4/25/2021

Makerere University
Makerere University

Department of Construction Economics and

Management, CEDAT
Construction Technology III
SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES

Dr. Musa Manga Nsubuga

Postdoc Env. Eng. (UNC, USA); PhD Civil Eng. (Leeds, UK); MSc Eng. (1.1 Dist) (Leeds, UK);
BSc. Const.(1.1 Hons) MAK; Dip. Architecture.

Makerere University
Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Lecture 8: Introduction to Sanitation Technologies

Dr. Musa Manga

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

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Outline Makerere University

1. Quizzes
2. Recap of last lecture on Sanitation and Environment Q/A
3. Why might people (NOT) use Toilets?
4. Introduction to sanitation technologies
5. Basic technical factors for sanitation technologies selection
6. On-site Sanitation Technologies- Dry Systems
7. Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines
Construction Technology III

Learning Outcome/ Objectives Makerere University

• Understand generic classification of sanitation systems

• Understand factors that influence the selection of sanitation technologies

• Understand the critical Information needed for selection and design of
Sanitation technologies
• Understand the basics of on-site sanitation systems
• Identify limiting factors in designing on-site sanitation systems

• Design of basic on-site sanitation technologies

• Understand the basics of different off-sites sanitation systems both
Conventional Sewerage and Low-cost sewage systems

Construction Technology III

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Learning Outcome/ Objectives Makerere University

• Understand generic classification of sanitation systems

• Understand factors that influence the selection of sanitation technologies

• Understand the critical Information needed for selection and design of
Sanitation technologies
• Identify limiting factors in designing on-site sanitation systems
• Understand the basics of on-site sanitation systems – Both Wet and Dry Systems

• Design of basic on-site sanitation technologies

• Understand the basics of different off-sites sanitation systems both
Conventional Sewerage and Low-cost sewage systems

Construction Technology III

Makerere University

INTRODUCTION TO SANITATION
TECHNOLOGIES

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Makerere University

TECHNICAL FACTORS

Makerere University
Basic Technical Factors
• Your water supply and disposal determine your
technical options…
Dry - Little wastewater Lots of
Water? wastewater

Disposal
Onsite Pit Latrines, VIP, Twin Pit, Pour Flush, Urine- Septic tanks,
diverting ventilated improved vault latrine, soakaways
Arborloos, Ecosan, Public toilets
Offsite Conservancy Sewerage

• All four present in many cities

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Factors considered for comparison and Makerere University

selection of sanitation technologies
• Water Supply service levels : - hand-carried supplies, yard taps, in-
house connections
• Soil Conditions- soil stability, groundwater table, presence of rock near
the ground surface, etc.
• Housing density – Low Vs very densely populated areas
• Economic Costs of the Sanitation technologies
Other factors:
• Anal cleaning materials
• Reuse potentials ....etc.
Construction Technology III

Critical Information needed for selection and

Makerere University
design of Sanitation technologies
• Climatic conditions…”Temperature ranges; precipitation-including drought or flood periods
• Site Conditions ....
• Topography, geology –including soil stability;
• hydrogeology –including seasonal water table fluctuations;
• Vulnerability to flooding
• Population...
• Number (present and projected);
• Density- including growth patterns, Housing types – including occupancy rates and tenure
patterns;
• Health status – of all age groups, Income levels;
• Locally available skills- managerial and technical, locally available materials and components;
• Municipal services available – including roads, power
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Critical Information needed for selection and

Makerere University
design of Sanitation technologies
• Environmental Sanitation…
• Existing water supply service levels- including accessibility, reliability, and costs;
• Marginal cost of water supply improvements;
• Existing facilities for excreta disposal, sullage removal, and storm drainage;
• Other environmental problems (such as garbage or animal waste)

• Institutional framework....
• Allocation of responsibility;
• Effectiveness of state, local, or municipal institutions in providing water, sewerage,
sanitation, street cleaning, drainage, health and education services, housing and
urban upgrading

Construction Technology III

Critical Information needed for selection and

Makerere University
design of Sanitation technologies
• Sociocultural factors....

• People’s perceptions of present situation, interest in or susceptibility to

change;
• Reasons for acceptance or rejection of any previous upgrading attempts;
level of hygiene education;
• Religious or cultural factors affecting hygiene practices and technology
choice;
• location or use of facilities by both sexes and all age groups;
• Attitude toward resource reclamation;
• Attitudes toward communal or shared facilities.
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Makerere University
On-site Sanitation Systems
Definition: Managing wastewater on the site where it was
generated (or treating it to the point where it can be safely
discharged)

Applicability: Anywhere that there are no centralized

sewerage systems to connect to

Construction Technology III

Makerere University

ON-SITE SANITATION
TECHNOLOGIES- DRY SYSTEMS

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Makerere University
Recap:- On-site Sanitation Systems
Dry Systems
• Pit latrine
• Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrine: Single-pit
• VIP: Double-pit/ Alternating Twin-pit VIPS Latrine
• Urine-Diverting Alternating Twin-Vault latrines / eThekwini Latrines

Wet Systems
• Pour-flush toilet: Single-pit
• Alternating twin-pit pour flush toilet
Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Dry Systems: What are we capturing in a Pit?

Pampers/
incontinence

Menstrual
hygiene products

Washers or wipers?

Varied composition
• Diet
• Health
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Makerere University
Dry Systems: Pit Latrines
• Waste is collected in a pit beneath the latrine slab or
toilet seat.
• Liquid fraction infiltrates into the ground
• Solid waste collects and is partially treated in anaerobic
conditions
• Waste needs to be dug out periodically

• Problems/challenges – for Latrines:

• Stinks
• Flies and mosquitoes
• High water table, rocky soils
• Sludge management needs to be considered
• No sullage (“grey” water) management
Construction Technology III

Makerere University

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Dry Systems: Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet
Single - VIP address stink and flies without
a water trap
1. Manages the stink by creating a current
using a black vent pipe…. heated vent
pipe creates a draw
2. Flies drawn up vent pipe by light if pit is
dark and vent is open, screened
• Principles:
• Isolate the waste from human contact
• When full, dig new pit, seal old one.
• Store for > 1 year to reduce/eliminate risk
• Empty, recycle/dispose of contents (sludge)

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Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Makerere University

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Makerere University
Dry Systems: Single VIP Latrine
Principle operation:
• Excreta drops directly into the pit where organic material
decomposes and liquids percolate into the surrounding soil.
• Solid fraction is (partially) anaerobically digested
• Continuous airflow through the top-structure and above the
vent pipe removes smells and vents gases to the atmosphere.
• Flies emerging from eggs in the pit fly towards the light at the
top of the vent pipe and are trapped by a fly screen. The
superstructure must remain dark
• A separate hand washing facility is required.
• Pits may be off-set for easier emptying

Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

Makerere University
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet- Construction

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Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Makerere University

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Makerere University

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Makerere University
Dry Systems: Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Toilet
• Principles:
• Isolate the waste from human contact
• When full, dig new pit, seal old one.
• Store for > 1 year to reduce/eliminate risk
• Empty, recycle/dispose of contents (sludge)

• Problems/challenges:
• Stinks
• Flies and mosquitoes
• High water table, rocky soils
• Sludge management needs to be considered
• No sullage (“grey” water) management

Construction Technology III

A “triumph” of applied research?Makerere University

The science is there…

If you build according to specs, you will find very
many fewer fly eggs in the pit, and the vent pipe
will draw a current

Other realities?
• Doubts from people I trust about how well built
in field…screen rarely stays intact infield

• Vent pipe  reinforcement of slab,

increasing cost

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
It is not only about provisional of toilets

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Makerere University

Construction Technology III

VIP Latrine Pit Design Makerere University

Single-pit VIP latrines:

• Design pit for solids storage only:
Pit working volume =rPn (m3)

where r = solids accumulation rate (m3 per person per year) = 0.05 in
dry pits and 0.03 in wet pits - increase by 50% if bulky anal cleansing
materials used.

P = household size Pit dia. = ~1-1.5 m

n = pit life, years Add 0.5 m free space at top of pit
Construction Technology III

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VIP Latrine Pit Design (Cont’d) Makerere University

Pit life = ~10 years for single pit VIP

latrines in rural areas (manual emptying)

~2 years in periurban areas (if pit emptied

mechanically)

Construction Technology III

Practical Example – Dry Pit Makerere University

Circular pit 1.1 m Diam Area = 0.95 m2

• Depth = 1.8 m - 0.5 = 1.3 m… (a safety limit)
• Volume = 1.3 * 0.95 = 1.24 m3 = 1 240 l.

• 5 person HH, with r = 0.05 per person/yr, considering 50% for bulky
anal cleansing materials  375 l/year (rPn (m3)
• Pit fills in 4 years….this is about what we can reasonably expect…
• If 50% for bulky anal cleansing is not considered, then pit fills in 5
years
• Alternating Twin Pit is attractive option…
Construction Technology III

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Makerere University

ALTERNATING TWIN – PIT VIPS

LATRINES

Makerere University
Dry Systems: Alternating Twin – Pit VIPS Latrines
-Ventilated Improved Double Pit Toilet

• Permanent on-site sanitation systems for periurban areas

with enough space.

Principle:
• One pit is used until filled to within about half a metre of
the top.
• The defecation and vent pipe holes are then completely
sealed and the other pit used.
• The contents of the first pit are dug out after a period of
at least two years, once the contents have become less
harmful.

Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

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Makerere University
Dry Systems: Ventilated Improved Double Pit Toilet

Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

Makerere University
Dry Systems: Composting/ Urine Diversion Dry Toilet

Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

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Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Twin-pit Alternating Pros and Cons

Makerere University

Advantages:
• Manages stink
• Manages flies (at least from storage)
• Easier alternation
• Can keep “pits” out of house
• Smaller pits, two-year’s storage only

Disadvantages:
• More complex than simple pit
• Gooseneck often broken, blocked
• Abuse of “diversion” mechanism
Construction Technology III

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VIP Latrine Pit Design (Cont’d) Makerere University

• Pit life = ~10 years for single pit VIP latrines in rural areas
(manual emptying) &
• ~2 years in periurban areas (if pit emptied mechanically)

•For Alternating Twin-pit VIP Latrines

(emptied manually):
Pit life= 1 or 2 years -but Not Less than 1
year
Construction Technology III

Makerere University

URINE-DIVERTING ALTERNATING TWIN-

VAULT LATRINES

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Makerere University
Dry Syst: Urine-Diverting Alternating Twin-Vault Latrines
eThekwini Latrines .....
Principles of operation:
• Waste is deposited in the chamber and dry
absorbent organic material, such as wood ash, straw
or vegetable matter is added after each use to
deodorise decomposing faeces and/or control
moisture and facilitate biological breakdown
(composting).
• Urine may be separated/diverted through use of
specially adapted pedestals.
• This may be collected and used as a fertiliser.
• In desiccation systems, ventilation encourages the
evaporation of moisture
Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

Makerere University
Dry Syst: Urine-Diverting Alternating Twin-Vault Latrines
eThekwini Latrines .....
Principles of operation:
• Waste is deposited in the chamber and dry
absorbent organic material, such as wood ash, straw
or vegetable matter is added after each use to
deodorise decomposing faeces and/or control
moisture and facilitate biological breakdown
(composting).
• Urine may be separated/diverted through use of
specially adapted pedestals.
• This may be collected and used as a fertiliser.
• In desiccation systems, ventilation encourages the
evaporation of moisture
Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

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Makerere University
Dry Systems: DU -VIV

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Dry Systems: DU -VIV

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University
Dry Systems: DU -VIV

Construction Technology III

Makerere University

Construction Technology III

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Next Session Makerere University

• On-site Sanitation Systems - Dry Systems: EcoSans,

Arboloos, etc.

• On-site Sanitation Systems- Wet Systems: Septic

tanks, Pour flush toilets, etc.

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Dry Systems: Ventilated Improved Double Pit Toilet

Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

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Makerere University
Dry Systems: Composting/ Urine Diversion Dry Toilet

Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

Makerere University

ON-SITE SANITATION
TECHNOLOGIES- WET SYSTEMS

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Makerere University

POUR-FLUSH TOILET

Makerere University
Wet Systems: Pour-Flush Toilet
Principles of Operation
• After defecation, the pan requires flushing with a
few litres of water.
• The water retained in the pan provides a seal
against smell, flies and mosquitoes from escaping
from the pit
• Excreta flows into the pit
• Liquid fraction leaches out
• Solid fraction is (partially) anaerobically digested
• May have one or two pits

Construction Technology III WEDC, 2014

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Makerere University
Wet Systems: Pour-Flush Toilet
• Does water seal seal?! Waterseals and Traps

• Does the pipe go into the pit

• Is the pit semi-permeable?

• Can the floor and pan be cleaned?

• If twin pit, are they being alternated To stinking gas or vault…

or used simultaneously? smells don’t pass
through water
Construction Technology III

Makerere University

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University
Wet Systems: Alternating Twin-Pit Pour-Flush Toilet

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Wet Systems: Alternating Twin-Pit Pour-Flush Toilet

Water-sealed slab Pits

Diversion box

Brick in diversion box blocks off filled pit for one

year before emptying, recycling compost
Construction Technology III Brikké and Bredero, 2003

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Makerere University
Wet Systems: Pour-Flush Toilet
• Water sealed pan prevents odours
and flies from escaping from the pit

• Excreta flow into the pit

• Liquid fraction leaches out

• Solid fraction is (partially)

anaerobically digested

• May have one or two pits

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Wet Systems: Pour-Flush Toilet
Does water seal seal?!

• Does the pipe go into the pit

• Is the pit semi-permeable?

• Can the floor and pan be cleaned?

• If twin pit, are they being

alternated or used simultaneously?

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Alternating Twin-Pit Pour-Flush Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University
Alternating Twin-Pit Pour-Flush Toilet- Construction

Construction Technology III

Wet Systems: PF Toilet Makerere University

• Especially suitable for

“Washer” (but also OK for
Wipers) - users squat.

• NB: Blockages occur through use

of inappropriate anal cleansing
material.

• Very common in South Asia -

Washers
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Pour Flush Toilet Pit Design Makerere University

For single-pit units

1. Calculate volume for solids storage (as for VIP latrine pit), and
2. Calculate volume for infiltration of liquids into soil (see next
slides); then
3. Pit working volume = sum of 1 and 2 (add 0.5 m free space).

For alternating twin-pit units:

choose the larger of 1 and 2 above (because the infiltrative
capacity of the pit sidewall regenerates when the pit is not in
use).
Construction Technology III

PF Toilet: Calculation of Area for Makerere University

Infiltration of liquids
INFILTRATION or PERCOLATION ?
Percolation test are often done to
determine infiltrative capacity
- But this is wrong!
Percolation test
• Determine time taken for
water level to fall x mm

Construction Technology III

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PF Toilet: Calculation of Area for Makerere University

Infiltration of liquids
Percolation rate in litres/m2 day, but this is:
Percolation of clean water in undisturbed soil
Infiltration refers to passage of
liquid fraction of
PF-leach pit contents across
partially blocked**
pit-soil interface
**due to bacterial
slime layer
Construction Technology III

Calculation of Infiltrative Vol. Makerere University

1. Estimate total flow to pit (usually 10−20 lcd)

2. Estimate long term infiltration rate from soil type (litres per m2 of sidewall area
per day):
• Sand: 50
• Sandy loam: 30
• Porous silty and silty clay loam: 20
• Compact silty and silty-clay loams, and clays (but no expansive clays): 10
3. Calculate required infiltrative area: Ai=flow (litres/day) / infiltration rate (l/m2d)

4. Calculate corresponding pit volume – eg, for a circular pit of diameter D:

Vi/𝝅D2h/4
Where h=pit working depth = Vi/𝝅D ie.,
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Makerere University
PF Toilet:- Single Pit OR Alternating Twin Pits?
Single pits with long life (≥10 years) in rural areas where space
available to build a new one
Single pits with short life (1−2 years) in urban areas if pit to be
emptied mechanically
Twin pits essential if pits to be emptied manually
Use short life pits (either manually emptied twin or mech. emptied
single) in areas of:
• shallow unpickable rock
• high groundwater table, or where groundwater pollution must be
minimized
Construction Technology III

Pour Flush Toilet Pit Design Makerere University

twin pits:
• more expensive
• user education needed to ensure that both pits not used
simultaneously
LINE pits if:
1) They are to be emptied mechanically or
2) If soil unstable (undrained shear strength of < 20 kN/m2 or clay fraction
of <30 percent)
RAISE pits if:
1) GWT within 300 mm of ground surface (permanently or seasonally), or
2) Shallow unpickable rock.
Construction Technology III

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Makerere University

SEPTIC TANKS

Septic Tanks: Principles of OperationMakerere University

Construction Technology III

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Makerere University

What are Septic Tanks....?

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
What are Septic Tanks....? Principles of Operation
• Septic tanks are rectangular chambers ....sited below ground
level, and receives both excreta and flushwater

• Waste from the toilet is flushed into the settling chamber where it
is retained for at least 24hrs to allow settlement and biological
digestion.

• Mean hydraulic retention time of waste content in a tank is

usually 1-3 days

• The solids settle to the bottom on of the tank where they can get
digested anaerobically.

• A thick layer of scum forms at the surface

• Usually some sludge accumulates at the bottom of the tank

• Regular desludging of the tank is required – at least once every 1

– 5 years

• Partially treated liquids then pass out of the tank - into the subsoil
drainage/soakaway system.

Construction Technology III

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Septic Tanks: Principles of OperationMakerere University

• Septic tanks are mainly for a primary treatment –

effluent is as dangerous as raw sewage.

• Septic tank effluent flows to soakways or leaching/drain

fields – for further treatment– NOT to the environment

• Technical Appropriateness:
• For households with both in-house water supply &
Sufficient land for effluent disposal
• Low-density urban areas

• Main Principle - discussed:

• Solids settle out before sewage seeps into soil…soil then filters
sewage
• Problems:
• Cannot “seep” into clay or plugged soil or high WT
• Sludge mgemt: must empty from time to time, and where does
sludge go?
Construction Technology III

Makerere University

Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

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Key Features of Septic Tanks Makerere University

• What are the key design features of a septic

tank?

Breadth (1m)
• A length to width (L:B) ratio ≥ 1.5 for adequate
settling distance (2 or 3 to 1)
Length (1.5m)
• Overflow pipe/ mechanism

• Minimum Liquid retention time should be at least

Partition walls
≥ 24 hours

• Partition walls to separate the tank into two or

more compartments

• Liquid depth is 1 to 2 meters

• Baffle walls at inlets and outlets

• Tee-shaped pipes - to minimize hydraulic mixing

and reduce the risk of short-circuiting

• Proper pipe configuration- to reduce the risk of

short-circuiting Inlet and Outlet Tee-pipes

Key Design Features of Septic Tanks Makerere University

• Two-thirds of tank volume is for storage of accumulated sludge and slum

• Sludge accumulation rate is 0.03 – 0.04 m3/ per person/ year
• Qns: What will be the desludging interval of a septic tank with dimensions LxWxH -3x1.5x1.5
meters? Considering 5 Household users.

Quick rules for sizing septic tanks

• Check local code!!!!
• If no code…
• Volume ≥ five times average inflow
• If too small, empty more often
• If too big, too expensive

• Water depth 1.5 to 2 meters

• Length = 2 – 3 times width
• Baffle wall placed 2/3 of length along
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Makerere University

What is the difference

between these septic tanks?

Construction Technology III

Effluent Receivers: Soakaway pits Makerere University

Construction Technology III

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Effluent Receivers: Drain fields Makerere University

Distribution box

Septic tank
outlet pipe

4”drain tile with

open joints

Construction Technology III

How to size a drain field? Makerere University

• Percolation tests, soil texture analyses, local knowledge, perhaps local

statute will guide estimation of a “loading rate” of gallons/sq ft/day e.g.

Soil type Approx loading rate (gal/sq ft/day)

Clay/silt (< 0.1 mm) 0.25

Sandy (0.1 mm< d < 1.0 mm) 0.4

Coarse sands/ small gravel ( d > 1.0 0.5 – 0.67

mm)

Septic Tank Practices, Peter Warshall. Anchor Press Doubleday. (1979), p. 82.

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Makerere University
Drain field- Example for one household
• Assume 50 lpcd, or 15 gpcd; household of 5  75 gallons/day (250 l/day)

• Soil is sandy, what area needed?

Need Q/(loading rate) = (75 gallons/day)/(0.4 gal/sq ft/day) = 187.5 sq ft.

• If effective depth is 2’, then each foot of drain yields 4 sq ft of surface area

• Approximately 50’ of drain tile trench needed

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Drain Field- A tale of two trenches

• Standard old design • More rational design

• Maximise sidewall
area,

• Will clog more

slowly…
• Old Kentucky Standard
• Assumes flows out the • But it will clog
bottom…
• It won’t… bottom clogs
quickly
Construction Technology III

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Makerere University
Drain field- How to lengthen life/reduce clogging

1. “Rest” your drain fields, let bugs

break down the clogging…
• A lot like an alternating twin pit!

2. Separate streams
• Greywater (without fecal waste) will
clog less than “black water”… clearer
water can support higher loading rates

Construction Technology III

And where soils are unforgiving… Makerere University

• Absorption/ evaporation mounds

In area of rocky or very tight soil/
or high groundwater…

Just as with latrines/Ecosan, build

above ground…

…not a cheap or low labour

solution, but an option

Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

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Makerere University
References
Basic sanitation
• WHO and IRC, Brikke F and Bredero M. Linking technology choice with operation and maintenance in the context of
community water supply and sanitation: A reference document for planners and project staff (2003).
• Franceys, R., Pickford, J., Reed, R. A guide to the development of on-site sanitation. WHO (1992).
• Kalbermatten, J.M., Julius, D.S., Gunnerson, C.G., and Mara, D.D. Appropriate Sanitation Alternatives: A Planning
and Design Mannual. The Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore and London (1982).
• Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, P., and Zurbrügg, C., Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies."
Dübendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (2014).
• Pickford J. Low-cost sanitation: A Survey of Practical Experience. Intermediate Technology Publications. (1995)
• Brandberg, B. Latrine Building: A Handbook for Implementation of the SanPlat System. Intermediate Technology
Publications (1997)

Septic Tanks
Woodson, R.D. A Builder’s Guide to Wells and Septic Systems. McGraw-Hill, (2010).
Warshall, P. Septic Tank Practices: A guide to the conservation and reuse of household wastewater. Anchor Books,
Doubleday (1979).
Construction Technology III

Reality - Septic tanks in India – Wrong pipe Makerere University

configuration
• 98% of observed systems had straight inlet and outlet
pipes: -high risk of hydraulic mixing and short-circuiting

• Plumbing surprise: Adjacent inlet and outlets create

short circuiting!

• Fresh faecal matter was observed in the tank effluent

• Recommended pipe configuration

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Reality –Tanks in India Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Wet Systems: Aqua-privy and Soakaway

Construction Technology III (Source: DWAF, 2002)

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Makerere University

OFF-SITE SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES

Technologies for Wastewater collection,

transport

Conventional Sewerage Makerere University

• Principle: Water carries excreta through pipes to treatment works

• Excellent form of sanitation & The engineer’s favourite!! , but
FIVE PRINCIPAL DISADVANTAGES IN LOW-INCOME COMMUNITIES:
1) COST: highly site specific but always very expensive − World Bank figures, 1980:
• capital costs: US$ 600 − 4 000 per HH
• annual economic costs: US$ 150−650 per HH

2) WATER: house connections essential .... Needs a steady water supply

- but most people don’t have house connections, nor likely to. Yard tap at best, more likely standpipes.
3) CONSTRUCTION: sewers should be laid as straight as possible
− but usually not possible in unplanned areas

4) BLOCKAGE: problem of bulky anal cleaning material (eg., corncobs, stones, mud balls, cement bags,
etc.)

5) SEWER CROWN CORROSION ……………

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Makerere University
Health disadvantages of Conventional Sewerage
• excreted pathogens not locally contained, but disseminated over a wide
area .... A lot goes into environment untreated…esp. to rivers

• aerosol formation when toilet flushed

Health for the many, or convenience for a few?
Construction Technology III

Urban Evolution Makerere University

Cities developed along rivers and needed to drain

runoff from streets (”runoff” = that portion of
rainfall that “runs off” the surface)

Open drains are obvious option

- But have disadvantages
• Take up a lot of real estate
• Subject to blockage
• Subject to encroachment

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It all goes to the drain… Makerere University

I. Allan Sealy, (1988). The Trotter-Nama. Alfred A. Knopf

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Gardyloo!

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Next step was to cover Makerere University

Spaced
inlets

• Open channel drain • Closed storm drain

• Limits transport
• Better road, with crown
• Easily blocked/ encroached
• Encroachment won’t block drain
• More difficult access for
maintenance
Construction Technology III

1596…invention of flush toilet Makerere University

Sir John Harington a poet in Elizabeth

I’s court (who else?)

17th,18th centuries flushed to existing

storm drains

Problems arise in doing this…

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1596…invention of flush toilet Makerere University

A champion/pioneer of public health

UK Public Health Act of 1848
Water supply; sewerage; drainage; cleansing;
paving, and environmental health regulation

Advocate of separate sewers…

“The rain to the river and sewage to the soil”

Actually, not a very nice man, or objective public

servant

Political and nasty…but did a lot of good…

Construction Technology III

Combined and Separate Sewers Makerere University

Combined Sewer Separate Sewers

Spaced storm
inlets

Sanitary sewer
Storm drain
carries toilet waste,
Spaced inlets and Carries runoff only
sullage from house
house connections connections

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Combined vs Separate Makerere University

Combined Sewer Separate Sewer

• Human waste, sullage go to “sanitary
• Human wastes, sullage, runoff all go
sewer”
to same drain
• Runoff goes to “storm drain”
• Evolved historically
Advantages
Advantages
• Environmentally better… storm
• Cheaper!
overflows just discharge runoff
• Human wastes treated at end of
pipe
Disadvantages
• Overflows carry combined sewage
to streams Disadvantages
• Expensive
Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Quiet debate continues
Nowadays, few professionals advocate combined sewers
Nevertheless, better engineers than me argue that, where capital is
scarce, the case is far from clear.

Laying two pipes close to twice cost of laying combined drains:

• Removing sewage affects flow in storm drain very little, as storm
flows often 30 times greater
• Separate sewer pipe is smaller, but costs don’t vary much with
Diameter
• Approx example: Replace 24” combined sewer with 24”storm drain
plus 10” sewer…
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Average bid costs for sewer, 2013 in Makerere University

Leominster MA
• 24” pipe costs $100/lf
• 10” pipe costs $65/lf

So separate system costs $165, while

combined costs $100. (in fact,
sanitary sewer may be 12”, making
even closer to double the cost).

I found same in Uganda 15

years ago

Construction Technology III

Makerere University

SEWERAGE IMPLEMENTATION MODELS

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Conventional “developments” Makerere University

• Before a single stake goes in the ground,

• plans are drawn up for roads, drainage, water, sewerage, power,
gas etc. and reviewed by local govt, local utilities, for conformity
to natoinal, state, county rules

• Once approved, construction goes ahead

• Once built people move in
• Does not work well in developing world, where people
already “moved in”.
Construction Technology III

Urban Sewerage/sanitation ProcessesMakerere University

Traditional/”ideal” process and Real world process

technologies experienced by urban poor

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Sewerage networks Makerere University

• Likely to have
one or two
mains…

• …and many
branches…

Construction Technology III

What’s the most expensive part ofMakerere University

the network?
- Big mains 2-3’ in diameter? or
- Small laterals, 6” or 8” in diameter?
• There are so many MORE of the small pipes, that they are the
major cost of a network
• Reducing/sharing costs of small pipes has major impact on
cost

• Other big factor besides diameter & length is DEPTH

• Influenced by slopes, topography, and design standards
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With Conventional sewerage, the poor Makerere University

often subsidise the Rich
Clearly wrong, but it happens − because:
1. The water & sewerage authority, for political ‘reasons’, cannot charge rich
households for sewerage by surcharging their water bills by more than 100%
2. But sewerage costs ~2−3 times more than water
3. Only option for the authority is to increase the price of water

4. So poor households pay more for their water because the

rich have sewers
Therefore there is need for:
Alternative, More Appropriate Off-site Sanitation
Construction Technology III Technologies

Makerere University

CONDOMINIAL/ SIMPLIFIED SEWERAGE

SYSTEMS

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Appropriate Sewerage Systems for such areasMakerere University

Construction Technology III

Simplified Sewerage System (SS) Makerere University

• Simplified sewerage is a low-cost off-site sanitation technology designed mainly

for collecting, and conveying all forms of unsettled wastewaters

• Essentially conventional sewerage system stripped down to its hydraulic design

basics - so as to allow for the use of smaller-diameter pipes, shallower
depths, flatter gradients and reduced manholes while maintaining sound Simplified/ Condominial
physical design principles

• SS layout is very flexible ....can be implemented in unplanned areas

with less destruction and restoration costs
• Route small sewers along backyards: No traffic loading, so can make
shallower.... which affects depth throughout network
• unlike conventional sewerage where in most cases sewers are laid in the
centre of the roads.

Conventional Sewerage
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1. Condominial sewerage Makerere University

Construction Technology III

Example of keeping costs low Makerere University

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Simplified Sewerage System Makerere University

• System allows for Community mobilization/engagement/ participation ......

in the implementation, operation and maintenance of the system.
• But In reality - communities do not actually enjoy participating in sanitation say
performing simple operation and maintenance tasks such as unblocking sewers

• Decentralization of O&M
1. Originally “mandatory”
2. Can now “subconract” back to utility

• The system characteristics and modifications to the design features lead to

reduced capital costs of the system

• Also Called Condominial Sewerage

• Formerly Called Shallow sewerage
Construction Technology III

Simplified / Condominial sewerage Makerere University

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Simplified Sewerage Systems cheaper than On-site

Makerere University
Sanitation at low population densities

250 Simplified Sewerage System

Urine Diversion Dry Toilet
VIP Latrine

Total Annual Cost per Household (2018 US$)

200

150

100

50

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Population Density (Persons/ha)
Construction
Modelled Simplified Technology
Scenario Sewerage III in Chris
3: new-build
layout gravity flow
Hanis withsettlement,
Informal treatment Soweto Scenario 3: new-build gravity flow with treatment.

Makerere University

SETTLED SEWERAGE SYSTEM

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Makerere University
2. Settled sewerage
Collects and Conveys only settled
wastewater

Construction Technology III

Makerere University
Conventional vs. Settled
Conventional Settled sewerage
• Sewers must carry solids • Each household has small
• Slope determined by this “septic tank” box
requirement • Solids settle, sewer carries only
• Drives size, depth, and liquid
cost…esp in flat areas • Advantages:
• Advantages: • Only liquid carried, much lower
slopes
• less maintenance than settled
• More robust…not contingent • Disadvantage:
upon everybody’s system • Now have to manage solids
working intercepted; collect, empty, treat
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References
• Manga, M.Bartram, J. and Evans, B.E. 2020. Economic cost analysis of low-cost sanitation technology
options in informal settlement areas (case study: Soweto, Johannesburg). International Journal of Hygiene
and Environmental Health. 223(1), pp.289-298.

• Tilley, E.Ulrich, L.Luthi, C.Reymond Philippe and Zurbrugg, C. eds. 2014. Compendium of Sanitation
Systems and Technologies. Second ed. Dubendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science
and Technology (Eawag), Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council.

• Mara, D.D.Sleigh, A. and Tayler, K. 2001. PC-based Simplified Sewer Design. Leeds: University of Leeds,
School of Civil Engineering.

• Sinnatamby, G.S.Mara, D.D. and McGarry, M. 1986. Sewerage: Shallow Systems Offer Hope to Slums.
World Water. 9(1), pp.39-41.

Construction Technology III

Next time Makerere University

• Term paper – A & Q

• Guest Speaker on Sept 17 – Professor Joe Brown –
Urban Sanitation –MapSan
• Midterm Review
• On-site Sanitation Systems
• Dry Systems: Composting toilets
• EcoSan
• Wet Systems: Aqua-privy & Conservancy tanks

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Conclusion Makerere University

• The major health impact is achieved not by multiple-tap in-house

water supplies and and conventional sewerage, but:
i. by increasing water consumption to 25−30 litres/person/day and
ii. by providing a suitable toilet which people of all ages will use properly and
maintain regularly,
so that incidence of water related (esp. water-washed) disease and
transmission of excreta-related diseases are substantially reduced.

• importance of sustained hygiene education programmes

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