Wuolah Free Apuntes Sintaxis II

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Sintaxis de la lengua inglesa II
3º Grado en Estudios Ingleses
Facultad de Filosofía y Letras

Universidad de Cádiz
Reservados todos los derechos.

No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.
27/09/2022
Evaluation:
Final Test: 70% (Si vamos al congreso de finales de octubre y hacemos un resumen de las
jornadas, el examen vale un 60%)
CV Assignments: 20%
Participation in class (random): 10%
Basic theoretical notions: M. A. K. Halliday

1. Nominal Group in clause structures:
S (subject): The best player available was a Spaniard.
Od (objeto directo): The committee engaged the best player available.
Oi (objeto indirecto): They offered the best player available a high salary.
Cs (Subject complement): Tom Smith was the best player available.
Co (Object complement): Everybody considered him the best player available.
A (Adjunct): He signed the contract last week.
Op: Prepositional object.
1. Adjectival Group:
Modifier Head Qualifier
hq
mh
mhq
*Differentiate between the three types of adverbials: adjunct (A), disjunct (D) and conjunct
(C).
*El subject object no puede aparecer con el direct object.
Ejemplo de clase
The water runs cold: The water (subject) - runs (verb) - cold (subject complement)
Copular verbs require a subject complement but there are also non-copular verbs that require
a subject complement.
Phrasal verbs: Lexical verb + an adverbial particle and they can be transitive or intransitive.
Prepositional verbs: Lexical verb + a particle + a preposition and they function like idiomatic
prepositional verbs.
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Sintaxis de la lengua ingles...
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Copular verbs
Subject + Verb Predicate + Subject Complement = SPCs
The S-P-Cs pattern contains a copular verb that links the subject to a Complement encoding
what the subject is or becomes. The most typical copula is be. Other verbs used as copulas in
English provide additional meaning to the mere linking. This may be sensory (look, feel,
smell, sound, taste) or refer to a process of becoming (become, get, go, grow, turn). The
notion of ‘being’ also includes being in a place, expressed by a circumstantial locative
Complement, as we saw in 8.2.3.
Despite being the same verb, the first one is a complex structure and the second one a
ditransitive structure.
Adjuncts
● Circumstantial Adjuncts, which provide the setting for the situation expressed in the
clause, as regards place, time and manner, among others: The new liner ‘Queen
Elizabeth II’ sails tomorrow from Southampton.
● Stance Adjuncts, which express the speaker’s attitude to or evaluation of the content
of the clause: Obviously, he’ll rely on you even more now.
● Connective Adjuncts, which link two clauses, or parts of clauses, signalling the
semantic relation holding between them: The hotel was rather noisy. On the other
hand, it wasn’t expensive (contrast)
Ejercicios de examen
2. Identify the dependent clause. Underline them and say whether they have a syntactic
function within the sentence or within the group.
If it realises a syntactic function within the inner structure of a group, underline it, and
indicate the function and type of group (below each part): Dep. Fin. Cl.: /Dep.
Non-Fin. Cl.: q,... in a NG/AdjG/AdvG/PP.
- This is the bird that was in the house Jack built.
(a. Dep. Fin. Cl.: q in NG / b. Dep. Fin. Cl. q NG(PP))
- The dedication they bring to the work pays dividends
(Dep. Fin. Cl.: q in NG)
In class exercise 1.
There are fewer species of the larger baleen whales, that filter krill and small fish through
their baleen plates. The largest (subj.) is (pred.) the Blue whale / which / is seen frequently /
in the Gulf of St Lawrence (Cs). It reaches a length of 100 feet and a weight of 200 tons. The
young are 25 feet long at birth and gain about (preposition, head) 200 lbs a day (aunque “a
day” sea circumstance, tiene función de qualifier de “about 200 lbs” tonces se une a él y
forma parte del participant) (Op) / on their milk diet.
Red: Processes.
Blue: Participants.
Green: Circumstances.
Cualifalla: Who’s, who, where, when, how, why…
Game on.
Porq. Ave. Si podemo. On the milk diet. Sería.
In class exercise 2.
Interpersonal (propositions [statements, questions] and proposals [commands]); mood.
___Residue__ / ____Mood___ / _______Residue________

Quite recently the Norwegians were whaling off Greenland
Adj. Subject Finite / Pred. Adj.
Types of “IT”
Dummy it / Empty it
1. It’s two o’clock (time)
2. It’s cold (weather)
3. It’s six hundred kilometres from Madrid to Barcelona (distance)
● Non-referential, semantically empty, use of pronoun it
● It occurs in expressions of time, weather, distance
Syntactically, English requires the presence of a subject even in such situations, in order to
distinguish between declaratives and interrogatives: Is it raining? How far is it from here to
Barcelona?
There is no plural concord with a NG complement, as would occur in Spanish counterparts,
for example: Son las tres. Son inseiscientos kilómetros a Barcelona.
Extraposed subjects frequently occur as the complement of a noun or adjective in SPCs

structures, as in the following illustrations:
It’s easy to forget your keys. (To forget your keys is easy)
It’s a pity (that) you are leaving the firm. (That you are leaving the firm is a pity)
It is time he stopped fooling around.
Certain types of long subject clauses are usually avoided in English because they violate the
end-weight principle, and sound awkward (see p. 47). Finite that-clauses, wh-nominal
clauses and to-infinitive clauses can all be shifted to the end of the sentence and replaced by
‘anticipatory it’ in subject position. The resulting structure is called extraposition.
Anticipatory it
Anticipatory it + extraposed subject – It was silly to say that
Subjects such as that he failed to pass the driving test and “for everyone to escape was
impossible” (“for everyone” is the subject of the “to + infinitive”, because if we turn it to a
Dependent Finite Clause, we get “That everyone scaped was impossible”) sound awkward
and top-heavy, especially in spoken English. The derived structure with ‘anticipatory it’ is
now generally preferred, as it is much easier to encode and the pronoun it is the ‘lightest’
possible subject filler:
It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test.
It was impossible for everyone to escape.
Ant. it. P Cs S
In-class examples:
Having you with us has been a PLEASURE: “Having you with us” is a dependent non-finite
clause.
Seeing all the family again was NICE: “Seeing all the family again” is a dependent non-finite
clause.
If we use the anticipatory It:
It has been a PLEASURE having you with us
It was NICE seeing all the family again
Clause as Subject Extraposed clause
That the banks are closed on It’s a nuisance that the banks are
closed on Saturday is a nuisance. Saturday.
What they are proposing to do is It’s horrifying what they are proposing
horrifying. to do.
To interfere would be unwise. It would be unwise to interfere.
In-class example:
I find that she left strange -> I find it strange / I find something strange
S P Od Co
In-class activity:
Difference between Adverbials: adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts:
1) He was chairman of the English Tourist Board for five years.
2) First, we booked the seats, then we went for dinner, and after that we took a taxi to
the theatre.
3) The soldier allegedly crawled under the barbed wire / to reach the arms depot (Si
podemos unirlo con “in order to” es un adjunct).
4) Hopefully, student admissions will continue to rise (“continue to rise” as a whole bc
“continue” is intransitive).
5) Shaped like a spiral staircase, the “double helix” of DNA continues [transitive] to
transform our understanding of the story of life. Al ser transitive, lo que le sigue no es
adverbial, no es optional; es Od.
Classification of verbs
1. Intransitive verbs
S - P (disappear)
2. Copular verbs (require a Subject Complement)

She went pale (Cs) / She went to work (A)
He drives me (Od) mad (Co) / He drives me (Od) to the airport (A)
3. Transitive verbs (Needs one or more object)

SP - O (read)
S - P - Op (congratulate on)
S - P - Oi - Od (give)
S - P - Oi - Op (Give something to someone)
S - P - Od - Co (names in one of its uses
a. Monotransitive verbs
b. Ditransitive verbs
c. Complex-transitive verbs
i. Identifying the Od
ii. Circumstance as Co: PP, as + NG, as + Adj G
iii. Situations as Co: to -inf; bare inf; -ing; -en
iv. Ej. K
1. to -inf: Mental process verbs → assume, believe, consider, feel,
understand, imagine, know
2. Bare infitives: Verbs of perception → See, feel, hear, notice,
watch…
3. c. -ing: Verbs of perception → See, hear, notice, smell ... Verbs
of finding and leaving → catch, discover, find, leave, come
across…
4. -en → See
4. Locative verbs (Element (3) requires a few transitives)
a. Put the book on the table
b. Place the dish in the microwave
No complement patterns with INTRANSITIVE VERBS (SP)

1 complement pattern with COPULAR VERBS (SP Cs)
1 complement pattern with MONOTRANSITIVE VERBS (SP, Od & SP Op)
2 complement pattern with COMPLEX – TRANSITIVE VERBS (SP Od Co)
COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS (P P Od Co)
Home Activity
a. Jupiter is the largest planet.
b. The election campaign has ended.
c. Ted has bought a new motorbike.
d. They sent their friends postcards.
e. You must allow for price increases.
f. He ispowerless to make any changes.
g. We consider the situation alarming.
h. We flew to Moscow.
i. The news reached us on Tuesday.
j. Unfortunately, we could not reach York in time.
k. However, other friends were present.
1. No complement patterns with intransitive VERBS

SP
V only (‘pure’ intransitive) → The post (S) has arrived (P)
V + implied object → That dog (S) bites (P)
V (Reciprocal meaning) → They (S) met (P) at a party
V + Obligatory locative → She (S) lives (P) in Tokyo
2. One-complement patterns with COPULAR VERB

S P Cs
V + AdjG → The game (S) is (P) very simple (Cs)
V + NG→ The road (S) is (P) the M40 (Cs)
3. One-complement patterns with MONOTRANSITIVE VERBS:

S P Od/ S P Op
V + NG → That dog (S) bit (P) me (Od)
V + prep + NG → I’ll (S) see (P) to my sandwiches (Op)
● Phrasal verbs → V + particle (We can put a pronoun as in ‘pick it up’ → phrasal
verb)
○ Example: She (S) picked up (P) the book (Od)
○ Look after the man → no es phrasal → we cannot add ‘it’
4. Two complement patterns with DITRANSITIVE VERBS
S P Oi Od
V + NG NG → I (S) gave (P) Jo (Oi) a copy (Od)
V + NG + prep + NG → We reminded her of the time
Finite clause
V + NG + that-clause → He assured her that he cared
V + NG + wh-interrogative clause → She asked me where the library was
V + NG + nom wh clause → He told me what I needed to know
Non-finite clause
V + NG + to –inf clause → She told us to sit down
Two complement patterns

S P Oi Od
Two passives, both share the potential of becoming S in an alternative passive clause
S P Od Op
S V Od Co
Requires two complements. Ejer V
Non-finite to-infinitive clause:

Without Dep. Cl. Subject → He (S) wants (P) to stay (Od)
With Dep. Cl. Subject → He (S) wants (P) us all (S) to stay (P) → If we turn it into a that
clause “He (S) wants (P) that we all (S) stay (P)”
S P Od Op
This sunblock Will protect Your skin From the sun’s rays
They robbed her Of her watch and

jewels
They
Difference between Op and A (PP):

I’ll call on (Multi-word verb) Dr. James (Op) / I (S) ’ll call (P) on Friday (A)
They looked into (Multi-word verb) the matter (Op) / They (S) looked (P) into the cave (A)
Tree diagrams
1. The doctor knows what you mean
2. I gave the book to the woman whose sister is my friend
3. He saved every dollar he could because he wanted to put is son through college
REVIEW: Analysing sentences: Identify verbs. Look for clauses to know the type of
sentence.
1. Processes: Coordination / Subordination
2. Types of sentences: Independent / Dependent
● Independent: A complete sentence; it can stand alone.
● Dependent: Part of a sentence; it cannot stand alone.
2.1. Dependent / Embedded clauses
● Dependent: It can’t stand alone; it can be suppressed and moved
around.
● Embedded: It can’t stand alone; CONSTITUENTS within another
structure.
(Group: q, c/ Sentence: S, O, C, A);
It cannot be suppressed/moved around as the clause would be incomplete.
3. Difference between
3.1. Finite clauses/Non finite clauses
3.2. Verbless Clauses (without 1 or more structural elements, verb and often subject) /
Abbreviated clauses (independent ellipted clauses because it is known).
a) Independent clauses
S P A V Od Conj P A
|She got dressed quickly,| had breakfast |and| went out to work|
All of them are independent sentences and the subject is omitted. The conjunction in this case
is for linking units of the same level. It coordinates sentences.
● Complete in itself, it does not form part of a large structure.
● Basic constituents: Subject and predicate.
● All grammatically independent sentences are finite: I have a dog
● Only dependent clauses have the variations in clause structure that make for the
different types:
1. Declarative
2. Interrogative
3. Exclamative
4. Imperative
b) Dependent Clauses
I will take a holiday when the course is over and if I pass the exam also provided I can afford
it.
She got dressed quickly // had breakfast and // went out to work → all independent sentences
I will take a holiday when the course is over and if I pass the exam and also provided I can
afford it → we have three different dependent clauses coordinated. Finite clauses
● The clause can’t stand independently by itself and become a complete sentence.
● It’s dependent upon another clause
Finite and Non Finite clause

Finite Clause:
● Clause that contains a finite verb.
● A verb that can occur on its own in a main clause and that can formally express
distinctions in person, number, tense, mood and voice.
Non – Finite clause:
● Clause that lacks a finite verb a verb having neither person, nor number or mood.
Types of non finite dependent clause

● The infinitive (inf) (be, eat, lock, go) sometimes called the “bare” inf;
● To – infinitive (to-inf)
● The participial -ing (form + ing) (being, eating, locking, going)
● The past participial form, symbolised in this book as -en (been, eaten, locked, gone)
Compound Sentence: Sentences involving coordination

Two or more clauses of EQUAL STATUS:
● Coordinated (syndetic)
● In appositional relationship (or asyndetic)
Coordinating conjunctions:
FANBOYS → For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.
Examples:
● He’s seventy-two, yet he stills swims, runs and plays football regularly → “Yet”
divides the two sentences, but “and” does not work as a coordinating conjunction that
separates sentences, “swims, runs and plays” is a verbal group (predicator).
● She must have been very hungry, for she ate everything immediately → “For” is used
as a coordinating conjunction introducing subordinate clauses.
Sentence types:
1. Simple: Mary has a guitar

2. Compound: Mary has a guitar and her friend gives her lessons
3. Complex: Mary has a guitar because she dislikes the piano
4. Compound complex: Mary has a guitar and her friend
Unit 3: The Clause

Types of relationships between clauses. Syntactic / Semantic relationships
Example: Sherlock saw the man with the binoculars → 2 different meanings:
1. S [(Sherlock)] P [p (saw) Od (the man with the binoculars)]
2. S [(Sherlock)] P [p (saw) Od (the man) A (with the binoculars)]
The systems of clause complexing:

1. Syntactic relationships
a. Taxis:
i. Parataxis: Equal status (relation between two elements of equal status,
one initiating and the other continuing)
1. Coordination1 and apposition2 (John run away, and, Fred
stayed behind)
ii. Hypotaxis: Unequal status (relation between a dependent clause and
its dominant).
1. Hypotatic and subordination ((John run away, whereas3 Fred
stayed behind)
1
Equal status (I don’t like it and I don’t want it); A repeated part may be ellipted (It’s a fine piece of
furniture but [it is] too large for this room); Explicit use of coordinators, but when listing a series of
elements (Peter was reading a book, Mary watched TV and James studied Maths; In short conjoined
sentences the coordinator can be replaced by a comma (This one’s yours, that one’s mine)
2
Relation of equivalence but no explicit formal link is present; to give further information. (It must be
genuine, it has the hallmark [Appositive clause] / Tom is an astrophysicist, he works at the CERN in
Genova [Appositive clause] ≠ Tom is an astrophysicist and he works at the CERN in Genova
[Coordinated clauses])
3
Introducing dependent finite clause
2. Logico-Semantic relationships: Contents / Information of the two sentences are
equally important, relevant to each other. For instance “You can keep it or you can
give it away”.
Relations:
1. Expansion: One clause expands the meaning of another in some way by, for
instance:
a. Elaboration: Clarifying or exemplifying.
i. Paratactic: Coordination or apposition “John didn’t wait; he
ran away” Apposition.
ii. Hypotactic: Dependency “John ran away, which surprised
everyone”.
b. Extension: Adding or contrasting some new features.
i. Paratactic: Coordination or apposition “John ran away and
Fred stayed behind” Coordination.
ii. Hypotactic: Dependency “John ran away, whereas Fred stayed
behind”.
c. Enhancement: Providing circumstantial information (time, cause,
condition)
i. Paratactic: Coordination or apposition “John was scared, so he
ran away” Coordination.
ii. Hypotactic: Dependency “John ran away because he was
scared”.
2. Projection: The mental clause projects another clause or set of clauses, giving
them the status of ideas or of the content of consciousness. Common in casual
conversation.
Cuando no hay Finite en la frase, el verbo es F/P
Diferencia entre MA (not, ‘nt, modals, -ly) y A

8. The budget-minded visitors the airlines bring are not necessarily | attracted by Prague’s
S F MA MA P C
History.
● MA porque está entre el finite y el verbo
24. You have | worked determinedly to achieve what is now coming your way.
S F P A C
● A porque no está entre el finite y el verbo.
Exclamations
M R
What tremendously easy riddles | you ask
Od S F/P
M R
What a fool| he is
Cs S F

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Apuntes-sintaxis-II.

Sintaxis de la lengua inglesa II

3º Grado en Estudios Ingleses

Facultad de Filosofía y Letras

Reservados todos los derechos.

Basic theoretical notions: M. A. K. Halliday

Modifier Head Qualifier

Cualifalla: Who’s, who, where, when, how, why…

Porq. Ave. Si podemo. On the milk diet. Sería.

___Residue__ / ____Mood___ / _______Residue________

Extraposed subjects frequently occur as the complement of a noun or adjective in SPCs

Clause as Subject Extraposed clause

2. Copular verbs (require a Subject Complement)

3. Transitive verbs (Needs one or more object)

4. Locative verbs (Element (3) requires a few transitives)

No complement patterns with INTRANSITIVE VERBS (SP)

1. No complement patterns with intransitive VERBS

2. One-complement patterns with COPULAR VERB

3. One-complement patterns with MONOTRANSITIVE VERBS:

Two complement patterns

Non-finite to-infinitive clause:

They robbed her Of her watch and

Difference between Op and A (PP):

2. I gave the book to the woman whose sister is my friend

Finite and Non Finite clause

Types of non finite dependent clause

Compound Sentence: Sentences involving coordination

1. Simple: Mary has a guitar

Unit 3: The Clause

The systems of clause complexing:

Cuando no hay Finite en la frase, el verbo es F/P

Diferencia entre MA (not, ‘nt, modals, -ly) y A

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_Residue / __Mood_ / _Residue__