375» 44910 Marcus, 438. See Marx.
Judaeus, 320, Marcus, father of M. Valerius
JUDAH, Testamentum, 100, Quadratus, 444 ff.
Jupas Iscariot, 125 ff., 226, 2271 Marcus Aurelius, Emperor, 77, 97,
JUDE, 242, 248 346, 3752 :
julia Augusta, 358, Maria. See Mary, Pollia,
Julian the Apostate, 126, Mark, St., 269, 304, 307. See
Julianus, 179f. Marcus. ~
Julius, 193 (1. 14), 19319, 195 Marthina, 415, 417, 423 f.
Tib. Julius Abdes Pantera, 74 Martial, 82,
Tib. Julius Alexander, 270, 358 Mary, the mother of Jesus, 56, 281,,
M. Julius Apellas, 1534, 308 430-434, 4594
Julius Bassus, 315 Mary of Ephesus, 313
Julius Demetrius, 358 Mary, mother of Hor, 306
Julius Domitius, 197-200 Mary, daughter of Abietas, 355
C. Julius Lucas, 4353 MattHEw, St., 64, 1295, 272, 307;
M. Junius Rufus, 445 1. Gospel of the Pseudo-Matthew,
JUPITER (= ZEUS), 2804, 2815, 328, 433
330 Maurice, Emperor, 348
. Jupiter Ammon, 174, Maximus, son of Apion, 18449, 186
Justin II., Emperor, 348 Maximus, son of Copres, 184,, 186
Justin Martyr, 45 Maximus, brother of Sempronius,
Justinian, Emperor, 348, 373, 4049, 192-196
45% Maximus, Papas, 206, 208, 210, 212 ἴ.
Justinus, 475, 1924, 21049, 215 8., Maximus. See Antonis Maximus.
220g, 229, 2364 Melchiel, 457,
Melito, 3494
Lassa, 222 Men, a god, 328,, 435 f.
Lazarus, 4159 Menander, 368,
Leonippus, 370 Menas, St., 56,
Levi, Testamentum, 92, Menches, 98
Libanius, 1789, 2353 MERCURY, 2804, 4573. See HERMEs.
Ligdus, 170, MICHAEL, archangel, 431, 456 f.
Liogenes (?), 328, Michael Tharrinos, St., 103 f.
Livia, 3411, 353, 3586 Mithradates VI., Eupator, 370
Livy, 42 Mithras, 289
Longus. See Antonis Longus. Mnesiergus, 150 f., 227
Lucanus, 436, Mnevis, 255 (I. 2994), 2581}
Lucas (Lucius). See Luxe. Moeris, lexicographer, 89,
 INDEX 481
Moschion, 1670 Patermute, 222-
*Moschion,” supposed physician, Patrocles, father of Antiphanes, 305
. 84 Patsebthis, 204
Moses, 349 Paul, a deserter, 217, 220 f.
Moses, 222 Paut, St., named as a chronological
Munatius Felix, Praefect, 45 landmark, 294, 345, 347, 351,
Mystarion, olive-planter, 170, 172 355» 371, 405
Naaman, 226 (i) Personality :
Nausias, 151 a son of the East, 1
Nearchus, 174 f., 298 his home in Asia Minor, 115,, 312,
Nemesis (?), 321 335
Nero, Emperor, 275, 355, 379, 391 a Jew, 358, 450
advent-coins, 371 a tentmaker, 8, 159, 313, 396, 467
mentioned in inscriptions, 345, 347, his handwriting, 166,, 172, 174,
354 246
ostraca of his reign, 105, 353 f. humour, 112, 166,, 331 f.
papytt, 173, 354 peevish moods, 438
“the good god,” 345 his ‘‘ thorn in the flesh,” 158, 307 £.
“the lord,” 105, 173 f., 3531. attitude to nature, 274 f.
3652 comparatively indifferent to
“ matricide,’’ 278 politics, 339 f. :
‘saviour of the world,’’ 364 f. contrasted with Zoilus, 157-161
visit to Corinth, 354, 371 presumably familiar with Imperial]
Nerva, Emperor, 3753 institutions, 309, 340 f.
Nicaea, 323 division of his world into East and
Nicander, poet, 974 West, 276,
Nicetes, 356 closely united with the lower
NIGER, 4431 classes, 67, 159 f., 312 ff., 328 f.,
Nilus (?), 207, 209); 466
Nilus, brother of Tasucharion, 234, as non-literary as Jesus, 245 f.
Nilus, son of Politica, 215 certain critics try to wipe out the
Nilus, fifth-century Christian writer, name, 266
~3 not included in the Berlin Pyro-
Nilis (?), 209,, sopographia, 291
Nilis, mother of Antonis Longus,
1359, 187-191, 227 (ii) Incidents in his life :
Ninus (?), 209}. 85.inscphion he may have seen,
Noan, 262, fo)
L. Nonius Calpurnius Torquatus a milestone he passed, 60
Asprenas, 443, 445 f. at Lystra, 280,
Nonnus, 143 probability that he visited the
islands, 279
ONESIMUS, 165., 279, 335 his dream of the man of Macedonia,
Opramoas, 17}, 104;, 294 300
Oribasius, 89:0 at Athens, 12,, 99, 254, 264, 285,
Origen, 345, 36, 703, 985, 224, 3452, 384, 387-391 :
_ 381, 405, 4373 at Ephesus, 254 f., 264, 281,
Osiris, 1375, 138 ff., 3452 at Corinth, 436 ff.
Otacilia Polla, 315 ‘at Miletus, 451, 458
Ovid, 170,, 233, 2806 ‘journey to Jerusalem, 436 ff.
arrested at Jerusalem, 80,
Pachomius, 215 Jewish zealots swear to kill him,
Pacysis, son of Patsebthis, 204 2033
Pamaris, son of Hermodorus, 1103, appeals to Caesar, 339
11 voyage to Rome, 211g, 423
Pan, 255 and 258 (]. 2996 his arrangements for the collection
Pant(h)era, 74 in Galatia and Corinth, 361
Paos, father of Psenmonthes, 200 ‘* perils in the sea,” etc., 181,, 279
Papiscus, 172 f. cloak left at Troas, 152 :
Pap(h)nut(h)ius, 459, 473, 215 f. (papyrus) books asked for, 30
Papus, 331 (iii) Language :
Paris (??), 131,
Pasion, 134 Nageli’s monograph, 20, 63
Pateésis, 105 Cilicisms, 115,
482 INDEX
Paul, St.—Language—(cont.) : Patt, St.—His “ Christianity and
words and phrases : missionary work—(cont.) :
transitoriness of this world, 282 f.,
ἀπελεύθερος κυρίου, 377 f., 389 f.
αὐθεντέω, 88 f. sithade ταις miracles, 308, 386
γινώσκειν ὑμᾶς βούλομαι, 1884 comforts mourners, 178
διαθήκη, 337 Antichrist, 343 ara
διαταγή, 89 ff. his preaching antagonistic to
ἔνοχος, 114 1. Emperor worship, 346, 355 f.
εὐπροσωπέω, 98 ἴ. “ worshipping of the angels,”’ 453.
κύμβαλον, 1645 preaches "‘ Jesus and Anastasis,”’
κυριακός, 357 1. 99
λογεία, 104-107 background of his missionary
μαλακός, τό4ς labours, 275 f., 298 f.
μνείαν σου ποιούμενος, 1843 the souls that he sought to win,
παραβολεύομαι, 88 208 f.
πεπίστευμαι, 374 his ‘‘ open door,” 300, ;
πρεσβεύω, 374 popular style of his missionary
σπέρμα, 43, methods, 301
συναντιλαμβάνομαι, 87 his generous estimate of paganism,
ὑποτίθημι τὸν τράχηλον, 117 ἴ. 283, 310 1.
ὧν τὰ ὀνόματα, 119 his employment of popular ethics,
resemblances (not quotations) in 312-317
his list of vices compared. with
Papyri, 197g, 198, 5, 200 pagan lists, 316
resemblances (not quotations) in
magical papyrus, 2614, his idea of freedom, 320,
resemblances (not quotations) in his metaphor of redemption taken
inscriptions, 310, 358 from the practice of sacral
E. Norden on St. Paul’s style, 3 f. manumission, 319-330, 3507
popular tone of his prose, 70, 125, his metaphors of debt and remission
taken from legal practice, 330—
247, 2954, 3002, 314.
fondness for legal expressions, 119, 334
_ 318-338, 357 his use of the legal conception of
his use of the language of magic, agency, 334-337
301-304 his use of the word διαθήκη, 337 1.
his use of aformula connected with his use of ‘‘ Lord” facilitated the
healing, 307 f. spread of Christianity, 350 f.
his use of inscriptional formulae, Paul(ljus. See Audasius, Aurelius.
308 ff. Pauosis, 200
Pausanias, 25
(iv) His letters : Pecysis, father of Psenamunis, 105
dictated, 166,, 236, 240 Quintus Peducaeus Priscinus, 445 f.
autograph signature, 166,, 171 f., Permamis, father of Horus, 360
303 Permamis, father of Portis, 166
begin with thanks to God, 181, Peteme(nophis), son of Pic(os), 360
intercessions, 158 f., 175 PETER, St., 57, 64, 181g, 199, 233,
epistolary formulae, 181,, 188,, 243, 248, 307
197s, 1989, 3, 200 Petosiris, father, 173
non-literary in character, 158 f., Petosiris, son, 173
233-241, 242 f., 251, 391 Petoys, 164
their frank self-revelation, 290 L. Petronius Crispus, 443
letters of commendation, 171 L. Petronius Niger, 443
letter to Philemon, 165,, 216f., PHARAOH, 256 and 261 (1. 3036)
237, 3341. Phibas, 236
Foy othey letters see Index IV. Phibion, 269 f. ;
For quotations see Index VIa. PHILEMON, 165, 1843, 216, 332,
(v) His Christianity and mission-
Phiten, 6 Δ 5.93)
Philo of Alexandria, 55, 755, 92, 102
ary work :
1658 theological
_, 375» 405, 452
than religious, Philo, epic poet, 449,
381 ff. Philo, husband of Taonnophris 176
his type of religious production to Philocles, 305 ἔ
be worked out, 401 Philodemus, 758
his hope of the Lord’s coming, Philonides, Epicurean, 118
240, 339 f., 368 f., 382, 389 f. Phlegethius, 269,
 INDEX 483
Photius, 985, ἃ Roma, goddess, 361 (Fig. 69)
Phthomonthes, 200 RomanusI. (919-945), 3785
Pibechis, 256 (1. 3007), 259, Rufus, 235,
Pibuchis, son of Pateésis, 105, 107 Ruphus of Ephesus, 89
Pic(os), 360
PILATE, 269, 2709 SABAOTH, 257 and 202 (I. 3052)
Pindar, 915, 4271 Sabina, 184 ff.
Plantas, 176 Saitapharnes, 370
Plato, 71, 72, 126, 1679, 231, 3109, Samuel, 221 f.
387 Sarapion, 236,
Plautus, 317 Sarapis. See Serapis.
Plenis, chief shepherd, 100 SATAN, 2813, 302, 307, 3275, 3714
Plenis, son of Pauosis, 200 Saturnila, 192-196
Pliny the Elder, 27 f. Saturnilus, 193-196
Pliny the Younger, 112, 232 Saturnus, 362,
M. Plotius Fuscus, 443 Satyrus, 310
Plutarch, 77, 805, 82, 97, 115 f., Sauromates I., 363,
232, 284, 315 Scythicus, 193, 195
Polemon, 98 SECUNDUS, 437
Politica, 214 Seigelasis, 9019
Pollia Maria, 121 Seleucidae, 344
Pollux, 317, Semphtheus, 165
Polybius, 77, 805, 3795 Sempronius, 192-196, 227, 297, 3505
Polycarp, 356 Sempronius, brother-in-law of Sem-
Sextus Pompeius Collega, 445 f. pronius, 19349, 194 f.
Pontianus, 3135 L. Annaeus Sencca, 232
Portis, son of Permamis, farmer, 166 Septimius Geta, 367,
Postumus (?), 187.;, 188, 190f. Septimius Herodianus, 363,
Primitinus, 207-210, 212 Septimius Severus, 3751
PRISCILLA, 117 f., 2794 G. Septimius Vegetus, 269
cee author of De forma epistolari, Serapis (Sarapis), 152-161, 179f.,
182, 184,, 187 f., 193 ff., 241,
Proce, ‘Neo-Platonist, 104, 1780 288, 297, 321, 329, 3512
Protogenes, 370 Serenilla, 179 f.
Psate, 224-227 Serenus, 179 f., 182
Psenamunis, son of Pecysis, 105 T. Sextius Magius Lateranus, 443,
Psenmonthes, 200 4451.
Psenosiris, 46, 2083, 2104, 213 ff., Silco, 1373, 2179
219, 228 Simeon, 222
Ptolemaeus, dreamer, 124, 134 Simon, 122,
Ptolemaeus, police official, 164 f. Simonides, 44049
Ptolemaeus, royal scribe, 173 Smicronides, 305
Ptolemies, the, ats Socnopaeus, 362
Ptolemy, King, 3 Soeris, 149,
Ptolemy 11., Puliedelpius: 152-155, SOLOMON, 257 and 261 (1. 3040)
162 f. Judgment of, 276
Ptolemy IV., Philopator, 352 Odes, of, 245»
Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, .345,2, 352 Proverbs of, 44
Ptolemy VIL., Euergetes II., 3242 Testamentum Salomonis, 457,
Ptolemy VIL, Soter II., 369 SopaTER. See SOSIPATER.
Ptolemy XIII., 352 Sophia, 457 f.
Ptolemy XIV., 352 Sophocles, 122, 390
Ptolemy, geographer, 769, 104 Sophronius, 126, ©
Pumpulius, 436 Soranus, 84,4, 86,
Pylaemenes, 2352 Sosibius, 323
Pyrrhus, 312 SosIPATER, 437 f.
Soterichus, 3206,
‘QUARTUS, 437 Soterichus (a priest ?), 3629
Quintilian, 2, _Sotion, author, 97,
QuirInius, P. SULPICIUS, 51, 279, Speratus, 356, 310,
2714 G. Stertinius Xenophon, 253, 294,
345
RapHAEL, archangel, 456f. Stobaeus, 2,
Regina, a Roman Jewess, 447-450 Stotoétis, a chief priest, 170 f.
Regina, of the Catuallauni, 447, Strato, 326,
 484 INDEX
Suchus (= Sebek, crocodile god), Tubias, 162 ff.
269 TUBIAS, 163,
Suetonius, 278, 362, Tues Macrinus, 2819
Suriel, archangel, 456 f. Turbo, 179 f., 182
SUSANNA, 22649 Twin-sisters, 124
Syliel, archangel, 456 Tyche, 255 and 259 (1. 3000)
Symmachus, Old Testament trans- TYCHICUS, 1985, 437
lator, 100, 2953 Tycho, St., 126,
Synesius of Cyrene, 2352» 5
Ulfilas, 38,
Tachnumi, 2343 C. Umphuleius Bassus, 92
Taisis, 306 Uriel, 456,
Tannetis (?), 256 and 260 (1. 3024)
Taonnophris, 176 ᾿ Valens. See Vettius Valens.
Tarachus (Victor), 182.9 Valentinian III., Emperor, 48,
Tasucharion, 234, Valeria Artemis, 445 f.
Tauetis, 1359 Valeria Heraclus, 445 f.
Tays, 1885 Valerius Aper, a soldier, 135
Telethusa, 170 L. Valerius Clemens, 443
TERTIUS, 236, 240, 437 M. Valerius Quadratus, 442-446
Tertullian, 211, L. Valerius Valens, 445 f.
Theocles, son of Satyrus, 310 Venetus, Graecus, 43,
Theodosius II., Emperor, 48, Vergil, 4214
Theodotus, epic poet, 449; Flavius Verus (Severus ?), 90,
Theodotus, martyr, 219, G. Julius Verus Maximinus (Thrax),
Theodotus, son of Vettenus, 439 ff. Emperor, 367
Theon (Theonas), son of Theon, 201-- G. Julius Verus Maximus, Emperor,
204, 2079, 2084, 21734, 229, 397 367_
Theon, father of Theon (Theonas), Lucius Verus, 375
201-205, 21744 Vespasian, Emperor, 275, 3551, 364,
Theon, friend of Aur. Archelaus, 3655, 444, 446
197 ff. ᾿ Vestidia Secunda (?), 121
Theonas (Bishop, reputed author of Vettenus, 440
letter to Lucianus), 232, Vettius Valens, 785, 86, 90, 95, 316;
Theonas, steward (?) to Maximus, G. Vibius Maximus, 270 f.
208, 2105 Ὁ. Vibius Salutaris, 113
Theophrastus, δὲς Victor. See Tarachus.
Theophylact, 327, P. Vigellius Saturninus, 356
Thermuthion, 176
Thermuthis (Thermuthion), 1931, 22 Wihtred, King of Kent, 92,
Tuomas, St., 361; Gospel of, 413, _Wulfila, 38,
3972
Thrasycles, 151 Xenophon, 72
Thucydides, 132 XERXES (= AHASUERUS), 372
ΤΙΒΕΕΙΒ, Emperor, 111, 252, 350,
᾿ 353 360, 3784 Zadakael, 456,
Tiberius 11,, 348 Zadakiel, archangel, 456 f.
Tigranes, 363, Zaziel, archangel, 456 f.
L. Tillius Crito, 435 Zeno, 152, 162, 1634, 1925
Timanthes, 305 Zenobia,. 363,
TIMOTHEUS (TIMOTHY), 1704, 437 Zenobius, an effeminate, 164
‘Timotheus, poet, 37; ZEUS (JUPITER), 280,, 2813, 330
Timoxenus, 167, Zeus Ammon, 17410) 43
Tiridates, 354 Zeus, “‘ Hearer of Prayer,” 281,
Titus, Emperor, 80,, 275, 364, 442 Zeus-Hermes dedication, 280,
Trajan, Emperor, 1125, 355, 359% Zeus the Sun, 2810
, 3625, 364, 3758, 4392 Zidkiel, 456,
Triptolemus, 286 ZIMRI, 226,
TROPHIMUS, 80, 437 Zoilus, 152-161, 227, 241, 287, 288,»
Trypho, 372, 298, 308,
 III—WORDS AND PHRASES
(In some cases the English equivalents will be found in Index IV.)

a weakened to ε, 95% ἀνέθεμα, 956

ἀβάσκαντος, 19319, 280, εὖ ἀνέχομαι,
ἀ 207, 20949
᾿Αβδῆς, 744. ἀννώνη, 2071, 13
ἀγαθὸς δαίμων, 3454 ἄνομος, 3174
ἀγαθὸς θεός, 3454 ἀνόσιος, 3174
ἀγάπη, 225) 758 "ἀντί, 120
ἀγγαρεύω, pore ἀντίγραφον, 162, 376,
ἄγγελος, 280, ἀντιλέγω, 194, 2043
ἁγιώτατος, 200; ἀντιλήμπτωρ, 76
ἀγοράζω, 3241 ἀντίλημψις, 107
ἀγών, 299" 5 ἀντιλογέω, 2043
ἀδελφή , τό, 1844, 2094 ᾿Αντῶνις, 17999, 187 ff.
ἀδελφός, 98, 107, 179 (Il.5, 14, 19),236 ἀξιῶ, 414, 416
ἄδικος, 114g ἀξίωμα, 3378
ἀδίκως, 414 £.,417 ἀόνας, 2075
εἰς ἀθέτησιν, 3373 ἀπαίρω, 258,
αἷμα ἀναίτιον, 414 ἴ., 417 ἴς τὸ ἅπαξ, 2170
αἷμα ἐκδικῶ, 414 f.,420 ἀπάτωρ, 4
αἷμα ext τῶ, 420 f. ἀπελεύθερος Καίσαρος᾽ or Σεβαστοῦ, 377
αἷμαἐκ; τ 414 f., 417 £. ἀπελεύθερος κυρίου, 3264, 377
αἷμα ζητῶ, 41τ48,, "420 ἀπελευθερόω, 326.
αἴρω, 129 ἀπελευθέρωσις, 3274
αἰτέω, 22249 ἀπερισπάστως, 326ς
αἰώνιος, 3630 ἀπέχει, 1115, 112, 3234
ἀκατάγνωστος, 75, 3374 ἀπέχω, ττο ff.
ἀλήθεια in epistolary formulae, 298, ἀπό, 2οος, 326,
ἀλήθια (ἀλήθεια), 769 ἀπὸ πέρυσι, 76
ae (ἀλλα) anak, 2179, 218; ἀπογεννάω, 1424
ἀπογραφή, 271
ἀλλουννῇ, bog
ογενῆς, 79

ἀλλόφυλος, 80,
ἀποδίδωμι, 331, 332,
ἀποκάλυψις, 779, 781
ἄλωμα, 2810 ἀποκαραδοκέω, 370ς
ἂμ μή, 2024, iit ἀπόκριμα, 3373
ἁμαρτάνω, 18729 “᾿Απολλῶνις, 20949
ἁμαρτωλός, 113 ff., 3174 ἀπολύτρωσις, 323» 3274» 526
ἀμέμπτως, 315, 3245 ἀποστηθίζω, 22244; 22311
a πελών, 3358 ἀποτίνω, 3323
ἂν= ἐάν, 202, ἀράκιον, 20294
ἀναβιόω, 97 f. .dpatos, 96
ἀναβιώσκομαι, 98 ἀρετή, 318), 3639
ἀναβλέπω, 1358 ἄρον, 20a os
ἀναγινώσκομαι, 353 ἀρότης, 30%,
ἀνάγκη, 158, a 316g
ἀνάγνωσις, ΣΝ ἀρραβών (arrha), 3378
τἀναζάω, 97 f. ἀρσενοκοίτης, 31ός, 3179
ἀναζώω, 97 ἀρχιερεύς, 3651.
- ἀνάθεμα, 95, 3032 ἀρχίλλας, ΤΟῚΡ
ἀναθεματίζω, 95, 3023 ἀρχιποίμην, 99 ff.
ἀνάλωμα, a ἀρχιστράτηγος, 430 ff.
poe ome 4 £.,20291 ἀρχισυνάγωγος, 440
ἀναστρέφομαι, 107, 311ς, 312 ἀσεβής, 114ς, 3174
ἀναστροφή, 107, 3119 αὐθεντέω, 88 f.
ἀνεγκλήτως, 3265 αὐθεντής, 89g
485
486 INDEX
αὐθιγενής, 81. διάταξις, 90,
aan uxew, 89 διατάσσομαι, 90», 911
ἀφελπίζω, 187, διατάσσω, 2094
ἀφιλάργυρος, 85 f. διατίθεμαι, 90,
ἀφιλαργύρως, 86 διδαχή, 44%
ἄφωνος, 2956 δίδωμι, 339
adv, 20745 δίδωμι ἐργασίαν, 116
ἄωρος, 414 f., 417 δικαιοκρισία, 92 f.
δίκαιος, 117, 3373
δίτροπος, 18719
βαΐον, 76,
δίχηλος, 1705
βασιλεύς, 362 ἴ.
βασιλεὺς βασιλέων, 3565, 3632 δόλῳ, 414 ἴ., 417
δόξα, 3630
βασιλικός, 362ς δοῦλος, 109, 319 ff.
βασίλισσα, 3529 δοῦλος Χριστοῦ, 3255, 376
βασκαίνω, 19319 δύναμις, 3639
βέβηλος, 317, δύο δύο, 122
βιάτικον, 1814; δυσωπέω, 18741, 190,
βλέπω ἀπό, 120
βλέπω ἐμαυτόν, τ2ος δῶμα, 44%
βολεύω, 885 δωρεά, 3639

βοτρυδόν, 457, ἐάν for ἄν, 257.

βουλή, 1125
ἐάν with indicative, 258,
βούλομαι, τ88ς ἐὰν μή, 2026, 21744
βροχή, 81 ἑαυτούς = ἀλλήλους, 1765
*EBovaaios, 257 (1. 3044), 2614,
ΤΙteva, 2634 “Ἑβραῖοι, 157
γεγραπται, 3373) 4444 -ἐγκόπτω, 1874,
Γεεννα, 263, ἐγώ εἰμι, 130-142, 2595
γινώσκω, 187ς, 217ς ἔδοξεν, 4445
Tewa, 263, εἰ in aposiopesis, 151,
γνῶσις, 378.4 eixdviv, 17949 ‘
γνωστεία, 3675 εἰμὶ eis, 120 f.
γνώστης, 7748, 3675 eis, 120 f., 170
γράμματα, 348,, 375 ἴ. εἰς for ἐν, 179,
γυμνός, 292: εἷς (= ef), 131,
εἴσοδος, 198, ᾿
δαιμονιάζω, 256, εἰσφέρῳ σπουδήν, 318,
ὃ δάκτυλος τοῦ θεοῦ, 306, ἐκ διαταγῆς, 993.6
Δανοοῦλος (false reading), 122, ἐκδίδωμι, 33ς
δέ, 165, 22644 ἐκκλησία, 112 ἔ., 3515
δεῖ, 1561, 1584, 7, 188. κατ᾽ ἐκκλησίαν, 113,
δειγματίζω, 76, ἐλαιών, 76, 17ος
δεῖνα, 1625 ἐλάχιστος, 22247
δειπνέω, 3512 ἐλευθερία, 323--327
δειπνοκλήτωρ, 428, ἐπ᾽ ἐλευθερίᾳ, 323, 324455
δεῖπνον, 22511 ἐλεύθερος, 323 ff.
δεισιδαίμων, 2853 ἐλευθερόω, 326, 3275
δεσμὰς δεσμάς, 1234 ἑλκύω, 426
6 δεσμὸς τῆς γλώσσης, 304 ff. ἕλκω, 426 f,
δεσπότης, 3571, 3785 ἐλλογέω caw 84, 3322
δημοσίᾳ, 1355 ἐλπίδι, ἐφ᾽, 187,
διά, 12146 ἵ ἐλπίζω, 1 87,
διὰ τὸν κύριον, 1924 ἐμμένω, 3373
διὰ Χριστοῦ, 121|ς, 3371 εμος, 200g
διάγνωσις, 3429 ἐμφανής, 3738
διαθήκη, 3195, 337 ἴ. Ψieadetnite article, 184,
διακονέω, 3744 ἔναντι, 76, :
διάκονος, 222ς ἐνδιδύσκω, 82
διάκονος Χριστοῦ, 376 ἐνθήκη, 2075
διάκων, 94 ° ἔνοχος, 114 f.
διαλλάσσω, 18715 ἐνταφιάζω, 775
διαταγή, 89 ff. de oa 208,0, 3375
ἐκ διαταγῆς, 9056 ΣΤΟΝ.
ἐντολή, 222,, 4348,, 376,, 75
12 3796, 4404
διάταγμα, 90,
 INDEX 487
ἐνώπιος, 498 ἡγεμών, 2705
- ἐξαγοράζω, 324, ἤδη ἤδη ταχὺ ταχύ, 421
ἐξακολουθέω, 80,5 ἤδη ποτέ, 200,
ἐξαναστατόω, 85 Ἢ: 3526 8
ἔξελθε, 256 (1. 3013), 260, μᾶς = ὑμᾶς, 2045, 2009, 427ς
ἐξουσία, 363, ἦν (Ξ ἢ), τόδε
ἐξυπνίζω, 773 ἹΗράκλεα, 414, 417, 423
ἑορτὴ (τῆς) σκηνοπηγίας, 115 ἩΗράκληα, 417
€op" τῶν) σκηνῶν, 115 Ηρακλοῦς, 44519
ἐπάρατος, 96, 114
ἐπειδή, 2225, 2254 θέα, 3674 :
ἐπί, 125 f.,1355, 260g, 304), 417 θεῖα γράμματα, 7°
ἐπιβάλλ ω,΄ 16 ἢ θεῖος, 91,, 347f
τὸ ἐπίβαλλον μέρος, 3378 θειότης, 348
ἐπιβατή ριος, 368, θέλω, 1876, 374. 325.
ἐπιδημία, 371,, 372637 θέλω. .. ἢ. . , 1874
ἐπιδιατάσσομαι, QO, θεμελιόω, 440s,
ἐπιθυμητής, 108 θεόγνωστος, 378,
ἐπικαλοῦμαι, 3941, 414, 417 θεοκήρυξ, 349,
ἐπικαταράομαι, 9 θεολογέω, 3494
ἐπικατάρατος, 96 θεολόγος, 348 f., 379
ἐπίξενος, III; θεός, 343.
᾿ ἐπίορκος, 3172 θεὸςἐκ θεοῦ, 345::
ἐπιούσιος, 78. θεὸς καὶ σωτήρ, 3445: 3364,
ἐπίσκοπος, 2229, 3373 θεὸς ὕψιστος, 414, 416
ἐπιστατέω, 1539 Θεοσεβεῖς, 452,
ἐπιστολή, 229, 374 1. Θεοσέβιοι, 4511.
ἐπιστολὴ x ριστοῦ, 3744 θεοῦ υἱός, ἜΣ f,
ἐπισυναγωγή » 103 θεοφόρος, 348,
ἐπιφάνεια, 3711,4. 373 θεραπεύω, 1526
ἐπιφανής, 3445, 3738 σὺν θεῷ, 208,
ἐπιχρίω, 1355 τῶν θεῶν θελόντων, 1799
ἐπόπτης, 3472) 418 Θεωνᾶς, 203,, 208, 210,, 232,
ἔργον, 3131 θριαμβεύω, 363,
ἔριφος, 165. ὁ θρόνος τοῦ Σατανᾶ, 281,
ἐρωτάω, 1689, 17942 19315 θυμοκάτοχον, 935, 3054
ἐσοῦ, 2ΟΙς θωπεία, 102,
ἑταῖρος, 125 f.,129
ἕτοιμος, 222, Taw, 4053
εὖ, 20049 ἴδιος, 1703, 277
εὐαγγελίζω, 367, *TeBovoaiou, 2014,
εὐαγγέλιον, 22249, 366 1. ἱερὰ γράμματα, 3751.
εὐάρεστος, 76 ἱερατεύω, 76
εὐβολεύω, 38, ἱερεύς, 440,
εὐεργέτης, 253 ἱλαστήριον, ees
εὐθέως, 1795 ἱλαστήριος, 408,
εὐΐλατος, 76 ᾿Ιλλυρικόν, 276,
εὔμοιρος, 1764 ἱματίζω, 82 f.
εὐπάρεδρος, 326, ἵνα, 418
εὐπροσωπέω, 98 ἰσόψηφος, 277.
εὐπροσωπίζω, 98, ἰσχύς, 3639
εὐσέβεια, 318, Tw, 4953
εὔστομος, 174ς
εὐσχημονίζω, 326 καθ᾽ ee 18419
εὐσχήμων, 326ς καθαρίζω, 76, 956
εὔτομος, 1745 καθεριζω, 956
εὐφραίνομαι, 130 καί, 1321, 133 ao 192,
εὐχοριστέω, 1355, 1795 kal... δέ, 1653
» 365ς Καῖσαρ Beds, 2785, 3444
εὔχομαι, 1794, 192g Καισαριανός, 377
ἐφ᾽ ὅ, 126 Καίσαρος, 377
ἐφ᾽ ὃ πάρει, 125 ff. Καίσαρος οἰκία, 238,, 441
ἐφοράω, 414 £., 418 καλῶς ποιῶ, 208.
κανών, 2229
fam. ΟἽ Κάορ, 217,
488 INDEX
“Λουκᾶς, 435 8.
καραδοκέω, 3735 λούω, τοῦ ΄
καρπός, 336 λύτρα, 328,
κατά, 22213, 22513 λύτρον, 3281
καταγγελεύς, 99 λύτρωσις, 3275
καταδέω, 305 λωτομήτρα, 2590
καταδουλίζω, 3252
καταδουλόω, 3253 μαθητής, 22644
κατάκρισις, 94 ἴ.
καταπέτασμα, 102 τ.
μακάριος, 1704, 177
μάκελλον, 2764
κατάρατος, 96 μακροθυμέω, 773
κατασκοπέω, 18741 μαλακός, 1644, 316¢
κατενώπιον, 498 Μάρθα, 417 .
κατέχω, 3004 Μαρθείνη, 417
κατήγορος, 93
Μαρθίνη, 415, 417, 423
κατήγωρ, 93 ἷ.
κατοικέω, 4585 Μαρία, 12141, 396ὅς, 433
κινδυνεύω, 1797 Μαριάμη, 1211
κίνδυνος, 1797 Μαρίαμμη, 1211
Μαρίαμνη, 12144
κλέπτης, 316ς μαρτυρέομαι, 883
κλίνη, 3512. μαστιγία, 2598
κοινά, 2565 μαστιγόω, 269ς
κόκκινος, 82 μαυλίζω, 224 ff.
κοπιάω, 312,4,» 3134) 57 μαυλιστήριον, 2251
κόπος, 313:»8 μαυλιστής, 2251
κοσμίως, 3151 μεγαλειότης, 3039
κράτος, 363. μέγας, 2693
Κρήσκης, 3156 μέγας μέγας, 2695
Κρινουπελι, 30641 μέθυσος, 3164
κρίνω τὸ δίκαιον, 117 μελετάω, 22245
Κρονου πεδι, 3061 μένω, 326ς
κτήτωρ, 4042 μετά, 2045
κτίστης, 1533
κύμβαλον, 1645 μετὰ καί, 1929, 1347
μητρολῴας, 3174
κυρία, 109, 351, 3526.8
277 μίαν μίαν, 122ς
κυρία, title of courtesy, 1675, 1926, μίσθιος, 773
κυριακός, 76, 3 58 μνείαν ποιέομαι, 1845
349-357
κύριος, 105159 173 £.,1796 1875,
179s, 184, μοιχός, 3166
κύριος, title of courtesy, μυρία μυρία, 122ς
18510 215, 217.
κύριος βασιλειῶν, 3524 νεκρόω, 97
κύριος βασιλεύς, 3526 9 νέκρωσις, 983
ὁ κύριος ἡμῶν, 350 ff. νεόφυτος, 76
κύριος καὶ θεός, 361 ἴ. (ὀ)νικόν, τό, 81
κύριος τῶν πνευμάτων, 414, 416 νομός, 173, 271
κύρις, T8519 νόμος βασιλικός, 362,
νύκταν, 306:ς
λακάω (?), 2636
λάμπω, 363.
ξενών, 4495
λέγει, 3755) 697» 444μ
λειτουργέω, 107 ξύμβολον, 1675
λειτουργία, 107 6 for ὅς, 3065
λειτουργικός, γ6
λεσῶνις, 171, ὅ, interrogative, 126 ff.
6 ἐστιν, 433.
λῃστής, 3170 6 καί, 2809, 4521
λίαν ἐχάρην, 184ς ὀθόνιν, 1791
λιβλάριος, 17926 οἰκοδομέω, 160
λογεία, 76, 104 ff. ὁλοκληρία, 773
Aoyetw, 105 ὀ)νικόν, τό, 81
Aoyia, 104
ὀνικός, 81
λόγια, 3864 εἰς τὸ ὄνομα, 121, 3373
λόγοι ἐπιβατήριοι, 368, τὸ καλὸν ὄνομα, 277
λόγος, 117 κατ᾽ ὄνομα, 19321
λοίδορος, 3164 ὧν τὰ ὀνόματα, 110
λοιπόν, 18736, 202» 20 ὀπτάνομαι, 83, 256.
“Λούκιος, 435 ff.
 INDEX 489
ὅπως, 1879, πρεσβευτής, 374
ὅς, interrogative, 126 ff, πρεσβεύω, 374
οὕτως, 418 πρεὐβύτερος, 49, 213 ff., 22246, 19) 337»
ὀφειλ 76, 331 3095, 440,
πρὸTae: ἔχω (λαμβάνω, τίθημι), 1975 προβαδίζω, 431 ff.
apres λαμβάνω, 168, προεστώς, 209, Φ
προκόπτω, 17015, 378ς
προσευχή, 76, 102,
προσκαρτερέω, 102,
προσκαρτέρησις, 102
πρόσκομμα, 775
προσκύνημα, 1741)
προσκυνήτής, ΙΟΙ
παπᾶς, 219, προφήτης, 226,
παπυρεών, 30, πρωτότοκος, ΟἹ
πάπυρος, 30 πτερυγοειδῶς, 4572
παραβάλλομαι, 88, πτοή, 42745
παραβάλλω τὸν τράχηλον, 118, πτόησις, 42715
παραβολεύομαι, 88, 118, πυρράκῃς, 76
παραβουλεύομαι, 88, πῶς, 18 728
παραδίδωμι, 225195 302,, ἕ
παρακαλῶ, 158. pw 2224, 307 4, ῥήτωρ, 94
παράκλητος, 336
παραμένω, 3263, 4 σαγήνη; 773
- παραμονή, 326 Σεβαστή, 358 fi.
παραπέτασμα, 103, σεβαστόγνωστος, 3784
παρασιαίνω (9), 18795 σεβαστολόγος, 348,
παράτευξις, 208 σεβαστοφόρος, 348,
πάρειμι, 125 ff. σεβόμενοι τὸν θεόν, 451g
παρθένος, 734 σειτομέτριον, 104,
πάρις (= πάρεις), 131, Σεκοῦδα= Σεκοῦ(ν)δα ὃ 1210
ὁ πάροδος, 1072, 2955 σεληνιάζω, 256,
πάροικος, 108 ov for σέ, 2174,
παρουσία, 368, 430, 432 σημεῖον, 1679, 3864
πατήρ, 209. σιαίνω (avyaivw), 18755
πατρολῴας, 3174 Σίμων, 122,
πεπίστευμαι, 374 σιτομέτριον, 76, 104,
πέρατα τῆς γῆς, 885 σκηνοπηγέομαι, 115
περί (“" concerning’ ἢ, 153 f. σκηνοπηγία, 115
περιδέξιον, 76 σπέρμα, 437
περισσεία, 84 σπορά, 43, 226ς
ἀπὸ πέρυσι, 76 σπόρὸς, 437
πήρα, 109 σπουδὴν εἰσφέρω, 318,
πίθος, 343 : στέφανος, 3094, 5, 312, 369,
πιστεύω, 3236) |374 τὰ στίγματα τοῦ ᾿]ησοῦ, 301
τὴν πίστιν τηρῶ, 3092 στοιχεῖον (elementum), 404,, 408,
πίστις, 309, 318, συγγενής, 432, 438
πλανάω, 20246, συγγενις, 432
MAGE, 2229 ° συγκληρονόμος, 92
πλήρης, 123 ff. συλλαμβάνω, 432
πληροφορέω, 86 f. σύμβολον, 1670
πνεύματα, 414, 4161. σύμφωνος, 200,
ποιῶν 6.Ka θέλῃ, 324ς ἐκ συμφώνου, 3373
- πολεμέω, 2045 σύν, 2594, 260,, 302£.
πολιτική, 2145 ; σὺν θεῷ, 208,
πολλὰ κοπιῶ, 312 f. σὺν καί, 134ς
πολλα πολλων ὃ168, 170 σὺν Χριστῷ, 303,
πόρνος, 734, 3165, 3174 συνάγω, 22243
ποταμοφόρητος, 49, 76 συναγωγή, 103
ποτήριον, 3514: συναΐίρω λόγον, 117
πρᾶγμα, 3375 συναντιλαμβάνομαι, 8)
πραιπόσιτος κάστρων, 217, συνήγωρ, 941"
πραιτώριον, 238, συνίστημι, 2352
πράκτωρ, 3373 " σύνοδος, Ys.
ἡ 3752
πράξεις, 1351 σύνοδος,ὁ, 2953
490 INDEX
σώζω, 1798
φονεύω, 414 f., 417
σῶμα, 1655, 3239.7 φόρος, 14045
Σώπατρος, 437. φρεναπάτης, 76,
σωσικόοσμιος, 364 f.
σωσίκοσμος, 3653 χάραγμα, 341
Σωσίπατρος, 4378 χαρακτήρ, 341)
σωτήρ, 308, 3445, 363 ff. χάριν, 188,
σωτὴρ τοῦ κόσμου, 364 1. χάρις, 3639
σωτηρία, 17913 19317 χάρτης, 30
σώφρων, 3144) 3155» 67
χεῖραν, 17944, 2029
χειρόγραφον, 3312, 332 ff.
τάδε λέγει, 375517 χειροποίητος, 174
ταλαίπωρος, 414 ἴ., 417 χειροτονέω, 222ς
ταπεινόφρων, 7794 Χερσαῖοι, 257 (1. 3044), 2611}
ταπεινόω, 419 Χετταῖοι, 2611. :
ταπεινόω ψυχήν, 419 χῆραι πῆραι, 109,
τάττω, 209, χιάζω,33..
ταῦτα (abrupt), 2034, 312ς χοίρειον, 2584
ἐν τάχει, 421 χουοπλάστης (χοοπλάστης), 2573
τὴν ταχίστην, 414 f., 421 χρηματισμός, 1531
ταχύ, 421 χρηστήριον, 440;
τέκτων, 160, «Χριστιανός, 377
τέλος, III, ὃ χριστός and Χριστός, 328,
τηρέω, 3°91, a» 3245
Χριστοῦ, 377
τήρησις, 3373 διὰ Χριστοῦ, 12146, 3371
τιμᾶς (τιμῆς), 323, 324, χριστοφόρος, 2158
τιμὴ, 3241, 3» 363
οσὺν Χριστῷ, 303.
τίς (asa relative), 126, 3135 χρόνος, 218,
τοπαρχία, 173, χωρίζομαι, 3375
ψεύστης, 317)
τόπος, 211,
τράχηλος, 117 ἴ.
τρία τρία, 1234 ψιθυρισμός, 77ς
τρόπος (in formulae), 18715
τυχόν, 1516 ὠνή, 3235
᾽Ωριγένης, 217}
ὑγιαίνω, 1794 ὥς, 2581,
ὑγιγαίνω (ὑγιγένω), 18755, 202,
ὕδωρ, 440,
υἱοθεσία (adoption), 3373
ὑμνῳδός, 3494
ὑπέρ, 120, 1664, 331, 3354 actus, 1975, 1983
ὑπὸ Δία Γῆν Ἥλιον, 328, adventus, 371
ὑποζύγιον, 162, in aevom, 448 f.
ὑποτάσσομαι, 22210 amicus Caesaris, 378;
ὑποτίθημι τὸν τράχηλον, 117 ἴ. annona, 2074
ὕψιστος, 2605 avatrum, 388,
arcanum, 1745
Φαρισαῖος, 257 (1. 3044), 2614, arpax, 316.
φαρμακεύω, 414 f., 417 ‘avvha, 3373
φεννῆσις, 10515
Φερεζαῖοι, 261) bule, 112,
φίλανδρος καὶ σώφρων, 3155) 6.7
φίλανδρος καὶ φιλότεκνος, 3144 caenum, 3172
φιλανθρωπία, 3630 Caesavianus, 3775
φιλία, 765 Caesavis, 377
φιλοκαῖσαρ, 378 Calymna. 4453
φιλοπρωτεύω, 76, cinaedus, 316,
φίλος, 1525, 377 f. cinaidus, 316,
φίλος τοῦ Καίσαρος, 378, cline, 3513
φίλος τοῦ Σεβαστοῦ, 378. coccina, 82,
φιλοσέβαστος, 378 cognit10, 342,
φιλόσοφος, 3157 collegium, 211g
φιλόχριοστος, 378, 4594 comitia, 112,
όβος, 140, contego, 448 f.
φοβούμενοι τὸν θεόν, 4514 contio, 112%
 INDEX 401
deus dominus, 3624, 5 promitto, 448 f.
dicit, 3756 4444 pudicus, 448 1.
dignus, 448 f.
divi filius, 346 vedemptio servi suis nummts, 322,
divinus, 914, 347 responsum divinum, 1531
dominus, 1974, 198 vix vides, 3165
dominus et deus noster, 362, rursum vivo, 448 f.

ebriosus, 3166 SaceY, 37512

ecclesia, 112 f., 447 sacvae litterae, 376
elementum, 404, SACYALISSIMUS, 37515
enteca, 2075 Sacrilegus, 317,
ab epistulis Graecis, 3743 sanctissimus, 37512
evictio, 3373 Sanctus, 37512
scelestus, 3179
fides, 448 f. scriptum est, 4444
fraudulentus, 317, sedes, 448 f.
fur, 316, + solacium, 448, 450
spevo, 448 f.
gaudesne? 316, SUCCESSOY, 1975
genus, 448 f. surgo, 448 1.

Hierosolymna, 4453 transigo, 448 f.

trico (?), 316,
impudes, 3164
impudicus, 317 vinosus, 31664
inpurus, 317, visum est, 4445

legatus, 3741, 4454

legivupa, 317, » abba, 64, 113
libellarius, 17996 Abdes, 74.
librarius, 17996 amen, 113
. libri litterarum adlatarum, 2354
libri litteravum missarum, 2353 Barabbas, 64
lumen, 448 1.
Ebed, 742
manumissio, 3223, 33%
meruit, 448 1. (kategor), 93 f.
Methymna, 4455 Revamét, 64
metuentes, 451g
mMoecus, 3164 lesonis, 1714
MoOtcus, 3166 liblay, 17996
mystevium, 1745
malkah, 4473
observantia legis, 448 f. mammon, 64
ant’ oculos habeo, 1977, 1993 Marana, 350%
odie, 1979 Martha, 64, 417 .
omo, 1979 ᾿
operam do, 1164 Pantheva, 73 1.
(peraklit), 3365
parricida, 3174 phennésts, 10543
paticus, 3164
perturus, 3172 sanegor, 941
pernities adulescentum, 3178 scyhend, 225.
pontifex maximus, 366 shuck, 2254
praefectus castrorum, 2171 shy, 2254
praesistere, 448. ~
pretio magno, 3242 talitha cumi, 64
 IV.—SUBJECTS
Abbreviations, xxi, xxii; of titles of Ammonites, Sheikh of the, 162 ff.
papyrus publications, 40, Amos, fragments of, 42
Abide with, 326 Amulets, 48,, 59, 240, 2603, 284, 405
Abinnaeus, correspondence of, 218 Analogy and genealogy, 265 f.
Ablanathanalba, 252 (1. 3030), 256, Anathema, 95, 2271, 302 ff.
4521. ᾿ And... and, 131-135
Abyssinian magical text, 3369 “ Angel” inscriptions, 279 f.
Accession of Emperor, 3454, 36410 Angels, 93, 416, 418
Accounts of deliverance from danger, Angels, cult of, 418, 4531, 453 Β΄.
284, 307, 399 -Anglo-Saxon. See English, Old.
Accounts of dreams, 124, 134, 399 “« Anglo-Saxons,” 3010
Accounts of the miraculous, 97,, 284, Animals, 162 f.,-105,, 258, ; fondness
9: for, 163
Accounts of visions, 399 Annona, 207,
Acknowledgment of debt, 331 ff. Anthology, the Greek, 91, 97
Acquainted with God, 378 Anthology in the Tebtunis Papyri, 85
Acquainted with the Emperor, 3784 Anti-Atticism, modern, 4
“ Acta Pauli,” Heidelberg MS., 373, Antiatticist (lexicographer), 122,
44 Antichrist, 3433, 371
Aorist, epistolary use of, 1704, 1763
Acts,” apocryphal, 373, 424, 249
Acts of the Apostles, 135,, 246, 248 Aorist-present, 110,
Acts of the Apostles in Coptic, 44, Apamenian cohort, 179 f., 18294, 183
Acts of the Arval brothers, 371 Apocalypse, 25. See Revelation
“ Acts of Heracles,” 135, Apocalypse as literary genre, 248
Acts of John, 42, Apocalypses, 249, 287,
Acts of Peter, 42, Apocalyptic numbers, 276 ff., 344
Address (in letters), 495, 1513, 1723 Apocrypha (0.T.), 55; (N.T.), 1910
Adoption, 834, 337s Apocryphal literature, 249
Adulation of the emperors, 3561, 3595, Abpolytrosis, 3274, 5
3614 Apophthegms, collections of, 429
Advent, 368-373. See Epidemia, Aposiopesis, 151,
Epiphany, Parusia soa character of their religion,
Advent-coins, 368, 371, 373 160 f.
Advent-sacrifices, 368, 371 Apostles, their equipment, 108
Adventure, travellers’ tales of, 399 Apostolic Fathers, 1910
Advocate, 336. See. Agency, Media- Appealing to Caesar, 339.
tor, Paraclete Aquila’s translation of the O.T., 30,»
Aeolic dialect, 66, 111 206
Agathus Daemon, 179 f. (1. 25), 255 Arab tattoo marks, 4555
(1.3000), 259 (1. 3000), 3454 Arabic ostraca, 53
Agency, 1184, 12144, 1664, 331, 335 ff. Arabic papyri, 374
Alexandrian cult, 3454 Aramaic, 64 f.
“ Alexandrian ’’ Greek, 103, Aramaic ostraca, 523, 4 53
Alien tax, IIT, Aramaic papyri, 372» 1213
All-seeing Lord, 418 Aramaic parchments, 32
Alpha and Omega, 389 Aramaisms, 69,, 934, 1855
Ambassador for Christ, 374 Archangel inscriptions at Miletus,
American archaeologists and scholars, 453 ff.
15. See also Index V: Angus, Archangels, cult of, 459
Burton, Cobern, Curtis (T. E. A.), Archangels, monograms of, 456
Durham, Exler, Ferguson, Freer, Archangels, names of, 456 f.
Graffenried, Hatch (W. H. P.), Architect, 160
Kent, Magie, Norton, Richter, Areopagus, St. Paul’s speech, 384,
Robertson, Robinson, Sanders, 387-390
Schodde, Thayer Aretalogy, 386,
492
 INDEX 493
Army, Roman, 74, 179-186, 197-200, Biblia Pauperum, 1445
216-221, 442-446 - Biblical fragments, 40-44
Army, Roman, religion of the, 289, ‘* Biblical ’’ Greek, 62 ff.
Arrest for debt, 270, 330 “ Biblical” Latin, 112 f., 447-450
Artisans, 247, 3139 Biblical MSS. in Thera, 280,
Artistic literature, for the world, 250 Biblical papyri, 40-44
Arval brothers, 371 Biblical passages on ostraca, 56-60,
Asclepian village, 328, 2239
Asian rhythm, 70, Biblical quotations, 23 f., 461-464
Aspirate, vulgar, 188, “ Biblical ”’ words, 75 ff.
Assault, 134 Bill of complaint, 134 f.
Assembly, 112 f. Bind (in magic, etc.), 304-307
Asses, 162,; wild, 163, Birthday, 184 (Il. 18, 19), 18519, 11, 366
Associations, religious, 375. See Bishops, “ epigraphic,’’ 12,
Guilds Blind, healing of the, 135, 307
Astrologers, 783, 865, 904, 95g, 3164, Blood, to shed, 417 f.
455s, 4595 . Boatman’s idiom, 71
Athanasian Controversy, 452 Body (Christ), 389
Athenonica, centuria, 8041 Bond. See Note of hand
Atonement for murder, 415 f. Bond of the tongue, 304-307
Atonement, Great Day of, 420-424 “ Bondservant,” 319,
Atonement, narratives of, 399 Borrowed words, 77, 93, 941, 18296
Attic dialect, 66 Bought for ready money, 3242
Atticism, Atticists, 66 ff., 69,, 71 f., Boys, model, 204,
73, 122g, 125, 128 f., 132 f. Bread (Christ), 389
Atticism, modern, 4 British and Foreign Bible Society,
Augment, misplaced extension of, in 1444, 5
‘vulgar Greek, 9558 British investigators, 13:1, 9, 4035
Augustus, minister of, 376 See also Index V: Allen, Bartlet,
Augustus Day, 359 f. Bell, Brooke,. Budge, Calder,
Austrian investigators, 13,;, 17.» Cowley, Crum,Curtis (W. A.), Edgar,
I12-f., 393 Grenfell, Hall, Harris, Hatch (E.),
Authenticity, questions of, 243 Hicks, Hill, Howard, James,
Authorities, communications ad- Kennedy, Kenyon, Lightfoot,
dressed to the, 148, 172 ff., 3614, 3705 Mahaffy, Marshall, Meecham,
Autograph conclusion to letters, 166,, Milligan, Minns, Moore, Moulton,
171 f. Paton, Patterson, Petrie, Ramsay,
Redpath, Sayce, Smyly, Swainson,
Babylonian letters, 184, Swete, Thackeray, Thompson,
Balts, 80 Trench, White, Wilkins, Wilson,
Barley, price of, 273, Wood, etc._ J
Baruch, Epistle of, 242 Bronze inscriptions, 11
Bath tax, 36049 Brother (Christ), 389
Beauty in simplicity, 72, 312 f. Brother and sister, marriages be-
Beds, to watch, 222 f. tween, 138f., 167,
Beggar-priest, 109, 350 Building, 160 ᾿
Beggar’s bag, 109 Building law, ancient, 319
Begging-letter, 186, Buying-off, 327. See Redemption
Behaviour, 311 f. By two and two, 122 1.
Belgian archaeologists and scholars,
159. See also Index V: Cumont, Caesar, appeals to, 3392
Grégoire Caesar, belonging to, 377
Belgians on Congo, 29, Caesarian, 377
Belief, formula of, 3453 Caesarism, 338,
Belonging to Caesar, 377 Caesars, cult of the, 252, 2785, 289 f.,
Belonging to Christ, 377 338 ff., 387
Belonging to the Emperor, 377 Calendar, Asian, 366
Between, zwischen, 123, Calendar, Egyptian, 3592, 433
Bible, history of its use, 23, 464 Calendar, Greek, 185149
Bible text, Egyptian, 575 Calendar inscription of Priene, 3493,
Bible text, history of the, 23 3516 370f.
Bible text of Hesychius, 57,, 461 Canon, Muratorian, 197, 1970, 1983».
Bible text of Lucianus, 461 249
Bible translations, 38,, 127, 1445, 447- Canon of the New Testament, 67, 250-
450 Canticles, 462 f. 5
494 INDEX
Captivity, St. Paul’s, letters written Christianity, Primitive, its moral
during, 237 f. earnestness, 390 f. :
Cases, vulgar use of, 1219, 18519 Christianity, Primitive, not inter-
Catacombs, pictures in, 275; inscrip- ested in politics, 339 f.
tions, 157, 185, 1003, 2271, 3031, Christianity, Primitive, its popular
44%, 4413, 447-450 character, 246 f., 385, 388 f.
Catholic epistles, 242 ff. Christianity, Primitive, social struc-
Catuallauni, 4478 ture of, 71.
Census, 270 f. Christianity, vulgar, 161
Certificates of confession, 46, Christians, persecution of, 46, 137,
Ceryzes, Asclepian village of the, 328, 213 ff., 342
Chapters, gospel divided into, 58 Christians, their social solidarity, 213
Chavagma, 341 Christolatry, 382 :
Charm, protective, 453 ff. Christology, 342,, 382
Charms, 59;, 93, 142, 255-263, 304-- Chronicle as literary genre, 248
307, 454-459 Chronology, 5, 3592
Charta Borgiana, 48, 94 Church inventories, Byzantine, 47
Charters, Old English, 92, Church, manumission in the, 3223, 3393
Chélingas, ΟῚ Church, the Primitive, 382, ,
Cherubin, 257 (l. 3061), 262, Cilicisms, 1151
Chi (Greek letter), 333 Cities, cosmopolitan, culture of, 246 f.
Chiasmus, 427, Cities, great, 280-283
Chief Shepherd, 99 ff., 389 Cities, great, culture of, 282 f.
Children, exposure of, 168,, 169 f. Cities, great, Greek of, 70
Chinese lists of vices, 315, Cities, sequence of names, in Revela-
Choirs of Greek temples, 287 tion, 3746
Christ, ambassador for, 374 Civilisation, ancient, its unity, 52
Christ, belonging to, 377 Civilisation of -the Imperial period,
Christ and the Caesars, 338 ff. 282 ff. ;
Christ-beaver, 2153 Civilisation, Mediterranean, 2
Christ, contemplation of, 382 Civilisation, rural, 247 f.
Christ, cult of, 378 ff., 382, 387 ff. Class-division, 80, 159 f.
Christ’s descent into hell, 43 Classes, lower, 7;, 246 f., 290 ff., 328 f.,
Christ, following after, 390 338 £., 394-397
Christ's freedman, 326, 377 Classes, upper, 7,, 246f., 338 f.
Christ, friend of, 377 £., 4594 Clay for anointing eyes, 1354
Christ, guilds of, 391, Clementine edition of Vulgate, 127
Christ, insignia of, 341 f. Clergy, Egyptian, standard of learn-
Christ, letters of, 245,, 374 f. ing of, 222 ff.
Christ, minister of, 376 Codex, 382, 429, 448
Christ, monogram of, 47, 2221, 2554, Codex Brixianus, 38,
1 Cognomina, 4431
ve mystic appreciation of, 378, Coins, 252, 2535, 3441, 3454, 3636, 368,
382 371, 373 3
Christ, parables of, 134,, 270, 272 Collections for Isis, 105, 110, 285
Christ, past and’ present work of, Collections for religious and chari-
329, 336, 382 table objects, 105, 160, 285, 361
Christ, slave of, 323 ff., 350,, 376 Collegium naviculaviorum, 211,
Christ's sufferings, 96, Colloquial language, 66 f.
Christ, through, 12146, 337 Colossians, Paul’s letter to, 237f.,
Christ, titles and offices, 388 f. 43:
Christ, with, 303, Comedy, 1331, 317
Christian, 377 Comfort, words of, 405 f.
Christian inscriptions, 23, 280, (?), Coming again, 368,
2956, 453 ff., 461 ff. Commandments, 3766, 1, 44%
Christian letters, 46f., 197 ff. (Ὁ), Commandments, divine, 348, 376
205-227, 2110 (?) Commandments of God, 376
Christian new formations (words), 78 Commendation, letters of, 171, 197 ff.,
Christian papyri, 40-48 2352
Christian solidarity, ix, xix Committed to my trust, 374
“ Christian ᾿᾿ words, 75 ff. Communications to the authorities,
Christianity, origin of, 3952, 465 ff. 148, 172 ff., 3616, 3705
Christianity, Primitive, 7 ff., 378-391 Communion tokens, 46,
Christianity, Primitive, its literary Complaint, bill of, 135
development, 245 ff. Complaint, letter of, 134 f.
 INDEX 495
Complaint of the priests of Isis, 368, Cult and law, 343
Confession, certificates of, 46, Cult, Christian, words employed in,
Confession of sins, 1359, 187-192, 216, 388 f
ee υσῖο of sins in inscriptions, 192, Cult literature, 2490, 251
204 Cult, obscure, 156
Confessions of faith, 345, Cult of archangels, 459
Conjuration, 4214. See Exorcism Cult propaganda, 157-161, 241, 298,
Consolation, formulae of, 177 f. 3454
Consolation, letters of, 176 ff. Cult, solemn style appropriate 19,
Consolation, words of, 413, 405 f. 136-142
Consolatories (old books of edifica- “Cult words,” sequences of, 388,
tion), 249 4 Culture of the Imperial period, 282 ff.
Constitutional law (Roman), 343 Culture of the Imperial period, re-
Contracts of sale, 33 ff. ligious, 284 ff.
Contrition, letters of, 178,, 187-192 Culture, Mediterranean, 2
Conversation, 1993, 228, Culture, parallel in Egypt and
Conversation, to have, 311 Palestine, 268-272,'275,, 353
Coptic ostraca, 505, 53, 221-227 Culture, rural, 247 f.
Coptic papyri, 375, 44 Culture, studied with political
Copticism (?), 2179 method, 264,
Copy ofa deed, 33 ff.; ofaletter, 162 f. Cuneiform inscriptions, 5
Copy-books (for letters),-206,, 235 f. Cup of daemons, 3514
Corinthians, Epistles to the, 236 f. Cup of the Good Daemon, 3514
Corinthians, Second Epistle to the, Cup of the Lord, 351,
239, 266, 279 “Cup ’’-formulae, in cults, 351
Corn, dealings in, 207 ff. Cups, 129 ff., 351; inscriptions on,
‘Corn, order for payment of, 90ς, 121 129 ff.
Corn, price of, 273, Cures, miraculous, 284
Corn, requisition for, 369 Cures, records of, 135, 307 f., 399
Corn ships, 211 f. Curse, Jewish zealots bind them-
Corn of Wheat (title of Christ), 389 selves by a, 203,
Corner Stone, 389 Curses, 227,
Corpora of inseriptions, 12-18 Cursing, formula of, influenced by
Corpus of Christian Inscriptions, 23 f., Septuagint, 240
464 Cursing tablets, 22,, 233, 94f., 284,
Corpus of papyri, 40 302 ff.
Correapartdedee of Abinnaeus, 218 f. Cynics, 109,
Correspondence, family, 2362, 298,
Cosmopolitan cities, 246f. ‘Daemon, Good,” 179 f. (1. 25), 255
Cosmopolitan Greek, 22, 62 ff. and 259 (I. 3000), 3454, 35%
Daemon of the dead, 302,
Cosmopolitan Judaism, 45. See
Jews: Diaspora Daemon, headless, 142
Cosmopolitanism, 3659 Daemon, name of, important in
Council of Arles, 221 exorcism, 261,
Council of Toledo, 227; Daemonic possession, 307
Counters, playing, 316 Daemons, trio of, 2611}
Country civilisation, 247 f. ‘Daily News, The,’’ 400,
Country labourer, 10544 Danger, narratives of deliverance
Court society, 155 from, 284, 307, 399
Court titles, 152,, 378 Danish investigators. See Index V:
Covenant, 3195, 338 Bréndsted, Drachmann, Jespersen,
Covenant or Enactment? 337 Nielsen
Creation of all from naught, 258 and Date (of letters), 1725
_ 263 (1. 3077) Dative, 202,
Day of Atonement, Great, 420-424
Creeds, 3452; Creed of Constanti-
nople, 3452 | Day of the Lord, 3572
Cross, bond nailed to, 332 f. Days for effecting payments, 361
Cross rosette, 280, Days of prayer and fasting, 420
Crossing-out of documents, 333 f. Deaconess, 227,
Crown, 309, 369 Deacons, 60, 221-224
Crown of glory, 369 Death and drinking, 295
Crown of righteousness, 369 Death, meeting after, 303,
Crucified, The, 389 Debt, 330 ff.
Cult, Alexandrine, 3454. See Caesars, Debt, acknowledgment of, 331 f.
Christ © Debt, arrest for, 270, 330
496 INDEX
Debt, letter acknowledging, 332 Dreams of the twin sisters, and of
Debt, slavery for, 330 Ptolemaeus, 124
Decalogue, Hebrew papyrus, 38; Drinking and death, 294 f.
“ Decomposites,’”” Greek, Drinking cups, 129 ff., 351
Dedications, religious, 284 Dues payable in Egypt, 54, 339s
Deeds in duplicate, 33 ff. Duplicate deed, 33 ff.
Deeds of purchase, 34 f. Duplicate letter, 162 f.
Deissmannism, 68, Dutch investigators. See Index V:
Deliverance, 327 Bergh van Eysinga, Herwerden,
Deliverance from danger, narratives Leemans, Loman, Michelsen, Plooij,
of, 284, 307, 399 Teyler, Zwaan
Deme called Σωσικόσμιος, 364 f.
Demotic characters, 1393 Earthen vessels, MSS. in, 34f., 34s,
Demotic ostraca, 505, 53 361, 44
Demotic papyri, 37 Ebionite interpolations, supposed,
Denarius of Tiberius, 252,
Desecrators of tombs, 114, 227,
2469
Edicts,
ee
imperatival
e
infinitive in, 80,
Deserters, 217, 220 f. Edification, 160
Despotes, 357 Educated stratum, 466
Deuteronomy in Coptic, 44, Education of clergy, 222 ff.
Devils, table of, 351 Egypt, Bible text current in, 5758
Devotion (= execration), formulae cults in, 285,, 288
of, 94 f., 302 ff. dues payable in, 54; 3393
Devotion, Christian, titles in, 388 f. endogamy in, 138 f., 167,
Diaconate, candidates for the, 60, gods of. See Index II: Ammon,
“221-224 Horus, Isis, Nero, Osiris, Serapis,
Dialect, Galilean, 64 Socnopaeus, Suchus_
Dialects, ancient Greek, 66 Praefects of, 45, 92, 269 ff., 358
Diaspora, 122, 289,, 422 f. See Jews sacral texts from, 137,
Diaspora, map of the Jewish, 289, taxes in, 360
Diatribe ‘as literary genre, 243, 248, See also Index I
3299 Egyptianism in Greek, 269,
Dictionaries, 401 ff. Elegiac couplets, Jewish, 449,
Dictionary, Egyptian, 402 Embankment tax, 360,
Diligence, to give, 116 Emperor, accession of, 3454, 36419
Diploma, military, 84, 443 ff. Emperor, acquainted with the, 378.
Diptych, 442-446 Emperor, belonging to the, 377
Disease, 135, 153 f., 156 ff., 307 1. Emperor, friend of the, 377 1.
Distributive numerals, 122 f. Emperor, slave of the, 376
Divine, 3471. Emperor-worship, 252, 2783, 289 f.,
Divine commandments, 348, 376
Divine grace, 348
338 8., 387 |
Encomia, early Christian, 45,
Divine writings, 348, 376 Endogamy, 138 f., 167,
Divinity, 348 English Dialect Dictionary, 225,
Divorcement, bills of, 324, English, Old, charters, 92,; glossary,
Do the things that ye will, 324 f. 2251; gospels, 127,
Do ut des religion, 156,, 160 f. Enoch, book of, 416
Docketing of letters by officials, Enrolment for taxation, 270 f.
157 Entrusted with the gospel, 374
Documents crossed out, 333 f. Ephesians, Epistle to the, 237 f.
Documents in duplicate, 33 ff., 162 f. Ephesians, letter to the (Rom. xvi.),
Documents with three witnesses, 234 ff.
33a 4 Epidemia, 371, 3726 >
Dogs, 162 f. “ Epigraphic bishops,” 12,
Dominate, 352 Epigraphy, 11 ff., 467
Door, the (title of Christ), 389 Epiphanies of Sarapis, 152, 154, 157
Door, the open, 300, Epiphany, 3711, 3722, 373
Doric dialect, 66 © Epistle as literary genre, 248
Double compounds in Greek, 96, Epistle of Baruch, 242
Double names, 452, Epistle of Theonas to Lucianus, 232,
Dream of Ptolemaeus, 134 Epistles, 149, 229 f., 232 f., 248
Dream-spectres, 935 Epistles, catholic, 242 ff.
Dreams, accounts of, 124, 134, 152 ff., Epistles, letter-like, 230
399 Epistles, Pastoral, 238, 279, 309, 311,
Dreams, interpreter of, 97 373
 INDEX 497
Epistles, Primitive Christian, 242 ff. Folklorist, 7
Epistles of Dionysius of Halicar- Fool, the rich, 294,
Nassus, 232 For freedom, 323 ff., 329
Epistles of Horace, 233 Forgiveness, 330
Epistles of Lucilius, 233 Forms, literary, history of, 147 f.
Epistles of Ovid, 233 Forms of expression, popular, 396
Epistles of St. Paul, 233 ff., 391 Formulae, epistolary, 180,, 5, 17» 18»
Epistles of St. Paul to be learnt by 1845, 1859, 2322, 298,
eart, 223 Formulae, fixed, in N.T. language,
Epistles of St. Peter, 242, 248, 317 116 f.
Epistles of Pliny the Younger, 232 Formulae, magical, 93, 142, 255-263,
Epistles of Plutarch, 232 394-397, 454-459
Epistles of L. Annaeus Seneca, 232 Formulae of belief, 345,
Epistolary formulae, 1804, 5, 17, 1, Formulae of consolation, 177 f.
1845, 1856, 2322, 298, Formulae of excommunication, 227,
Epistolary literature, 149 Formulae of thanks to God, 1815
Epistolary style, 162,, 163,, 242 Formularies, Christian, books of, 325.,
Epistolary style, preterite of, 171, 3296
Epistolography, 147, Foundation stone, 440,
Eponym-day, 358, Free, 323 ff.
Era, Seleucid, 34 Freedman of Aesculapius, 3262
Essenes, 2551 " Freedman of Christ, 326, 377
Eternity, hope of, 389, 448 ff. Freedman of the Emperor, 377
Ethical concepts, 311 Freedman of the Lord, 326, 377
Ethics, ancient popular, 308-318 Freedom, St. Paul’s idea of, 3194
Ethics of the workshop, 314 Freer Logion, 415
Etymology, 4035 French investigators, 13, 133, 145, 8,
Etymology, popular, 25949 23, 57 ff., 320. See also Index V:
Evangelischer Wochenbrief, ix, 32,, Blouet, Boisacq, Boissonade,
229s, 3981, 4409 Bonnet, Bussemaker, Cagnat,
Examination subjects for Egyptian Clermont-Ganneau, Daremberg,
‘deacons, 60, 222f. | Dussaud, Egger, Fossey, Foucart,
Excavations, xvi, 31, 398 f. Gernet, Heuzey, Hohlwein,
Excommunication, formulae of, 227, Holleaux, Homolle, Jalabert,
Excommunication, letter of, 224-227 Jouguet, Juster, Lafoscade, La-
Execration, 94 f., 301-304 - grange, Le Bas, Le Blant, Lefebvre,
Exorcism, 256 and 260 (1. 3019), 306, Lesquier, _ Letronne, Maspéro,
Expansion of Gospel conceptions, 328, Meillet, Michel, Mispoulet, Per-
Expiation, narratives of, 3995 ᾿ drizet, Plassart, Reinach, Rouffiac,
Expiation of murder, 415 Rouvier, Savignac, Toutaia, Weill
Expiatory inscriptions, 192, 284 Friend of Christ, 377 £., 4594
Exposure of infants, 168,, 169 f. - Friend of the Emperor, 377 f.
Eyesalve, 136, Friends, Society of, x,. See
Quakers
Faith, keep, 309
Family letters, 236,, 2984 Galatians, Epistle to the, 237
Family life, ancient, 164 ff., 192 ff., Galatians confused with Galen, 98,
201 ff., 399 Galilean dialect, 64
Family sympathy, 195 f. Game played with counters, 316 f.
Fasting, days of, 420 Ge(he)nna, 258 (1. 3072), 2634
Fear God, they that, 451 Gematria, 276
Feast of Tabernacles, 115 f. Genealogy and analogy, 265 f.
Fellowship, 302 f., 390 Genesis, 424
Fervour, priestly, 70 f., 238 Genitive absolute, 1345
Festivals, tents erected at, 1156 Genitive of the authority offended,
Fight, 309 1143
Figurative language (religious), 318 Genitive represented by nominative,
ff., 332 £. 1219
Finance and religion, 152-161 Genizah, 36,
Finger of God, 306, Genres, literary, 147, 1493, 247
First person singular, stately use of, Gentiles, their piety, 285-288
134, 136-143 : German investigators, 13f., 366. See
Folklore, ancient (= science of also Index V
. ancient beliefs), 399; (= the be- German science and learning, x
liefs themselves), 287 German trawler, 400,
498 INDEX
Giants, 257 (1. 3059), 262ς Greeting. See Salutation
Give diligence, 116 Greetings in letters, 18117, 234
Glory, crown of, 369 Greetings, long list of, 235,
Gnostic fragments, 44 Groschenbibel, 144
Goblets, inscribed, 129 ff. Grove (of a temple), 153 f.
God, 196, 343 ff. Guarantors, 222 ff., 3233
God, acquainted with, 378 Guild of seamen, 2119
God and Lord, 361 Guild of shepherds, 100,
God and Saviour, 3445, 3648 Guilds, 390,
God-fearing, 451 f. 4 Guilds of Christ, 391,
God, finger of, 306, Guilds, religious, 375
God, formulae of thanks to, 181,
God, herald of, 349. Hagiology, 249
God, Image of (Christ), 389 Hand, note of, 331 ff.
God of God, 345, Hands, kohanim, 416,
God of the Hebrews, 256 (1. 3019), 2604 Hands on tombstones, 414 ff.
God, Son of, 346 f., 389 Handwriting, contrast of, 173 f.
God the captain of the boat, 400, Handwriting, rustic, 240
God, the good, 345 Head (Christ), 389
God, the Most High, 321, 416 Healer (Asclepius), 370
God, they that fear, 451 Healey (Christ), 308
God, Word of (Christ), 389 Healing, accounts of, 135, 307 f., 399
God's commandments, 376 Healing, miracles of, 284
Gods of the country worshipped by Heaven, letters from, 245, 374 f.
foreigners, 184, Hebraisms, 93, 119-123, 1855, 197,
Gold tablets, 11, 303, Hebraists and Purists, 71
“Good Daemon,” 179 f. (l. 25), 255% Hebrew ostraca, 52,
and 259 (1. 3000), 3454, 3514 Hebrew papyri, 38,
Good god, the; 345 Hebrews, Epistle to the, 42, 70f.,
Good Samaritan, 134,, 272 206, 243 f., 249, 251, 365, 383
Gospel, 366 f. Hebvews, God ofthe, 256 (1. 3019), 260,
Gospel as literary genre, 247 Hebrews, Gospel according to the,
Gospel committed unto. me, 374 _ 397s
Gospel conceptions expanded, 328, Hecate of Callimachus, 333,
Gospel (?), fragment of a, at Cairo, Hedonistic religion, 160 f.
430 H. Hell, 263,
Gospel, fragment from Oxyrhynchus, Hell, Christ’s descent into, 43
30 Hellenisation of Egyptian gods, 288
Gospel ostraca, 56-60, 144,, 223, Hellenisation of Judaism, 322, 413 ff.,
Gospels, 391 423, 452 {
Gospels, fragments of, 40 ff., 57 ff. Hellenisation of the East, 2, 34
Gospels, synoptic, 69, 248 Hellenistic Greek (Kow?), 22, 63-68,
Gothic gospel fragment, 38, 87 f., 90f., 104, 418,
Grace, divine, 348 Herald of God, 349
Grace or works? 161, 338 Herb mastic, 259,
Graeco-Sahidic fragments of the Herculanean rolls, 755, 117 f.
Psalms, 44 Hereditary lease, 33
Graffiti, 6,, 11, 276 ff., 303, Hesychius, Biblical text of, 575, 461
Grave-diggers, 214 “Heteronymous” _epistolography,
Greek, cosmopolitan, 22, 62 ff. 233, 243 ,
Greek, Hellenistic (Kowy), 22, 63-68, Hexameters, Jewish, 448, 449,
87£., 90 f., 104, 418, Hexapla, 985
Greek investigators, 16. See also Hieratic ostraca, 505, 53
Index V: Bees, Evstratiadis, Hatzi- Hieratic papyri, 400,
dakis, Jannaris, Konstantinidis, Hieroglyphic papyri, 38
Papamichael, Sophocles, Zolotas Hieroglyphs, 139s, 375
Greek language, ‘‘ Alexandrian,” 103, High Priest (Christ), 365, 389
Greek, Middle, 123 Historical things, distinct from
Greek, modern, 39, 82, 123, 133, 440, _ things holy, 2
Greek, ‘‘ New Testament,” 62 ff. Hocus-pocus, 25919, 264
Greek papyti, 32 ff. Hodja (khoja), 69, 359
Greek, Patristic, 4049 Holy, 37519
Greek, universal, 22, 62 ff. Holy day, 3718 :
Greek, vulgar, 167 f., 188, 201 f. “ Holy, not historical,” 2
“ Greek,’ what is, 4, 1324 Homologos (= labourer), 105,,
 INDEX 499
Horoscopes, 18549, 284 Inscriptions. See also Christian,
Horses, 162 Jewish.
“‘ House-church,” 278, ᾿ Insignia of Christ, 341 f.
House of prayer, manumission in, 321, Inspiration, 67, 251
3223 Η Intercession, 152, 154 f., 159,, 174 f.,
Humble the soul, to, 419 f. 1843, 1875, 194,,, 216
Hunger strike, 203,, 204 ‘Intercession ’’ (legal), 332,
Husbandmen of the lake, 200 Intercultural characteristics, 249
Hymn, early Christian, 43, International cities, 246 f.
Hymn to the Virgin, 56 International communication, dis-
Hymnodi, 346, 349, 360 f. turbed by war, 440,
Hypatia, Kingsley’s, 38, International excavations, xvi, 398 f.
Hyperbole, 88, International Greek, 22, 62 ff.
Hypotaxis, 132 International understanding through
Hypsistarians, 452, Churches, ix, 398,, 409
Interpreter of dreams, 97
I am, 136 ff., 2595 Inventories, Byzantine church, 47
“T-style, 133 £., 136-143 Inventory of temple furniture, 102
Ideal of womanhood, 314 f. Investigation. See Methods
Identifications, 189,, 437 Investigators. See American, Aus-
Ignatius, fragment of, 43 trian, Belgian, British, Danish,
Iliad, papyrus fragment, 30 Dutch, French, German, Greek,
Image of God (Christ), 389 Italian, Norwegian, Russian,
Immortality, hope of, 389, 448 ff. Swedish
Imperatival infinitive, 80,, 151, Tonic dialect, 66
Imperial, 377 Iota adscript, 94,, 167
Imperial accession, 3454, 36410 1.0.U., 331-334
Imperial cult and Imperial law, 343 Iranian philology,
Imperial letters, 84,, 374 ff. Irish Biblical scholarship, Old, 128,
Imperial ordinances, 443-446 Islam, 374, 221, 2234,
Imperial period, 282 ff., 467 Islands, Christianity in the, 279 f.
Imperial period, religious culture of, Islands, civilisation of the, 279 f.
284 ff. Islands, intercourse with, 279 f.
Imperial slave, 160, 2383, 377, 441 Isolative method of New Testament
Imperial stamp, 341 criticism, 62, 67 f., 393 f.
Importunate widow, 1359, 272 Isopsephism, 276 ff.
Imprecations, 227, Itala, 127
Imprisonment for debt, 270, 330 Italian investigators. See Index V:
In the name, 62,, 121 Breccia, Buonaiuti, Calderini,
Incantation, repetition of, 421, Ferrari, Franchi, Ghedini, Mondini,
“ Incubation,” 152, Sangiorgi, Sogliano, Tamassia,
Indian magic, 304 Vitelli
Individual souls, 290-300
Infinitive absolute (= imperative), Mined St., Epistle of, 69, 233, 242 f.,
804, 1511, 5 : 2
Inflections, shrinkage of, 124 Jar, fragment of, from Wiesbaden, 53,
Ink, 52 Jar, MSS. in, 345, 361, 448
Inn attached to synagogue, 440 Jerusalem campaign, veterans of,
Inscriptions, 11 ff. 442-446 ‘
Inscriptions, ‘“‘ angel,” 279 f. Jesus, conversations of, after the
Inscriptions, archangel, at Miletus, Resurrection, 44,
453 ff. Jesus, marks of, 301
Inscriptions on bronze, 11 Jews and Judaism:
Inscriptions, Christian, 23, 280, (?), “ beware thee of the Jews,” 120
2055, 453 ff., 461 ff. cosmopolitan Judaism,.45
Inscriptions, Christian, Corpus of, Diaspora :
23 f., 464. at Corinth, 15, °
Inscriptions, corpora of, 12-18 in Egypt, 381, 452, 122, 355
Inscriptions, cuneiform, 5 law in, 319, 321 f.
Inscriptions, expiatory, 192, 284 at Miletus, 451 f.
Inscriptions on stone, 11, 398 at Pompeii, 276,
Inscriptions on tombs, 6,, 294 f., 309 f., propaganda, 387
312 f., 315, 447ff. _ in Rheneia, 413-424
Inscriptions, votive, to god Men, at Rome, 15,, 66, 447-450
4351. works on, 289,
500 INDEX
Jews and Judaism—(cont.) : John, St., Gospel of, in Coptic, 443
Hellenisation of Judaism, 322, John, St., Revelation of, 42ς, 69,
413 ff., 423, 452 ; 244, 248, 341, 348 f., 362f., 374 ἴ.
idea of agency in Judaism, 3353 Jom hakkippurim, 420-424
Jewish elements in magic, 254-263, Jonah in Coptic, 443
305 f. ; Judaism. See Jews
Jewish fellow-workers of St. Paul, Jude, Epistle of, 242, 248
Judge (Christ), 389
Jewish Greek, 122, 122, Judge the right, 117
Jewish Greek Bible, cosmopolitan, “ Judgment of Solomon,” 276;
387,423
Jewish inscriptions, 16,, 192, 80, Keep faith, 309
- 2695, 289, 321 £., 413-424, 439 ff., Khan, attached to synagogue, 440,
447-450, 4511. Khoja (hodja), 69, 350
Jewish law, 319, 321 f. King, 362 f., 389
Jewish manumissions, 321 f. King of Kings, 3565, 362 f.
Jewish martyrs, 355, 43 _ King’s Day, 359s ;
Jews mentioned in papyri, 192, 45, Kingdom of Christ in liturgy, 3422
120; in ostraca, 355 Knecht, 3192
Jewish names, 121 f., 306. Kohanim hands, 416,
Crispus, 1215 Koine (Kowy, Hellenistic Greek), 22,
Danoilos, 122, 63-68, 871., gof., 104, 418,
Maria, 121 f., 306, Kyrios martyrs, 355
Regina, 4473
Simon, 122, Labour, 312 ff.
Jews of Palestine, 179 Labour in vain, 314,
Jewish papyri, 381, 452 Labouved, much, 312 f.
Jews, persecutions of, 459, 355 Labourers (homologi), 10544
Jewish poll-tax, 355 Labourers in the vineyard, parable,
Jewish Praefect of Egypt, 358 314
Jewish precedents in formulae of Labourers, manual, 246, 3136
anathema, 227, Lady, 109, 1675, 192g, 350, 3526 8
Jewish records (not discussed in Lady queen, 352,
this book) illustrate the New Lake husbandmen, 200
Testament, 68,,-400 Lamb of God, 389
Jewish revision of LXX (9), 437 Language, colloquial, 66 f.
Jewish traditions at first non- Language, missionary, 300
literary, 2, Language of magic, 301-307
Jewish translation of Genesis (?), Language of the workshop, 312 ff.
437 Language, original, of the New
Jewish words (?), 81, 1154 Testament, 64
learning by heart in Judaism, 223,, Language, popular, 9, 22, 55, 62 ff.
supposed Hebraisms, 120-123, 197, Languages, number of, 262,
βλέπειν ἀπό, 120 Laodiceans, letter to the, 237
δύο δύο, 122 f. Lapidary style of St. John’s prologue,
εἶναι εἰς, 120 f. 125
εἰς τὸ ὄνομα, 121 Latin, ‘ Biblical,” 112 f., 446-450
πρὸ ὀφθαλμῶν ἔχειν, 1977 ᾿ Latin gospel fragment, 38,
the name Panthera not a Jewish Latin ostraca, 53
invention, 73 f. Latin papyri, 37
vulgar Judaism, 161 _ Latin, vulgar, 197 ff., 249
Johannine style, 69,, 123 ff., 131-143 Latinisation of Greek words, 112 f.,
Johannine texts, aristocratic features 446-450
over-emphasised, 248, Latinism, 116 f.
Johannine texts, doctrinaire features Law, 269 ff.
over-emphasised, 2499 Law of the constitution (Roman), 343
Johannine writings, 69 f., 336 Law, popular, 318-337
John, St., Acts of, 42. Law, the royal, 362,
John, St., First Epistle of, 131, 232), Lead, letters on, 150f., 151,
244, 248 f., 364g, 401 Leaden roll from Rhodes, 23,
John, St., Second Epistle of, 495, 232, Leaden tablet from Hadrumetum,
241 f. 233, 263, 18
John, St., Third Epistle of, 232,, 241 f. Leaden tablets, 11, 95, 117, 150f,,
John, St., Gospel of, 42,4, 69 f., 123 ff., 302, 303, 305
222 f., 2329, 248 f., 3644 Learning by heart, 222 ff.
 INDEX 501
Lease, hereditary, 33 Life (Christ), 389
Leather as writing material, 322, 552 Ligatures, 456
Lectionary (?), 60 i Light (Christ), 389
Legal expressions and ideas in the New Linguistic importance of the new
Testament, 119,, 318-337 texts, 62 ff.
Legal writers, 78, Lion cloth of St. Anno, 378,
Legends of saints, 249 f. Literary and Non-literary, x, 2,, 4,
Leib, Gut, Ehry, Kind und Weib, 3045 147 ff., 228 f.
Letter acknowledging debt, 332 Literary development of Primitive
Letter, begging, 186, Christianity, 245 ff.
Letter, copy of, 162 f. Literary history applied to the New
Letter copy-books, 206,, 235 f. Testament, 147 ff.
Letter of complaint, 134 f. Literary language, 66 f.
Letter of excommunication, 224-227 Literature, artistic, 244, 247, 250
Letters, 148 ff., 227 ff., 296-299, 374 ff., Literature, epistolary, 149
399 Literature of the Imperial period, 2 f.
Letters, address in, 495, 1513, 1723 Literature, popular, 247
Letters, ancient Babylonian, 184, Liturgical history, 3332, 342.
Letters, ancient collections of, 236, Liturgical use of Kingdom of Christ,
Letters and epistles in N. T., 233 ff. 3424,
Letters, autograph conclusion, 166,, Liturgies, Greek, 459 f.
171 f. Liturgy, Mithraic, 289,
Letters, Christian, 46f., 197 ff. (9), Livy, Epitome of, 42
205-227, 2119 (9) Loan-words, 77, 93, 941, 18205
Letters, conclusion indented, 2104, Logia fragment, First, 29, 413
Letters, docketed by officials, 157 Logia fragment, Second, 413, 4, 425 ff.
Letters, epistolary, 230 Logia fragment, Third, 41,
Letters, family, 236, 298, Logia, translation of, xx f.
Letters from heaven, 245, 374 f. Logion, the Freer, 41,
Letters, greetings in, 181,,, 234 Logos, 69, 125, 248, 348
Letters, Imperial, 845, 374 ff Lord, 10535, 173 (1. 30), 174, 1805, 1875,
Letters, Jewish, seventeenth century, 349-359, 301 f., 389
1499 Lord and God, 361
Letters of Alexander the Great, 233 Lord King, 352 f.
Letters of Aristotle, 228,, 231, 233 Lord of the diadems, 352
Letters of Brutus, 233 Lord of the spirits, 416
Letters of Christ, 245,, 374 £. Lord, Our, 351
Letters of Cicero, 231, 233 Lord's day, 357, 359 ᾿
Letters of commendation, 171, 197 ff., Lord's freedman, the, 326, 377
2352 Lord’s Prayer, 391
Letters of consolation, 176 ff. Lord’s Prayer on a fragment of
Letters of contrition, 178), 187-192 earthenware, 563, 57>
Letters of Demosthenes, 233 Lord’s Prayer on papyrus, 48,
Letters of Epicurus, 231 Lord’s service, 357 f.
Letters of Isocrates, 231 Lord’s supper, 357
Letters of Persian kings, 375, Lorvd’s table, 351
Letters of Plato, 231 Lord’s treasury, 357
Letters of recommendation, 171, Lotometra, 256 (1. 3009), 2599
197 ff., 235 fi Lower classes, 7,, 246f., 290 ff.,
“Letters of the captivity,” St. Paul's, 328 f., 338 1., 386, 388 f., 394-397,
2374. 465 ff.
Letters of the Emperors, 374 f. Lower classes, solidarity of, 390
Letters, religious, 284 Lucianus, Biblical text of, 461
Letters, tying up of, 18294 Luke, St., Gospel of, 248 f.
Letter-writers (treatises), ancient, Lutherans, 46,
1774 191g ὃ Ρ
Letter-writing, its history still un- Magi, Adoration of the, 354,
written, 399 f. Magic, 142, 453-459
Lexicography, 49s, 461 ff. Magic, language of, 301-307
Libellatici, 46 Magic spells, Greek, Hebrew, Indian,
Libelli, 46 Mandaean, Syrian, 304
Libertines, synagogue of the, 441 Magic words, 255 f., 259-261
Liddell and Scott, Greek Lexicon, Magical books, 254-264, 284
769: 790, 816, 897, 1424, 20713) 4035 Magical formulae, 93, 142, 255-263,
Liddell and Scott, a correction, 323, 394-397, 454-459
502 INDEX *
Magical papyri, London, 302, 305 Milestones, Augustan, 65
Magical papyrus, Paris, 254-260, 302, ‘Military diploma, 84, 443 ff.
Magical text, Abyssinian, 336, Mime, fragment of a, 3365
Magician’s outfit, 263 Minister of Augustus, 376
Mammon, Jesus on, 246, Minister of Christ, 376
Mammon, the Gospel antagonism to, Miracles, 385 f., 466
85 Miracles, accounts of, 975, 284, 386,,
Mandaean spells, 304, 305 3991 ἢ
Manumissio in ecclesia, 3223, 3303 Miracles of healing, 284
Manumission, Christian formularies Mishna, 2, 685, 382,
of, 3252, 329 f. ᾿ Missionary documents, 152 ff., 241
Manumission “12. the house of ‘Missionary language, 300
prayer,” 321, 3223 Missionary religions, 152-161, 288 f.
Manumission, Jewish records of, 321, Mithraic liturgy, 289,
3223, 4525 Mithras cult, Cumont’s map, 289), 5
Manumission, records of, 111, 320 ff. Model boys, 204,
Manumission, sacral, 102, 1192, 320- Modern Greek, 39, 82, 123, 133, 440.
331,359, ‘Modern ”’ souls, 300
Manuscripts in jars, 34f., 343, 361 Money devoted to religious purposes,
448 104 f., 153 ff., 284
Maps, 289, 3 Money payments, sacral, 361 f.
Mark, St., Gospel according to, 415, Monogram of Christ, 47, 2221, 2554,
2236 280,
Market prices, 273, Monograms of archangels, 455 f.
Marks of Jesus, 301 Monograms with p, 2513, 306j9
Marriages between brother and sister, Monotheism, 386 f.
138 f., 168, Moral element in Christianity, 390 f.
Martyrdoms (literary genre), 249, 399 Morality, 309 ff., 390 f.
Martyrs, 355 f. Morality for the sake of reward, 314
Martyrs, Acts of the Alexandrian, 45, Morality of the workshop, 314
Martyrs, Kyrios, 355 Morals, ancient popular, 308-318
Martyrs, Scilitanian, 2523, 356 Moravian Hymn-book, 388,
Masses, the, 7 ff., 290-300. See Lower Most Great (Hermes), 281,
classes Most Great gods, 352,
Masterbuilder, 160 Most High God, 321, 416
Mastic, herb, 259, Mother’s name in magical texts, 3064
Mastigia (?), 256 (1. 3009), 2594 Mothers, 167-170, 176 ff., 187-191,
Materialistic method of research in 192-197, 202 ff., 214 f., 315, 317,
history, 465 ff. 448
Matthew, St., Gospel according to, Mount, Sermon on the, 266
2235 Much laboured, 313 f.
Maximum tariff (Diocletian’s), 273 f. Mummy-labels, 99
Mediator, 389. See Agency, Para- Muratorian canon, 197, 197», 1983,
clete , 249
Medical terms, 90, 98, Murder, expiation of, 415
Medical writers, 78, Musical notation, early Christian, 43,
Mediterranean civilisation, 2
Meeting, 112, Naassenic psalm, 43
Meeting again after death, 303, Nails, 331,
Meeting-house, 112, Naked soul, 292,
Memnon colossus, 4353 Name, change of, 18295
Men, the god, 328,, 435 f. Name, in the, 62, 121
Messiah, idea of the, 365, i mother’s, in magical texts,
Metaphors, Primitive Christian, 3006
318 ff., 332 Name of daemon, important in ex-
Method, materialistic, 465 ff. orcism, 261,
Method, political, in study of culture, Names, double, 452,
2648 Names in Rom. xvi., 279;
Methodists, 112, Names in the book, 119
Methods of research and interpreta- Names, list of, 372. See Onomastica
tion, 1 ff., 62 ff., 146 ff., 264 ff., 296, Names of archangels, 455 f.
2991, 301,, 349 f., 358, 384 f., 393 ff., Names, pet, 204, 435 f.
3961, 399 ff., 425 ff., 430 ff., 465 ff. Names, shortened, 435, 437,
Middle Greek, 123 Narrative style, popular, 399
Midwives, book for, 84ς, 86, Narratives of adventure, 174 f., 399
 INDEX 503
Narratives of expiation, 399, “Original language’’ of the New
Narratives of rescue, 180,, 284, 307, Testament, 64
399 Orphics, 303,
ον οὐ: of the miraculous, 97, Ossuaries, 6,
284, 3 Ostraca, 50 ff.
Nativity, date of the, 6, Ostraca, Aramaic, 523,4
Naturalism, 63 Ostraca, Christian, from Egypt, 56,
Neck, to lay down one’s, 117 f. Ostraca, Coptic, 505, 221-227
Net, 388, Ostraca, hieratic, 505
New English Dictionary, 46,, 225, Ostraca in N. Europe, 532
2628, 3010 Ostraca, inscribed with Gospel pas-
New Testament. See Testament sages, 56-61, 1441. 223,
‘““New Testament ” Greek, 62 ff. Ostraca, writing scratched on, 52,
“New” words, 74 ff., 171g, 20849, Our Lord, 351
2585 Overseer (title of honour), 347
Nicene Creed, 3452 Ox and ass, 81, 275
Nominative, 123 ff.
Nominative for genitive, 1210 Pahlavi, 32,
Non-literary, the, x, 22, 4,1 47 ff., Palmyrene inscr., 4475
228 f., 466 _Pander, to act as, 225 f.
Non-literary memorials,4 Papas, 205-213, 2084, 216-221
' Non-political character at Primitive Papyri, 24 ff., 32 ff., 467
Christianity, 338 f. Papyri, bibliography of, 44,
Norwegian’ investigators, 59. Papyri, Christian, 6,, 40-48
Norwegians in Zululand, 29, Papyri, Coptic, 373, 44 f.
Note of hand, 331 ff. Papyri, corpus of, 40
“ Notes and Queries,” 742, 1009, 442, Papyri, discoveries of, 30 ff., 36 ff.
Novation, 332, Papyri, excavations for, 31
Nubian language, 45 Papyri, Hebrew, 38,
Number 616, the, 344 Papyri, hieratic, 400,
Number 666 (or 616), the, 276 ff. Papyri, hieroglyphic, 38
Number 888, the, 278, Papyri, Jewish, 37, 45
Number of languages, 2624 Papyri, Latin, 37
Numerals, distributive, 1221. Papyri, Persian, 38
Numerals in Greek New Testament, Papyri, publication of, 39 ff.
771, 5 Papyrus boats, 30
Numerical riddles, 277 ff. Papyrus codex, 30
Papyrus manufacture, ancient and
Obscenity, 164,, 276 modern, 27 ff.
“ Observations,” 18th-cent. compilers Papyrus plant, 25 f., 30
of, 12,, 407 Papyrus rolls, 28 f.
Odes, 349 Parable of the barren fig-tree, 272,
* Oecumenical Christian characteristics, Parable of the Good Samaritan, 134,,
249 272
Oecumenical Christianity, xiii, 249, Parable of the importunate widow,
3981, 409 272
Oftcess of the Roman army, 197- Parable of the labourers in the vine-
200, 216-221 yard,314
Official style, 68, Parable of the prodigal son, 188, 191,
Ointment for eyes, 136, 272
Old English charters, 92,; glossary, ‘Parable of the rich fool, 294,
2251; gospels, 127, Parable of the unjust steward, 33,
Old Latin version of Bible, 127 Parable of the wicked servant, 270
Old Syriac version of Bible, 127 Parables, our Lord’s, 1347, 272
“ Olivet,” 171 Paraclete, 87, 1224, 336
Onomastica SACTA, 25949, 405 f. Paradise, 260,
Onomatology, 73 Parallelism in civilisation of Egypt
Open door, 300, and Palestine, 268 ff., 2751, 3521.
Oracle, 17511, 284 Parallelism of Christian and Pagan
Oracular literature, 3675 pairs of ideas, 314f.
Oration (literary genre), 243 Parataxis, 131-136, 1973
Order for payment of corn, οος; of Parchment amulets, 59
wheat, 121 Parchment letters, 149,
Ordination, requirements for, 221 ff. Parchments, 4, 10 f., 30, 32, 382, 415,
Orientalisation of the West, 2 430 44, 451, 3635. See Vellum
 504 INDEX
Paris Magical Papyrus, 254-264 Pfaffiein and Pdpstlein, 2194,
“ Parochia,’’ consciousness of a, 1592 Pharaoh, 352
Parricide and matricide, 317 Pharisaism, 450
Parthians, 32 ff. Philemon, Epistle to, 216 f., 234, 237,
Participles, use of, 19315, 19499, 210, 279, 332, 334, 335 ἴ.
Parusia, 368-373. See also Epidemia, Philippians, Epistle to the, 238
Epiphany Philological importance of the new
Parusia coins, 368, 3713, 373 texts, 62 ff. ὁ
Parusia crown, 369, Philologists and theologians, 394
Parusia dues and taxes, 368 f. Philosebasti, 348,
Parusia, eras reckoned by, 368, 372 f. Phonetic spelling, 201, 406,
Parusia, expenses of, 368 f., 370, 372 Phonology and accidence, 72 f.
Parusia, manifestation of, 3704 τ Phylae, names of, 364,
Parusia of Antichrist, 371 f. Physicians, 84, 86, 89 f., 98,
Parusia of Antiochus the Great, 370, Pietistic congregations, 112, .
Parusia of Asclepius, 370, Piety, Gentile, evidenced by the
Parusia of G. Caesar, 3711, 372, ancient shrines, 285-288
Parusia of Christ, 367 ff., 389 Piety, various levels of, in the ancient
Parusia of the Emperors, 370 ff. world, 287
Parusia of Mithradates, 370, Pilgrimages (literary genre), 249
Parusia of Nero, 3713» 5 Planetary inscription at Miletus,
Parusia of Ptolemies, 370, 453 ff. 3
Parusia of Saitapharnes, 370, Plough, 388,
Parusia sacrifices, 368, 371 Plougher, 388,
Parustia, the first, 3725 Pneumatic communion, 378,, 387
Parusia, the second, 372.5, 389 Poemander (Poimandres), 835, 288,
Parvenu, 294 Polemics, Christian, 283
Paston Letters, x Political intent in studying culture,
Pastor Hermae, 42, 49, 264,
Pastoral Epistles, 238 f., 279, 300, Politics, Primitive Christianity not
311, 373 interested in, 339 f.
Patristic Gk., 4049 Poll-tax, Egyptian, 271,
Patristic MSS., 280, Poll-tax, Jewish, 355
Paul, the name, 443, Polygenesis, 265,
Paul, St., Epistles of, 157 ff., 233 ff., Pope, title, 208,, 219
391; to be learnt by heart, 223 Popes, architectural, 160
Paul, St., his idea of freedom, 319, Popular character of Primitive Chris-
Paul, St., journey to Jerusalem, tianity, 246 f., 385, 388 f.
436 ff. Popular ethics, ancient, 308-318
Paul, St., writes letters during im- Popular etymology, 25945
ee 2371. See also Index Popular forms of expression, 396
Popular language, 9, 22, 55, 62 ff.
Pay days, 361 f. Popular law, 318-337
Payments, days for effecting, 361 Popular literature, 247
Payments in kind, 33, Popular morality, 308-318
Payments of a religious nature, Popular narrative style, 399
361 f. Popular personality, types of, 396
Payments of corn, 90,4, 121 Popular religion (‘‘ folklore ”), 287
Perforation of documents, 333, Popular scene (in comedy), 317
Peril of the sea, 181, Popular style, 131-143
Persecutions of Christians, 46, 137, Postils, 249
213 ff., 342 Potsherds, 50 ff. See Ostraca
Persian kings, letters of, 375, Praeparatio evangelica, 196
Persian papyri, 38 Praeparatio latina, 447
Person, 341, Praescript (= salutation), 48), 1515, ¢
Personal execution, 269 f., 330 236
Personal names in Rom. xvi., 279, “ Praise of Wisdom,” 1375
Personality, a leading, "466 Prayer and fasting, days of, 420
Personality, popular, types of, 396 Prayer “‘ for the city,’ 458
Pet names, 204, 435 f. Prayer, house of, manumission in,
Peter, Acts of, 42, 321, 322,
Peter, Epistles of, 242, 248 Prayer, Lord’s, 48,, 565, 575, 391
Peter, Second Epistle of, 317 Prayer to Isis, 753, 1419, 288,
Peter, Gospel of, 57, ~ Prayer with Thou, 141,
Fetition, 369,, 370,, 372. Prayers, 284. See Intercession
 INDEX 505
Prayers, early Christian, 43, ‘Purchase-money (of slaves), 322-325,
Prayers for protection (Corinth), 327 ff.
45%; (Miletus), 453 ff. Purists and Hebraists, 71
Prayers for vengeance (Amorgus), Put in trust with the gospel, 374
117
Prayers for vengeance (Rheneia), Quakers, x,, 1123
151, 1163, 3223, 413 ff., 452,
Prepositions, 120 f. Ransom, 327 ff.
Presbytery, 46, 337s, 3695 Ready money, bought for, 324,
Presbyter, Christian, 46, 213 ff., 219 Receipts, 110 f., 166, 331, 360
Presbyter, Jewish, 1539, 440, Reckoning, to make a, 117
Presbyter, pagan, 494, 3695 Recommendation, letters of, 171,
Price, 322-325, 329 197 ff., 235
Price. See Purchase money Recompense, the idea of, 160f.,
Prices of corn, 2731 413 ff., 448, 450
Priest, High (Christ), 365, 389 Reconciliation, 187. (1. 10), 188,
Priest of Isis, 10513, 368, Reconciliation, international, ix,
Priestling and popeling, 2199 3981, 409
Priests in Hellenistic Egypt, 285, Recto and verso, 29, 430 f.
Priests, Jewish, 440, Redeemer, cult of the, 389
Priests, petitions from, 1562, 361g, Redemptio servt suis nummts, 322,
368, , Redemption, 319-330
Primitive Christianity. See Chris- Redemption money, 327 ff.
tianity Re-enslavement, 3252
Primitive Church, 382, Reformations, 161
Primitive religion, 160 f. Relative as interrogative, 126,
Principate, 350, 352 - Religion and theology, 379 ff.
Problems awaiting solution, 397-409. Religion, hedonistic, 160 f.
See Research _ Religion, history and psychology of,
Processions, 106), 2, 367 400
Proclamation in the Temple at Religion, money spent on, 105, 284 f.
Jerusalem, 79 ff. Helgien of the Apostles, its character,
Proclamations, imperatival infinitive 160 f. ᾿
in, 80, Religion, popular (‘‘ folklore ’’), 287
Prodigal son, 1359, 1654, 166,, 5, 187- Religion, primitive, 160 f.
192, 202,4, 299 Religions, missionary, 288 f.
Prodigal son, parable, 188, 191, 272 Religious atmosphere of the ancient
Production, religious, 400 shrines, 285 ff.
Profession, Lutheran certificates of, Religious culture of the Imperial
46,
Proletarian life, 169 f.
period,
Remission,
284 ff.
330 f.
Propaganda for a cult, 17, 152 ff., Repetition of an incantation, 421
241, 251, 287, 384 f.; correspond- Representation of one person by
ence devoted to, 157 1., 241 another, 1184, 121}4, 166,, 331 f.,
Prophecies, -3679 3351. ,
Proselytes, 452 Rescue, narratives of, 180,, 284, 307,
Proskynemata, 1744. 399
Prosopographia of the Imperial Research. See Methods
period, 290 f., 299, Research, international. See Ameri-
Protective charm, 453 ff. can, Austrian, Belgian, British,
Protestant solidarity, ix Danish, Dutch, French, German,
“ Protestant Weekly Letter,” ix Greek, Italian, Norwegian, Russian,
Proverbs-of Solomon, 44, Swedish
Proverbs, unidentified, 43, Research, future work of, 397-409
Provincialism (?) of S.W. Asia Research, joys and sorrows of, 398,
Minor, 115, 408 f.
Psalms, fragment from Oxyrhynchus, Research, tasks for, 441, 1679, 238,
4248 2484, 2642, 2731, 2984, 2991, 3031
Psalms learnt by heart, 223 3151, 337, 3746 3864, 4062, 4372
Psalter, fragment at Jena, 435 464 xe
vesponsum divinum, 153."
᾿
Psalter, fragments at Leipzig, 294
Pseudonymous letters, 233 Retaliation, 413 ff.
Publicans, 269 Revelation of St. John, 23, 42ς, 69,
Purchase, deeds of, 34 f. See Sale 244, 248, 313, 341, 348f., 362f.,
Purchase money, 333 374
 506 INDEX
“ Revelations,’’ apocryphal, 249, 287. Secularisation of Jewish rites, 3222
Revelations by the god Sarapis, 155 Seduce, to, 225 f.
Revenge, 413 ff. Seleucid era, 34
Reviewers of this book, xiii, 80, 445, Seleucidae, coins of the, 3441
1685, 2371, 3121, 3332, 3463, 3650. Semasiology, 403 |
See also Index V: Calder Semasiology, religious, 2192, 408
Reward (in the New Testament), Semeia and logia, 386,
110 ff., 314 Semitic religions, 4001
Rhythm, Asian, 70 Semiticisms, 691, 719, 122f., 125 f.,
Rich fool, the, 294, 168,, 170,; Lord King, both Semitic
Rich, the, 2944 and Egyptian, 352 f.
Riddles, numerical, 277 ff. Septuagint :
Right judgment, give, 117 concordance, 8798
Righteousness, crown of, 369 cosmopolitan, prepared the way
Robber scene, 134 for Christianity, 386
Robbers, 935, 2792, 291, 3179 dictionary, 406,
Roll, of lead, 233 Grammar, 195-7, 22, 484, 50, 73
Roll, papyrus, 28f., 118 illustrated by the ostraca, 55
Rolls, Herculanean, 755, 117f. influence on New _ Testament
Romanisation of the East, 2 vocabulary, etc., 763, 342, 351,
Romans, Epistle to the, 234 ff., 3614
239 f., 276, 2791, 4371) 438 influence on ‘ planetary inscrip-
* Rosette with cross, 280, tion ᾿ at Miletus, 458,
Rosettes, 280, its history illustrated by inscrip-
Royal law, the, 362; Σ tions from Rheneia, 15;, 233;
Russian investigators, 64,. See also 413 ff., 423; by other inscrip-
Index V and VI C: Latyschev tions, 233, 234
Rustic uncials, 240 " Jewish revision of (?), 437
lexicography, 404 f.
Sabaoth, 257 and 262 (1. 3052) papyrus fragments, 425, 4, @ 431;
Sacred, 375 f. at Heidelberg, 30, 41,
Sacrifice, idea of, 329 f. parallels to an Egyptian sacral
Sacrifices, 46,, 164 f., 327, text, 139f. (motes); to Paris
Sacrifices, advent, 368, 371 Magical Papyrus, 2575, 260-264
Sacrificial regulations, 284 (notes)
Saints, legends of, 249 f. parchment fragment, 43,
Sale, contracts of, 33 ff., 163, 319- quotations in inscriptions, 224, 234;
330 unrecognised, 234, 461 ff.
Sale to the god as.trustee, 323 quoted in a papyrus letter, 216,
Salutation (in letters), 1513, 4, 166,, substitutes Lord for Jahveh, 350
171 f. supposed “‘ Biblical’? words in,
Samaritan, the good, 134,, 272 75 ff., 81-88, 89-92, 95 f., 102,
Samaritan, the grateful, 13649 115 f., 1251.
Sarapis. See Serapis words and phrases: εἰς = ‘‘ for,”
“Sargon,” Grimsby trawler, 400, 171g; κύριος βασιλεύς, 3523; σῶμα,
Saviour, 308, 363 ff., 369 f., 389 1605,
Saviour and God, 3445, 364g Sevaphinen, Die, Tersteegen’s, 262,
Saviour of the world, 364 Sermon on the Mount, 266
Saviour of the world, idea and cult, Servant, 319
3641. Servant of Isis, 74,
“Sayings and signs,’’ 386, ‘ Servant, the wicked, 270
“ Schleswig Holstein,’ German traw- Shed blood, to, 417
ler, 400, Sh(e)ma, Hebrew papyrus, 38,
Scilitanian martyrs, 2523, 356 Shepherd, 99 ff., 389 ~
“ Scolding ”’ scene in Plautus, 317 Shepherd of Hermas, 42, 49,
Scriptuve, 375 f. Shepherds, guild of, 100,
Scriptures, buried, 36, Shifters-on, 266
Sea, peril of the, 181, Shortening of names, i
Sea voyages, 279 f. Shrines, ancient, ther: tehaisie atmo-
Seal, Solomon’s, 261, sphere, 285-288 ;
Sebaste Day, 358-361 Shrunken grammatical forms, 124 f.
Sebastologi, 348, Shuck, dog-fiend, 225,
Sebastos month, 171 Sibylline literature, 367,
Secularisation of “" Biblical ’’ words, Sicarii, 355 f., 3554
75 ff. Sickness, 135, 153 f., 156 ff., 307 f.
 INDEX 507
Sign of authenticity in a letter, 166, Sparrows, market price of, 272-275
172 “ Spectator, The,’’ 313,
Signatures, 1679, 171 f. Spelling, phonetic, 201, 406,
“* Signs and sayings,”’ 386, Spells, 304. See Magic
Signs of the archangels, 453 ff. Standard of learning among the
Sins, confession of, 1359, 187-192, clergy, 221-224
216,, 284 Stanza d’Eliodoro, 61,
Six hundred three score and six, 276 ff., Statenbijbel, 127,
344 Statistics of the New Testament
Sixtine edition of Vulgate, 127 vocabulary, 76 ff.
Slave of Christ, 323 ff., 3507, 376 Steersman, 397, 400,
Slave of the Emperor, 160, 2383, 376, Stone, inscriptions on, 11
441 2 Student Christian Federation, xiv,
Slave of Isis, 74, Style, epistolary, 241
Slave of the Syrian goddess, 109 Style, epistolary, preterite of, 1714,
Slavery for debt, 330 1763
Slavery of God, 3254 Style, Johannine, 131-141
Slavery of righteousness, 326, Style, of edicts, 80,
Slavery of Satan, 3275 Style of New Testament and of pro-
Slaves, contract for purchase of, 163, fane texts compared, 123-140
Slaves, Imperial, 2385, 376 f. Style of St. John’s Prologue, 123
Slaves, manumitted, not to be re- Style, official, 68,
enslaved, 3252 Style, popular, 131-143
Slaves, names of, 329, Style, popular narrative, 399
Slaves of death, 323, Style, solemn, in sacral use, 136-142
Slaves of men, 323, Style, stately, use of “I,” 133, 136-
Slaves of sin, 323, 143
Slaves of the gods, 3234 Sufferings of Christ, 96,
Slaves of the law, 32349 “ Suicide threatened, 202 (ll. 14, 15),
Slaves, sacral manumission of, 102, 2024, 204
1192, 319-330, 350, Sun-child (Sunday child), 92
Social history, 264 ff. Sunday, 3572, 359 ff.
Social history, political bearing of, Sunday School Union, 128,
2642 Sundial, 2810
Social piety, 175 Sureties, 222, 223, 3233
Social solidarity of the Christians, Swedish investigators. See Index V:
213 Aurelius, Lagercrantz, Nachman-
Social structure of Primitive Chris- son, Rudberg
tianity, 7 f. Swedish peasant vocabulary, 247,
Société des Etudes Juives, xi Swedish version of Paulus, 241,
Society of Sacred Study, Central, Symbols, supposed planetary, 454 ff.
4049 Synagogue of the Libertines, 441
Soldiers, 179-183, 186, 204, Synagogue, ruler of, 440
Soldiers’ letters, 179-186, 186,, 197- Synagogues, inscriptions for, 16,
199 344, 439 ff.
Soldier’s portrait, 1804, Syncretism, 264
Solidarity of the lower classes, 390 Synoptic gospels, 69, 248
Solidarity, social, of the Christians, Syntax of the New Testament, 119-
212; of scattered churches, 213; of 125
lower orders generally, 390 f. Syriac, 2,
‘Solomon, Judgment of,” 276, Syrian goddess, 109 f., 350
Solomon, Proverbs of, 446 Syrian magic, 304
Solomon’s Song, 462 f.
Son of God, 346 f., 389 Tabernacles, Feast of, 115 f.
Son of Man, 389 Table of devils, 351
Son, prodigal, 188, 272 Table of the Lord, 351
Song of Solomon, 462 f. Tablets, cursing, 22,, 233, 94 f., 284,
Soul, naked, 292, 3028.
Soul, to humble the, 418 ff. Tablets, gold, 11, 303,
Soul-life of antiquity, 399 Tablets of wax, II, 503
Soul-pictures, 296 ff. Tablets, wooden, 505, 99 f., 124, 442 ff.
Souls, ancient, 290-300 Talmud, borrowed words in, 93, 941,
Souls, individual, 290-300 18295
Souls, ‘‘ modern,’’ 300 Talmuds, the, 2, 104, 2751
Sovereign, worship of the, 289, 338 ff. Tanaim, 382,
 508 INDEX
Tariff, Diocletian’s Maximum, 273 f. Tombstones, hands on, 414 ff.
Tattoo marks, Arab, 4553 Tongue bound, 304-307 °
Tax, on aliens, 11I, Tongues, the number of, 262,
Tax, bath and embankment, 360 “ Toparchy,” 1731
Taxation, Egyptian, 54, 3393 Topography, Egyptian, 45
Taxation,. enrolment for, 270f. Torah rolls, interred, 36,
Temenos, 153 f. Towns, great. See Cities
Temple at Jerusalem, warning Towns, provincial, life in, 267 ff., 278
notice, 8o ff. Tracts (tractates), 249
, Temple, building of a, 153 £.; temple Trade societies, Roman, 390,. See
accounts, 3533 Guilds :
Temple choirs, 287 Transcriptions in the New Testa-
Temple furniture, 102 ment, Semitic and Latin, 77
Temple laws, 284 Transfer (to another person’s ac-
Temples, xv, 284 f., 286 ᾿ count), 121
Tents erected at festivals, 115, Translation, principles of, x, 426,
Terracottas, Egypto-Greek, 288, Translators of N.T., 127
‘Testament, 3193, 337 Travellers’ tales of adventure, 399
Testament (or will), 834, 90, 2214, Tribute of 2 drachmae, 269
3193, 3241, 337 Trio of daemons, 261}.
Testament, New: Trust, committed to my, 374
essential characteristics, 143 ff., Twin-sisters, 124,
250 f., 282, 391 f., 400 f., 409 Two and two, by, 122 f. j
its earliest history, 49 Types of ancient soul-life, 292-299
legal ideas in, 335 ff. Types of popular personality, 396
meanings of words, 107-116
“ original language ’’ of, 64 Uncials, rustic, 240
peculiar beauty of, 72 Universal Greek, 22, 62 ff.
statistics of its vocabulary, 76 ff. “Unknown Warrior,’ 442,
style compared with that of pro- Upper classes, 7,, 246 f., 338 f., 466 ἢ.
fane texts, 131-143 Urkunde, Ur-Kunde, 241,
syntax of, 119-131
text of, 573, 461 Vellum, 42). See Parchment
translators, 127 Versammlung, 112,
Testament, Old. See Septuagint Verso and recto, 29, 430
Thanks to God, formulae of, 180, Veterans of the Jerusalem campaign,
Theatre at Ephesus, 113 f., 281, 442-446
Theatre at Miletus, 451 f., 453 ff. Vetus Itala, 127
Theatre-going, 1331, 452 Viaticum, 179 f., 181, 182 .
Theologians and philologists, 394 Vicarious present activity of Christ,
Theologise, 3494 329, 336, 382 f.
Theologos, 348 f., 379 Vices, lists of, 1644, 3194
Theology distinct from religion, 379 Vices and virtues, 316 ff.
Therapeutae, 255, Village-life, 267
Thesaurus Graecae Linguae, 403; Village-priest, 219,
quoted, 190, 2095, 2192, 2244, 259», Vine (Christ), 389
3492, 3655, 3787 433. Vineyard, parable of the labourers
Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, 402, in the, 314
494 2. . Vineyard, sale of, 33 ff.
Thessalonians, Epistles to the, 237 Violence, personal, 134 f., 196
Things that ye will, do the, 3241. . ‘Virtues, lists οἱ, 86,
Thorn in the flesh, 307 Virtues and vices, lists of, 314~318
Thou-prayer, 1419 Visions, accounts of, 399
Throne of Satan, 281, Vlachs, 100,
Through Christ, 12116, 337 Vocabulary, 74-119
This saith, 375 Vocabulary, labourer’s, 247
“Times, The,’’ quoted, 415, 168,, 3684, Vocabulary, New Testament, statis-
400 4421
Titles used in
ΗΝ
Christian
'
devotion,
tics of, 76 ff.
Vowels, rows of, 454 ff.
388 f. Vows, 158, 435 f.
Token, 166,, 171 Vulgar Greek, 167 f., 188,, 201 f,
“ Tokens ” for communicants, 46, Vulgar Latin, 133, 1345, 197 ff., 249
Tombs, desecrators of, 114, 227; Vulgar use of cases, 122, 18449
Tombs, inscriptions on, 6,, 294 f., Vulgarisms, 124, 18049
309 f., 312 ., 315, 447 ff Vulgate,127, 3245, 376
 INDEX 599
. Wage-paying, 361 Word-formation, 73
Wages (in the New Testament), Word of God (Christ), 389
10g ff., 314 Words becoming indeclinable, 123
War Relief Fund, ix, Words, borrowed, 77, 93, 941, 18296
War, the Great (1914-18), ix, 245, Words, Christian new formations, 78
War, the Great, disturbs international Words, magic, 255 f., 259-261
communication, 4405 Words, meanings of, in New Testa-
Warning notice in the Temple at ment, 107-116
Jerusalem, 79 ff Words, ‘‘ new,” 74 ff., 171, 20819,
Warrantors, 222 ff., 3235 258,
Warrior, the Unknown, 442, Words of consolation, 415, 405 f.
Washings, ritual, 440, “Words of power,” 25919. See
Watch beds, to, 222 f. Charms ᾿
Wax tablets, 11, 50, Words, statistics of New Testament,
Way, The (title of Christ), 389 76 ff.
Weiterschieber, 266, Work, 312 ff.
Wheat, Corn of (title of Christ), 389 Workmen’s sayings, 312 ff.
Wheat, order for payment of, 90.4, Workshop language, 312 ff.
121 Workshop morality, 314
Wicked servant, the, 270 World, literature for the, 249 f.
Widow, the importunate, 134,, 272 World, Saviour of the, 364
Widows, itinerant, 109, World, the ancient, 282 ff.
“ Wisdom, Praise οἵ, 1373 World-centres (great cities), 246
With Christ, 3031 " Worship, 1. See Cult
Witness (Christ), 389 Worship, ancient places of, 285 ff.
Witnesses, 33 f., 443-446 Worship of local gods, 1844
Witnesses, threefold, to documents, Writing, ignorance of, 924, 1667, 196,
332)4 Writings, 375 f.
Wizardry, 142. See Magic Writings, divine, 348, 376
Wochenbrief, Evangelischer, ix Wiirttemberg Bible Institute, 144,
Womanhood, ideal of, 314 f., 450
Wooden tablets, 505, 99f., 124, 442 ff. Yezidis, 1375
 V.—MODERN PERSONS
Achelis, H., 280, Blass, F., on St. Paul and the Asian
Albertz, M., 147, rhythm, 70,
Alexander, W. L., 68, on the bad boy Theon’s letter,
Allen, ὟΝ. C., 4910 855, 201, 2014, 9, 20293, 2037,
Alt, A., 146 3971.
Amherst of Hackney, Lord, xvii, 40), Blau, L. 254 10), 235, 341, 415 53:
42, 86, 205, 941, 120,, 18296, 2551» 275) 306g,
Anderson, J. G. C., 153 3246, 4215
A[net], H., 25. Bleckmann, F., 5.» 3534
Angus, S., 103, 634 Blouet, A., 413s
Anrich, G., 56,4 Bludau, A., 412, 452, 462, 572s
Anz, H., 19; Blumenthal, F., 3431, 345. 3592
Arnim, H. von, 336, 36410
Arnold, E. V., 390, Bockh, A., 12, 455
Audollent, A., 955 Bodelschwingh, F. von, 51,
Aurelius, E., 10, Boehmer, J., 62, ᾿
Bohl, E., 235
Bachmann, W., 146 Boéhme, Jakob, 381,
Baedeker, K., 253, 100, Boisacq, E., 4035
Baldensperger, W., 32 Boissonade de Fontarabie, J.-F,
Bardenhewer, O., 463, 232, 3492, 4333
Barnardo, T. J., 513 Boll, F., 1423, 333, 4534, 455, 455s
Bartlet, J. V., 427 4565
Baudissin, Count W., 11,, 74, Bonnet, M., 1245, 1375
Bauer, W., 4075 Borchardt, L., 25,, 293
Baunack, J., 82. Bormann, E., 37649, 4492, 4501
Baur, F. C., 395, Bouriant, U., 57
Baur, W., 234, Bousset, W., 355, 57a, 93s, 2394 2441,
Bechtel, F., 98, 3497, 4565, 4572
Becker, C. H., 38,4 Brandt, S., 280,, 3051, 3633
‘Becker, E., 2763, 338, Breccia, E., 1495, 2953, 4424
Bees (Bens), N. A., 16, 185, 100g, Brightman, F. E.,’ 306,
1637, 30611, 4392, 447, 4473 Brinkmann, A., 1244
Behm, J., 338; Broéndsted, G., 205,
Behmen, Jacob, 381, Brooke,.A. E., 42,
Bekker, I., 122, Bruce, J. C., 4474
Bell, H. I., xi, 385, 45s, 392, 56,» Brueckner, A., 52,
1759, 18143, 1925, 196,,2, 204, Brugmann, K., 132, 1324, 133, 4031
215g, 2707, 2716, 4040 Briinnow, R. E., 14,
Benndorf, O., 134, 171 Bruns, C. G., 843, 166,
Bergh van Eysinga, G. A. van den, Brunton, G., 44,
7. 2315 Biichmann, G., 3010
Bergmann, J., 413. Buckler, W. H., 2815, 328,
Biedermann, E., 369, Budge, Sir E. A. W., 44,
Birt, Th., 272 Buecheler, F., 465, 278, 316,
Bissing, Baron F. W. von, 358, Bulle, H., 4,
Blake, W. T., 17410 ἘΒΌΠΒΙΝΙ E., 10,
Blass, F., 371, 981, 126 uresch,
Bore. Ὁ K.,
οὗν 14,, 328,, 3905
41) 3251,
his Grammar quoted, 207, 764, 946,
ΠΟ, 11Qg, 120g, 4, 1224, 1234, 1244, Burkitt, F. C., 38,
120,5, 1704, 18044, 1855, 1887, 28 Burton, E. de Witt, 49
Debrunner’s edition quoted, 126, Bussemaker, U. C., 89,5
2 Butler, H. C., 15,
pace ἃ believer in ‘ New Testa- Buttmann, Α., 132,
ment *’ Greek, 623, 68, Byron, 2930
510
 INDEX 511
Cagnat, R., 185, 1495, 1803, 3535) 3745 Diehl, E., 239, 464,
Calder, W. M., xix, 60, 131, 269,, Diels, H., 175, 109,, 1244, 1424, I715,
2804, 3281,4369. 1755) 20712, 3931, 402, 40
Calderini,A., 2321, 3203, 3255, 3296 Dieterich, Albrecht foe
:
Calmus, 350 a es in comparative religion,
Carlyle, T., xix f., 1431, 3043
_Chabert, 5,ω 12. his
2659‘Abraxas, 255,, 259% 260.¢,
Chandler, R. (1738-1810), IOI 261g, 14, 262
Cichorius, C., 14, Leyden Magical Papyrus, 1373
Clemen, C., 2645 Nekyta, 2879, 315s
Clemen, P., 14, on the adoration of the Magi, 3545
Clermont-Ganneau, C. 5. (1846-1923), on letter of Psenosiris, 465
80, 4392, 461; on letters from Heaven, 245
Cobern, C. M., 10, 144, 155, 167 on magical texts, 254, 2552, 2597
Cohen, H., 341, 2751 on Mithras, 1373, 2192, 2893
Cohen, H. (numismatist), 371s on religious character of Primi-
Cohn, L., 403, tive Christianity, 379,
Cohn. See Conrat. Dieterich, Karl, 7,, 2211, 73, 1232
Collignon, M., 133 IQ0g5, 202
Collitz, H., 825, 98, Dieterich’sche “Verlagsbuchhandlung,
Conrat (Cohn), M., 318, Figures 47, 54, 72
Cooley, A. S., 16, Dittenberger, W., Orvtentis Gr. Inser.
aan ἐB., 225, 2274 Sel., 172, 793, 805, @ 814, 99)»
Cowley, A 1324, 372 TOIg, 1144, 116, 137, 1749, 197,
Cox, C. W. Ν᾽ 6 (Fig. 2) 2179, 2793, 3942, 3173, 3241
Craig, C., 1252 34524 3525 3531 ike 36410,
Cremer, H., 213, 75, 79, 853, 92}, 924 3064, 3684, 37510, 378 ἢ
947 954, 975, 98, 985, 991, TOT, Sylloge, 234, 250, 826, ὅσο, 10, 8758,
IOI y-4; 102), 1039, 107, 1135.» 885, 965, 106,, 8, 1116, 135}, 1372
, 18818, 3681, 3753, 385, 4°78 150,, 152,, 18045, 308,, 3111,
Crénert, W., 509, 759, 118, 1502, 1513» 320g, 3213, 3231, 3263, 3411, 3448,
1521, 1977, 2143, 4935 3544 3703, 4, ὦ 376s, 5» 4132, 419s,
Crum, W. E., 50, 553, 57, 2092, 219», 420, 4223.
2219, 3, 2229), 2231, 4-10) 2241) 2» See also Index VI. c.
225, 2255, υ, 2351, 300, Dobschitz, E. von, Χ,, 31, 3%) 452:
Crusius, O., 1319
Cumont, F., 11,, 153, 232, 363, 265, Dilger, F. 7., 3332, 338s
2885, 289), 3» 3782, 3791 416, Domaszewski, A. von, 14 1811},
4534 1844, 1975, 2894
Currie, M. A., 2314 Donaldson, Si: γάμου, ὑὸς
Curtis, T. E. H., 131, Dérpfeld, W., xvi, 2813
Curtis, ὟΝ. A., 413, 345: Drachmann, A. B., 3203
Curtius, E., 3203, 321, 3229, 3245, @ Dragendorff, H., 14,
3252, 3262, 3 Drerup, E., ὅδ
Dibner, 7Ὲ 3705
Dalman, G., 4391, 2 Ducange, C. D. 2244
Dante, 390 Duhn, F. von, xvi, 614, 275» 2804, 393
Daremberg, C., 8919 Direr, Albrecht, 144, 248,
‘Daumet, H., 145, 326, Durham, D. B., 1331
Debrunner, A., 207, 119g, 126, 126g, Dussaud, R., 11,
20713) 2586, 3323 Dyke, H. van, 413
Decke, 10, Dziatzko, K., 272, 146, 166,
Deissmann, G. A.:
biographical details, 3,, 542, 147) Earle, J 926
3464, 408, Ebeling,H., 407,
ἐς Deissmannism, *” 683 Ebers, G., 275
portrait, 61, Edgar,C. C., xi, 152g, 1551 157, 162},
De la Rue, C. and C. V., 4375 1635, 6, 4491
Delehaye, H., 2192, 2771, 37512 Edie, W., 254
Delitzsch, Franz (1850-1922), 313¢ Eger, O., 119;, 318 3191, 33214
Dessau, H., 69, 291, 3592, 447s 3381, 3392
Deubner, L., 1134, 292, Egger,A. E., 562
Dibelius, F., 338, Eisenmenger, J. A., 420,
Dickens, C., 262, Eisner, L., 1679 !
TDiiebane © ann Eitrem, 5., 591
 512 INDEX
Erman, A., 243, 1372, 1495, 180,, 184, Gradenwitz, me 3242, 331g, 3322,
Erman, H., 110, » 3397 305, |
Eucken, R. (1846-1926), x, Grafiited, M. C, de, 61,
Euthymius, 128, Grégoire, H., 153, 2697, 4641
Evelyn White, H. G., 441, 425. Gregory, C. R., 271, 41g, 5, 572
Evstratiadis, S.,-137,, 4975 Grenfell, B. P., and Α. 5. Hunt:
Exler, F. X. J., 1509 Biblical and early Christian frag-
Eyssenhardt, F., 170. ments discovered by, 41 ff.
diacritical marks employed by, xxi
Fabricius, E., 135 excavations by, 31 _
Feine, P., 329, libelli published by, 46,
Ferguson, ὟΝ. D., 224, 318, opinions and editorial comments,
Ferrari, G., 3255, 3295 371, 866, 1235, 1742, 5 41 6, 1984,
Fiebig, P., 685, 386, 3974 1991, 2073, 2086, 2143, 4, 21715,
Field, F., 98, 271, 3342 |
Fincke, A., 356, papyri published by them dis-
Fischer, L., 34, cussed and printed in full,
Fleck, 4577 164 ff., 167 ff., 172 ff., 176 ff.,
Fleckeisen, A., 1373 197 ff., 201 ff:, 205 ff., 213 ff.,
Fossey, Ch., 109, 425 ff., 430 ff.
Foucart, G., 3245 translations by, x, 426,
Foucart, P., 3203, 326, See also Index VI.p: Ambherst,
Fraenkel, E., 89, Fayim, Grenfell, Hibeh, Oxy-
Frankel, M., 133, 874, 3491 rhynchus, Tebtunis.
Franchi de’ Cavalieri, P., 463 Grenfell, Hunt, and Goodspeed, 219,
Frank, R., 1373 ᾿ Gressmann, H., 1637, 245,
Frederick, Prince of Wales, son of Grieve, A., 20
George II., 23 Griffith, F. Ll., 45,
Frederick the Great, 325, Grillparzer, F., 230,
Fredrich, C., 13, 8 Grimm, C. L. W., 752, 77, 782, 84,
Freer, Charles L., of Detroit, 420 845, 891, 9, 961, 97, 117, 3085, 407
Freese, J. H., 28249 Grotius, H., 332,
Freiesleben, C. F., 318, Gruppe, O., 14043
Fricke, G. A.,.1053 Griitzmacher, G., 2353
Frickenhaus, A., 451, 4532, 4544 Grynaeus, J. J., 31,
Fridrichsen, A., 59, Gunkel, H., 1471» 2423, 244, 2643
Friedlaender, L., 2034, 38249 Guthe, H., 265, 303, 1624, 163,
Frommberger, W., 10,
Haberlin, C., 24,
Gaisford, T., 126, Habershon, A. R., 388,
Gans, von, 130 Hackel, E., 733
Ganszyniec (Ganschinietz), R., 3454, Hahn, L., 2,
351% Haldane, Viscount, x,
Gardiner, A. H., 50, Hall, H. R., 26, 505
Gardner, E. A., 18,, 286,, 2939 Halliday, W. R., 25949
Gau, F.C., 514 Halm, K., 166,
Gebhardt, O., 43, Halmel, A., 318,
Geffcken, J., 169, Harnack, A., x1, 89, 19, 433, 2659
Gehrich, G., 2895 Chronologie d. altchy. Lit., 413, 479
Gensichen, J., 23, Dogmengeschichte, 362,
George II., King of England, 2, “ Festgabe ’’ for, 435
Gerhard, G. A., 1513, 232, Geschichte d. altchr. Lit., 232,
Gerkan, A. v., 144 Militia Christi, 18299, 221,
Gernet, L., 89, Mission . . . des Christentums, 80,
Geuthner, P., 439, 2769, 2795, 2891, 3
Ghedini, G., 47, 1509 on “ epistles,’’ 229,
Gibbon, Edward, 466 on the calendar inscription of
Giesecke and Devrient, 166, Priene, 366, 2
Glaue, P., 385, 430 on the Epistle of Theonas to
Gleye, C. E., 2244, 2561, 300, Lucianus, 2329
Glubokowsky, N. N., 64, on the letter of Psenosiris, 47,
Goethe, 390 on the Logia, 44,, 426,
Goldsmith, O., 442, on the oldest (?) Christian letter,
Goodspeed, E. J., 1764, 219; 471, 2061, 2084, 20919, 210,, 213
Gough,’A, B., 28245 OD πάπας, 2084, 2192
 INDEX 513
Harnack, A., on πολλαπολλων, 1685 Holl, K., 65), 3459
on Pompeian inscriptions, 276, Holleaux, M., 151, 614, 423;
on ‘‘ Saviour,’’ 364, Hollmann, G.,.2423
on uncanonical gospels, 429 Hélscher, G., 522
Haro, Madam de, 28 Holtzmann, H. J. (1832-1910), 264,
Harris, J. R., 495, 1294, 206 Homolle, Th., 15,, 1172, 422
Hastings, J., 243, 591, 3382 Hoskyns-Abrahall, J., 254
Hatch, E., 18 Howard, ὟΝ. F., 205
Hatch, W. H. P., 223, 755, 876, 3117 Huber, K., 126,
3315, 3497 357s, 3782 Huelsen, Chr., 316,
Hatzidakis, G. N. (Athens), 2219, 883, Humann, C. [K.}, 141, 4 3633
19098 Hunt, A.S., 176,, 201. See Grenfell.
Hatzidakis, Dr. (Crete), 280, Hupka, J., 3352
Haupt, E., 3331
Hauschildt, H., 49 Ibscher, H., 28 ᾿
Haussoullier, B., 15. Ilberg, J., 783, 84ς, 86,, 307.
Havet, L., 894 Imelmann, J., 511, 312,
Hay, J., 300, Immisch, O., 292, 3685
Head, B. V., 3454 Iverach, J., 338,
Heberdey, R., 17, 104), 2034, 2945,
Jalabert, L., 19, 191, 232
James, M. R., 415, « 420, 137s, 388),
3975, 4251) 4335
Heidel, W. A., 348, anell, W., 119, 3235
Heinen, H., 3385 annaris, A. N., 126
Heinevetter, F., 223, 303, erusalem, W., 3093
Heinrici, G., 3, 31, 81, 193, 294 435 espersen, O., 2472
1471, 2474, 2649, 2652, 266), 2879, ohnson, S., 230,
| 3104, 386, 3911, 4063, 417 Jones, H. S., 403,
Heitmiiller, W., 493, 1212, 3, 1319 ordan, H., 147, 386,
Helbing, R., 196, 245, 50, 73, 1495, ouguet, P., 245, 463, 57, 4040
1641, 168, 1763, 1802, 1873, 201,, udeich, W., 141, 909, 914
"2136 iilicher, A., 2394
Helm, K., 38, lirges, P., 122
Hepding, H., 289, uster, J., 192, 2893). 3204, 3217, 3401,
Hepp, V., 146, - 3442, 4231
Hercher, R., 977, 1667, 1774, 1785,
1015, 228, 2311, 2, 2352, 296, Kaftan, J., 380,
Herrmann, M., 442, Kaibel, G., 91g, 4, 1425
Herwegen, I., 342, Kalinka, E.,-17,, 2034, 2051, 2065,
Herwerden, H. van, 817, 82,, 83, 8» 20910) 11) 21049, 3129
84g, 875, 883, 915, 971, TOTg, Kalliupolita, M., 127,
1025, 4034 Kalthoff, A., 3951
Herzfeld, E., 323 Karo, G., 144
Herzog, R., 143, 2153, 280,, 2942, Kattenbusch, F., 3422, 3492
2951 5 3214, 3274, 3454, 3711 Katz, R., 36, ;
~ 3774 Kaufmann, D., 3065, 4162
Hesseling, Ὁ. C., 642, 66, δὲς Kautsky, K., 3952, 465 ff.
Heuzey, L., 145, 326, Kautzsch, E., 35;
Hicks, E. L., 122, 131, 149, 184, g, 80,4, Kavvadias, P., 16,
3117, 3214, 3274, 3454 371 Kawerau, G., 139
Hicks-Beach, Sir M., 3010 os Kehrer, H., 280,
Hill, G. F., 18, Keil, J., 171, 2815, 3112, 3491 4522
Hiller von Gaertringen,. Baron F., Kekule von Stradonitz, R., 1398
12g, 8, 13a) 5» 142, 8, 158, 173, 233, Kennedy, H. A. A., 193, 76, 772 782
, 984, 1034, 137, 3216, 3411, 422 82), 1024, 338,
Hirschfeld, G., ΟἹ, 113, Kent, C. F., 1253
Hirschfeld, O., 3454, 4151, 422 Kenyon, Sir F. G., 254, 36412
Hitzig, F., 35 Greek Papyri in the British Museum,
Hodgkin, T., 448 832, 935 1375, 2184, 3025, 4561
Hoffmann, O., 1025 4571; extracts discussed, 142,
Hoffmann von Fallersleben, A. H. 216 ff.
169, on age of papyri, 26
Hohl, E., 292; on manufacture of papyrus, 27
Hohlwein, N., 243, 501 on Menas ostraca, 56,
514 INDEX
Kenyon, Sir F.G., on size of papyri, 29 Le Bas, P., 4133, 417, 421, 422,
on wooden tablets, 333. Le Bas-Waddington, 376,
Palaeography of Greek Papyri, 264, Le Blant, E., 100), 7
273, 292, 301 ᾿ Leemans, C., 1246
τα Papyri,’”’ in Hastings’ Dict., 243, Lees, H. C., 3202
41 Lefebvre, ΕΝ 232 57, 571, 58, 60,
Kenyon, F. G., and Η. I. Bell: 1764, 4331) 442ὩΣ
Greek Papyriiin the British Museum, Leipoldt, J., 443, 3782
235,; extracts discussed, 174 ff., Lembert, R., 386,
2707, 271 Leonhard, τι 305.
Kern, O., 134, 1063 Lepsius, R., 2179, 4353
Kiessling, E., 403, Leroux, E., 100 (Fig. 10)
Kilgour, R., 1445 Lesquier, J., 4429, 443, 4446 89
Kingsley, Charles, 38, Letronne, J.A., 1664
Kirchmaier, G. W., 318, Lewald,H., 270,
Kirchner, J., 173 Leyen, ἘΠῚ ν. deer, 7.
Kirchner, V. G., 2459, 3671 Liddell, H. 6., and R. Scott, 769, 790,
Kittel, R., 522 ᾿ς 814, 897, 1424, 20713, 3233, 4935
Kitto, J., 683 Lidzbarski, M., 145, 372, 523 74a
Klebs, E., 291, 291, 1215, 3045, 363
Klein, S., 4392 Lietzmann, H., 3,
Klostermann, E., 413, 4, 1282, 3, 1291, Dey Weltheiland, 3645
2529 Handbuch zum Neuen Testament,
Kluge, R., 3333 215, 49, 1283, 3497, 3522, 3563;
Knackfuss, H., 134 on Romans and 1 Cor., 215, 49;
Knopf, R., 563, 636, 2523, 3563 on Romans, 86,4, 931, 315 3165;
Kober, F., 2243, 2271 on 1 Cor., 324,
Koch, H., 8,, 415, 1985, 3491 Kleine Terte:
Koelling, W., 124, Ε ae s ‘‘ Wundergeschichten,”’
Koerte, A., 87;, 3365 386,
Kégel, J., 212, 4073 te Gricbhische Papyri,’’ 259, 499»
KGhler, W., 2452, 3053 167;, 1685, 1697, 1809,, 1879,
Konig, E., 427, 2014, 213,
Kénnecke, 100, Olivieri’s “ ‘Lamellae Orphicae,”
Konstantinidis, A., 403, 3526
Kopp, U. F., 457s Staerk’s “ Aramaeische Urkun-
Kornemann, E., 288,, 3423, 3715 den,’’ 37.
Kosch, W., 396, Swete’s “ Evangelienfragmente,”’
Krauss, S., 3136 429
Krebs, F., 243, 462, 1495, 1715, 180,, Wiinsch’s “‘ Antike Fluchtafeln,”’
1841, 18541, 187; 233, 3029
Kretschmer, P., 883, 894, 404 on Jena Papyri, 43,, 5, 483
Kroll, W., 783, 869, 901, 952, 1692, on Theodotus inscription, 4392
3652, 4534 4401, 4, 5, 4414
ag rae G., 591 Studien und Kritiken, 366,
Kriger, G., 1471 Lightfoot, J. B., 18, 71,
Krumbacher, K., 664, 1774, 404s Link, G., 37512
Kuhring, Gu. (Ww 504, 120. Linke, 1055
Kukula, R. C., 146, Lipsius, K. H. A., 18,
Kummer, G., 135 Lipsius, R. A., 18,
Lisco, H., 237,
Lafoscade, L., 1495, 3751» 5» ἃ» 4» 6 Littmann, E., 159, 2991
Lagarde, P. de, 256,, 463 Lobwasser, A., 143
Lagercrantz, O., 130, 1324 Loch, E., 203,
Lagrange, M. J., 2391, 3095 Lohmann, E., xx
Lambertz, M., 225, Lohmeyer, E. » 33°.
Lohr, Ἐς nae. Sin @ hi 3952
Lanckoronski, Count K., 17,
Landau, A., 149. Lohr, M., 4165
Landolina, F. S., 28 Loman, ‘A. Dz, 2315
Larfeld, W., 11g, 121, 139, 16,, 18, Lorimer, ὟΝ. L., 68,
Latyschev, B., 152, 883, 102,, 3104, Low, I., 3065, 416,
3217, 3624, 3637, 3754, 3786 Lowe, H., 440
Laudien, A., 243, 1493, 168, 172s, Lucas, H., τοῖς, 461, 462, 463
"2014 Lueken, W., 4575, 4591
Laum, B., 285, Luschan, F. von, 17,
 INDEX 515
Luther, 127), 143,, 161, 2314, 2855, Migne, J. P., 1264, 198,, 388,,
3045, 3199, 3242, 396 Milligan, G.: ἐν ἀν Aon
Lyon, D. G., 52, articles by, 259, 462, 187,
Commentary on Thessalonians, 224,
Maas, P., 217, 368,, 3734
Maass, E., 454, Here and Theve among the Papyvi, 243
McCabe, J., 394: lexical notes in the Expositor. See
MacCarthy, J., 742 Moulton.
McCormick, Τὶ J., 2895 postcard, 182,,
McCown, C. C., 4577 Selections from the Greek Papyri,
McKenzie, R., 403, 25q 1500, 1671, 1742, 1765, 4,
McLean, N., 42, 1809, 15, 1872, 1904, 201,, 2136,
Macpherson, J., 3535 2154, 2104, 271,
Macridy, Th., 321 The New Testament Documents, 491;
Madden, F. W., 2522 Vocabulary of the Greek Testament.
Magie, D., 15g, 1124, 3432 3475, 362,, See Moulton.
3645, 3661, 3741) 5, 3775» 5 Milne, J. G., 505
Magnus, L. A., 28249 Milton, J., 138,
Mahaffy, J. P., 409, 2356 Minns, E. H., xi, 33, οὐδ», Ὡς
Mangey, T., 4524 Minns, Miss, 34, Sel
Marbe, K., 2652 Misch, G., 147;
Marmorstein, A., 420, 4392 Mispoulet, 442,
Marshall, F. H., 132 ‘
Mitteis, L., 119,
Martens, L., 1169, 310, articles by, 331, 2694, 2701, 33%
Martin, Ὁ.(οἱUtrecht,1639-1721), 127, Aus den gr. Papyrusurkunden, 244
Martin, V. (of Geneva), 4040 Grundztige und Chyrestomathie, 25,
Maspéro, J., 3731 33s, 403, 2604, 2701, 3381
Matthaei, A., 1914 Leipzig papyri published by, 834,
Maurenbrecher, M., 80 QI, 100, -
Mayer, Eugen, 235, Reichsrecht und Volksvecht, 1692,
Mayser, E., 405, 50,, 663, 684, 832» 9» 11» 270;, 28219, 3203, 3223, 4, 3246,
96, 1041, 1054, 1105, 12144, 1245 3265, 3281, 2, 3306, 3312, 3306
Meecham, H. G., 4911 Moffatt, J., 429, 88,, 1284, 18299, 2893
Mehmet, mollah, 312, Moller, G., 505, 130
Meillet, A., 231 Mommsen, Theodor, 12, 55, 793, 843,
Meinertz, M., 420, 2382, 2741, 28249, 3182, 3392
Meister, R., 199, 732 366, 3707, 377s
Meisterhans, K., 22, Mommsen, Tycho, 1439, 3031
Mendel, G., 113¢ Mondini, M., 232, /
Mendelssohn Bartholdy, G., 325 Montfaucon, B. de, 25,, 433
Menge, H., 4033 Montgomery, J. A., 457s
Menzies, A., 254 Morgan, J. Pierpont, 40,
Mercati, G., 461, Morike, E., 3951
Merivale, C., 2939 Morinus, Jo., 2254
Merk, A., 479, 2148 Moritz, 358,
Merx, A., 274 Morth, F., 3625
Meyer, Eduard, 26., 372 Moulton, J.-H., 1073, 1163
-Meyer, Ernst, 2944 articles by, 259, 634, 1604-
Meyer, H. A. W., 355) 93a 1171 3331 From Egyptian Rubbish Heaps, 259
Meyer, P. M., xi Grammar of New Testament Greek,
Giessen Papyri, 2184, 2715 20,4, 63, 713, 883, 110,2, 120,
Griechische Texte, 51,, I10,,3, 1245, 19 1263, 2695
IIIy, 5, 121g, 6:14 1844, 1864, inaugural lecture, 20,
200g, 2049, 3542 3555 6 360,, 3650
notes in the Expositor, 485, 634,
Hamburg Papyri, 823, 1025, 3659 839, 864, 5, 987, 1054, 1173
Juristische Papyri, 243, 33, 493 notes in the Expository Times,
libelli, 464 2719, 2956 3995
on diptych of veteran, 4429, 443, Sowiton J.H.,andG. Milligan: ,
44410 12 445: 2 lexical notes in the Expositor, 491,
ON πάπας, 2185 805, 855, 89g, 1105, 1205, 1667,
Meyer, R. M., 265, 3117, 3323, 337s 3381
Michaelis, A., 41 Vocabulary of the Greek Testament,
Michaelis, W., 1241, 1251, 4183 214, 491, 763, 817, 824, 836, 84a,
Michel, Ch., 18, 859, 1144 857 89,4, 912, 931 955, 1043»
Michelsen, J. H. A., 413, ὦ 4251 T10, 3379, 3971) 4934
516 INDEX
Mueller, B., 2693 Pfister, F., 10,, 61,, 1263, 1281, 1321,
Miiller, F. Max, 247, 1331, 1345, 1374, 1685, 2652, 3465,
Miller, Herm., 415, 497 3650
Miller, Nikolaus, 16,, 18,, 100g, Pfleiderer, O., 2643, 3633
, 449 4419. 447, 4472 Pierson, J., 804 —
Miinsterberg, R., 305, Piscator, J., 1271
Minter, F., 12,, 18 Plasberg, O., 437
Muntz, W. S., 318, Plassart, A., 423,
_Miinz, 227, Plaumann, G., 462, 3242, 368,
Muscio, 84, Plooij, D., 51
Musset, A. de, 300, Poland, F., 349,
Politi, the brothers, 28
Naber, J. C., 341, Pomtow, J. [otherwise H.], 173
Nachmanson, E., 225, 95g, 1143, 188, Pontier, G. J., 243
Nageli, Th., 20,4, 635, 70 853, 5 Pontremoli, E., 133, 148
856) a 865, 802, 4,5 9% 931 Pope, A., 2304, 292,
956: 966, 982 Powell, B., 16,
Naro, G., 28 Preisendanz, K., 2551, 2561, 9, 2581) 5,
Nash, 38,
Naumann, F., 7;, 2292 :
30611
Preisigke, F., 121, 1495, 1769, 7
Nestle, E. (1851-1913), 233, 254, 27a 180o, 11» 24 1814, 184,, 186,, 187,,-
296, 591, 1091, 2765, 3124 18859, 200g, 2011, 2023, 2049, 2991,
Neumann, C., 1445, 248. 4034
Newton, Sir C. T., 13, Prellwitz, W., 4033 ὃ
Newton, John, 388, ‘ Premerstein, A. von, 171, 452, 3112,
Nicole,
4°34
J., 8182, 838, 2185, 2355 4522
Prentice, W. K., τὸς Ἂ
Nielsen, D., 11, Preuschen, E., 213, 4138, 4, 420, 1, 505
Niemann, G., 17, _ 2136, 22311, 306,
Niese, B., 872 Price, F. Hilton, 305
Néldeke, Th., 372, 741 Prior, M., 292,
Norden, E., 33, 711, 2, 852, 935: 132. Prott, H. von, 135
137g, 1761, 2921, 366g, 4214 Psichari, J., 195, 732, 894, 1204, 1215»
Norton, F. O., 338, 1233, 1332
Puchstein, O., 14,4, 3633
Oehler, J., 3445 Pulliblank, J., 713
Oeser, H., 266,
Olga, Queen of Greece, 127, Raabe, W., 396,
Olivieri, A., 769, 3526 Rabel, E., 311, 2052
Oppenheim, Baron M. von, 461 Radermacher, L., 209, 641, 942, 1203,
Ostervald, J. F., 127, 126, 1321, 210,
Otto, W., 105i4 2851 3431, 3644 Raffael, 61,
3725, Rahlfs, A., 233, 437 9
Overbeck, F., 1471 Railton, D., 442
Rainer, Archduke, 40, 40,, 44, 100g,
Pagenstecher, R., 611, 4152 _ 3332
Papamichael, G., 64,4 Ramsay, A. M., 219,
Pape, W., 885, 98,, 102 Ramsay, Sir W. M., xv, 5., 102, 139,
Parthey, G., 3679, 5 18g, 19, 239, 18295, 2192, 269,
Partsch, J., 323, 2714, 2804, 3735) 4352 5, 5, 4361.
Pasor, G., 406, 407, Redpath, H. A., 87.
Passalacqua, J., 1679 Refer, 265,
Passow, F., 999, 4035 Rehm, A., 139
Paton, W. R., 143, 3214, 3276 3454) Reiche, F., 2930
3711. Reichel, H., 332,
Patterson, L., 289, Reiff, J. G., 97,
Paulus, F., 299; Reil, Th., 27,
Pauly, A. Ἐν von, 146,, 168,, 265, Reiners ae 2749
4534 Reinach, Th., 40, 270,, 289,,
Perdrizet, P., 233, 59, 277. ee Ων (collector ΤΣ ξ the
Peter, H., 2315, 292, chott-Reinhardt papyri),
Peters, N., 38, Reinhold, H., 1949 REBUT Se
Petersen, E., 17, Reisner, G. A., 52
Petrie, W. M. Flinders, 40,, 369 Reitzenstein, R., 8, 56, 984, 1495,
Petrone, M., 235, 22311, 2659, 288,, 3485, 3861, 399,
 INDEX 517
Rembrandt, 144, 248, - Schmitthenner, A., 230,
mee? Gu. [W.], 3203, 3245, 3265, Schneller, L., 36,
32 Schodde, G. H., 383,
Resch, A., 4335 Schoener, Chr., 3536, 362,
nee Ὁ.14, Schone, H., 403,
cci, 6, 243, 372, 46 Schott, Friedrich (donor of Schott-
Rich, A., 109 eae Reinhardt collection of papyri),
Richter, Ὄ. M. A., 131}. 374
Riewald, P., 339 Schow, N., 48,
er lea » 2441, 338, Schrader, H., 135
Ritschl, F., Schraderus, D., 318, 3321
Ritterling, πω Schramm, J. [ἢ 318,
Roberts, E. 5., 18, Schubart, W. :
Robertson, A. T., 21,, 126 Einfiuhrung in die Papyruskunde,
Robinson, G. L., 4394 249 441, 4251
Rohde, E., 277, Ein Jahriausend am Nil, 150,
Rohden, P. von, 291 1644, 1671, 1762, 1802, 201, 2138»,
*Roscher, ὟΝ. H., 35053 2153, 2164
Rose, V., 844, 86, Papyrt Graecae Berolinenses, 24,
Rosenbach, Z., 406, 1670, 180,
Rossberg, C., 120, confirms author’s conjectures,
Rossetti, C., 292, 18519, 1887, 9 25) 28
Rostalski, F., 1933, 945, 954, 1249, conjectures, 18811, 217,
1375, 388, “ for freedom,’’ 3245
Rostovtzeff, M., 1554 “ god and lord,’’ 361
Rothstein, W., 35, literary papyti, 9,
Rouffiac, J., 20,, 278, Palestinian papyri, 36,
Rouvier, J., 3441 obtains photographs, 105, 170
Rubensohn, O., 37; 180,, 1841, 1879, 3316
Rusch, A., 141,, 288, Καίσαρος, 3771,
Rudberg, G., 3757 σωσικόσμιος, 39442
saute P., 28,
Sachau, E., 37, Schuchhardt, Cc. τ35
Said Ali; 377 (Fig. 72) Schulthess, F., 37
Mirza Sa‘id Khan, 32, Schultze, V., 8), 2271, 3031 4352
Sanders, H. A., 415 Schulze, Wilhelm, 22,, 3464, 4351, 2» 3
Sangiorgi, G., 131, Schiirer, E., articles by, 372, 2710, 4»
Sarrara Yussuf, 253 (Fig. 47)" 359u 4532» 4554
Sarre, F., 144 his Gesch. d. 74. Volkes, 19, 289
Sarteaux, F., 144 his Gesch. d. jtid. Volkes quoted on :
Sauer, A., 2299, 396, Aramaic papyri, 372
Savignac, R., 3534 Diaspora, 122,, 2891, 4231, 4514
Sayce, A. H., 379, 3332 guilds, 390,
Schaefer, E., 48, inscriptions, 157, 80s, 6, 102,
Schafer, Heinrich, 45, 1154, 3205, ς, 3221, 3535
Schenkl, H., 329, Jewish martyrs, 3554
Schettler, A., 12216, 3371 ἃ Jewish names, 122,
Schiele, 16, Jews at Delos, 423,
Schiff, A., sil Jews at Jerusalem, 441,
Schirlitz, S. C., 407 Jews at Miletus, 451,
‘Schlatter, A., 21, 113, manumissions, 320s, 4, 322;
Schleiermacher, F. E. D., 381 “* Most High God,’’ 322,, 416
Schlégl, N., 1271 Septuagint, 4233
Schlosser, ii, 1903, 406, Shemoneh Esreh, 421
manna Wilhelm (Tiibingen), 67,, Solomon’s seal, 261,
42» ar 963, 1224, 1332 Temple inscription, 8035,ς
Schmidt, Carl (Berlin), xv, 373; 412 theatre-going of Jews, 4524, 9
43a 9 6 444 » 45: 2172, 221, θεοσέβιοι, 4510, 4522
Γ΄ προσευχή in inscriptions, 102,
Schweitzer, A., 252
Schmidt, Kaci(εἴδεα, 243 Schweizer [= Schwyzer], Hy 224
Schmiedel, P. 26144, 2715, 4341 Schwyzer [= Schweizer], E., 225, 6,
4374443814; his adaptation of 133
Winer’s Grammar, 19, 713, 73, - Seeberg, R., 8, és
. 934: 94a 1151) a 377.» 318,, 3190 Seeck, Otto, 2353
518 INDEX
Seidl, J. G., 442, - Thumb, A., 22,2, 63, 821, 942, 110s,
Selbie, J. A., 591, 338 120,, 1226, 132}, 1859, 359%
Selden, J., 318, Tischendorf, C., 432, 433
Setti, G., 199 Tischhauser, Chr., 396., 3
Seu L. von, 322, Tod, M. N., 4049
hakespeare, 109,, 3333, 390 Toepffer, J., 1159
Sickel, W., 37542. δ Tolstoy, Leo, 72,
Sickenberger, J., 643 Toutain, J., 290,
Siebeck, P., ix, xiii, xvii; his sons, Traub, G., 320,
.ix, x Trede, Th., 386,
Sieffert, F., 319) , Trench, R. C., 78), 3275
Smith, W. B., 260, Troeltsch, E. (1867-1923), xiv, 395,
Smyly, J. G., 40. Tromm, B., 25,
Sobolewsky, S. J., 64,4 Tyndale, W., 127,
Soden, Baron H. von, 573, 58,4
Sogliano, A., 2772 Unverzagt, W., 532
Sophocles, E. A., 837, 899, 1115, 2244, Usener, H., 126,, 2313, 2659, 3173,
3484, 365s, 3787, 4313 3738
Spengel, L. von, 368,
Spiegelberg, W., 372, 541, 171. Van Dyke, H., 415
Stade, B. (1848-1906), 35
Staerk, W., 372, 28249 Viereck, P., 243, 479, 504, 541, 1162,
Stage, C., 129, 1495, 1791, a» 1995, 6, 7» 268
Stahelin, F., 455 Vincent, Le 4395 Ν
Steinleitner, F., 1923, 2845, 328), Vischer, F. T., 3951
Vitelli, G., 1529, 1552, 2694, 7
3993 Vélker, 50,
Steinmann, A., 108,
Stellhorn, F. W., 407 Vogel, F., 138,
Sterrett, J. R.S., 154
Steubing, A., 96, Wachstein, B., 1492
Steuernagel, C., 38, Wackernagel, J., 196, 229, 637, 956
Stone, Darwell, 404) Waddington, W. H., τοῖ, 376,
Strachan, L. R. M., 742, 1804,, 2413, Wagner, A., 229
262, Walch, J. E. I., 125, 18, 407,
Strack, M. L., 494, 3441 Walther, W., 396,
Strauss, D. F., 3951 Warning, G., 78,
Streitberg, ὟΝ. (1864-1925), 38, Watson, Sir William, 413 5
Stryck (Strickius), J. S., 318, Watzinger, C., τάς
Stuart, D. R., 15,4 Weber, Ferd., 260,, 2624, 2634, 3355»
Stiibe, R., 245, 4574 i
Sturz, F. W., 48, Weber, W., xiii:
Suicerus, J. C., 2092, 3492 essays by, 452
Swainson, C. A., 458,, 460, Josephus und. Vespasian, 3655
Swete, H. B., 359, 429, 634, 4040 Kaiser Hadrianus, 276,, 2933, 3486,
Swoboda, A., 438 3649, 15, 3718, 5 τ, 37211 8) 4» ὃν 9»
3737,
Tamassia, N., 199 on Egyptian gods, 288,
Teneromo, J., 721 on emperor worship, 338,
Tersteegen, G., 2625, 381, personal communications, 2772,
Teubner, B. G., 227 2789) 3454 3716
Teyler van der Hulst, P., 413, 4251 Weicher, Th., Figures 47, 54, 72
Thackeray, H. St. J., 197, 20,, 73 Weil, R., 136
Thayer, J. H., 75.» 77, 79, 805, 81- Weill, R., 4391; 2
84 (§§ 2-9), 87, 88, 88, 89,, 8. Weinel, H., 3391, 3497, 3627, 3736
91, 95., 96,, 97, 97a, 102 (88 30, Weinreich, O., 175, 1321, 156}, 2884,
.31), 1031, 117 (8 3), 407 _ 3382, 3639, 3671
Theiss, J., 1844 Weiss, B., 1173, 383,
Thieme, G., 204, 24}, 1069, 1163, 278,, Weiss, E., 1674, 7
, 3491, 3474 3592, 3639, 3738 Weiss, J., 221, 131g, 1464, 2394, 2402,
Thiersch, H. W. J., 48, _ 3291 3974
Thoma, Hans, 124, Weissbach, F. H., 14,
Thomas Aquinas, 381 Weissbrodt, W., xi, 328,, 4214
Thomas Magister, 89, Weizsacker, C. von, 1271, 1473, 2474
Thompson, Sir Herbert, 445, 505 Wellhausen, J., 69,, 1145, 120g, 7,
Thomsen, P., 4392 1223, 128,, 184,
 INDEX 519
Wendland, P., 89, 942, 146,, 147), Wilcken, U.:
2324, 2659, 28219, 3104 3445, (i) Personal help to the author:
wens Pot 3665, 418, communications respecting :
Weather,» α΄L., sabe
12146, 3351583
sa 3361, 8
3391, Apamenian cohort, garrison of,
Wesley, J., 381, 1829,
Wessely, C. [K.]: autograph conclusions to docu-
ments, 167)
Archduke Rainer’s papyri, 44,,
100, Hermupolis, 218
Arsinoé, 268, Isis inscription, source of, 138,
letter from Antonius Maximus to
bibliography of papyri, 24,
Sabina, construction in, 184,
~Caranis and Socnopaei Nesus, 268,
Graeco-Sahidic Psalms, 44,
letter from Caor, 2172, 9, 15
libellus, 46,
letter from Nearchus to Helio-
dorus, 174, 3) 9
London papyri, 86,, 306,
magical texts, 4164, 457,
letterfrom Zoilus, 152.,,15323:5 6
Paris Magical Papyrus, 85ς, 254,, 157, 1593 |
letter, imperial, ¢. Hadrian, 843
2551» 2576 26141, 4185, 6 letter, oldest (?) Christian, con-
Patrologia Orientalis, 41,2, 470
2063, 20743, 2085, 2551
jecture in, 207,
letter, oldest (9) Christian, trans-
skirmishing with Kalinka, 206, lation of, 20919
Studien zur Palaeographie und libelli, 46
᾿ Papyruskunde, 250 note of hand written by aman-
ienna magical papyrus, τ χὰ
uensis, 3315
Westenberg, J. Ou 3uh, Ses parusia mentioned by villagers
Westermann, A., 975, 6 of Aphrodite, 372,
Wettstein, J. J., 23, 31, 2033, 3093, resignation (‘‘no one is im-
310g, 3143, 3171 mortal ’’) in epitaphs, 178,
Weymouth, R. F., 128,
restoration of text of edict of
White, H. G. Evelyn, 44,, 4251 G. Vibius Maximus, 271, 5
White, H. J., 1272 revision of text of papyrus
Wiedemann, A., 26. letter published by Parthey,
Wiegand, Th. :
personal help, xv, xX, 115ς, 130, 3672, 5
“‘scourge and release’’ (papy-
1314, 2784, 282,, 321g, 3281, 451, rus parallel to Mark xv. 15),
4531. 269,
glass goblets, 129 ff. ‘table of the lord Serapis,’’
λύτρον inscription, 328,
Miletus and Didyma, 13,, 144, 282), 3512
Toéto, 2144 ;
3487, 3746 451, 453, 459 δίδωμι ἐργασίαν in Bremen papy-
Petra, 144 rus, 116 r
Priene, 135, 115ς 2784 εἰκόνιν, ‘little picture,’’ in sol-
Sinai, 144, 362 dier’s letter, 18045
Syria, Palestine, W. Arabia, 14,4 - conjectures, 138, 1643, 18841, 19
Untergang . . . der Denkmdler, 59 fourth edition, xv Ἔ
Wikenhauser, A., 49g, 761, 774. 843, 914 illustration obtained, 358,
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, U. von: ostraca in author’s collection deci-
Bellenus Gemellus, L., correspond- phered, 542, 121, 121g, 19, 200,
ence of, 298,
calendar inscription of Priene, 366,
2042, 359 f. i
proof-sheets read, xvii, 1005
3679 Cree
Corpora of Greek inscriptions, 125 (ii) Works:
emperor worship, 3383, 3465 Works on papyrology, 243, 259
graffito from Alexandria, 303; proposed edition of Ptolemaic
Griechisches Lesebuch, 1762, 219,» Papyri, 1342
231g | 4 Archiv fir Papyrusforschung, 259;
inscription from Kasr Nawa, 462 _ referred to for:
John, St., Third Epistle, 242, abbreviated ,titles for papyrus
* lords, the most great gods,’’ 352, publications, 405
Paul, St., letters of, 240, Abinnaeus correspondence, 218,
Theon the bad boy’s letter, 201, alien tax, III;
Timotheus, ‘‘ The Persians,’’ 37, Appion, bishop of Syene, peti-
πάπας, 2194 tion, 48,
“πολλαπολλων, 168, Aramaic papyri, 37,
Wilberg, W., 135 Bale papyrus, 2052
520 INDEX
Wilcken, U.: (ii) Works (cont.) : Wilcken, U.: (ii) Works (cont.) :
Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, Griechische Ostvaka, referred to
referred to for: - for:
bibliographies, 392 Jewish names, 122,
“by Caesar, god of god,” 3451 “lord,”’ 353s, 353 f., 3551
chavagma, 341) ostraca at Athens, 52,; at Dak-
commentary, model, 47 keh, 51,4
Despotes, title of Christian em- parusia dues and taxes, 369,,
perors, 3571 3792
diptych of veteran, 4429,4441,1011) “‘ publicans,’’ 269,
4454 Sebaste Day, 3592, ¢
financial appeal of priests, 156, Thebes, quarters of the city, 121,
Florentine papyrus, 269, “ tribute’? of two drachmae,
“ further levy of 14 obols,’’ 360; 2693
hymn to the Virgin, 56, ἀπέχω, aorist-present, 110,
Irenaeus to Apolinarius, letter, ἀρχιποίμην, a parallel, 100,
211g ᾿ ᾿Επείπ, 18509
letter copy-books, 2358, 4» 5» 6» Καίσαρος, 3771-
236ς λογεία, 1051» 2» 4» δ» 7» 14
libellus, 464, 2 πλήρης, 1244
‘lord of the diadems,’’ 3524 σύναρσις λόγου, 117ς
Lord’s Prayer, 48, Grundztige und Chrestomathie der.
mother’s name in magical texts, Papyruskunde, 259, 405, 452» 470
306, 1500, 164, 1763, 1802, 181),
Nearchus, letter of, 1745, 9 18222, a4 26 18815, 2051, 2136,
ostraca in museums, 54, 2144) 5, 2164, 2694, 2714, » 3390,
ostracon, commentary on, 105, 3522) 4422, 4441, 10 11. 4454
ostracon and papyrus with bind- Hermes, articles in, referring to:
ing-charm, 306;, 2 Berlin papyrus, date of, 843
“ Pagan and Christian in Egypt,”’ census, 2714
476 481 2 manumission, Christian, 328,
Paris papyrus, 1342 recto and verso, 29,
petition by villagers of Aphro- rolls, papyrus, 293
dite, 372. Other publications :
petition of Appion, bishop of ᾿Αγαθὸς Δαίμων, 3454
Syene, 48, Antisemites at Alexandria, 45,
Psalm lxxx from Rhodes, 233 120,
Psenosiris, 470, 2144 i crossed-out I.0.U., 3344
Ptolemaeus to Damoxenus on Danoilos, 122,
dreams, 134, Julia Sebaste, 358,
review of ‘‘ Pubblicazioni,’’ 152., Pharaoh, form of addressing,
155, 1562, 157, 1593 3523, .
Sarapis cult at Delos, 156, “ with a price,’ 324,
Sebaste Day, 3596 . Wilhelm, A
“table of Serapis,’’ 3513 leaden tablets for ‘‘ binding,’ 304,,
Zoilus, letter of, 152., 8, 1532) δ᾽ 8» 3053
155, 1562,
157, 1598 oldest Greek letter, 150, 1503, 1515
ἔνοχος with genitive, 1143 prayers for vengeance at Rheneia,
ἐπίξενος, 1115 413129) 414, 4141, 415, 4152
εὔμοιρος, 1764 4165, 4173, 4183, 4191,2, 420,
κυριακαὶ ψῆφοι, 3582 4203, 422, 4224, 4232
λεσῶνις, 171} on Priene, 13;
σωσικόοσμιος, 3651 Reisen in Kilikien, 17,.
Die griechischen Papyrusurkunden, Septuagint influence in an inscrip-
243, 31. tion, 23,4
Griechische Ostraka, 50,5 51), ἱερὰ γράμματα, 3759, 3765
"52 ff.; texts quoted in full Aoyetw, 105,
from, 105, 166; referred to Wilisch, E., 15,
for: Wilke, Chr. G., 75
Apollonius Dyscolus, 552 Grimm’s Wilke, 75), 77, 308, 407
bath tax, 3604) Wilkins, G., 427;
collections, religious, 1052,4:57:44 |Wilski, P., 134
dues payable in Egypt, 54, 3393 Wilson, W. E., 241,
embankment tax, 360, Windisch, H., 31, 10,, 147,» 272
Hellenic calendar, 18519 355s) 3952 e
 INDEX ‘ 521
Winer, G. B., 419,. See also Schmie- Wulzinger, K., 14,
del. Wiinsch, R., 233, 955, 6 150, 1504,
Winnefeld, H., 135, 6, 366 2562, nd 3029, 3946, 3053, 305,
Winter, F., 14, 3331)
Wirtz, J., 3275 Wyclif(fe), “iτὰ ΕΝ 262ς
Wissowa, G., 1461, 1687, 2655, 4534
Witkowski, S., 303, 50,, 633, 1222, ‘Zahn, R., 135
1321, 150 2, 1641, 167% 1, 2 Zahn, Th., 19, 215, 2441, 338:
τόδε Zeller, E.,4395:
Woenig, F., 25; Zereteli,G., 1728.
Wolters, P., 422 Ziebarth, Ἕ.+» 136 173, 150, 1512»
Wood, E. D., a 268, 2784, 4513
Wood, J. T., Ziemann, F., 1679, 1843, 2324
Wordsworth, wi, 138, Zolotas, G. I.+» 12049
Worrell, W. H., 3305 Zorell, F., 4075
Wrede, W., 244, Zwaan, J. de, 492, 5, 1110, 301,
 VI.—PASSAGES CITED. .
A. THE GREEK BIBLE Deut. xix. 10-13 .
Septuagint
206 XXVii. 24
26145 XXvili. 22, 28
1396 XXx1. 10
13978 xxxii.
140, xxxii. 43
3132 Josh. iii. 13 ff.
᾿ 26145) 26311
140,
140,
2626
418 Xvi. 28.
2644 2 Sam. xii. 4
1401. xv.
20141 xvi.
xix. 24 ff. 2024 xvii. 7 .
XXV. 19-22 437 xxii. 11
XXvi. 3, 4 437 1 Kings viii. 8
Exod.i. τα. 261, xii. 30 .
i. 16 168, xxi. 8
i, 22 168, 2 Kings v. 27
li. 3 é 302 ix.7 ς
“iii, 8, 17 26144 ix.31 .
vii. ff. 261, 2 Chron, iii. 11
2014 viii. 13 .
3069 XXxiil. 6
201, Ezra iii. 4
- 262, iv. 11
2575, 2623 Neh. v. 19
Ξ 234 xiii. 31 .
418 Job vii. 20
1404 viii. τα.
417 ix. 7 ff. .
140, Χχχίν. 23
306, XXXVili. 9
XXXiv. 7 418 XXXViii. IO
Lev. vi. 9, 12,13.
Xvi. 29, 31
263: Xxxviii. αὐ
410 XXXViii, 22
xxi, 17. 126, Xxxvili. 26,
xxiii. 27, 29, 32
419 XXxvili. 31 f. .
xxiii. 29 XXxix. 7
xxiii. 34
419
xl. 16 [21]
Num. xiv. 18 Ps. xv.
xvi. 22. xvii. [xviii] 8
xxvii. 16 xviii. [xix.] 2
Deut. v.16 .
xxxiv. [xxxv.] 13
vi. 4 ff. .
vii. 13
XXXVI. [Xxxvil.] 16
XXXVi. [xxxvii.] 17, 39
ix. τὸ ΧΙ. [xli.] 10
xvi, 13. xlii, [xliii.] 4
xvi. 16. xliii. [xliv.] 26
xix. 4, 5 xlv. [xlvi.J τὸ
xix. Io. - xIvi. . ὃ
 INDEX
Ps. Ivii. [Iviii.] 6 . 417 Zech. xiv. 16, 18, τ: ἕξ
Ixvii. [Ixviii.] 20. 178, Mal. i. 7, 12
Ixxvii. [Ixxviii.] 26, 52 2585 ii, 14
xxix. [Ixxx.] 2 : 462 ii. 15, 16
Ixxx. . 233 1 Esdras v. 51
Ixxxv. ([Ixxxvi. 1 τ᾽ 361ς vii. 2
Ixxxvii. [Ixxxviii.] 2 3614 Tob. vii. 3 [14]
xcix. [c.] 4 463 xii. Ig . $
cil. [cili.] 20 418 Judith iv. 9-13
ciii. [civ.] 15 130, X17 s
ciii. [civ.] 32 2638 Esther v. 1 (xv. 2)
ον]. [cvii.] τό 2636 Wisdom vii. 1, 2
cxiii, [cxiv.] 3 262, xii. 3-5
cxviii. [cxix.] 127 1409 xiv. 3 ff.
ΟΧΧΙ. [cxxii.] 3,4 1395 Ecclus. ii. 17
exxvi. [cxxvii.] 1 4583 vii. 17.
cxxvili. [cxxix.] 4. 262 xvi. 7
Cxxxiv. [CXxxV.] 7 . 26146, 2624, xxiv.
Cxxxiv. [Cxxxv.] Io, 11 140, xxiv. 6.
exxxiv. [cxxxv.] 21 26243 xxiv. IT
cxxxv. [Cxxxvi.] 17-20 140, xlvi. 5.
exxxvi. [cxxxvii.] 8 417 Γ xvii. 5.
CXxXxViii. [Cxxxix.] 23 20144 li.1q.
exl. [cxli] 6 . ᾿ 98 (§ 26) Susanna 28 ff.
᾿ exlvii. 5 [16]. 260, 1 Macc. iii. 25
Ῥτον. KeO « 417 v. 13
x. 19 216, X. 21
xi. 30 417 xi. 22
xiii. 2 41 xi. 28.
Eccles. viii. τ. 86 (δ 12) 2 Macc. i. 9, 18
Song of Sol. iv. 1, 3 4“, 7 462 1. 10
ν. 2 : 463 li. 7
vi. 3 ff. 462. iii. 24
Isaiah i. 3 275 iii. 31
ii. 17 419 iii. 39
vi.3. 26149 vii. 28 .
xiv. 9 2635 vil. 35.
xviii. 2. 30 viii. 17.
xix. 6 30 ix. 19
xxii. 13 2954 x. 6
XXXV. 7. 30 x. 13
XXXVIi. 14 35 xii. 7
xIlv.9 . ‘ 515 xii. 22
lviii. 3, 5, Io . 419 xiii. 4
Miii. 11-14 425 xiv. 3
Ixv. τσ. 351 XV. 2
Ixvi. 15 ff. 2635 3 Macc. ii. 4.
Jer. i. 6-10 . 2619 ii. 21
i 14 3192 iv. 4
ν. 22 2625, 10»11 Vv. 35
vi. 28 263ς vi. 13
vii. τό. 416 vi. 17, A
ΧΙ. 14. 416 vii. 7
ΧΧΧΙ, [xxxviii. 131 fi. 3374
xxxii. 8-15 ᾿ 34 Aquila, Gen. i. 1-5
xxxii. [xxv.] 30 1359 Exod. ii. 3
XXXVii. [xxx.] 2 1352 Symmachus, 2 Kingsi
iii.4
xliii. [xxxvi.] 2, 4 1354 Jer. xiv. 8. :
Ezek. ii, 10 ᾿ 29
xvi. 15, 25. 2958 New Testament.
Χχχίχ. 20 351
xliv. 16 351 Matt. i, I-9, 12, εἰς
-20 . 30
Dan. vi. 13, 24 2269 os ese} 463
Joel iii. [iv.] 21 ; - 420 ii. 12 . 1352
Zech. ix. 9 . ἢ . 368, 1.13. 431, 4334
524 INDEX
Matt. ii. 22. xxi, 1353 Mark ix. asff.
lii. 3 428 ix. 18
iv. 17 428 ix, 22
198, ix. 25
1148 ix. 42
18915 x. 18
270 Χ. 24
42713 x. 28
. 2044 xX. 32
110 (§ 2) x AS
. 72 X11. I-9
25 xii. τό.
. 427 xii. 26 .
. 108 ff. xil, 35.
4275 xili. 9
1653 xiii. 11
3362 xiv. 21
429 xiv. 32
272-275 xiv. 41 .+49, 492, 112
42710 ὲ τιν ἐς 42 . IIT,
144 . 226,
3973 XV. 15 -3 269, 269,
1234 XV, 21
181g, 3073 xvi. 14, 15
- 386, Luke i. a
xvii. 24 2692 i,36
xvii. 25 τας ii. σ 1.
xviii. 6. I ii. 3
xviii. 23 f. 117 8 3) ΗΝ᾿
xviii. 30 Ε 7ο ; ᾿
xix. 17. . 3456 iii rt.
xix. 27. 198,, 199 iv. 16-21
xx. . - 0644 iv. 53 Ὁ
xx. 28 . : 327 vi.
xx. 28, D 428, viii. 30 .
xxi. 5. 368, viii. 35 .
xxi. 33-41 336 1X. 3
xxii. 3 ff. 428, x. 4
xxii. 10. 12 x. IT
xxii. 12. 126 x. 17, 20
xxii. 21 2524. xX. 30
xxili. 15 . 450 x. 40.
XXV. 19 117 (§ 3) x1.,20
XXv. 36 . xix xi. 29
xxvi. 18 162, xi. 50
ΧΧΥῚ. 24 226, χὶ. 6.
xXVi. 50 125-131 ΤΟ ΧΗ τὰ ἢ.
'xxvi. 66 1148 xii. 13-16
XXVi. 67 226, xii. 16-21
XXvil. 25 22641 xii, το.
xxvii. 31-32 . xii. 21.
xxviii. 13 230. “xii. 42.
Mark i. 25 260 xii. 57 . : 116 (8 2)
i. 27 xXx xii. 58 116 (§ 1), 270
iii. 21 162, xiii. 6 ff. ; . 292,
v. 8 260, xiii. 16 307
v.9 . 261) xiv. 7 ff. 428
v.15 83 (8 οἷ xiv. ae 429)
ν. 40-41 xv. 11 f. 188
vi. 3 160, Χχν. 12. 166,
vi.7. 122 (ὃ 2) χν. τό. 20294
vi.8 . 108 ff. xv. 18, 21 17849
vii. 35. ΤΟΣ xv. 22 ff.
ix. 3
1x. 17 58
XV. 29.
XV. 32.
 INDEX
Luke xvi. 6. 2 : 333 John xx. 25. ᾿ " : 18ly¢
xvi. TS ς : + 4271_ 14» 15 xx, 28. 7 ‘ . 361g
xvii. 4. . ὃ . 1924 Xx. 29. ; : . 386ς
xvii. 15 f. : ᾿ . 13649 Acts i. 3 ‘ " ᾿ 83 (§ 7)
xvii. 18 2 ᾧ 79 (ὃ 1) 1,02 ς ‘ 5 . 17%,
xvii. 21 3 , . 4278 vig. " ες 441
Xviii. 1 ff. is @ zs 134, vii. 32. ᾿ 5 . 2583
xviii. 7, 8 ᾿ τὶ 369 vii.53 ‘ ; . 89
xviii. 8 . ᾿ " ες 421 viii. 27 . F ᾧ + 3528
xviii. 13 . " - 190, ix: 6 ς ‘ xX, XX1
xviii. 19 g Ὰ - 3456 x.22 ~. _ : . 1382
xviii. 28 198,, 199 xiii. 6 ff. : . 1594
xviii. 29 - 3045 ΧΙ. 9. : : 2810
xviii. 33 ‘ ᾿ . 2696 xiii. 15 ff. ἢ ν᾿ . 440%
xix. 40. zi " ig 2056 xiv. Ir. ἡ ᾿ . ~ 2806
Xx. 9-16 x x 336 xiv. 23. : Ἢ . 1131
Bx, TG « ν τ 33% xv. 28. " : . 444ς
RX. 4T « a Υ . 4279 χνὶ. 7. : ᾿ - 158,
ΧΧΙ. 9 . . 5 + 42745 xvi.g . : , » 300,
xxi. 14 f. : : . 336ς xvi. 9 f. . ᾿ . 15840
xxii. 25 f. τ ᾿ . 2535 χνὶ. 29... . : . 2583
xxii. 35 f. 108 Xvi. 37. F - 1369
xxii. 40-71 581 xvii. 18 Ἶ ‘a 99 (§ 27):
ΧΧΙΙ. 42 ἥ " . ΙΒῚρ xvii. 22 ‘ ὃ . 2855
xxii. 48 ᾿ 5 . 1293 xvii. 22-31. » 384,
xxiii. 2-6 é ᾿ 38, xvii. 24-31. : . 387
xxiil. 34 ‘ 5 + 420 xvii. 23 ᾿ 7 . 254.
xxiv. 5-9 38, xvii. 26 2 . 390,
XX1V. 20 190ς8 xvii. 28 7 3114, 387, 9
gee 42715 Xvii. 31 ᾿ . 3879, 3893
John i. 1-9 . 5 xviii. 2. ‘ Ἢ . Oly
i, 14 . . 123f xviii. 4 . ‘ ᾿ ες 16)
i, 14-17 58 xviii. 8 . ᾿ ᾽ . 121ς
iii. 17. 949 xviii. 24 ν᾿ . . 1592
laos 3646 xviii. 27 : . . 3528
iv. 48 386, xviii. 28 ‘ : . 1360
iv. 51 1345 xix. é . ὰ . 113
vi. 37 3524 xix.
xix,
19.
21. é
5
᾿
.
.
2544
158,
vl. 44 426
vi. 51 1653 xix. 24. x . 113
vii. 2 ᾿ ὰ : 115 xix. 27. : és . 281,
vii. 24 . 3 “ ᾿ 932 xix. 29. : ὦ . 281,
viii. 6, 8 ὗ ‘ . 2453 xix. 32,41. " . 1131
viii. 36. ᾿ ᾿ - 3273 ΧΧ. 3 Ξ Η ᾿ 4365, 4
ix. 1 ff. , 4 , 307 24s - 437
ix.6. , ᾿ . 1365 Ἔχ ae 437
χ 7 ς: 5 ‘ + 136, xx. 15 ff. 458,
ix. 7, II x ᾿ 135 xx. 15, 17 4515
Χ. 7Ξ14 5 a . I4r xx. 20. 136,
xii. 32 . : ὃ . 426 xxi. 23 ff. 15849
xii. 42. : . . 4279 xxi. 28 f. Og
xiii. 18 . “ see 226. xxi. 38 . 3554
xiv.3 . . ᾿ . 178, xxii. 18 ‘5 . 1583
xiv.9 . ᾿ Ξ 7598 xxii. 27 ὃ : . 3394
xiv. τ6,26. : » 3304 NK. 12,21. ‘ 2033
xv. 14 f. " ‘ . 377 XXV. 21 ἢ : - 3425
xv. 1I5 . a ὁ - 378,4 χχν. 26 . . . 3546
xv. 26. : Ξ . 336, xxvi. 3. Ξ ᾿ . 3675
χνὶ. 7. : ᾿ 336, xxvii. 6,38. P . 211g
xviii, 19-25. ; ᾿ 58 xxvii. 9. : ὲ . 4234
ΧΙΧῚ. Ξ Ν . 2696 xxvii. 34 7 : - 1δ1}5
xix. 12. : : . 378, Rom. i. 1-7. 239 f. (Fig. 46
xix. 15. ‘ : + 2024 i. 8 ᾿ - 88,, 1δὲς
xix. 15-17. ‘ : aoe igf. . Ἵ A . 1845
τὸ. 5 . . 201g
 oes,
526 INDEX
Rom. i. 24 ff. . 283, 1 Cor. vii. 23. 3241, ao

ii. 5
1.14.
93. (ἢ3105
το) Tied
vii.31
3
ὃ
.
.
326,
282ρ
ii. 14 ff.. - Ξ118 vii. 32 19314, 3245
iii. 24 3275» 3304 vii. 35. ‘ . 3264
νι το, Ν 97 vii. 39 3246
iv. 21 86, viii. 2, Cod.37 96,
ν. 7 118, viii. 5, 6 3558
v. 13 . 84 (§ 8) ix. 7 10644
v.14, 17, 21 xxi ix.9 275
vi. 6, 17, 19, 20 3237 ix.16 158,
vi.I2 . E xxi ix. 17 3742
vi.18 . 326, X. 19-21 351
vi. 22. 326, Χ, 21
viii. 2. 326, Χ. 25
viii. 19 . 3795 373s x. 27
viii. 20 . + 3239 x. 31
viii. 21. . 326, xi.20
viii. 23 . . 3237 xi,27
viii. 26 . : 87 xii. 3
viii. 26-34 + 3363 xii.13
χα . Ζ201ρ xiii.
xi. 4 . 1534 xi, I
xi. 17 ff . 274 xili.g . ᾿
xiii. 2 . 89,91 χίν. 3, 5, 12, 26
xiii. 7 1112, 3398 xiv. 19 . é
xv. 16 . . 158, xiv. 32.
xv. 19 :885, 2761. xv. 10
XV. 20 ᾽
ἢ ὡς 150g XV. 23
Χν. 22 18941 XV. 32
XV. 25 Ξ . 437. xv. 58 . 3141
xvi. 171, 2004, 235 ff., 279 xvi. I, 2 :
xvi. I ᾿ : . 2359 Χν]. 3. Ξ 171
xvi. 3 ff 438 xvi.6 Ξ
xvi. 4 ‘ . 117. χνὶ. 8. 5
xvi. 5 . 2791 Χν]. 9. β
Xvi. 6, 12 + 3134 xvi. 17. .
xvi. 17-20 2794 Xvi. το. .
xvi. 20 : + 421 xvi. 21. ἕ
xvi. 21. 4371 438, 4384 Xvi, 22.
xvi. 22 ἥ . 236, 2Cor.i.23.
1Cor.i.4g . 181, ii, 12
i, 12 377 iii.1
i 14 121, iii.3
i, 22 ᾿ 2225, 386, iv. Ir.
i, 26-31 By τόν,67, τ44, 1595 ν.1
111. 9 160, Vv.3
iii. 10 ; 160, v. 18
iii. 16 ἢ. : 160, v. 20
iii, 23 ‘ 377 vi. 16
iv. 8 : xxi viii. 9
iv. τὸ 3 192, ix. 12
iv. 12 . 3134 x. I
iv. 17 ἢ 1714 bam ἃ
iv. 20 ῳ . 79 xi. 6°
ν. 4,5 ἢ 302,, 302, χὶ. 232 .
ν. 7, 8 ὦ + 3294 xi. 23 ff.
vi. 9 Ἴ . 1644 χὶ. 25. - 2709
vi. 9, τὸ ᾿ 316 Χχὶ, 26.
vi. 19 . 160, xii ἢ
vi. 20 : 324, xii. 7 ff.
vii. 19 - 376; xii. 8.
vii. 20 : 385. xii. 8 ff.
vii, 21 ἥ 329, xii. 9 ᾿
vii. 22 ‘ 326, 377 ~~Gal. i. 1-vi. ro.
 INDEX
Gal.i.8,9 . Ξ . 3032 1 Thess. ii. 4.
i. 14 18145 ii, 19
ii, 1, 2 Ε . 1585
il. 4 3253
ii. 7 + 3744
iii. 1 » 19310
iil. 13 3295, 33%
iii. 15 + 90g
iii. 16 ες 43) ee
iii. 28 3295 380,
iii. 29 - 377
iv. 1-7 32310
iv. 4 551
iv. 5 . 324, 3704, 373
iv. 8,9 . 32341 3714
iv. Ir. ᾿ . 314. 3143:
ΝΟΙ . : 325), 3243, 3254 1.1). τόδ᾽, 171}, 172.
ν. 2 ‘i - 166, 1 Tim. i. gf. 317
ν. 13 . 3244 i, Ir ‘ 374:
v.17 . 325, . 302
v. 18 3251 - 362,
ν. 24 + 377 + 3278
Wi τι. 166,, τον 4153
vi. 11 ff
vi. 12 98 8 26),Εἴς 88 (§ 15), 89,
97
vi. 17. . 301s 85 (8 11), nts
Eph. i. 7 . 3303 «376
i. τό 181,, 1844 3096
1.9. ς 26139 3735
ii. 14 x1 1845
ii. 20 ff - 160, 3726
iii. τὸ ᾿ + 2610 375 f.
νὶ. 12. : é . 26149 373s
vi. 18 . . 102 (§ 30) 309,
vi. 20 . 374 + 30%
Phil. i. 3 159), 181, 18946, 369
i, 12 . 188, - 316,
1.13 τ . 238, 30, 152
i. 23 . 303, 4516
ii. 5-11 . 342, Tit. i. 3 3744
11,9, 11 3552 279%
il. 10 » 261: 314
11. 16 . 314, 3735
ii, 20 f. 438 iii, 3 - 3239
ii. 30 F ῳ 88 (ὃ 14) Philem.4 . 181g, 1845
iii. 7,8. ᾿ 192. 10 é εὖ 335
iii. 8 3 786
iv. 3 119 (85).1346, 1935, 464
iv. I 8 ᾿ 112 (8 2), 331.
ἵν. 22 160,, 2385, 441
Col. i. 3 ἢ . “81,
i7 - 376
1.1. τ ε ες 3304
1.14. , + 332, 3338
1,18, ὃ ες 453
iii, τι. ᾿ 3894
iii, τό. : 1γ6ς
ἵν. 3. . Ὲ + 800
ἦν. 7 . ‘ + 1984
iv. τι. i 5 438
iv. 14 ; 438, xiii 5.
ἦν. τό . . 238, xiii. 22-24
iv. 18 1721 xiii. 24.
t Thess. i. 2 Ρ 181g, 1843 James ii.6 .
2.0 Ἔ : a . 198, ii. 7 ‘
. 528 INDEX
James ii. 8. 362, Ecclus. xvi. 16. . . 450
‘ii, 1 xxiv. 46 . . ες 449
iv. 13 ff. Xxxvill. 16. ᾿ ες 449
ἵν 15. ΧΙ. τό. ᾿ : - 449
1 Peter i. 18, 19 Baruch iii. 3 E 5 449
i. 19 2 Macc. vi. 11 ἢ Ὁ ες 449
ii, 17 xii. 44. ᾿ ᾿ ες 449
iii. 3,4. Matt. viil. 11 5 : ες
449
iii. 6 xix. 28. : ὶ 449
iii. 7 xxvi. 50 ‘ 12 5-131
v.3f. . Luke xx. 35 ᾿ Ξι ες 449
2 Peter i. 5, 6 Rom. iii. 6 f. ὸ : ες 450
1.1.3... : ᾿ ες 449
Phil. 111.5. 4 . 449
2 Thess. 1. 5 ᾿ . - 449
1 Tim. ii. 10 ὃ : - 449
iii, ir. ᾿ ‘ - 449
Tit. i. 2 ὃ ‘ ῷ ες 449
Heb. vi. 18 ‘ . + 450.
Rev. iii. 21 . Η ες 449
Ο. INSCRIPTIONS.
American Journal of Archaeology,
2nd ser.
Vol. 7 (1903) No. 1, Inscriptions
from Corinth ae 49 . us
Vol. 10 (1906)p
American Seagal ofClassical ‘Stndics
at Athens, Papers of the, 2,
57 22
‘Annales du Service des Antiquités de
_ VEgypte, 22, pp. 78. . 449,
Athenische Mitteilungen:
2 (1877) p. 81 . ᾿ . 1364
7 (1882) p. te . - 02,
16 (1891)p. 4068. . . IS,4
21 (1896) p. 98 . 3 ‘ 925
24 (1899) p. 199 . . 197%
24 (1899) p. 275 ff. . . 366,
24 in Pp. 406 . . 87,
27 (1902) p. 48 ff. + 3625.
Berliner Phi ologische Wochenschr.
- 2% (1901) col. 475 . 362,
British School at ‘Rehens Annual
of the, 1914-16, Ee 181 8. 328,
Bulletin de Corresp. 6,lénique :
xiii. 18 . 21 (1897) p. 60. 109,
xiv. 3 21 se p. 65. ἡ ες 84,
xiv. 12. 22 (1898) p. 58. a » IIt,
xiv. 13. 22 (1898) p. 116 ἢ . 1117
XV..3 22 (1898) p. 120 ‘ . ILI,
XV. 4 23 1898) p. 355 ᾿ . 3214
xvii. 14 2 (1898) p. 496 . 3157
xviii, 13 a (1899)p. 274 ᾿ . 227y
xix. 16. 23 (1899) p. 301 . . 3155
xxii,6 . 25 (1901) p. 62 ff. : . 378ς
xxii.21 25. ae p. 88. 3 . 3184
25 (1901) p. 275 ᾿ . 3726
B. THE Latin BIBLE 25 (1901) p. 279 ὃ + 3184
25 (1901) p. 416 . ," II,
Gen. xli. 53 . 28 ae . 195 Ξ . 3760
Deut. viii. 17 28 (1904) p. 330 ἢ . 1372
Job xiv. 14 - Bulletin ae Ia Société . Archéol.
Ps. Ivi, [lv.] 13 [12] d’Alexandrie, No. 12 (1910), p.
Esther xvi. 18 16 ee . ἃ . 2954
 INDEX 529
Bull. della comm. arch. comm. di Dittenberger, Ovientis Gvraeci In-
Roma, 1903, 279 . » 214 scriptiones Selectae :
Buresch, Aus Lydien, p.197 . 328, No. 139 368
Byzantin. Zeitschr. : 168, 1755
14 (1905) pp. I-72 461-464 186, 3520
14 (1905) p. 21 ff., IOI, 201. 1373, 217
Cagnat, Inscriptiones Gvaecae ad 210, gs 107,
ves Rom. pert. : ° 262 ‘ 101,
ΠῚ. No. 188 3745 33828 3244
III. No. 1086 3535 415 3531
Collection of Ancient Greek Inscrr. 418 3534
in the Brit. Mus. : 423 3534
No. 15854 - IIT, 425 3534
587b 3092 426 3531
604 3095 438. 317s
633 (p. 249) 928 441109 ττός
722 . 141 45919 992
τι + 344ς 458. 366
8. " ‘ , 2
Collitz and Bechtel, Dialekti τ ΤΙ : Cap a
II. No, 189945 « 824 606 353.
III.? No. 4959 . 98, 610, 378.
Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum, 62930) 45 81,
Appendix p. xiii. f.. 955 655 3450 361,
p. XXX. + 3046 666 3454
Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum : 668 364,
No. 1378 - . 845 6691-46 358,
1732a3, 84, 6695 358
2566 98 66915) 18 358
2664 96, 669 ast. 270,
τῖνΝ b = oes Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum
7 : - vaecavunt :
294310 : » 37511 No. 226, ®495 est. 3703
3465, . . 905 250, 8412). 875
3499at. . 3783 325, °708,, . 8510
35004 378, 325, *70845 18145
4300, (p. 1128) 991 328, 974191 2 - - 3709
447451 - Tor 342, ®70259 : - 885
4609. - 3454 347, 5760 : 3445
4759 - 4353 376, 381431, α΄ - ες 3544
5980 1 δε. 1351 415, 388: . 376ς
zee an 418, Pie 95 3704.8

8888 a Bae fasots ΕΝ

9552 3135 803, ϑιτόο;ς 37%
9727 : : Ol, 804, 811 70go¢. 308,
II. add. No. 2322 b. 69 417 807, 91173 s58f. 1351
IL. add. No. 2322 Ὁ. 78° 417 844. . 3215
III. add. No. 4700k . 4353 845. 323}
IV. pp. 395, 397 4572 845, - IIL,
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum : 850. 326,
IIT. p. 836 3 ᾿ 84, 85718 : 82,
VI. 17685 ᾿ 4352 891, *1240 . 234, 96s
VIII. No. 2557. 1814, 929, 9685100 106,
Delphes, Inscriptions vec. ἃ, par Dittenberger, ‘Sylloge Inscriptionum
_. Wescher et Foucart No. 66 326, Graecayum?:
Didyma, Inscr. from (hand-list No. No. 783az. 3414
_ 350). Ε a - 378 1181 4132
Diels, Vorsokvatiker,? Ὁ. 480, No. 17 ff. 1259 : ᾧ 150,
᾿ , 3031 1260 . ‘ 152}
Dittenberger, Ovientis Graect In- 1267 . 1373
scriptiones Selectae : 1268 311,
No. 55,11. + : . ᾿ 14, Ed. Apx. 1892, col. 173 ft. 234) 96,
90, - . . . 3525 Epheces, Forschungen in (see p. 13,
900 - : : : 3452 n. 1), 2,p. 147ff. 1124
530 INDEX
Heberdey, Opramoas, p. 50, xixA, Le Bas-Waddington, No. 860,, δι
104 Lefebvre, Recueit No. 297 . 433:
Heberdey and Kel Bericht, Tepeins, Monum: aegypt. inscr. es
No. 59 + 312, 114
Herzog, K oische KF orschungen und aaa Ephemeris fiir sem. Be
Funde: ~ graphik
No. 24, 25 253s Lp. 85. 3635
163 2951 I. p. 100 . 3054
165 3774 Magnesia a. M., Die I nschvifien von,
p. + 3214, 3276 herausg. von O. Kern:
Heuzey and Daumet, Ῥ. 432 ff. 3204 No. 10524 . . ὃ 106,
Hierapolis, Altertiimer von, No. 78 157b . . . + 347.
90, Michel, ecueil ᾧ >
p. 201 970 No. genet Il44
oO, Hoffmann, Die Griech. ‘Dialekte,
III. p. 72 . ᾿ + 102, Milet, Brgehnisce(see Ρ. 4, n. 6):
Inscriptiones Graecae : Heft 2, p. 101f 3746
III. 2, p. xiii. f. i“ 955 Heft 3, No. 134astt. 1149
IIT. No. το (21081) 367, : 134 att. 121,
ITI. 2, No. 1355 971 149 μι, I146
III. Pars III. App. p. ‘ii.f. 150, 150, 114
III. Pars III. No. 108 + 303, Monteverde zu Rom, Inschviften a
IV. No. 204 45% jidischen Katakombe am, herausg.
IV. No. 205 4576 aoe von N. Miller :
XI. 4, No. 1299 156, Nos. 35, 98, 113, 123, 152 ον 440,
XII. 2, No. 58:0 . : 99 No. 145 447-450
XII. 3, Suppl. No. 1270,, ; Olympia, Inschviften von, No. >
1039, 4 44
XII. V. 1, No. 14 . 1374 Paton and Hicks, The π᾿.
XII. V. 1, No. 132 + 3763 of Cos:
XII. V. 1, No. 739 1391, 142, No. 29 . ; . 3716 3276
XIV. No. 1072 . + 3423 92. : . 3454
Jahreshefte des Osterr. “Arch, Inst. : 3901: . 3717
2 (1899) Suppl. p. 43 f. 1125 Pergamon, Die i: nschriften von,
4 ee Suppl,La 9ff. : 413 ff. herausg. von M. Frankel :
7 (1904) p. 81 ff 1033 No. 186. 7 Η - 8%
7 (1904) p. 94 ff. ‘ + 150, 333 - 6 278,
7 (1904) p. 120 f. . + 3047 339 . ‘ a . 278,
8 (1905) p. 155fl. 3219 358. 4 x Q0,4
uster, Les Juzfs, II.p.
p 327 320, 374 . : . > 340.
aibel, Epigrammata Graeca : 374 Band Ὁ - 3604,
No. 460 . A ᾿ Ε QI, 374 Bu a» Dig 36:
730. ᾿ . - Oly 381. 3471
1028 . . 1425 459 + 312,
Keil and von Premerstein, Bevicht 52310 3469, 3491
εἶδον eine dvitte Reise in Lydien: 523131 3463
. 18 ff. 2 311, 587 . 278,
lo. 42 4522 604 3158
Latyschev, Inscriptiones Antiquae : Priene, Inschriften von, herausg. von
I. No. 33 ὲ 376, Ἐς Frhr. Hiller von Gaertringen:
21 a6-28 88, No. 5059. ‘ ᾿ « 12049
22eatt. 310, 59sat. υ ν 12049
246 3786 8246 ‘ ᾧ 106,
47 et. + 3786 1051-0 366
II. No. 27 . 363, 10590 - 3471
46, - 3786 TO5 aot. 3455, 366
52 . 3214 T1755 : Ε . 310,
5219-15 + 102, 1375 - ὃ 5 ἥ 86
53 1025, 3219 Ι0581 106,
358 + 363, 31: 2952
400 321 Ramsay, Recent Discovevize }=
IV. No. 7171. 3624 Ρ. 370 ff. . + 435 ff.
200 363, Reisen im stidwestlichen K leinasien :
202 ᾿ . 3637 II. p. 36, No. 58 I14,
Le Bas, fies, 2039, 2041. 417 IL. pp. 76-135 - =. 6. 2949
 INDEX 531
Retsen im stidwestlichen Kleinasien : Berliner Griechische Urkunden :
II. p. 159, No. 187 114, No. 9129, - 7 3 δ, 81,
II.p. 166, No. 193. nee IO7Qaot. « ᾿ χ . 85
IT. p. 180, No. 231 10794 - ᾿ : . 120,
Revue des Etudes Juives oo. Ἢ" 1197 i . x + 361g
- (1919--20ὴ 1201 . . . + 362,
Schiirer, Geschichte des 74. “Wales 1203-1209. ὃ + 235,
111. p. 46. » 157 9859 + 789
IIL.p. 27, ὁ p. 551. 3204 Bremen Papyri No. 18. 116
111. «1184 Bulletin de 1’Institut - frangais
Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Aka- d’archéol. orient. VI., Le Caire,
demie: 1908. - 3731
1902, p. 1696 352, Cairo Papyri No. 10735 421) 430-434
p. 1098 . ἃ . 303) Catalogue of Coptic MSS. in the John
“Waddington 3,2720a . » Ior Rylands Library,
Wiegand, Bericht VII. B. 54 3718 No. 461. 2351
Zolotas, p. 231 1. . 12049 Catalogue of Greek Papyri in the
John Rylands Library,
_D. Papyri AND PARCHMENTS Μοὶ. 11...
Elephantine- Papyri bearb. von vey
The Amherst Papyri: Rubensohn No.1 . a 39)
No. 3. 471, 205 ff.
66 II, ‘ ᾿ . 8δόᾳ Faytm Towns and their Papyri :
131-135 236,, εν No. 2 (Swoboda) . ᾿ 43
0355 - ᾿Ξ ᾿ + 3673
Ι9Ι 108. τ ᾿ - °1344
Annales du Service des Antiquités ve
110-123 298,
“lV'Egypte, 18: 1121. ὃ " . 188,,
No. 3 3 + 1ό3ς‘ :
“τόρ. 188,
7 ξ ᾿
. 152 ff. ὃ
11896 298,
13 . 162 ff.
T1Q9a. a 298,
Archiv fiir Papyrusforschung, 6, p.
1ff. (London fragment of a 133. Ἐ ν᾽ . 90)
139. . 18549
mime) . . 5 . 3365
Berliner Griechische Urkunden : Flinders Petrie PapyriIIL.
No. 15 I. τὸ f. 2705. No. 395. . " 369
2 4 : . 2117 Florence Papyri :
37, ὦ ᾿ : . 170, No. 61 i 269 f.
55 1110 : 18519 ΟἹ soft 2604
6414 18510 Ol gst. « . 3334
726 és ᾿ . 119 99 - -« 190,
Ior. ὃ : . 3344 Geneva Papyri:
103 ᾿ : ᾿ 89 No. 16. ᾿ Ξ . 271
140ᾳ4χι.. : ᾿ " 843 23st. + ᾿ : . 81,
179 3344 45-65 Ξ 218,
Ἔβινς 119 Giessen Papyri :
272: 3344 No. 1713 - . Ε . 188,ς
333 18510 2 .- 367.
3441 - THO, 5. . . .
362 Va 1977 651/20 : i . 38
423 180,
Gradenwitz Papyri :
432 Tyr 1195 No. 1 e δ 3245
522 1347 2 . . : ν 368,
597, - : - 945 Grenfell zane Series II.
6or. : 5 2340
No. 73 τ . 213 ff.
632 ᾿ ᾿ . 184,
- 664 Ε δ ἐ . 3315 Griechische Τονίο aus
ocΑργρίοη, herausg.
66511, ᾿ ὃ . 865 von P. M. Meyer (I. Papyri in
Berlin University New Testa-
715 Ig . : + 741 ment Seminar) :
747 Vee - : τ 86,
748 (tw + 2695, 3413 No. 6 . : : . 365
20 Ἢ " . 1844, 186,
5181 . 1172:
ζ1}. . 186, Hamburg Papyri:
815. + 1722 I. No. 4 _ . 2 102,
846 1347, 187, 10, ἃ ‘ . 189,
888,, . ‘ ὃ - I1Q6 14. 3659
532 INDEX
Heidelberg Papyri, Unpublished: The Oxyrhynchus Papyri:
Provisional No. 8c 3345 _ No. 71 ἴω 11 924, 931
22. . 236, 92 ὁ i + 90g
τ . . 232: 93. ᾿ ᾿ + 909
110 : 3515
ἘθθεΙβετε Papyri, "Teroflenttiibuncen 1136: 208,
T1397 + IE%G
No. 5 405, 115 . 176 ff.
6 . ᾿ 47». 215 Ἕ, 2304 116 1772
Herculaneum rolls : 116¢¢ 208,
No. 1044 118 TIO 4, 208,
Hibeh Papyri : 119 201-204
No. 54 164 ff 1195, 14 2174
82 yt. 875, 208, 11949 85
975 - 2 11Ὶ 121 123
Papyvi Iandanae : 128, 188,,
. No. 6 ᾿ : - 48, 209 240,
II. No. 12 : : 1491 237 239s
Jena Papyri No. 1 ες 48, 246 172 ff., 354
Journal of Hellenic Studies : 20615 3342
35 (1915) ΒΡ. 22-65 : 331 269 » 3315
Journal of t e > Victoria Insti- 280, 81 (§ 3)
tute, London : 36215 3342
44 (1912) p. 76. 187, 3634 3342
Leipzig Papyri, edited by L. Mitteis, 4855: . : 119,
Νο.9.70.᾽. - : ΟΙς, 100g 489517 - . - 834
Leyden Papyri ἑ 50919 ὃ Γ . 86,
Ti, : ᾿ : : 1246 523. : . . 351g
V. Vilas 1373 654. - 41g, 425-429
Lille Papyri:
: 655. Ἶ : . 414
No. 3 656 «. ἧ . Η͂ 424
London (Brit. Mus.) Papyri [See ae 657. Ν . . 425
Archiv, Grenfell, ee 658 . 3 é «46g
No. 244 83, 722 : 3279
46.148. . a ἣν 142
7421: + {τὸς
46 get : 1373 14. 2 ee
4644: ἃ ᾿ + 302 3840. . ᾽ 41ς
: : : Ζ2ϊς 845. Z : + 42
T2T goat. 1373 846. . Ἵ “428
I2Logete. : z + 306 847 . ἢ ᾿ . 42ς
124. ὃ - 93, 456, 848. . ‘ ες 428
233. - 3. 348, 849. . . ΣΟ. ἥδε
256 3771 850 : . + 426
336 + 3344 851 i ὃ - 42ς
417 216-221 886. : ὃ . 123
713 463, 213 ff. 903 8 ‘ 135
854 . 1748. 99387 2145
904 + 2351 949% - 1235
904 χει. . 270 1. 1021 345ς
1460, 1461 214, Ιτογορ,. . 308,
Vol. IT.pp. 267-307. 218, το. : : - 453
Mélanges Nicole, 1143 : 3533
Ῥ. 58 ff. 2355 1205, . Ε ὃ 321.
Memorie dell’ Instituto di Corrispon- 124,2. ; ὦ + 484
denza Archeologica 2, p. 440 1296 i ὡ 204,
1380 75s: 1410
Munich Papyri, Archiv 1, at 7433 . 3451
p. 481 8. 3524 1464. . ; ‘ 46,
The Oxyrhyachus’ Papyri 1786 © 431
No. 32 . 197-200 Paris Great Magical Papyrus :
33 verso ily : . 86, Leaf 33. 254-264
3758. . 3537 Line 1365. - ; ᾿ . 418
48. Ἶ φ» 3275 1809 " . . . 418
49. : - - 3270 2106]. 418
53." . ᾿ + 272% 8548. ὃ ὃ ἢ 85
 δὲ

INDEX 533
FarisaEADY; Notices et extraits, 18, Wilcken, cients Ostvaka:
No. 402 3 10644
No. 18. ὦ . Σ + 2343 41. Fi ᾿ .- 106.4
He τ i 5 oe 83 413 ee 3541
. ᾧ . .E 414. ᾽ . 10644
Passalacqua ‘Papyrus ‘ ΤᾺ 415. ἑ Ν - 106,
Pubblicazioni della Societa Italiana 416. 2 ᾿ 10644
per la ricerca dei Papiri greci 417. : : - T0644
e latini in Egitto: Papivi gveci 4:18. . - 10644
e latini, 420. 3 - 1064,
Vol. IV. No. 328 - - 156, 1027 166
339 . + 1554 1038 3538
435 . 152-161 1071 124
Reinach Papyri, No. 7 . 270), 3305 1135 1176
Revue Egyptologique I, fasc. 3-4 1222 1248
(1919), No. 2, p. 5 ff. 192-197 1481 370,
Pepin Papyri:
No. ἣν . ᾿ ‘ 85
a 194 20 « 3249
F. Woopen TaBLetTs
TO jot. 98, British Museum Add. MS.
245° - 83 37516 + 333s
2816 197, Bulletin de la Société Archéo-
48otr - 3604 logique d’Alexandrie, No. 12
1165, 379, (1910), pp. 39 ff. 442-446
Vienna Magical Papyrus 4576 Revue Archéologique :
28 (1874) p. 248 100,
28 (1874) p. 249 100,
E. OstTRAcA 29 (1875) Ρ. 233 f. 124,
Crum, Coptic Ostraca :
No.29 . : 221-224 G. Grass GOBLETS
31 2235 Berlin Museum, No. 11866 130
34 223: Curtis Collection . - 1314
37 2239 von Gans Pe aa No. 212. 130
39 2236 Sangiorgi,p. 131.
71 224-227 Wiegand (Rendel Harris)
129 55s Collection . ὲ . 1291.
522 300,
Ad. 2236 H. Coins
Deissmann Collection :
No. 17 35515 (See also Index IV. s.v. Coins)
18 3551 Cohen I. 307, No. 403/4 3713
22-25 3542 Head, Hist. num.*, p. 863 3454
31 110 f, Madden, Jewish Coinage, 247 252ς
32 IIOg
33 3556 I, ANCIENT AUTHORS (OTHER |
36 3591 THAN BIBLICAL)
36a 3542
37 3542 Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha,
39 3542 ed. Bonnet :
40 3551 I. p. 68, Acta Petri 388,
44 3551 II. 1, p. 772, Acta Andreae et
47° 3551 Maitthiae ὦ 958
56 tar f. II. 1, Pp. 20994, Acta Johan-
57 200 nis 5 . - 945
59 3551 Acta Johannis 109 ὃ . 388,
64 204 f. II. 2, p. 11849, Acta Thomae 1249
70 3542 11.2, p. 148 f., Acta Thomae 1375
77 3551 II. 2, p. 212,4, Acta Thomae 124,
86 3551 II. 2, p. 271, Acta Thomae . 1375
87). : 3551 Acta Mart. Sciht. . 2523, 3563
Strassburg Ostraca: Aeschylus, Pers. 981 1225
No. 203. 596 Agathangelus 464, . 256,
Wiesbaden Museum, fragment Ambrosius, De Obitu Theo-
of iar. No. 15527 530 dosit, ο. 34 198,
534 INDEX
A pophthegmata aki col. Greg. Naz. I. 1248 C . 4332
105 C . 126, Hermes Trismegistus, Poeman-
Apuleius, Metam. x. 53: 1701 der, 3115 . 83,
Metam. xi. 5 1373 Hermogenes, De invent. 3, 5:1. τὸς
Aristeas, Epistle of, 12. 3274 Herodotus, ii. 28 . : 1749
16. . ‘ : - 418 ii, 17t ἢ . 174ς
7. 7 : 5 . 418, Herondas, vi. το. ᾿ 82,
27. ; ξ ᾿ . 3273 Ignatian Epistles, Eph. 9,2 2153
33 - ᾿ 5 ἃ . 327ς Irenaeus, Contra genres, ἥ;
37 - - . 3278 540Η.. 388,
193, 226 : Ἶ . 418, γξτοηι: onGal.i.12 78;
229. . 3 : ες δὲ Johannes Eleemon, Life of St.
284 1977 Tycho . 126,
Aelataphianed Lysistrata, τοῦ 126 Johannes Moschi, Spiritual
Artemidorus, 485. . 977 Meadow ξ 126,
Athenaeus IV. 11, 133 D . 974 John Chrysostom :
Aur, Vict. Caes., 3 3536 II. 362 BCD 433
Bacchylides, 17(16) 1: : 20743 Orat. 36 3492
Boissonade, Anecdota 5, p. 166 349. on Rom. iii. 24 . 3275
Book of Jubilees, XX. 5 262, unprinted sermon 433
Clem. Alex.I.977 A. Ill; John of Euboea, Sermo in con-
Clem. Rom. 1 Cor. xlvii. 3919 cept. Deipavae, col. 1476 A 3654
1 Cor, lv. 2 324, Jordanes, Getica, 50 ‘ ᾿ 92ς
I Cor. lv. 6 » 418 Josephus, Anit. IV. viili.4 . 87,
I Cor. lix. 3 347 418 Antt, XIV. x. 21 ᾿ 4514
1 Cor. Ixiv. 416, 418 Antt. XV. 417 . é - 806
2 Cor.i.1 19407 Bell, Jud. 11. 417 ᾿ ᾿ 80
Const. Apost. 3, . 109, Bell. Jud. V. 193 80,
Council of Ares Canon III. 221, Bell. Jud. VI. 124 80,
Crates (Poetae philos. fr. 4, Bell. Jud. VII. x. τ 3554
p. 218, ed. Diels) 109, Jubilees, Book of, xx. 5 262,
Cyril of Alexandria . 126, Julian the Apostate . . 126,
Demetrius, De elocutione (Her- Ὁ, Julius Victor (Rhet. lat. min.
cher, p. 13) . 228,, 2965 ed. Halm, p. 448) . + 1679
Demetrius Phalereus, Typi Pseudo(?)-Justin, Cohortatio
epistolares, No.5 . . 178s, 2 ad Gentiles, V.78 . 126,
Dicke Thephiila, fol. 50, col. 2 420, Justin Martyr, Apol. 1. 27 ff.. τόδ᾽
Dio Chrysostom, Orv. 35: 15 336, Dialogue with the Jou Try-
Diodor. Histor. Bibl.1 27 138 pho, c. 14 : . 3725
111. 36 . 163, C. 52 + 3725
xiv. 8 ὃ 877 Logia fragment I. No. 4 é 41ς
Diog. Laert. ‘VIL. 173-4. 554 II. . ay 4 425-429
Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptiz- III. é Ν 414
ati, 451) . 2179 Mart. Polycarpi, viii. 2. 3443 356
Epictetus, ‘Diatribae, I. του ‘ 329, Martial, ii. 39 -. ‘é . 82,
Epistle to Diognetus, v. 1 f. 3854 X. 72s . τ ᾿ 3625
v.6 170 Martyrium Theodoti + 219
Epistolosvaphi Graecae, ed. Menander (het. Gr., ed. Spen-
Hercher : gel, 3, p. 377 fi.) 368,
P. 259 2352 saan ay Tanchuma, Pikkudé,
ῬΡιό0 9. . 2352 260,
Euseb., Eccl. Hist. : Mishna Taanith, IIL. 6. 419
IIT. xx. 3. 246, Moeris, p. 58 . 89,
V. xxviii. 5 ὃ + 3494 πὰ De pass. mul.
VI. xvi. 3 " j ῇ 34a _ Ρ. 47: » ὅδῳ ς
VI. xxv. 11 5 : A 708 Νιοοαδα 7 in Athenaeus, IV.
VII. χχν. 2. 229 11, 133 Ὁ 974
Eustathius of Thessalonica, Nilus, in Ἔπβοιαο, Bibliotheca,
Opuscula, Ῥ. 38, 1. 58 2102 ᾿ς P. 51336 983
Ἐν. Pseudo-Matthaei, xvii.2. 433 Oribasius, Collectanea Med. L
Ev. Thom. x. ᾿ . 41g Ρ- 5446 8910
Ev. Thom. (Latin text)i
i. . 43365 Origen IV: κοδδα, ed. de la
Greek Liturgies, ed. Swainson: Rue. 4379
PP. 84, 92, 110 . » 4584 Ovid, Met. viii. 620-625, 280¢
Pp. 92 . . . . 460, Met. ix. 675-9 170;
 INDEX
Philo, ed. Mangey, Il. p. 467. 4524 Scriptoves Hist. 456. Moa ath,
Philodemus, περὶ παρρησίας 135; ᾿ 25
ed. Olivieri, p. 52. 75a 760 Shemoneh Esveh, 12
Photius, Anfang des Lexikons, Solomon, Odes of, 23 3
ed. Reitzenstein, p. 107 . 98, Sophocles, Evis fragment
Bibliotheca, p. 51336 - 989 Sophronius . os
Pindar, Nem. 7, 152 4273 Soranus, ed. Rose,p. 174, 22 .
Ol. 10(11), 63. 5 . QTg Sotion, Scriptores Rer. Mir. oe
Plato, Apology, 31B.. ~ 310, p. 183.
Epist. Νο. 13... : + 167 Suetonius, Domit. 13
Gorgias, 447. 126 Nero,
Legg. 5,746E . ; 209 ‘Tacitus, Hist. ν. 5
Pliny, Nat. Hist. 5, 27. 312, Tanchuma, ria 3
Nat. Hist. 1343-13 : 27: Tertullian, A pol.4:
sis the oe, Epist. 10, Test. XII. Pair. Test. Judae, 8
. » 19497 Levi, 3and 15 .
Epist. 10, τι Es » 2s Test. Salomonis, ed. Fleck,
Plutarch, Mor. II. p. 707B 4332 Ῥ. 133; ed. McCown, p. 58*
Sympos. 4,6, . T16, Thomas Magister, p. 18,8 .
Polybius, Hist. xviii. 31, 3705 Thucydidesi. 133 ᾿
Proclus, De forma epistolari: iii. 14
No. 12 ἡ IQIg Vergil, asta, VI. 45.
21 κ : i - 7% Vettius nue I. p. 4317
Ptolemaei Tetrabiblon, Scholia P. 11735
in . . ᾿ 765 Cat. Codd. Astr. Gr. ν. 2:
Ruphus in Oribasius, Coil. P. 5116.
Med. 1. p. 544ει:. . . 891 DP. 73a -
ΤΣ ΗΝ