UNIT 4 WEATHER RELATED/

COASTAL HAZARDS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Tropical Cyclones: Hurricane, Typhoon and Cyclones
4.2.1 Classification of Cyclones
4.2.2 Formation of Cyclones

4.3 Thunderstorms
4.3.1 Formation of Thunderstorms

4.4 Tornadoes
4.4.1 Formation of Tornadoes
4.4.2 Tornadoes Destruction

4.5 Introduction to Coastal Hazards

4.6 Introductions to Tsunamis

4.7 El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

4.8 Let Us Sum Up

4.9 Key Words

4.10 References and Suggested Further Readings

4.11 Answers to Check your Progress

4.0 INTRODUCTION
The last few years have seen enormous damage and loss of life from weather
related disaster and hazards. A disaster or catastrophe is defined as ‘a situation
or event which overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request to a national
or international level for external assistance, an unforeseen and often sudden
event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering’. Nine out of
every 10 of these disasters are now climate related. High impact weather events
have drastic impacts on society, natural ecosystems and leads great economical
and personal damage. Extreme events are of both natural and anthropogenic
origin and are of widespread concern mainly because of their damaging
consequences. The most damaging weather related hazards or disaster includes
tropical cyclones or hurricanes, thunderstorm, tornadoes, coastal storms,
tsunami, ElNino, floods etc. This unit will describe tropical cyclones also
popularly known as hurricanes or typhoons, thunderstorm, tornadoes, coastal
storms, tsunami, and global warming.
65
Natural Hazards
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 describe tropical cyclones (Hurricane, Typhoon and Cyclones) and the
process of their formation;
 explain the characteristics and the process of formation of thunderstorm;
 describe the process of formation of tornadoes and destruction caused by
them; and
 explain Tsunami and El Nino.

4.2 TROPICAL CYCLONES: HURRICANE,

TYPHOON AND CYCLONES
Tropical region is considered as the region between the Tropic of Cancer (230
North) and the Tropic of the Capricorn (230 South) of the earth. The weather
characterized in this region is called tropical weather and Tropical cyclones
(TC) are one of the most important tropical weather system and among the
most devastating of all natural hazards. Tropical cyclones are capable of
producing very strong winds, particularly near its centre, torrential rainfall and
associated storm surge. Globally, tropical cyclones rank with floods as the
most lethal geophysical hazards. Tropical Cyclone can also be very destructive,
often causing severe and widespread damage to coastal communities,
infrastructure and ecosystems.
Technically, a tropical cyclone is a cyclone that originates over tropical oceans
and is driven principally by heat transfer from the ocean. Intense synoptic
scale cyclones in the tropics are called tropical cyclones. As for all cyclones,
tropical cyclones have low pressure in the cyclone centre near sea level. Also,
the low altitude winds rotate cyclonically (counter clockwise in the N.
Hemisphere) around the storm and spiral in towards the centre. Tropical
cyclones are called hurricanes over the Atlantic, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico
and eastern Pacific Oceans. They are called typhoons over the western Pacific.
Over the Indian Ocean and near Australia they are called cyclones. Hurricanes
differ from mid latitude cyclones in that hurricanes do not have fronts.
Hurricanes have warm cores while mid latitude cyclones have cold cores.
Hurricanes can persist two to three times longer than typical mid latitude
cyclones.
At maturity, the tropical cyclone is one of the most intense and feared storms
of the world; winds exceeding 90 ms-1 (175 knots) have been measured, and
its rains are torrential. Tropical cyclones are initiated by a large variety of
disturbances, including easterly waves and monsoon troughs. Once formed,
they are maintained by the extraction of heat from the ocean at high temperature
and heat export at the low temperatures of the tropical upper troposphere.
After formation, tropical cyclones usually move to the west and generally
slightly pole ward, then may “recurve,” that is, move into the mid latitude
westerlies and back toward the east. Not all tropical cyclones recurve. Many
dissipate after entering a continent in the Tropics, and a smaller number die
over the tropical oceans.
66
4.2.1 Classification of Cyclones Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
Cyclones are classified as tropical or extra-tropical based on their place of
origin and the temperature of their centre or core region.
1. Tropical Cyclones (TCs) derive their energy from latent heat acquired
from evaporation of water at the ocean surface that is subsequently released
upon condensation at greater heights. Earth’s rotation drives cyclonic winds
at low levels in the atmosphere toward the resulting low pressure (the
eye). Although other factors are involved, the three primary conditions
for TC formation are:
 sufficiently high (>26 °C) sea surface temperatures (SSTs);
 sufficiently low vertical wind shear (change in wind velocity with
height);
 sufficiently high contribution from Earth’s rotation (formation >5
degrees N and S).
2. Extratropical Cyclones (ETCs) unlike tropical cyclones derive much of
their energy from the ambient horizontal temperature (and associated
density) difference (gradient) in the atmosphere. This gradient represents
a pool of potential energy that a developing storm can convert to rotational
wind, or kinetic, energy. As colder, denser air wedges itself under the
warmer air, the center of gravity is lowered and the resulting reduction in
potential energy is manifested as kinetic energy by the developing cyclone.
The density difference across the temperature front is supported by vertical
wind shear or increasing westerly wind speed with height in the mid
latitudes.
3. Subtropical Cyclone (STCs) are a non frontal low pressure system that
has characteristics of both tropical and extratropical cyclones. Like tropical
cyclones, they are non frontal, synoptic scale cyclones that originate over
tropical or subtropical waters, and have a closed surface wind circulation
about a well-defined center. In addition, they have organized moderate to
deep convection, but lack a central dense overcast. Unlike tropical
cyclones, subtropical cyclones derive a significant proportion of their
energy from baroclinic sources, and are generally cold-core in the upper
troposphere, often being associated with an upper level low or trough. In
comparison to tropical cyclones, these systems generally have a radius of
maximum winds occurring relatively far from the center (usually greater
than 60 nm), and generally have a less symmetric wind field and
distribution of convection.
Although cyclone is the general meteorological term applied to a large low-
pressure system with winds circulating inward toward its center, various terms
are used to describe these systems in different parts of the world.
The terminology for strong tropical cyclones:
Hurricane, Typhoon and Cyclones are different terms used for tropical cyclones.
The term Hurricane is used in the western North Atlantic, Central and Eastern
North Pacific, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico and the term Typhoon are
used in the Western North Pacific in the Indian Ocean and Western South
Pacific, tropical cyclones are called Cyclones. In the case of tropical cyclones, 67
Natural Hazards when the maximum sustained wind near the centre exceeds 119 km/h, they are
called “severe cyclonic storm” in the North Indian Ocean. The possibility for
the formation of tropical cyclones in the South Atlantic Ocean and the South
Atlantic Ocean and the South Eastern Pacific is very low due to the cooler sea
surface temperature and higher vertical wind shear. TC’s develop at latitudes
usually greater than 05O from the equator and they reach their highest intensity
while they are located over warm tropical waters.
 In the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans, these storms are called
hurricanes after a Caribbean word for an evil god of winds and destruction.
 In the Pacific Ocean west of the International Dateline (180o longitude)
and north of the equator, the storms are called typhoons after a Chinese
word for “scary wind” or “wind from four directions”.
 Hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean south of the equator and Indian Ocean
are referred to using some variation of cyclone, a term coined from the
Greek word meaning “coil of a snake”.
Table 4.1: Classification of Cyclones/Hurricanes/Typhoons Based on
Geographic Location
Hurricane North Atlantic Ocean the northeast Pacific Ocean
east of the dateline, or the South Pacific east of
160E
Typhoon Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline
Severe Tropical Cyclone Southwest Pacific Ocean west of 160E or
southeast Indian Ocean east of 90E
Severe Cyclone North Indian Ocean
Tropical Cyclone Southwest Indian Ocean
The oceanic basins where tropical cyclones form on regular basis are:
1. Atlantic basin (including the North Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico,
and the Caribbean Seal.
2. Northeast Pacific basin (from Mexico to about the dateline)
3. Northwest Pacific basin (from the dateline to Asia including the South
China Sea)
4. North Indian basin (including the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea)
5. Southwest Indian basin (from Africa to about 100 E)
6. Southeast Indian/Australian basin (100 E to 142 E)
7. Australian/Southwest Pacific basin (142 E to about 120 W)
Naming Cyclones
Only a small percentage of all cyclones are given names, either to identify
where they form or to track their movement. Extratropical cyclones, especially
those that become snowstorm, are sometimes named for the geographic area
where they form (e.g., Alberta Clipper). In contrast, all tropical depressions
68 that develop into tropical storms and hurricanes are given individual names by
government forecasting centers. These names are established by international Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
agreement through the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). An official
name is assigned once the maximum sustained winds of a tropical depression
exceed 63 km (~39 mi.) per hour and it becomes a tropical storm. Names are
assigned sequentially each year from a previously agreed upon list for the region
in which the storm forms. For example, in the Atlantic Ocean the first three
names for 2014 are Arthur, Bertha, and Cristobal; for 2015 they are Ana, Bill,
and Claudette, and for 2016 Alex, Bonnie, and Colin. Naming tropical storms
and hurricanes helps forecasters keep track of multiple storms moving across
the ocean at the same time.
A Tropical Cyclone has different names throughout its average 12 day life
cycle, depending on the wind speed.
Tropical Disturbance - A slight rotary circulation with no strong winds. A
common occurrence in the tropics. There are several different types of Tropical
Disturbances: an easterly wave, a West African Disturbance Line (WADL), a
disturbance in the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a trough or cold
Low in the upper troposphere, or an old polar front.
Tropical Depression - A rotary counterclockwise circulation with the highest
sustained wind of 39 miles per hour. It is at this point the hurricane people
recognize it as a possible threat and give it a strange name like TD4 (Tropical
Depression number four).
Tropical Storm - A distinct rotary counterclockwise circulation with sustained
wind of 39 miles per hour to 73 miles per hour. Now the Hurricane Center in
Miami, FL, gives it a real name, like TROPICAL STORM EMILY. The eye
becomes visible.
Hurricane - Strong, very pronounced counterclockwise rotary circulation with
winds of 74 miles per hour and higher. The eye is very pronounced.
Table 4.2 gives the criteria followed by Meteorological Department of India
(IMD) to classify the low pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal and in the
Arabian Sea as adopted by World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) are as
under:
Table 4.2: Classification of low pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal
and in the Arabian Sea
Type of Disturbances Associated Wind Speed in the
Circulation
Low pressure Area Less than17 knots (<31 kmph)
Depression 17 to 27 knots (31 to 49 kmph)
Deep Depression 28 to 33 knots (50 to 61 kmph)
Cyclonic Storm 34 to 47 knots (62 to 88 kmph)
Severe Cyclonic Storm 48 to 63 knots (89 to 118 kmph)
Very Severe Cyclonic Storm 64 to 119 knots (119 to 221 kmph)
Super Cyclonic Storm 120 knots and above (222 kmph and above)
69
Natural Hazards 4.2.2 Formation of Cyclones
A major contributing factor for the formation of tropical cyclones is the sea-
surface temperature. Higher loads of solar radiation over the region during the
period feeds sensible heat required to maintain the ocean temperature of over
26.27o which is a critical requirement for cyclogenesis. Sensible heat maintains
the vertical coupling between the lower and upper tropospheric flow pattern in
the cyclone. The cumulus convection acts as prime mechanism for vertical
coupling. The absence of sensible heat leads to the degeneration of cyclone.

At the initial stage, a cyclone is usually a major cloud cluster with rainy weather.
Once they develop into a depression, they become almost circular in shape. A
well-developed cyclone consists of eye, eye wall and Spiral Bands (Feeder
Bands). The centre or eye of a tropical cyclone is at the area of lowest pressure
and is characterized by little or no wind and often a cloudless sky. In severe
cyclones the eye usually shows up a as a circular hole in the central cloud
mass. The eye is usually about 40 km in diameter, but can vary between less
than 10 km and more than 100 km. Surrounding the eye is a wall of dense
convective cloud rising about 15-17 km into the atmosphere. This is the eye
wall and is where the most violent winds and heaviest rainfall occur. Spiral
Bands (Feeder Bands) often extend up to 1,000 km from the cyclone centre,
and contain heavy rain and strong winds. Distinctive pattern of convective
cloud bands are spiraling into the eye

What is a hurricane?

A hurricane is a type of tropical cyclone, which is a generic term for a low

pressure system that generally forms in the tropics. Hurricane is a system of
spiraling winds converging with increasing speed toward the storm’s center
(the eye of the hurricane). cyclone is accompanied by thunderstorms and, in
the Northern Hemisphere, a counter clockwise circulation of winds near the
earth’s surface. All Hurricanes are dangerous, but some are more so than others.
The way storm surge, wind and other factors combine determines the hurricanes
destructive power. Hurricanes develop under a specific suite of conditions
including warm surface waters, cyclonic circulation, and divergent flow in the
upper troposphere.

Hurricanes are classified by their wind speed on a damage-potential scale

developed by Herbert Saffir, a consulting engineer, and Robert Simpson, a
National Weather Service (NWS) meteorologist, in the 1970s (Table 4.2).
The scale was formulated in 1969 by Herbert Saffir, a consulting engineer, and
Dr. Bob Simpson, director of the National Hurricane Center. To make
comparisons easier and to make the predicted hazards of approaching hurricanes
clearer to emergency managers, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration’s hurricane forecasters use a disaster potential scale which
assigns storms to five categories. This can be used to give an estimate of the
potential property damage and flooding expected along the coast with a
hurricane.

70
 Table 4.3: Saffir, and Simpson Scale for Hurricanes Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
CATEGORY WINDS STORM EFFECTS
SURGE

One 74-95 mph 4-5 ft No real damage to building

structures. Damage primarily to
unanchored mobile homes,
shrubbery, and trees. Also, some
coastal road flooding and minor pier
damage

Two 96-110 mph 6-8 ft Some roofing material, door, and

window damage to buildings.
Considerable damage to vegetation,
mobile homes, and piers. Coastal and
low-lying escape routes flood 2-4
hours before arrival of center. Small
craft in unprotected anchorages
break moorings.

Three 111-130 9-12 ft. Some structural damage to

mph mall residences and utility buildings
with a minor amount of curtain wall
failures. Mobile homes are destroyed.
Flooding near the coast destroys
smaller structures with larger
structures damaged by floating
debris. Terrain continuously lower
than 5 feet ASL may be flooded
inland 8 miles or more

Four 131-155 13-18 ft More extensive curtain wall

mph failures with some complete roof
structure failure on small residences.
Major erosion of beach. Major
damage to lower floors of structures
near the shore. Terrains continuously
lower than 10 feet ASL may be
flooded requiring massive evacuation
of residential areas inland as far as 6
miles.

Five greater than 18+ ft. Complete roof failure on

155 mph many residences and industrial
buildings. Some complete building
failures with small utility buildings
blown over or away. Major damage
to lower floors of all structures
located less than 15 feet ASL and
within 500 yards of the shoreline.
Massive evacuation of residential
areas on low ground within 5 to 10
miles of the shoreline may be
required.

Box 1 provides a list of few most disastrous hurricanes and the damage caused
by them. 71
Natural Hazards
Box 1: Few most disastrous Hurricanes
Katrina (2005) was the most costly hurricane on record causing an
estimated $108 billion in damage in Louisiana and Mississippi. It also
caused an estimated 1500 deaths.
Sandy (2012) was the second most costly hurricane on record causing
$71 billion in damage on the eastern seaboard of the USA.

Andrew (1992) was a Category 5 hurricane which hit south-east Florida

and south-east Louisiana causing $26.5 billion of damage
Cyclone Tracy (1974) was a small but intense cyclone which struck the
Australian city of Darwin destroying most of the city’s buildings and
causing many deaths.
The most deadly tropical cyclone ever recorded hit Bangladesh in 1970
killing approximately 300,000 people as a result of the storm surge.
Typhoon Haiyan (2013) was a category 5 typhoon with 1-minute average
winds of 195 m.p.h. It hit the central Philippines.
Patricia (2015) was a Category 5 hurricane in the eastern North Pacific
with 1-minute average winds of 215 m.p.h. and a central pressure of 872
mb. It was the strongest recorded tropical cyclone in the western
hemisphere.
Cyclone Pam (2015) was one of the most intense southern hemisphere
cyclones recorded with an estimated central pressure of 896 mb. It caused
much destruction and loss of life as it passed through the islands of Vanuatu
in the South Pacific.
Hurricane Harvey (2017) was the wettest hurricane to hit the USA with
an observing station in Texas recording over 64" (1640 mm) rain.
Typhoon Tip in the western North Pacific on 12 October 1979 was
measured to have a central pressure of 870 mb and estimated 1-minute
average winds of 190 m.p.h., making it the most intense tropical cyclone
on record as measured by central pressure.
Hurricane Wilma in 2005 was the most intense hurricane recorded in the
North Atlantic, with an estimated central pressure of 882 mb.
Source: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/tropicalcyclone/facts
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. How will you classify cyclones/hurricanes/typhoons Based on Geographic
Location?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
72 .............................................................................................................
2) What is a hurricane? Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

4.3 THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorms are a common feature of the Earth’s environment. There are
about 1800-2000 storms per hour or 44 000 per day. In tropical regions, they
occur daily in the wet season. However, in these regions thunderstorms may
not represent a hazard because they do not intensify. As thunderstorms represent
localized areas of instability, their intensity is dependent upon factors that
increase this instability. On a world scale, instability is usually defined by the
rate at which the base of the atmosphere is heated by incoming solar radiation,
especially where evaporation at the ground and condensation in the atmosphere
both occur. In this case, the saturated adiabatic lapse rate prevails. Under these
conditions, large quantities of heat energy (2400 joules gm-1 of liquid water
that condenses) are released into the atmosphere. This process causes convective
instability, which terminates only when the source of moisture is removed. On
a localized scale, the degree of instability is also dependent upon topography
and atmospheric conditions such as convergence. If air is forced over a hill,
then this may be the impetus required to initiate convective instability.
Convergence of air masses by topography, or by the spatial arrangement of
pressure patterns, can also initiate uplift. The most likely occurrence of
instability takes place along cold fronts, mainly the polar front where it intrudes
into moist tropical air.
Basic atmospheric conditions that are required to produce a thunderstorm:
Three basic atmospheric conditions that are required to produce a thunderstorm:
1. Warm humid air must be available in the lower atmosphere to feed clouds
and precipitation and provide energy to the storm as it develops.
2. A steep vertical temperature gradient must exist in the environment such
that the rising air is warmer than the air through which it is moving. This
gradient places colder air over warmer, moist air.
3. An updraft must force moist air up to colder levels of the atmosphere.
Thunderstorms form where warm, humid air is forced upward to altitudes of
up to 15 km. Condensation occurs as the air cools, releasing latent heat and
ensuring that the rising air remains unstable (warmer than surrounding air).
Thunderstorms may occur as relatively isolated, short-lived events or as longer-
duration severe storms depending upon the conditions that cause the air to
rise. Thunderstorms form where warm, humid air is forced upward at cold
fronts or as a result of differential heating at Earth’s surface.

4.3.1 Formation of Thunderstorm

 Thunderstorm formation starts as moist condenses to from a puffy cumulus
cloud. Initially the cloud will form and then evaporate with little increase
in height. If the moisture supply and updraft continue, the relative humidity 73
Natural Hazards increases in the air surrounding the cloud and it grows in size instead of
evaporating.
 The upward growth in size of a cumulus cloud begins the cumulus stage
of thunderstorm development. In this stage, the cumulus cloud becomes
a cumulonimbus cloud with the growth of domes and towers that look
like a head of cauliflower. This growth required a continuous release of
latent heat from water vapour condensation to warm the surrounding air
and cause the air to rise farther.
 As the domes and towers grow upward, precipitation starts by one of two
mechanisms:
1. First, growth of the cloud into colder air causes water droplets to
freeze into ice crystals and snowflakes. The larger snowflakes fall
until they enter air that is above freezing and melt to form raindrops.
2. Second, in warm air in the lower part of the cloud, large cloud droplets
collide with smaller droplets and coalesce to become raindrops. Once
raindrops are too large to be supported by updrafts in the cloud, they
begin to fall, creating a downdraft.
 The mature stage of thunderstorm development begins when the downdraft
and falling precipitation leave the base of the cloud. At this stage, the
storm has both updrafts and downdrafts, and it continues to grow until it
reaches the top of the unstable atmosphere. Commonly this upper limit
of growth is the tropopause. At this point, the updrafts may continue to
build the cloud outward to form a characteristic anvil shape. During the
mature stage, the storm produces heavy rain, lightning and thunder, and
occasionally large chunks of ice, known as hail.
 The final or dissipating stage begins when the upward supply of moist air
is blocked by downdrafts at the lower levels of the cloud. Downdrafts
incorporate cool, dry air surrounding the cloud and cause some of the
falling precipitation to evaporate. This evaporation further cools the
downdraft and limits the updraft of warm humid air. Deprived of moisture,
the thunderstorm weakens, precipitation decreases, and the cloud
dissipates. Most individual thunderstorm, sometimes called air-mass
thunderstorms, last less than an hour and do little damage.

4.4 TORNADOES
A tornado is a rapidly rotating vortex of air protruding funnel-like towards the
ground from a cumulonimbus cloud. Most of the time, these vortices remain
suspended in the atmosphere, and it is only when they connect to the ground or
ocean surface that they become destructive. Tornadoes are related to larger
vortex formation in clouds. Thus, they often form in convective cells such as
thunderstorms, or in the right forward quadrant of hurricane at large distances
(> 200 km) from the area of maximum winds. In the latter case, tornadoes
herald the approach of the hurricane. Often, the weakest hurricanes produce
the most tornadoes. Tornadoes are a secondary phenomenon, in which the
primary process is the development of a vortex cloud. Given the large number
of vortices that form in the atmosphere, tornadoes are generally rare; however,
because vortices can be generated by a myriad of processes, tornadoes have no
74
one mechanism of formation. Tornadoes, similar to tropical cyclones, are almost Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
always accompanied by heavy precipitation.

4.4.1 Formation of Tornadoes

Tornadoes are narrow, funnel-shaped spirals of rapidly rotating air that form in
association with thunderstorms. Like hurricanes and mid-latitude cyclones,
tornadoes are near circular low pressure systems. However, the pressure gradient
is much more intense for tornadoes. Pressure differences across mid latitude
cyclones are in the range of 20 to 30 mb (millibars) over hundreds of kilometers
(pressure gradient, 0.02-0.03 mb/km). Hurricanes may experience pressure
gradients of more than 100 mb over shorter distances (~0.2-2 mb/km) but
large pressure differences in tornadoes occur over distances measured in
hundreds of meters. Extreme pressure gradients of up to ~0.1 to 1 mb/mare
possible for tornadoes, generating the strongest natural winds on Earth with
wind velocities of up to 500 km/hr. Tornadoes are classified using the Fujita
Intensity scale which places tornadoes in one of six categories (F0-F5) according
to level of destruction which is taken as a proxy for wind speed. The scale
divides tornadoes into three subgroups:
 Weak (F0,F1);
 strong(F2, F3), and
 violent(F4, F5).

4.4.2 Tornado Destruction

Tornadoes are one of the most intense and destructive winds found on the
Earth’s surface. Their destructive effects are due to the lifting force at the funnel
wall, and to the sudden change in pressure across this boundary. The lifting
force of tornadoes is considerable, both in terms of the weight of objects that
can be moved, and the volume of material that can be lifted. Large objects
weighing 200–300 tonnes have been shifted tens of metres, while houses and
train carriages weighing 10–20 tonnes have been carried hundreds of meters.
Tornadoes are also able to suck up millions of tonnes of water, which can be
carried in the parent cloud. Tornadoes have been known to drain the water
from rivers, thus temporarily exposing the bed. The most destructive mechanism
in a tornado is the dip in barometric pressure across the wall of the funnel. Air
pressure in buildings affected by a tornado is the main reason for the total
devastation of buildings, whereas adjacent structures or remaining remnants
appear untouched.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) Discuss the basic atmospheric conditions that are required to produce a
thunderstorm?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................. 75
Natural Hazards 2) What is a tornado?.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

4.5 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL HAZARDS

Coastal areas are dynamic environments that vary in their topography, climate,
and organisms. In these areas, continental and oceanic processes converge to
produce landscapes that are capable of rapid change.
The impact of hazardous coastal processes is considerable because many
populated areas are located near the coast. In the United States, it is expected
that most of the population will eventually be concentrated along the nation’s
150,000 km (~93,000 mi.) of shoreline, including the Great Lakes. Today, the
nation’s largest cities lie in the coastal zone, and approximately 40 percent of
the population lives in coastal countries, even though those counties is account
for only 10 percent of the land area (not including Alaska). In fact, population
density for coastal counties is six times greater than that of inland counties.
The population is coastal counties becomes even larger during peak vacation
periods. For example, Ocean City, Maryland, receives an estimated 4 million
visitors between Memorial Day and Labor Day. Coastal problems will increase
as more people live in coastal areas where the hazards occur. Once again, our
activities continue to conflict with natural processes. Hazards along the coasts,
such as coastal erosion, may become compounded by global warming, which
is contributing to a worldwide rise in sea level.
The most serious coastal hazards include:
 Strong coastal currents, including rip currents generated in the surf zone
and tidal currents in narrow bays and channels.
 Coastal erosion, which continues to produce considerable property damage
that required human adjustment.
 Storm surge from tropical and extratropical cyclones, which claims many
lives and causes enormous amounts of property damage every year.
 Tsunamis, which are particularly hazardous to coastal areas of the Pacific
Ocean.

4.6 INTRODUCTION TO TSUNAMIS

Tsunamis (the Japanese word for “large harbor waves”) are produced by the
sudden vertical displacement of ocean water. These waves are a serious natural
hazard that can cause a catastrophe thousands of kilometers from where they
originate. They may be triggered by several types of events, including a large
earthquake that causes a rapid uplift or subsidence of the seafloor; an underwater
landslide that may be triggered by an earthquake; the collapse of part of a

76
volcano that slides into the sea; a submarine volcanic explosion; and an impact Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
in the ocean of an extraterrestrial object, such as an asteroid or comet. Asteroid
impact can produce a “mega” tsunami, a wave that is about 100 times higher
than the largest tsunami produced by an earthquake that could put hundreds of
millions of people at risk. Fortunately, the frequency of large asteroid impact
is low. Of the previously mentioned potential causes, tsunamis produced by
earthquakes are by far the most common.

Box 2
TSUNAMI PRODUCED BY EARTHQUAKES
1. The 1755 (~M 9) Lisbon, Portugal, earthquake produced a tsunami
that, along with the earthquake and resulting fire, killed an estimated
20,000 people.
2. Tsunami waves that crossed the Atlantic Ocean amplified to heights
of 7 m (~23 ft.) or more in the West India.
3. The 1883 violent explosion of Krakatoa volcano in the Sundra Strait
between Java and Sumatra cause the top of the volcano to collapse
into the ocean. This sudden collapse produced a giant tsunami more
than 35 m (~115 ft.) high that destroyed 165 villages and killed more
than 36,000 people.
4. The 1946 (M 8.1) Aleutians (Alaska) earthquake produced a tsunami
in the Hawaiian Islands that killed about 160 people.
5. The 1960 (M 9.5) Chile earthquake triggered a tsunami that killed
61 people in Hawaii after traveling for 15 hours across the Pacific
Ocean.
6. The 1964 (M 9.2) Alaska earthquake generated a deadly tsunami
that killed about 130 people in Alaska and California.
7. The 1993 (M7.1) Papua New Guinea earthquake triggered a
submarine landslide that produced a tsunami that killed more than
2100 people.
8. The 2004 (M 9.1) Sumatra earthquake generated a tsunami that killed
about 230,000 people.
9. The 2009 (M 8.1) Samoa earthquake generated, a tsunami that killed
about 200 people.
10. The 2010 (M 8.8) Chile earthquake generated a tsunami that killed
about 700 people in coastal towns.
11. The 2011 (M 9.1) Japan earthquake generated a tsunami that killed
over 20,000 people. Source: Keller EA, DeVecchio DE (2014)

4.7 EL NINO/SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO)

The El Nino/ Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a naturally occurring phenomenon
involving fluctuating ocean temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial
Pacific, coupled with changes in the atmosphere. The El Nino/Southern 77
Natural Hazards Oscillation comprise three phases: El Nino, La Nina and neutral. El Nino,
meaning “boy child” in Spanish, was first used in the nineteenth century by
fishermen in Peru and Ecuador to refer to the unusually warm waters that
reduced their catch just before Christmas. El Nino events often begin in the
middle of the year with large-scale warming of surface water in the central and
eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean and changes in the tropical atmospheric
circulation (i.e. winds, pressure and rainfall). In general, El Nino reaches a
peak during November to January and then decays over the first half of the
following year. It occurs every two to seven years and can last up to 18 months.
Strong and moderate El Nino events have a warming effect on average global
surface temperatures. The opposite of El Nino within the ENSO cycle is known
as La Nina, which means “little girl” and refers to the large scale cooling of the
ocean surface temperatures in the same region in the equatorial Pacific, coupled
with a reversal of the overlying atmospheric conditions. In many locations,
especially in the tropics, La Nina (or cold episodes) produces the opposite
climate variations to El Nino. During ENSO neutral phases, atmospheric
patterns are controlled more by other climate drivers.

4.8 KEY WORDS

Centre of a : Varies according to the analysis method;
Tropical Cyclone typically one of geometric centre of eye,
minimum pressure, zero wind, or end of a spiral
band.
Extratropical Cyclone : A synoptic scale low pressure system which
derives its energy primarily from available
potential energy in a pre-existing horizontal
temperature gradient.
Eye : The roughly circular area of comparatively light
winds that encompasses the center of a severe
tropical cyclone. The eye is either completely
or partially surrounded by the eyewall cloud.
Hurricane/Typhoon : A tropical cyclone in which the maximum
sustained surface wind (using the U.S. 1- minute
average) is 64 kt (74 mph or 119 km/hr) or more.
The term hurricane is used for Northern
Hemisphere tropical cyclones east of the
International Dateline to the Greenwich
Meridian. The term typhoon is used for Pacific
tropical cyclones north of the Equator and west
of the International Dateline.
El Nino : Change in global weather patterns caused by
anomalous warming of the eastern Pacific Ocean
by at least 3 degrees. Associated with droughts
affecting some areas and incessant storms and
rainfall inundating others.
Tornado : A funnel cloud which reaches the ground.

78
 Weather Related/Coastal
4.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER Hazards
READINGS
Keller EA, DeVecchio DE (2014) Natural Hazards: Earth’s Processes as
Hazards, Disasters, and Catastrophes , Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River
Keller EA (2012) Introduction to Environmental Geology, 5th Edition, Pearson,
ISBN-13: 9780321727510
Richard J. Murnane ( 2004), Hurricanes and Typhoons: Past, Present, and
Future, Ed Kam Biu Liu, Columbia University Press, New York.

4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
Hurricane North Atlantic Ocean the northeast Pacific Ocean
east of the dateline, or the South Pacific east of
160E
Typhoon Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline
Severe Tropical Cyclone Southwest Pacific Ocean west of 160E or
southeast Indian Ocean east of 90E
Severe Cyclone North Indian Ocean
Tropical Cyclone Southwest Indian Ocean
2. Your answer should include the following points:
 Hurricane is a system of spiraling winds converging with increasing
speed toward the storm’s center (the eye of the hurricane).
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
Basic atmospheric conditions that are required to produce a thunderstorm:
a. Warm humid air must be available in the lower atmosphere to feed clouds
and precipitation and provide energy to the storm as it develops.
b. A steep vertical temperature gradient must exist in the environment such
that the rising air is warmer than the air through which it is moving. This
gradient places colder air over warmer, moist air.
c. An updraft must force moist air up to colder levels of the atmosphere.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
 Tornadoes are narrow, funnel-shaped spirals of rapidly rotating air
that form in association with thunderstorms.

79