Chapter 1

Introduction to
Machinery Principles
 Text book and supplementary
materials of this course
• Stephen J. Chapman
• 5th edition (Feb. 18, 2011)
 Reference book

• A. E. Fitzgerald, Electric
Machinery, McGraw-Hill , 6th
edition (July 25, 2002)
Electric Machinery Principles

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 Energy types and conversions
Energy is the ability to do work or cause a change. There are
many types of energy, including:

Thermal energy - the energy of heat, which can be converted

into mechanical energy or electrical energy through
processes such as combustion, nuclear reactions, or
thermoelectric conversion.

Electrical energy - the energy of moving electrons, which can

be generated through processes such as electromechanical
conversion or photoelectric conversion.

Chemical energy - the energy stored in chemical bonds,

which can be released through processes such as
combustion or cellular respiration.
 Energy types and conversions

Light energy - the energy of electromagnetic waves,

which can be converted into electrical energy through
processes such as photovoltaic conversion.

Energy can be converted from one form to another

through various processes. Some examples of energy
conversions are:

Thermal to mechanical - in a steam engine, thermal

energy from the combustion of fuel is used to produce
steam, which drives a piston to produce mechanical
energy.
 Energy types and conversions

Electrical to thermal - in an electric heater, electrical energy is

converted into thermal energy through the resistance of a
wire.

Chemical to electrical - in a battery, chemical energy is

converted into electrical energy through a redox reaction.

Nuclear to thermal - in a nuclear power plant, nuclear energy

is converted into thermal energy through nuclear fission,
which is then used to produce steam and generate
electricity.
 Energy types and conversions
Mechanical to electrical - in a generator, mechanical
energy from a turbine is used to turn a rotor in a
magnetic field, generating electrical energy.

Light to electrical - in a solar cell, light energy is

converted into electrical energy through the
photoelectric effect.

Energy conservation is important to reduce the

environmental impact of energy use and to ensure a
sustainable future.
It is also important to consider the efficiency of energy
conversions, as some forms of energy conversion may
result in significant losses of energy.
Introduction to Electric
Machinery Fundamentals

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Introduction to Electric
Machinery Fundamentals

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What to learn in this course
• Energy Conversion schemes are the key
ideas introduced in this course
• Which types of energy conversion are
concerned?
• Electric energy to electric energy
– Transformer
• Electric energy to mechanical energy
– Motor
• Mechanical energy to electric energy
– Generator
• Magnetic energy is essential !
 Course Outlines - Overview of
relative electromagnetic theories
• Magnetic field: Ampere’s law
• Magnetic flux: magnetic material, hysteresis characteristics
• Transformer: Faraday’s law, Len’s law

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Course Outlines - Overview of
Relative Electromagnetic Theories

• Magnetic circuit:
• Motor/generator: Induced voltage, induced force

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Course Outlines - Transformer
• Ideal/non-ideal transformer
• Equivalent transformer circuit
• Voltage regulation, efficiency
• Determining transformer parameters
– Open-circuit test
– Short-circuit test

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Course Outlines - Basic electric
machine (motor/generator) theories
• AC machine
– induction machine
– synchronous machine
• DC machine
– separated excited,
– shunt excited,
– series excited,
– compound excited
• How the motor rotates
– Torque/speed
• How the generator to build output voltage
– Voltage/current

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Course Outline - Induction
(Asynchronous) Machine
• Induction motor (IM) – the most widely used ac
motor in the world
– Structure and operation theories of IM
– Equivalent circuit of IM
– Torque/speed characteristics
– Basic motor control
• Induction generator (seldom used)
– Output voltage control
– Voltage/current characteristics

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Course Outline - Synchronous
machine
• Synchronous generator (SG) – the most widely used
generator in the world
– Structure and operation theories of SG
– Equivalent circuit of SG
– Voltage/current characteristics
– Parallel operation
• Synchronous motor
– Operation principles
– Starting of synchronous motor
– Torque/speed characteristics

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 History of Electric Machinery

DC generator, driven Thomas A. Edison opens

1882
by steam engines Pearl St. Station, NYC

Waterwheel-driven DC
generator installed in
Appleton, Wisconsin
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 History of Electric Machinery

Frank J. Sprague
1884 produces DC motor for
Edison systems

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 History of Electric Machinery

William Stanley
1885 develops commercially
practical transformer

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 History of Electric Machinery

Nikola Tesla presents

paper on two-phase ac
induction and
1888
synchronous motors

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 History of Electric Machinery
The history of electrical machines dates back to the early 19th century
when scientists began to experiment with the principles of
electromagnetism.

In 1821, Michael Faraday discovered that electric current could

produce a magnetic field, and in 1824 he invented the first electric
motor, which consisted of a wire hanging from a battery that could
rotate around a magnet.

In the following years, other scientists and inventors made important

contributions to the development of electrical machines.

In 1831, Joseph Henry built the first practical electromagnetic

generator, which could produce an electric current from a rotating
magnet.

In 1832, Hippolyte Pixii built the first alternating current (AC)

generator, which used a commutator to convert the output of a
rotating magnet into a pulsating DC current.
 History of Electric Machinery
In the late 19th century, Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse
made significant contributions to the development of AC power
systems.
Tesla invented the induction motor, which could operate on AC
power, and Westinghouse built the first AC power system, which
used transformers to distribute power over long distances.

During the 20th century, electrical machines became more

sophisticated and efficient, thanks to advances in materials,
manufacturing techniques, and control systems.

In the early years of the century, the DC motor was the dominant
type of electrical machine, but by the mid-20th century, AC motors
had become more common, especially for industrial applications.

Today, electrical machines are used in a wide range of applications,

from small appliances to large industrial machinery, and continue to
evolve as new technologies emerge, such as electric vehicles and
renewable energy systems.
 Today’s development

• DC Machine
– Motor
– Generator
• Transformer
– Single phase
– Three phases
• AC Machine
– Synchronous machine – motor, generator
– Asynchronous machine (induction machine) – motor,
generator

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Today’s development and
future trends
• Micro-step stepping motor
• Permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM)
– Brushless dc motor (BLDCM)
• Linear motor
• Reluctance motor
– Synchronous reluctance
– Switched reluctance
• Ultrasonic motor
• Bionic robotics
• MEMS motor

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Course relation

• It is the fundamental course of the electrical

engineering
• Future courses
– Power electronics
– Motor control
– Electric motor drive
– Power systems
– Renewable energy
– Electrical vehicle

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Chapter 1. Introduction to
machinery principles
1. Rotation motion, Newton’s law and power
relationships
2. The magnetic field
3. Faraday’s law
4. Produce an induced force on a wire
5. Produce an induced voltage on a conductor
6. Linear dc machine examples
7. Real, reactive and apparatus power in AC circuits

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Rotation motion, Newton’s law
and power relationships

• Clockwise (CW) and Counterclockwise (CCW)

– CCW is assumed as the positive direction, CW is assumed
as the negative direction.
• Linear and rotation motion
– Position and angular
´ (meter) (degree or radian)
– Speed and angular speed

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Rotation motion, Newton’s
law and power relationships
– Revolution and frequency relationship

– Acceleration and angular acceleration

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Torque

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Torque

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Newton’s law of rotation

1. Force

2. Torque

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Torque and Work

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Power (rate of doing work)

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Relationships of linear Motion and Revolution
Conversion between watts
and horsepower
1. Watts and horsepower

2. Conversion between two units

´ 5252 / 7.04 = 746.02 W

𝒓𝒂𝒅
1. P(watts)= 𝝉 𝑵𝒎 𝝎( )
𝒔
´ 1hp = 746W = 0.746kW

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The magnetic field

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Producing a magnetic field
Ampere’s law

1. The magnetic field is produced by Ampere’s law

2. The core is a ferromagnetic material

= MMF / lc
 From the magnetic field to
magnetic flux density
1. When the magnetic field is applied on a ferromagnetic material,
the magnetic flux density B will be produced

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Magnetic flux density and
magnetic flux
1. Magnetic flux density

2. Magnetic flux

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Magnetic Circuit –
magnetomotive force

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Magnetic circuit

1. Magnetic circuit

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 Electric circuit and
magnetic circuit

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Reluctance in magnetic
circuit
1. Series connection

2. Parallel connection

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The errors in magnetic circuit
computation

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The errors in magnetic circuit
computation (computation errors)

´ 4. Air gap “fringing effect”

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Example 1-1

Region 1

Region 2

7.5

7.5

42.5

Fig. 1-7a
(MMF)
MATLAB scripts

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Example 1-2
Solution

Ac=0.0012 m2
Rc=66,315 A.turns/Wb
Solution

Req=382,315A.turns/Wb
Solution

i=0.6037A
Example 1-3

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Solution 1-13

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Solution 1-13
Solution 1-13

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Magnetic behavior of
ferromagnetic material - Saturation
Magnetic curve for a typical steel

not linear

10.
A plot of relative permeability µr

not linear
Example 1-5
Solution 1-15
Energy loss in ferromagnetic core – hysteresis loss

During the cycle of magnetization and demagnetization of magnetic

substances, energy is spent and this is spent energy appears in the
form of heat. This heat loss is known as hysteresis loss.
https://byjus.com/jee/hysteresis/
Hysteresis loop – residual flux
The effect of magnetomotive force on
the hysteresis loop

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 Magnetization curve

Several applications of hysteresis are found in ferromagnets.

It is mostly used to retain a memory, for example, hard disks,
magnetic tape, and credit cards.
Hysteresis loss
Hysteresis loss
Unit conversions

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Faraday’s law – induce voltage from a
time-varying magnetic field

1. Induced voltage magnitude and polarity

(emf)
 Lenz’s law (electromotive force (emf) and magnetic flux)

When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according

to Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it
produces a current whose magnetic field opposes the change which
produces it. The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire
always acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the
examples below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field acts in
opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the induced field acts in the
direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.
The induced voltage
polarity – Lenz’s law

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Flux and flux linkage

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Example 1-6

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Example 1-6

Fig. 1-15
Example 1-6
 Producing induced force on a wire

The induced
Electricforce
Machineryon a wire by a current in the presence of a magnetic field

is the basis of motor action.

Example 1-7

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 Relationship between electric-magnetic
variables

• Magnetic field: Ampere’s law

• Magnetic flux: magnetic material, hysteresis characteristics
• Transformer: Faraday’s law, Len’s law
 Induced voltage on a conductor
moving in a magnetic field

The direction of the induced voltage is given by the right-hand rule.

 Example 1-8

Fig 1.17 A conductor in the presence of a magnetic field

 Example 1-9

Fig 1.18 A conductor in the presence of a magnetic field

The linear DC machine - a simple example

Assume
• Uniform and constant magnetic field
• Frictionless tracks
• A bar lying across the tracks
• Battery
• Switch
 The linear DC machine

• The simplest and easiest to understand version of a DC

machine
• It works on the same principles and exhibits the same
behavior as real generators and motors.
• Therefore, it serves as a good starting point in the study of
machines.
Determining the behavior of the machine with four basic equations
The linear DC machine

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Starting a linear DC machine (No load)

1. Current =>

2. Induced force =>

3. Induced voltage =>

 Starting a linear DC machine
• Eventually the bar will reach a constant steady-state speed
where the net force on the bar is zero.

• This occurs when 𝑒!"# rises until it equals the voltage 𝑉$ .

• At that time, the bar will be moving at a speed given by

• The bar will continue to slide along at this no-load speed

forever unless some external force disturbs it.

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Summarize of starting a dc machine

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DC linear machine operates at no-load condition

Velocity 𝑣(t) vs time

Velocity 𝑒!"# (t) vs time

Induced voltage

Current 𝑖(t) vs time

Induced force 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 (t) vs time

Fig. 1-21
Linear dc machine as a motor

• Applying the load (𝐹%&'# )

Fnet = Fload - Find

• The conversion of power between mechanical
and electrical
Summarize of a dc motor operation
Graphical plots for motor action

Speed 𝑣(t) vs time

Induced voltage 𝑒!"# (t) vs tim

Current 𝑖(t) vs time

Induced force 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 (t) vs time

Fig. 1-23
 Linear dc machine as a generator

• Applying an external force (𝐹!"" ) on the moving direction

•The conversion of mechanical power into

electrical
𝑃()*+ = 𝐹𝑣 = 𝑖𝑒,*-
Linear dc machine as a generator
´ With applying a force to the bar in the direction of motion,
the bar positively accelerates and the velocity v of the bar
increases.
´ As the velocity increases, will increase and will be
larger than the battery voltage 𝑉$ .
´ When 𝑒!"# > 𝑉$ , the current reverses direction and is now
given by the equation

, the current reverses

´ Since this current now flows up through the bar, it induces a

force in the bar given by
Summarize of a dc generator operation

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Graphical plots for generator action

V
B

The current reverses

F

At no load, F ind
motor action
Starting problems with dc linear machine
At starting conditions, the speed of the bar is zero, so 𝑒#$% = 0.

Thus, the current flow at starting is

Such currents can cause severe damage to a motor.

Starting problems with dc linear machine

Inserting an extra resistance into the circuit during starting to

limit the current flow until 𝑒#$% builds up enough to limit it.

Fig 1-26 A linear dc machine with an extra series resistor inserted

to control the starting current.
Example 1-10

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Example 1-10

Fig. 1-27 The linear dc machnine of Example 1-10, (a) Starting conditions;
(b) operating as a generator; (c) operating as a motor
Example 1-10
Example 1-10

generator action

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Example 1-10

motor action

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Example 1-10
Linear dc motor simulation

• Equations: (only magnitudes)

– F = ilB, l: bar length
– e = vBl
– i = (Vb-e) / R
– dv/dt = a = (F-Fload)/m
• Simulation parameters:
– Vb=120V, R=0.3W, l = 1m
– B=0.6T, m=0.1kg
– Fload=10(u-1)-20(u-2) N
Linear dc motor simulation

Find

F load

e=Blv, (Vb-e)/R=I, Bli=f, f-(fstep_t1- fstep_t2)/m=a, a/s=v

 v i

find
fload e
Real, reactive and apparent
power in AC circuits
Real, reactive and apparent
power in AC circuits

• AC source applies power to an impedance Z

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Instantaneous power
Instantaneous power
Average power and
reactive power

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Reactive power Q and apparent power S

1. Reactive power Q (var) is defined from instantaneous

power

2. Apparent power S (VA) is defined to represent the

product of voltage and current magnitudes

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Alternative Forms of the Power Equations
Power in AC circuit
i(t)=I(1/sqr(2))cos(wt-20)
Power in AC circuit
Complex power representation

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Complex power representation

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Power direction
Power factor
Example 1-11

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 Notes about total P, Q, and S

• First, the total apparent power, ST can be

determined from the total average PT and total
reactive powers QT and cannot be determined from
the apparent powers of each branch.
• Second, and more important, it is not necessary to
consider the series-parallel arrangement of
branches. In other words, the total real PT , total
reactive QT , or total apparent power ST is
independent of whether the loads are in series,
parallel, or series-parallel.

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 Example

1. Find the total real power PT, total reactive power QT,
and volt-amperes ST and draw the power triangle.
2. Find the power factor (PF)
3. Find the current in phasor form.
 Solution

1. Find total power

Load 1
S = P2 + Q2

P1 = 100 W; S1 = 100 + j 0
Q1 = 0 VAR = 100 VA
 Solution (cont’d)

Load 2
S = P2 + Q2

P2 = 200 W; S 2 = 200 + j 700

Q2 = 700 VAR = 728 VA
 Solution (cont’d)

Load 3
S = P2 + Q2
P3 = 300 W; S3 = 300 - j1500
Q3 = 1500 VAR = 1529.71 VA
 Solution (cont’d)

Total real power => PT = P1 + P2 + P3

= 100 + 200 + 300

PT = 600 W
 Solution (cont’d)

Total reactive power => QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

= 0 + 700 - 1500
= -800 VAR
QT = 800 VAR(C)
 Solution (cont’d)

2. The power factor (PF)

 Solution (cont’d)

3. The current

ST = 1000 VA
VI = 1000 VA
1000 VA
I=
100 V
I = 10 A

Since PF is leading, I leads E, predominantly capacitive circuit.

I = 10 A Ð + 53.13°
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