01 Whole

YOGYAKARTA (INDONESIA) EFL TEACHERS’
CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK)
AS REPRESENTED IN THEIR INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN AND
PRACTICE
Anita Triastuti
Bachelor of English Language Education, Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta

MA in Discourse and Argumentation Studies, University of Amsterdam
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of

the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Linguistics
Faculty of Human Sciences
Macquarie University
Sydney, Australia
2017
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I declare that the work in this dissertation was carried out in accordance with the requirements
of the Faculty of Human Sciences, Human Research Ethics Sub-Committee, Macquarie
University (Ethics Reference No. 5201300763). I hereby certify that this work is the result of
my own research, and that the work has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other
university or institution. I also certify that sources of information used, and the extent to
which the work of others has been utilized, have been indicated in the thesis, and that any
editorial work, paid or unpaid, has been acknowledged.
Macquarie Park, January 2017
Anita Triastuti
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I am deeply grateful to the Almighty Allah SWT for blessing and
showering me with strengths and patience all the way this journey. This thesis would not have
been possible without the help, guidance, and support from the following people who have
played different yet instrumental roles in the completion of my study.
I would like to take this opportunity to sincerely express my deepest gratitude to my

principal supervisor, Prof. Mehdi Riazi, who provided me with his excellent supervision, and
his continuous support and guidance. I am forever grateful for being able to learn from his
expertise and his immense knowledge, which guided me in completing my study. I would also
like to extend my appreciation to my associate supervisor, Dr. Philip Chappell, who shared
his insights and comments on my thesis. My appreciation also goes to my kind and
professional thesis editor, Dr. Bradley A. Smith, who provided me with his insightful
comments and detailed feedback in editing my thesis.
I submit my heartiest gratitude to the following great institutions that funded and
supported my doctoral study in different ways: (1) my scholarship sponsor, the Directorate
General of Higher Education, Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of the
Republic of Indonesia, which granted me with its scholarship scheme; (2) my home
university, Yogyakarta State University, which funded the last semester of my doctoral study;
and (3) Macquarie University, which provided me with sufficient research enhancement
funding.
Particular thanks go to kind and supportive officers at HDR Management, Revenue

Services, and Linguistics Department: Joanna McCarthy, Melissa Hubbard, Karen Laughton,
Zubeda Raihman, Collette Ryan, and Margaret Wood. I thank you all for always offering kind
and responsive assistance to all PhD students, including me.
I humbly extend my sincere and wholehearted thanks to all the following people
involved in my fieldwork for data collection: (1) the six participating teachers and their school
principals, who had eagerly taken part in my study; (2) three kind teachers, Laily Amin
Fajariyah, Bu Endang Triningsih, and Bu Aridyah Niken, who were willing to be the
gatekeepers of my study; (3) the video shooting crew, Mas Murhadi and Mas Lukmanul
Hakim, who were so dedicated to make my field work successful; and (4) my brother-in-law,
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Om Solich Handoko, who made all my field visits to six different schools in four different
regions in Yogyakarta possible.
I am also greatly indebted to our family GP and cardiologist at Macquarie Hospital,

Dr. Sandra van de Water, and Dr. Jason Kaplan, for their kindness and professional decisions
in taking care of my husband’s heart problem.
To all my office mates in C3B. R. 302, Li Jia, Erna Andriyanti, Alexandra Gray, Janet
(Wujian Han), and Agnes Bodis, I thank you all for all the shared stories, supports,
encouragements, and bonding that I will forever treasure.
The completion of this thesis could not have been accomplished without the endless
support of my family. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my father, Bapak Pramono, my late
mother, Ibu Sri Andjari, and my step mother, Ibu Titin, and my parents-in-law, Bapak
Muljadi and Ibu Siti Ba’dini. I thank you all for your prayers, endless love, and support.
Without your unconditional support, I will not be able to walk this far. To my siblings, my
brother, Eko Nugroho, and especially my only sister, Dwiana Hernawati, thank you for your
unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my years of study.
Last but not least, I dedicate this thesis to my caring and supporting husband, Sigit
Hartanto, and my duo Z, Zidan and Zaki. Thank you for joining me in this battle. You are all
the reason why I keep pushing and facing all the struggles and hardships. I love you all so
much.
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ABSTRACT
Curriculum changes in Indonesian schools have assigned a central role to Indonesian EFL
teachers to act as effective instructional curriculum practitioners and adapters. The present
study examined Indonesian EFL teachers’ conceptualizations of pedagogical content
knowledge (PCK) (Shulman, 1987) as represented in their instructional (Wette, 2009)
curriculum design and practice. Combining Shulman’s (1987) PCK with Graves’s (2000)
framework of course development processes, the first part of the inquiry examined
Yogyakarta (Indonesia) EFL teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in terms of forms,
strategies, and pedagogical concerns, as reflected in their instructional curriculum design. In
the second part of the inquiry, Andrews’s (2007) modified model of PCK was applied to the
framework of L2 reading instruction (Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014) to explore EFL
teachers’ conceptualizations of knowledge about texts (KAT) and knowledge about reading
instruction (KARI). Graves’s (2008) model of a dynamic system of curriculum development,
which elucidates the role of socio-educational context in curriculum development, is adopted
to examine the influence of socio-educational context on teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK
in their instructional curriculum design and practice. A qualitative multiple-case study
involving purposive within- and cross-case sampling techniques (Miles, Huberman, &
Saldana, 2014; Stake, 2006; Yin, 2014) was employed to select six EFL teachers; three
experienced and three inexperienced teachers, of public junior high schools in the Special
Province of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Multiple sources of data, including instructional
curriculum design assessments, pre-lesson semi-structured interviews, stimulated-recall
interviews, classroom observations, and teaching transcripts, were collected.
The findings highlight the macro and micro patterns of the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in five processes of instructional curriculum design, and those of
the teachers’ conceptualizations of KAT and KARI. The macro landscape of the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design and practice was shaped by
the extent to which the teachers engaged with the influence of the National Examination
(NE), a high-stakes examination applied nationwide within the Indonesian education system.
In the case of the experienced teachers, the macro landscape of their conceptualizations
showed the teachers’ high commitment to the demands of the NE. In contrast, the
inexperienced teachers’ macro construction of their conceptualizations reflected a certain
degree of detachment from the NE. The teachers’ polar different macro conceptualizations of
PCK were realized in their micro constructions of conceptualization in their instructional
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curriculum design and practice. In terms of instructional curriculum design, the experienced
teachers’ micro patterns of conceptualization within the five processes of instructional
curriculum design were guided in favour of the NE. On the other hand, the inexperienced
teachers’ micro patterns of conceptualization in designing their instructional curriculum
formed more non-NE-based instruction. As related to the conceptualization of PCK in
instructional curriculum practice, the teachers’ KAT showed their insufficient understanding
of how to properly explore texts for meaning making as required by text-based teaching
characterizing the applied curriculum, namely the 2006 School-based Curriculum, in the
Indonesian EFL context. Meanwhile, the teachers’ KARI for organizing reading instruction
demonstrated the teachers’ insufficient knowledge about organizing instruction within the
organizing principles they adopted. Finally, their KARI about reading instruction revealed
instructional reading strategies for fostering the students’ reading comprehension, by giving
clues in the students’ native language and applying a testing-oriented strategy, and for raising
the students’ awareness of reading skills. Implications of the study address the need, with
reference to the findings of the study, to accommodate follow-up actions to improve teachers’
transformation process for designing and enacting their instructional curriculum in pre- and
in-service teacher training programs.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION .............................................................................................. II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................. III
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. V
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... VII
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. XIII
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................XIV
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................... XV
PART ONE BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ............................................................. 2
1.0 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................2
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM .........................................................................2
1.2 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ......................................................................................................4
1.2.1 A Snapshot of EFL School Curriculum Changes in Indonesia ..................................................4
1.2.2 Challenges of EFL Curriculum Changes ...................................................................................7
1.2.3 The Current Teacher Development Programs ...........................................................................9
1.3 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY .....................................10
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY .....................................................................................................12
1.4.1 Research Questions ..................................................................................................................12
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................13
1.6 DEFINITION OF THE KEY TERMS .......................................................................................14
1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS .........................................................................................14
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ......................................... 16

2.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................16
2.1 THE ORIGIN AND DIMENSIONS OF TEACHER THINKING (COGNITION)............................16
2.2 THE RANGE AND SCOPE OF TEACHER KNOWLEDGE ........................................................17
2.3 PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK) ................................................................19
2.3.1 Empirical Studies on PCK in English Language Teaching Context ........................................21
2.4 TEACHER KNOWLEDGE AND TEACHER EXPERTISE..........................................................24
2.5 INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ................................................................25
2.5.1 Instructional Curriculum Design (Planning Phase) ................................................................27
2.5.1.1 Analyzing Needs ....................................................................................................................28
2.5.1.2 Formulating Goals and Learning Objectives .......................................................................30
2.5.1.3 Conceptualizing Content and Organizing Instruction ..........................................................31
2.5.1.3.1 Conceptualizing Content ....................................................................................................31
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2.5.1.3.2 Organizing and Sequencing Content ................................................................................. 32
2.5.1.4 Developing Instructional Materials...................................................................................... 34
2.5.1.4.1 Selecting Instructional Materials ...................................................................................... 35
2.5.1.4.2 Adapting Instructional Materials ...................................................................................... 36
2.5.2 Instructional Curriculum Practice (Enacting/ Teaching Phase)............................................. 37
2.5.2.1 Ecological Approach to English Language Teaching .......................................................... 38
2.5.3 Instructional Curriculum Assessment (Assessing Phase) ........................................................ 40
2.5.3.1 The Terminological Issue of Formative Assessment ............................................................ 40
2.5.3.2 The Characteristics of Formative Assessment...................................................................... 42
2.5.3.3 Supporting Factors of Formative Assessment Implementation ............................................ 44
2.6 TEXT-BASED TEACHING ..................................................................................................... 45
2.7 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................... 48
3.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 50
3.1 RATIONALE FOR THE INTERPRETIVE RESEARCH PARADIGM........................................... 50
3.2 RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN ..................................................................................... 50
3.3 PARTICIPANTS AND SAMPLING STRATEGY ........................................................................ 52
3.4 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS .................................................................................... 57
3.4.1 Instructional Curriculum Design Assessment Sheet ................................................................ 58
3.4.2 Interviews ................................................................................................................................ 59
3.4.2.1 Pre-Lesson Semi-Structured Interview Guideline ................................................................ 59
3.4.2.2 Stimulated-Recall Interview (SRI) Guideline ....................................................................... 60
3.4.3 Classroom Observation Guideline .......................................................................................... 60
3.5 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES ..................................................................................... 61
3.5.1 Data Collection Preparation ................................................................................................... 61
3.5.2 Data Collection ....................................................................................................................... 62
3.5.2.1 Pilot Interview ...................................................................................................................... 62
3.5.2.2 Pre-Lesson Data Collection ................................................................................................. 63
3.5.2.2.1 Instructional Curriculum Design Assessment ................................................................... 64
3.5.2.2.2 Pre-Lesson Semi-Structured Interviews ............................................................................ 68
3.5.2.3 During-Lesson Data Collection ........................................................................................... 69
3.5.2.4 Post-Lesson Data Collection ................................................................................................ 70
3.5.2.5 Challenges Encountered in Data Collection ........................................................................ 71
3.6 DATA ORGANIZATION ........................................................................................................ 73
3.7 DATA ANALYSIS.................................................................................................................. 74
3.7.1 The Instructional Curriculum Design Assessments Data Analysis ......................................... 75
3.7.2 The Interview Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 75
3.7.2.1 The Provisional Interview Data Coding Process ................................................................. 76
3.7.2.2 The Manual Content Analysis for the Data Coding ............................................................. 77
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3.7.2.3 Within- and Cross-Case Interview Data Analysis ................................................................77
3.7.3 CLASSROOM OBSERVATION AND TEACHING VIDEO TRANSCRIPTS DATA ANALYSIS ..78
3.7.4 Constant Comparison ..............................................................................................................78
3.8 QUALITY EVALUATION OF THE STUDY ..............................................................................78
3.8.1 Internal Validity (Credibility) ..................................................................................................78
3.8.1.1 Data Collection and Analysis Procedures ............................................................................79
3.8.1.2 Triangulation of the Data .....................................................................................................80
3.8.2 External Validity (Transferability)...........................................................................................81
3.8.3 Reliability (Dependability).......................................................................................................82
3.8.4 Objectivity (Confirmability) .....................................................................................................82
3.9. SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................83
PART TWO INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN AND PRACTICE:

INDONESIAN EFL TEACHERS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF
PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK)................................................ 85
CHAPTER 4 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT
KNOWLEDGE (PCK) IN INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN .............. 86
4.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................86
4.1 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PCK WITHIN THE FIVE PROCESSES OF INSTRUCTIONAL
CURRICULUM DESIGN .........................................................................................................86
4.1.1 Process 1: Analyzing Needs .....................................................................................................86
4.1.1.1 The Case of Experienced Teachers .......................................................................................87
4.1.1.2 The Case of Inexperienced Teachers ....................................................................................90
4.1.2 Process 2: Formulating Learning Objectives and Competence Achievement Indicators........94
4.1.2.1 The Case of Experienced Teachers .......................................................................................94
4.1.2.2 The Case of Inexperienced Teachers ....................................................................................98
4.1.3 Process 3: Conceptualizing Content and Organizing the Instruction ...................................101
4.1.3.1 Conceptualizing Content .....................................................................................................101
4.1.3.1.1 The Case of Experienced Teachers ..................................................................................101
4.1.3.1.2 The Case of Inexperienced Teachers ...............................................................................106
4.1.3.2 Organizing the Instruction ..................................................................................................111
4.1.4 Process 4: Developing Instructional Materials .....................................................................119
4.1.4.1 Selecting Texts and Activities ..............................................................................................120
4.1.4.2 Adapting Instructional Materials ........................................................................................131
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4.1.5 Process 5: Assessing Student Learning ................................................................................. 137
4.1.5.1 The Case of Experienced Teachers .................................................................................... 137
4.1.5.2 The Case of Inexperienced Teachers .................................................................................. 139
4.2 THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT ON THE TEACHERS’
CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF PCK IN THEIR INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN: THE
REGENCY AND SCHOOL LEVELS OF CONTEXT ................................................................. 141
4.3 SUMMARY OF THE TEACHERS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF PCK ................................... 144
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION OF CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PEDAGOGICAL

CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK) IN INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM
DESIGN ......................................................................................................................... 147
5.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 147
5.1 WITHIN- AND CROSS-CASE COMPARISONS OF CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PCK IN
INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN ........................................................................... 147
5.1.1 Process 1: Analyzing Needs .................................................................................................. 147
5.1.2 Process 2: Formulating Learning Objectives and Competence Achievement Indicators ..... 150
5.1.3 Process 3: Conceptualizing Content and Organizing Instruction ......................................... 152
5.1.3.1 Conceptualizing Content .................................................................................................... 153
5.1.3.2 Organizing the Instruction ................................................................................................. 157
5.1.4 Process 4: Developing Instructional Materials..................................................................... 160
5.1.4.1 Selecting Texts and Activities ............................................................................................. 160
5.1.4.2 Adapting and Writing Instructional Materials ................................................................... 165
5.1.5 Process 5: Assessing Student Learning ................................................................................. 171
5.2 THE INFLUENCE OF THE NATIONAL EXAMINATION (NE) ON THE TEACHERS’
CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF PCK IN INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN: THE MACRO
LEVEL OF CONTEXT .......................................................................................................... 173
5.3 THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT ON THE TEACHERS’
CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF PCK IN THEIR INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN: THE
REGENCY AND SCHOOL LEVELS OF CONTEXT ................................................................. 174
5.4 CONCLUSION: THE LANDSCAPE OF THE EXPERIENCED AND INEXPERIENCED TEACHERS’
EXPERTISE ......................................................................................................................... 176

KNOWLEDGE (PCK) IN INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM PRACTICE ...... 178
6.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 178
6.1 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT TEXT (KAT) AND KNOWLEDGE ABOUT
READING INSTRUCTION (KARI) ....................................................................................... 178
6.1.1 Knowledge about Text (KAT) ................................................................................................ 178
6.1.1.1 The Case of Experienced Teachers .................................................................................... 179
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6.1.1.2 The Case of Inexperienced Teachers ..................................................................................185
6.1.2 KARI: Organization of Reading Instruction ..........................................................................187
6.1.2.1 The Case of Experienced Teachers .....................................................................................188
6.1.3 KARI: Knowledge about Reading Instruction........................................................................195
6.1.3.1 The Case of Experienced Teachers .....................................................................................195
6.2 DISCUSSION OF CONCEPTUALIZATION OF KAT AND KARI ...........................................204
6.2.1 Conceptualization of Knowledge about Text (KAT) ..............................................................205
6.2.2 Conceptualization of KARI: Organization of Reading Instruction ........................................205
6.2.2.1 The Organizing Principle of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC).............208
6.2.2.2 The Text-based Teaching and Learning Cycle....................................................................209
6.2.3 Conceptualization of KARI: Knowledge about Reading Instruction .....................................210
6.4 SUMMARY OF CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PCK (KAT AND KARI) .................................213
6.5 CONCLUSION: FRAMING THE FINDINGS OF CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PCK (KAT AND
KARI) ................................................................................................................................214
PART THREE CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 217

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, LIMITATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ... 218
7.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................218
7.1 SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS .........................................................................................218
7.1.1 Main Findings of Conceptualization of PCK in Instructional Curriculum Design ...............219
7.1.1.1 Pattern 1..............................................................................................................................219
7.1.1.2 Pattern 2..............................................................................................................................219
7.1.1.3 Pattern 3..............................................................................................................................220
7.1.1.4 Pattern 4..............................................................................................................................220
7.1.1.5 Pattern 5..............................................................................................................................220
7.1.1.6 Pattern 6..............................................................................................................................222
7.1.2 Main Findings of Conceptualization of PCK in Instructional Curriculum Practice .............222
7.2 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................223
7.3 IMPLICATIONS ..................................................................................................................227
7.4 LIMITATIONS ....................................................................................................................232
7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY ...............................................................................233
7.5.1 Recommendation 1 .................................................................................................................233
7.5.2 Recommendation 2 .................................................................................................................234
7.5.3 Recommendation 3 .................................................................................................................234
7.5.4 Summary ................................................................................................................................235
7.6 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ...........................................................................235
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REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 237
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 257
APPENDIX I THE STANDARD OF CONTENT FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AS
STATED IN THE 2006 SCHOOL-BASED CURRICULUM (SAMPLES) ............ 258
APPENDIX II PROFILES OF THE TEACHER PARTICIPANTS AND THEIR
COURSES ...................................................................................................................... 262
APPENDIX III PROFILES OF THE SCHOOL CONTEXTS (THE REGENCIES IN
THE SPECIAL PROVINCE OF YOGYAKARTA) ................................................. 266
APPENDIX IV PROFILES OF THE POTENTIAL TEACHER PARTICIPANTS .... 268
APPENDIX V RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ................................................................. 271
APPENDIX VI DATA COLLECTION TIMETABLE.................................................... 293
APPENDIX VII THE SNAPSHOT OF THE TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL
CURRICULUM DESIGN ............................................................................................ 296
APPENDIX VIII THE INEXPERIENCED TEACHERS’ SHARED PATTERNS OF
PCK CONCEPTUALIZATION IN FORMULATING COMPETENCE
ACHIEVEMENT INDICATORS ............................................................................... 305
APPENDIX IX THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
......................................................................................................................................... 308
APPENDIX X THE PROCESS OF CONCEPTUALIZING CONTENT AND
ORGANIZING THE INSTRUCTION ....................................................................... 354
APPENDIX XI THE PROCESS OF ASSESSING STUDENT LEARNING ................ 372
APPENDIX XII SAMPLES OF THE CODING SCHEME FOR THE PRE-LESSON
INTERVIEW DATA..................................................................................................... 391
THEME: ANALYZING NEEDS ....................................................................................... 391
APPENDIX XIII ETHICS APPROVAL ........................................................................... 393
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: The range and scope of teacher knowledge ........................................................19

Table 3.1: The number of secondary schools in the Special Province of Yogyakarta in
the academic year of 2011/2012.......................................................................................54
Table 3.2: The profile of the selected teacher participants .................................................56
Table 3.3: Instructional curriculum design documents provided in the study .................65
Table 3.4: The inter- and intra-coding data reliability of the experienced teachers’ pre-
lesson interview data ........................................................................................................77
Table 4.1: Examples of activities in which competence achievement indicators were
partially clear ....................................................................................................................95
Table 5.1: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization as relates to student
needs analysis ..................................................................................................................148
Table 5.2: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization in mapping content
focuses..............................................................................................................................154
Table 5.3: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization in selecting texts .......162
Table 5.4: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization in adapting
instructional materials ...................................................................................................166
Table 5.5: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization in writing instructional
materials ..........................................................................................................................169
Table 6.1: The experienced and inexperienced teachers’ exploration of text features ..182
Table 6.2: The cross-case comparison of organization of reading instruction................206
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: The changes of EFL school curriculum in Indonesia ........................................ 7

Figure 1.2: Conceptual framework of teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in a dynamic
system of instructional curriculum development .......................................................... 12
Figure 3.1: The multiple-case design of the study ............................................................... 52
Figure 5.1: The direction of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in constructing
competence achievement indicators ............................................................................. 151
Figure 5.2: A layer of integration within different single skill focuses ............................ 156
Figure 5.3: Integration within the strand of a lesson ........................................................ 156
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ALM Audio-lingual Method

BC Basic Competence
CBC Competency-based Curriculum
CK Content Knowledge
CLT Communicative Language Teaching
DIKPORA (Dinas Pendidikan Pemuda The Provincial Department of Education,
dan Olah Raga) Youth, and Sport
EEC Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation
EFL English as a Foreign Language
ELT English Language Teaching
ESL English as a Second Language
GBA Genre-based Approach
GTM Grammar-Translation Method
KARI Knowledge about Reading Instruction
KAT Knowledge about Text
L2 Second Language
MGMP (Musyawarah Guru Mata The Regency Panel of English Subject
Pelajaran) Teachers
MNEC Ministry of National Education and Culture
NE National Examination
NTCP (PLPG - Pendidikan dan The National Teacher Certification
Latihan Profesi Guru) Program
PCK Pedagogical Content Knowledge
PGRI (Persatuan Guru Republik The Indonesian Teachers Forum
Indonesia)
PJHS (SMP - Sekolah Menengah Public Junior High Schools
Pertama)
PK Pedagogical Knowledge
PPG (Program Profesi Guru) The Continuing In- and Pre-Service
Teacher Professional Program
PPP Present, Practice, Produce Procedure
SA Summative Assessment
SBC School-based Curriculum
SC Standard of Competence
TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language
TEFLIN Teaching English as Foreign Language in
Indonesia
TLA Teacher Language Awareness
UKG - Uji Kompetensi Guru The National Teacher Competence Test
xv
PART ONE BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The first part of this multiple-case study, on teachers’ conceptualizations of pedagogical

content knowledge (PCK) in designing and enacting their instructional curriculum, is made up
of three chapters.
Chapter 1 outlines the introductory parts of the study: the statement of the research
problem, the context of the study, the theoretical and conceptual framework, and the purpose
and significance of the study. Chapter 2 provides reviews of literature related to the
theoretical and conceptual framework of the study. Finally, Chapter 3 presents the selection of
the research approach, describes the research procedures, and presents the quality evaluation
of the study in which the validity, reliability, and objectivity of the study are discussed.
1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.0 Introduction
This chapter is organized into seven sections. In the first section, the research problem
addressed by the study will be discussed. In the second section, the context of the study,
including changes in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) school curriculum within the
Indonesian education system, and the characteristics of each curriculum, will be presented. In
the third section, the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study will be discussed,
followed by the purpose and significance of the study. The chapter then proceeds with the
definition of key terms; before ending with an outline of the thesis chapters.
1.1 Statement of the Research Problem
The history of English language teaching (ELT) in Indonesia has shown that the national EFL
curriculum has frequently changed (every eight to ten years, according to Hamied, 2014) by
the Ministry of National Education and Culture (MNEC). The present study was primarily
initiated to address the national school curriculum changes in the Indonesian EFL context,
and especially the changing role of EFL teachers in EFL curriculum development and
implementation. These changes have transformed EFL teachers’ role from that of serving
merely as curriculum transmitters into being curriculum adapters. The following section
elaborates on the research problem addressed in the present study.
The research problem addressed by this study resides on two specific research gaps in
the relevant literature on ELT in Indonesian schools. These gaps relate to (a) teacher
cognition and curriculum development and implementation in the teaching of English as a
foreign language (TEFL) in Indonesia, and (b) teacher knowledge as related to second
language (L2) pedagogical content knowledge (PCK).
In the TEFL research landscape in Indonesia, there has not yet been sufficient research
on teacher development in which teacher cognition and curriculum development are
addressed (Mann, 2005). This research gap is partly represented by a handful of studies on
Indonesian EFL teacher development examining teacher cognitive dimensions (e.g.
knowledge, beliefs, and perceptions) in developing instructional (Wette, 2009) curriculum or
curriculum at the classroom (Shawer, 2010) or micro (Van den Akker, 2003) level.
2
A survey of research on teacher cognitive dimensions and curriculum development in
the Indonesian EFL context indicates that research on this area has recently started to be of
interest to Indonesian scholars. A small number of recent studies show that such teacher
cognitive dimensions as beliefs, perceptions, conceptions, and knowledge in the Indonesian
EFL context are explored in light of particular aspects of classroom practices (e.g. Astuti,
2013; Azis, 2015; Marwan, 2009; Luschei & Zubaidah, 2012; Zacharias, 2004). These studies
investigated how teachers’ and students’ perceptions might reveal motivational teaching
strategies (Astuti, 2013); elucidated how teachers’ understanding and conceptions of
assessment relate to their assessment practices (Azis, 2015); examined how perceptions
measure the elements supporting English language instruction (Marwan, 2009); explored how
teacher knowledge obtained from teacher training supports teachers’ needs for dealing with
multi-grade teaching (Luschei & Zubaidah, 2012); and surveyed teachers’ beliefs about the
potential use of students’ mother tongue in learning English (Zacharias, 2004). A significant
study was conducted by Basalama (2010) that aimed to explore teachers’ own
conceptualizations of themselves, their responsibilities, and practices as professionals.
Basalama’s qualitative research set forth an examination of the influencing factors that
affected teachers’ formation as learners and as professionals, and analyzed how these factors
influenced their beliefs and attitudes towards their practices and their responses to curriculum
change in their classrooms. This line of previous research reveals, however, that studies of
teacher cognition and ELT in the Indonesian EFL context have not yet sufficiently addressed
teacher knowledge and teachers’ instructional curriculum development.
Research on L2 PCK, as reviewed in Chapter 2, has addressed several themes

resulting from the influence of research on PCK in general education. One of the themes
addressed is research on teachers’ development of PCK in ESL/ EFL classroom practices for
teaching particular contents of English (e.g. Howey & Grossman, 1989; Johnston & Goettsch,
2000; Irvine-Niakaries & Kiely, 2014; Richards, Li, & Tang, 1995; Sanchez & Borg, 2014).
Such research, however, does not explore teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK within
dynamic instructional curriculum development. Therefore, teachers’ processes of
transforming subject matter, and their pedagogical reasoning underlying such processes, are
not adequately portrayed within “a complex curricular endeavour” (Deng, 2007, p. 290). To
fill this gap, research needs to be directed to gathering empirical evidence on teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK as related to curricular and pedagogical tasks, which involves their
knowledge of learners and their knowledge of context. The present study, therefore, examines
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK as represented in their instructional curriculum design
and practice, within the particular socio-educational context of Indonesian EFL teaching.
3
1.2 Context of the Study
This section provides an overview of the curriculum changes in the Indonesian EFL context
that will portray the background for the present study. The overview will discuss the affected
elements of the curriculum, specify the challenges EFL teachers encounter, and identify
efforts that the Ministry of National Education and Culture (MNEC) have taken to support the
changing role of teachers as curriculum adapters.
1.2.1 A Snapshot of EFL School Curriculum Changes in Indonesia
Since Indonesian independence in 1945, the national EFL curriculum has changed more than
five times (Dardjowidjojo, 2000; Emilia, 2011; Hamied, 2014; Jazadi, 2000), and has adopted
four different approaches that have characterized Indonesian EFL classroom practices. The
first of these changes was the adoption of grammar-translation method (GTM) in the 1954
Curriculum, which was called the Old Framework Curriculum (Kurikulum Gaya Lama). In
1962, the GTM was changed into oral approach, in which audio-lingual method (ALM) was
widely implemented in the three subsequent curriculum reforms, as a result of the increasing
popularity of ALM across the world. These curricula included the 1962 Curriculum, which
was also known as the New Framework Curriculum (Kurikulum Gaya Baru), the 1968
Curriculum, which was called the Revised New Framework Curriculum (Kurikulum Baru
Yang Disempurnakan), and the 1975 Curriculum. Along with the strong criticisms toward
behaviourist theories underlying the emergence of traditional approaches to language
teaching, the national EFL curriculum developers eagerly promoted a communicative
approach in the 1984 Curriculum and the 1994 Curriculum. Since then, communicative
language teaching (CLT) and task-based instruction had predominantly been imposed on
Indonesian EFL classrooms, despite the fact that the implementation of CLT had met
constraints within the nation’s sociopolitical and sociocultural context (Dardjowidjojo, 2000;
Hamied, 2014; Jazadi, 2000; Musthafa, 2001).
ELT educators strongly voiced criticisms of problematic aspects of the 1984 and the
1994 curricula. It was pointed out that classroom practices were far from communicative, in
spite of the underlying curriculum being labeled as communicative (Dardjowidjojo, 2000;
Hamied, 2014). Classroom practices were still very structural, and emphasized the teaching of
reading skills. Jazadi (2000) argues that inconsistencies between the principles and practices
of CLT were due to the sociopolitical and sociocultural constraints within the Indonesian EFL
context. The sociopolitical aspect in particular centered around the top-down curriculum
decision-making processes that were blamed for not providing sufficient space for local
4
changes and innovations. These national educational policies were accompanied by other
national problems such as insufficient teacher competence, large classes, scarcity of
textbooks, and learners’ low motivation and achievement. The lack of supporting facilities
resulted in deficiencies in the implementation of CLT in the Indonesian EFL context. Other
sociocultural issues, such as the diversity of cultures and local contexts, were also not well
accommodated into the curriculum. Added to these, Jazadi (2000) also stresses that the
curriculum document itself contained inconsistency in defining how a communicative
approach is characterized in practice.
The communicative-based curriculum, which received so much critical attention from

Indonesian scholars, was then refined into the 2001 Competency-based Curriculum (CBC).
Shortly after, the 2001 CBC was refined into the 2004 Curriculum, which was still based on
competence, yet involved a genre-based approach (GBA). Another modification on the 2004
CBC was then made and realized in the emergence of the 2006 School-based Curriculum
(SBC). Integrated into the implementation of the 2006 SBC, the Indonesian education system
has deployed a decentralized system of education that has delegated responsibility to schools
to develop their own school-based curricula. Since then, an evolving demand for Indonesian
EFL teachers to act as curriculum adapters has arisen. The biggest challenge experienced by
teachers as curriculum adapters in implementing the 2006 SBC is the involvement of GBA
that has been adopted since the implementation of the 2004 CBC. Accordingly, teachers are
strongly required to practice text-based teaching as the manifestation of genre-based
pedagogy.
When Indonesian EFL teachers were struggling to learn the genre-based approach
underlying the 2006 SBC, in 2013 the MNEC launched another new curriculum. This new
curriculum is called the 2013 Curriculum, and responds to four main influencing factors:
(1) current global challenges,

(2) required competencies,
(3) current degradation of morals among the younger generation, and
(4) Indonesians’ misperceptions concerning education (Hamied, 2014).
Several characteristics are attached to this new 2013 Curriculum. Firstly, the curriculum is
strongly regulated by science-based and holistic features (Hamied, 2014). Accordingly, a
prescribed organizing principle, called the scientific-based approach, has come into being to
organize teachers’ instruction. This prescribed scientific-based organizing principle consists
of the stages of observing, questioning, associating, experimenting, and networking (Hamied,
5
2014). Another feature of this new curriculum is that the core competences, which were
known as the standard of competences in the 2006 SBC, are character-based instead of text-
based. However, texts remain the main content category in teachers’ instruction, as texts
remain inherent in the list of the basic competences of the 2013 Curriculum. Therefore, the
2013 Curriculum is, on the one hand, a competency-based curriculum (Hamied, 2014), but on
the other hand is a character-based one as represented by the target characters to be achieved
by students as stated in the core competences. This emphasis on characters was confirmed in
the statement that the MNEC released in 2013 (“Mendikbud: Kurikulum Baru”, 2013). In this
press release, the Minister of National Education and Culture at that time stressed that the new
2013 Curriculum is primarily character-based rather than competency-based. As stipulated in
the 2003 Law No. 20, Article 3 about the National Education System, the character-based
curriculum stresses values and moral education to develop capability, character, and the
civilization of the nation; which aims to develop learners’ potential so as to enable them to
become human beings who are faithful to one God, who have good morals, who are healthy,
knowledgeable, competent, creative, and independent, and who are democratic and
responsible as citizens.
Considering the inequality and inequity of school quality across Indonesia, due to
differing conditions of schools in realizing the standards of the national education system as
stipulated by the Government Regulation No. 19/2005, the MNEC decided to implement this
2013 Curriculum step-by-step (Wahyuni, 2014). From 2013 to 2017, the implementation of
the 2013 Curriculum has been projected in selected or prototype schools as determined by the
MNEC. In 2015, the MNEC appointed more schools (25% of the total number of schools in
Indonesia) (Qodar, 2015) to implement the 2013 Curriculum. In 2018-2019, the MNEC’s
target is to implement the 2013 Curriculum in all schools across Indonesia (Harahap, 2015).
6
Figure 1.1, adapted from Emilia (2011), illustrates the changes in the EFL school
curriculum in Indonesia.
- 1945 – 1950
- 1954 – The 1954 Curriculum (GTM-based)
- 1962 – The 1962 Curriculum (ALM-based)
- 1984 – The 1984 Curriculum (Communicative-based Approach)
- 1994 – The 1994 Curriculum (Communicative-based Approach)
- 2001 – The 2001 Curriculum (Competency-based Curriculum/ CBC)
- 2004 – The 2004 Curriculum (CBC involving Genre-based Approach)
- 2006 – The 2006 Curriculum (School-based Curriculum involving Genre-based
Approach)
- 2013 – The 2013 Curriculum (Character-based involving Genre-based Approach)
Figure 1.1: The changes of EFL school curriculum in Indonesia
1.2.2 Challenges of EFL Curriculum Changes
The changes of school curriculum have affected the EFL curriculum in terms of development
and implementation. Such components of the curriculum network as instructional goals and
learning objectives, instructional materials including learning activities, teacher roles, learning
resources and media, classroom management and interaction, and assessment, have been
regulated under the direction of the particular curriculum approaches and ideologies, which in
turn set up different standards for the design and practices of the curriculum at the micro, or
classroom, level. New challenges, as a result of the EFL curriculum changes, have impacted
Indonesian EFL teachers as the key players of the EFL curriculum development and
implementation.
One of the challenges that teachers have encountered is that every curriculum change
presents teachers with a different focus of content conceptualization and a different prescribed
organizing principle. In the era of the communicative approach-based curriculum, for
example, teachers were required to be able to develop students’ communicative competence,
despite the existing constraints as presented earlier. As Hamied (2014) specifies, within the
7
communicative-based curriculum, teachers planned their instruction by themes, and focused
on the development of the four macro skills of English, particularly the macro reading skill.
Another challenge faced by teachers is that, for more than ten years from 2004 to the present,
Indonesian EFL teachers have been required to be capable of blending mixed-content
categories, within the intersection of communicative approach and genre-based pedagogy
underlying the 2006 SBC (Emilia, 2011; Hamied, 2014). Teachers have been required to
blend two main content categories, which are the four skills of English and texts, to achieve
the determined competencies as stated in the standard of competence (SC) and basic
competence (BC) of the curriculum. In addition, within the implementation of the 2006 SBC
and the 2013 Curriculum, the MNEC have mandated teachers to integrate characters into their
instruction, as stipulated in the 2003 Law No. 20 about the National Education System.
The implementation of these last two curricula is more complex, since each of these is
designated according to a different prescribed organizing principle. At the macro (national)
level, the MNEC determined that, in enacting the 2006 SBC, teachers across subject matters
were required to organize their instruction with the prescribed organizing principle, namely,
Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC). However, following the 2013 Curriculum,
Indonesian EFL teachers are required to organize their teaching and learning activities with
the stages drawn from the prescribed scientific-based organizing principle, as previously
elucidated.
Several reviews by Indonesian scholars, either individually, or collectively (as in a

review by Teaching English as Foreign Language in Indonesia (TEFLIN), an Indonesian
association of profession for English teachers, practitioners, and educators), conclude with a
judgment that the teaching of English in Indonesia has not been able to reach its national goal
as determined by the national EFL curriculum (Hamied, 2014; Jazadi, 2000; Madya, 2002). In
particular focusing on the implementation of the 2006 SBC, which strongly involves genre-
based pedagogy, TEFLIN has claimed, based on its general observation, that the enactment of
this curriculum in classroom practices has entailed teaching malpractices (TEFLIN Policy
Statement, 2011). Furthermore, TEFLIN, as a prominent professional association, has argued
that there has been a discrepancy between what is expected by the intended curriculum and
what is practiced in the actual process of teaching and learning. They have emphasized that
the curriculum changes within the 2006 SBC have not been parallel with sufficient
understanding by teachers of both theoretical and practical aspects underlying the
implementation of the genre-based curriculum. In response to the pros and cons concerning
the feasibility of the implementation of genre-based approach in the Indonesian EFL context,
8
Emilia (2005) conducted a thorough research in which she critically and systematically
investigated the feasibility of implementing genre-based approach for teaching academic
English writing in the Indonesian EFL tertiary teaching context. The result of that research
confirmed that genre-based approach was feasible to be implemented to improve students’
writing skills. The research, therefore, called for a wider and more intensive implementation
of this approach in the Indonesian EFL context.
1.2.3 The Current Teacher Development Programs
To minimize the discrepancy between curriculum changes and curriculum implementation,

and to sustain the improvement of teacher competence, the MNEC, in collaboration with
teacher education programs, has continuously organized teacher development programs, such
as various in-service teacher training programs, the national teacher certification program
(Pendidikan dan Latihan Profesi Guru - PLPG), the national teacher competence tests (Uji
Kompetensi Guru – UKG), and the continuing in- and pre-service teacher profession program
(Program Profesi Guru - PPG). Recently, since 2013, the MNEC, in collaboration with core
teachers (guru inti) and teacher education institutions, have organized a large number of in-
service teacher training programs to prepare Indonesian EFL teachers to better implement the
2013 Curriculum (Zubaidah, 2014). To keep monitoring the national average of teachers’
competence, the MNEC has also conducted a national test for measuring teacher competence
from 2012 up to the present.
In response to the frequent changes in the school curriculum, given the continuous
efforts made by the MNEC, it is surprising that few studies, as presented in Section 1.1, have
been conducted for exploring the ways Indonesian EFL teachers develop their instructional
(Wette, 2009) or classroom-level (Shawer, 2010) curriculum. As stated by the Indonesian
Teacher Forum (Persatuan Guru Republik Indonesia – PGRI), the implementation of the
national curriculum, including any of the Indonesian EFL curricula, at any levels, either at the
level of the ‘intended’ (the macro level/national curriculum), ‘implemented’ (the meso
level/school-specific curriculum and the micro level/classroom practices), or ‘attained’ (the
nano level/individual experiences) curriculum activities (Van den Akker, 2003), has never
been well-researched (“Ditemukan 8 kejanggalan”, 2013). This fact, therefore, has provided a
significant research gap and a justification for conducting the present study.
9
1.3 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework of the Study
This study aims to explore the conceptualizations of PCK of six Yogyakarta (Indonesia) EFL
teachers of public junior high school (PJHS) in their instructional curriculum design and
practice. The study adopts Shulman’s (1987) conception of PCK as the main conceptual
construct. As the present study focuses on exploring the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK
in two phases of instructional curriculum development, that is, designing (planning) and
enacting (teaching), Shulman’s (1987) conceptualization of PCK is combined with Graves’s
(2000) framework for course development processes, to portray the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design. Moreover, Andrews’s
(2007) modified model of PCK informs the study, to explore the teachers’ conceptualizations
of PCK in their instructional curriculum practice. Finally, Graves’s (2008) dynamic system of
curriculum development, which explicates the role of socio-educational context in the
operationalization of the three core curriculum development phases (planning, enacting, and
evaluating), is employed to highlight the influence of the socio-educational context on the
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design and practice.
Socio-educational context, in this dynamic system, refers to specific, complex, dynamic, and
relational cultural, social, educational, and political environment of the classroom.
Drawing on the relevant literature on PCK, as reviewed in Chapter 2, the term

‘conceptualization’ reflects teachers’ pedagogical reasoning, which channels their
understanding and transforming processes to their knowledge base of teaching to develop
sound pedagogical decisions for effectively designing and enacting instruction. In designing
instruction, the knowledge base of teaching adopted includes content knowledge (CK),
pedagogical knowledge (PK), knowledge of learners, knowledge of contexts, and knowledge
of curriculum (Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987). Meanwhile, the modified model of PCK
(Andrews, 2007), which incorporates teacher language awareness (TLA) into a construct
within its extended knowledge base of teaching, is employed to explore the teachers’
conceptualizations in enacting their subject matter knowledge. Thus, Andrews’s (2007)
modified model of PCK frames PCK as “the overarching knowledge base” in which teacher
language awareness (TLA) is attached as “one subset of the teacher’s knowledge bases (a
knowledge base subset that is unique to the L2 teacher)” (p. 30). In the present study, the term
‘content’ refers to the content categories of skills and texts stated in the standard of content
for junior high school within the 2006 SBC (see Appendix I), as implemented by the six
participating teachers.
10
Regarding the first line of inquiry concerning the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK
in the phase of designing, Graves’s (2000) dynamic framework for course development
processes is used as the model to guide the exploration of the teachers’ conceptualizations of
PCK in their instructional curriculum design. Adapted from Graves’s (2000) eight course
development processes, in which the processes of defining context and articulating teacher
cognition become the foundation for the other processes, the adapted model for exploring the
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design in the present
study consists of five processes:
(1) analyzing needs,

(2) formulating learning objectives and competence achievement indicators,
(3) conceptualizing content and organizing the instruction,
(4) developing instructional materials, and
(5) assessing student learning.
Within the caveats of Shulman’s (1987) PCK, and Graves’s (2000) framework of
course development processes, the key exploration in the first line of inquiry focuses on the
forms and strategies of the teachers’ transformation process, and their pedagogical concerns
underlying their decisions in utilizing those particular forms and strategies of transformation
in planning their instructional curriculum.
In relation to the second line of inquiry, this study focuses on the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in enacting their instructional practices, particularly in their
reading instruction. Reading instruction was selected since all the teacher participants were
teaching this skill, as explicated in Chapter 3. To portray the teachers’ conceptualizations of
PCK in their reading instruction, Andrews’s (2007) modified model of PCK, along with
Shulman’s (1987) conception of PCK, are employed to put into practice the L2 framework of
reading instruction proposed by Irvine-Niakaris and Kiely (2014).
The second line of inquiry emphasizes exploring the teachers’ conceptualizations of

PCK in terms of knowledge about texts (KAT), and knowledge about reading instruction
(KARI) (Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014) in their reading instruction.
Along with the examination of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their

instructional curriculum design and practice, the study also sheds light on the influence of the
socio-educational context on the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK (Graves, 2008).
11
Figure 1.2 presents the conceptual framework of the study, illustrating how the
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design and practice will
be explored in the study.
Designing Assessing
Enacting (e.g. KARI & KAT)
Teachers’ PCK
Conceptualization
(Pedagogical
Reasoning: As
Understanding &
Transforming)
Socioeducational
TLA
Knowledge of Context Knowledge of

Curriculum
Socio-educational context
Knowledge of Learners
Figure 1.2: Conceptual

TL framework of teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in a dynamic
system of instructional curriculum development
1.4 Purpose of the Study
This study primarily aims to explore six EFL teachers’ conceptualizations of pedagogical
content knowledge (PCK) (Shulman, 1987)
Socio-educational when they are involved in designing and enacting
context
their instructional or classroom-level

S curriculum, within the particular socio-educational
context. The study seeks answers to the following two specific research questions.
1.4.1 Research Questions
1) How do teachers transform their understanding of content into effective instructional

curriculum design within the particular socio-educational context?
12
2) How do teachers conceptualize their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), in terms of
knowledge about text (KAT) and knowledge about reading instruction (KARI), in their
instructional curriculum practice within the particular socio-educational context?
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study is significant with respect to three challenges that Indonesian EFL teachers have
encountered. Firstly, responding to the evolving demand for Indonesian EFL teachers to be
curriculum adapters, this study is an effort to better understand how teachers exercise the
demanding role as curriculum adapters for their classroom practices. This effort is crucial in
order to learn how teachers actually develop their instruction. The findings of the study,
therefore, provide vivid elaboration on how teachers transform their understanding of content
into effective instructional curriculum design and practice. In so doing, this study is expected
to help various stakeholders, such as teacher education and the Ministry of National
Education and Culture (MNEC), to understand how teachers develop their instructional
curriculum. The outcomes may prove valuable for redesigning the top-down and authoritarian
teacher training programs that are continuously organized by the MNEC. For teacher
education, understanding of teachers’ actual micro patterns of developing instructional
curriculum is expected to contribute to better preparing pre-service teachers and informing the
improvement of teacher education curricula.
In addition, as previously stated, the changes of school curriculum in the Indonesian

education system have not been balanced with sufficient research on curriculum
implementation. This also applies to the current changes of school curriculum, in which
Indonesian schools have experienced the transition of two curricula, namely the 2006 School-
based Curriculum (SBC) and the 2013 Curriculum, from 2013 up to the present. However, up
to 2016, the majority of schools are still implementing the 2006 SBC. As of 2016, the MNEC
has approximately appointed 25% of schools across different educational levels in Indonesia
to implement the 2013 Curriculum (Qodar, 2015; Nugroho, 2016). Therefore, this study
provides substantial empirical data on the actual practices of EFL teachers in implementing
the 2006 SBC, and portrays the teachers’ understanding of texts and their implementation of
text-based teaching underlying the 2006 SBC.
Finally, this study is also a useful gateway towards presenting a picture of the impacts
of the National Teacher Certification Program (NTCP) on EFL teachers who have been
certified. The findings of the study on the patterns of the conceptualization of PCK by the
certified teachers, as represented by the experienced teachers, provide a picture of certified
13
teachers’ competence in developing their instructional curriculum in comparison to non-
certified teachers, also labeled as inexperienced teachers, in this study.
1.6 Definition of the Key Terms
This study covers several key concepts, which will be operationalized as follows.
1) Teachers’ conceptualizations of pedagogical content knowledge

As explicated in Section 1.3, the key term ‘teachers’ conceptualizations of
pedagogical content knowledge’ in this study essentially refers to teachers’
understanding of content and their transformation of content into sound pedagogical
activities and reasoning for effective instruction (Shulman, 1987).
2) Instructional curriculum
The term ‘instructional curriculum’ in this study is adopted from Wette’s (2009) term
for what is known as the implemented curriculum or the curriculum activities at the
micro level (classroom practices) (Van den Akker, 2003). Shawer (2010) labels this
micro level of curriculum activities ‘classroom-level curriculum’.
3) Instructional curriculum design
Instructional curriculum design refers to the cycle of planning instruction, constituting
a number of processes. The five processes of planning instruction in this study are
adapted from Graves’s (2000) framework of course development processes, which is
used for exploring teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional
curriculum design.
4) Instructional curriculum practice
Instructional curriculum practice is defined as the activity of enacting the instructional
curriculum design made in the planning stage. Thus, the teaching and learning
processes that happen in the classroom construct the key activity of instructional
curriculum enactment (Graves, 2008).
1.7 Organization of the Thesis
This thesis consists of seven chapters, in three parts. In Part 1, Chapter 1 presents an outline
of the research problem, the context of the study, the theoretical and conceptual framework,
and the purpose and significance of the study. Chapter 2 reviews relevant literature that
relates to the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study. Such relevant literature
comprises teacher cognition, in which it elaborates a theoretical and empirical review of
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), language curriculum development, and text-based
14
teaching. Chapter 3 discusses the research approach and procedures, explaining the research
method and design, participants and sampling strategy, and the procedures of data collection,
data organization and data analysis. Chapter 3 also highlights the quality evaluation of the
study. Following Chapter 3, Part 2, comprising Chapters 4, 5, and 6, presents and discusses
the findings of the study. Chapters 4 and 5 present and discuss the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design. Chapter 6 elaborates on
these findings, through interpretation of the findings on the teachers’ conceptualizations of
PCK in terms of knowledge about text (KAT) and knowledge about reading instruction
(KARI) in their reading instruction. Finally, in Part 3, Chapter 7 provides the conclusions,
implications, limitations, recommendations, and suggestions for future research.
15
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction
The review of the literature, relevant to the present study, presented in this chapter
encompasses three main theories underlying the study. The first theory relates to teacher
cognition. The relevant literature related to this theory is represented by the sections that
review the origin and dimensions of teacher thinking or cognition (Section 2.1), the range and
scope of teacher knowledge (Section 2.2), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) (Section
2.3), and teacher knowledge and expertise (Section 2.4).
The second main theory deals with language curriculum development, in which
instructional curriculum development and its essential phases and processes are elaborated.
The review within this theory covers one section and three main subsections that present
instructional curriculum development (Section 2.5), instructional curriculum design
(Subsection 2.5.1), instructional curriculum practice (Subsection 2.5.2), and instructional
curriculum assessment (Subsection 2.5.3).
The third theory in the review discusses text-based teaching (Section 2.6), which
includes methodology, text authenticity, and scaffolding within the text-based teaching and
learning cycle, which specifies the types of activities and assessment. Finally, the review is
summarized in Section 2.7.
2.1 The Origin and Dimensions of Teacher Thinking (Cognition)
The well-established body of research on teacher cognition emerged from research on

teaching behaviours and classroom processes in the educational research in the late 1960s and
early 1970s. The complex relation between teaching behaviors and classroom processes was
termed teacher thinking, in which the curriculum was interpreted and put into practice
(Calderhead, 1987). Early research on teacher thinking emphasized teachers’ planning
thoughts, their classroom decision-making process, and their implicit theories. Findings from
these studies confirmed that teachers’ thought processes are complex and influence teachers’
decision-making processes. These studies, furthermore, determined that teachers’ decision-
making processes are influenced by such dimensions of teacher thinking as teachers’ beliefs,
attitudes, and knowledge (Clark & Peterson, 1986).
16
Of the above three dimensions of teacher thinking, beliefs are considered to have the
major influence (Pajares, 1992). Several researchers have defined teacher cognition as mostly
constituting beliefs, a distinct construct from teacher knowledge (Calderhead, 1996; Kagan,
1992; Pajares, 1992). The term knowledge is perceived to hold a reasonable degree of
epistemic merit (Fenstermacher, 1994). In order to be claimed as knowledge, any formal or
practical understanding, belief, wisdom, or any other mental state, should hold some objective
support, evidence, or explanation, in which a particular degree of epistemic merit can be
drawn to construct robust and sound knowledge (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1990;
Fenstermacher, 1994).
There has been, however, doubt whether it is necessary to differentiate between

teacher knowledge and beliefs as distinct constructs. When Grossman, Wilson, and Shulman
(1989) attempted to identify what was perceived as teacher knowledge, they came to the
conclusion that the distinction between teachers’ knowledge and beliefs is difficult to
disentangle. In the teachers’ view, such teacher cognition dimensions as “knowledge, beliefs,
conceptions, and intuitions” (Verloop, Van Driel, & Meijer, 2001, p. 446) are interlaced. A
number of other researchers also do not make a distinction between beliefs and knowledge
(Eraut, 1994; Fenstermacher, 1986, 1994; Houston & Clift, 1990; Schön, 1991). These
researchers’ perspectives, therefore, have highlighted that it is problematic and unnecessary to
disentangle these two constructs as related to teacher cognition.
2.2 The Range and Scope of Teacher Knowledge
The development of research on teacher cognition has formed a substantial body of concepts
of teacher knowledge. These prominent concepts arise from the perspective that teachers, in
their teaching profession, are viewed as individuals who acquire a complex range of
knowledge to do the work of their profession (Feldman, 1997). The development in the field
particularly highlights the nature of teacher knowledge and teacher knowledge base. The
emergence of seminal concepts related to teacher knowledge began when Elbaz (1981, 1983)
came up with the concept of practical knowledge, which was followed by the similar concept
of personal practical knowledge proposed by Connelly and Clandinin (1988, 1990). Later,
Schön’s (1983) concept of professional knowledge and Shulman’s (1986, 1987) notion of
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) enriched Elbaz and Connelly-Clandinin’s strand of
teacher knowledge.
In Elbaz’s (1983) early work, arising from a longitudinal study of a high school
teacher’s classroom practices, the term practical knowledge is defined to “encompass first-
17
hand experience of students’ learning styles, interests, needs, strengths and difficulties, and a
repertoire of instructional techniques and classroom management skills” (Elbaz, 1983, p. 5).
The term personal practical knowledge, on the other hand, is described as craft knowledge
that is constructed by teachers’ past, present, and future actions and shaped by situations or
contexts (Clandinin, 1992). This strand of concepts, therefore, attempts to understand
teachers’ contextual-bound solutions for tackling and coping with the problems and
challenges that teachers encounter in their classroom practice. The primary concern is to
figure out what knowledge, despite their existing formal and imposed knowledge, they use as
the basis of their actions. The essential nature of these concepts is to seek for a unique and
personal kind of knowledge that derives from such personal avenues as teachers’ experience
and their attendance at teacher training (Feldman, 1997; Verloop, Van Driel, & Meijer, 2001).
Schön’s (1983) professional knowledge manifests in tacit professional knowledge that

is grounded on two reflective attitudes, reflecting-on-action and reflecting-in-action. His
concept departs from his thought that the model of Technical Rationality, which views
professional knowledge as organized, fixed, scientific, and standardized to solve problems,
fails to take into account the epistemology of practice implicit in a complex, unique, and
unpredictable setting. Such thought leads him to define what professionals do at work as
knowing-in-action, which views knowing and action as inseparable and tacit. Tacit
knowledge leads professionals to come to their discovery of knowing without this discovery
stemming from their prior intellectual operation. Hence, Schön’s epistemology of knowledge
views that knowing is in action, by making use of such elements of the epistemology of
practice as knowing-in-action, reflecting-in-action, and reflecting-on-action or reflecting-in-
practice.
The last strand of teacher knowledge reviewed in this section, pedagogical content
knowledge (PCK), originated in the seminal work of Shulman (1987) and his colleagues on
the notion of the knowledge base for teaching, in which PCK is one of the varieties of teacher
knowledge within the broader knowledge base for teaching. This strand focuses on the
epistemology of knowledge for teaching, which recalls the need to deploy a blend of teachers’
content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical knowledge (PK) as the basis for teachers to
enhance their student learning. Two elements that structure PCK are: (1) knowledge of
comprehensible representations and teaching strategies, and (2) knowledge about content-
specific conceptions and learning difficulties (Van Driel, Verloop, & De Vos, 1998; Van
Driel & Berry, 2010) (see Section 2.3 for a further review on theoretical and philosophical
perspectives on PCK).
18
Table 2.1 summarizes the range and scope of teacher knowledge.
Table 2.1: The range and scope of teacher knowledge
Range of Scope of Teacher Knowledge

Aspects Involved Aim
Teacher
Knowledge
Practical Engaging in daily experiences in Practically handling problems
Knowledge classroom (e.g. understanding that occur at work (classroom
Elbaz (1983) students and developing an and school)
instructional repertoire) and
school
Personal Practical Including aspects of practical Tackling and coping with
Knowledge knowledge and combining these classroom problems and
Connelly and with those aspects of teachers’ challenges by developing a
Clandinin (1988, personal knowledge that account balanced solution from the
1990) for teachers’ experience over perspectives of both students’
time (teachers’ past, present, and and teachers’ personal avenues
future actions)
Professional Deriving from such reflective Solving problems by actively
Knowledge attitudes as reflecting-on-action reflecting on what teachers have
Schön (1983) and reflecting-in-action done and on what they have
been practicing
Pedagogical Incorporating knowledge of Enhancing student learning by
Content comprehensible knowledge transforming teachers’
Knowledge representations and teaching understanding of content
Shulman (1987) strategies, and knowledge about (subject matter) into
particular content-specific understandable and learnable
conceptions and learning pedagogical activities
difficulties
2.3 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
Grounded in a general education research tradition, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

was introduced by Shulman (1987) in the midst of a wide recognition of the experiential or
practical aspects of teacher knowledge. Shulman (1987) reformulated the basic idea of “How
does somebody that really knows something teach it to somebody who doesn’t?” (Berry,
19
Loughran, & Van Driel, 2008, p. 1274). He argued that “the intersection of content and
pedagogy” (Shulman, 1987, p. 15), was actually the missing paradigm in teacher knowledge
research. He further reasoned that teachers’ understanding of their subject matter or content
affects the quality of their instruction. Such challenges as transforming the curriculum into
classroom practices dealing with curriculum design and development, and the like, can be
responded to when teachers have a good control over their subject matter knowledge.
Addressing this missing paradigm, Shulman emphasized the importance of teachers’ subject
matter or content knowledge (CK) in teaching and teacher education, and thus, intended to
illuminate the crucial relationship between content and pedagogy.
The blending of content and pedagogy in PCK entails teachers’ capability to transform
their complex understanding of content or subject matter into “new ways, activities and
emotions, metaphors and exercises, examples and demonstrations” (Shulman, 1987, p. 13)
that are understandable to students with diverse interests and abilities. This capability
becomes a distinctive trait of teachers’ PCK. Such a disposition, therefore, distinguishes
between what Shulman (1987, p. 8) named “the content specialist” and what Toh, Ho, Chew,
and Riley (2003, p. 200) termed “the subject expert”, and “a pedagogue” (Shulman, 1987, p.
8), or “the expert teacher in a subject area” (Toh et al., p. 200). With this distinctive trait, PCK
is attributed to a specialized knowledge of teaching that signifies the development of teachers’
expertise (Loughran, Milroy, Berry, Gunstone, & Mulhall, 2001). In the ELT context, PCK is
briefly translated as “the special knowledge” (Richards et al., 1995, p. 2) of teachers’ subject
matter, or teachers’ “specialized knowledge” (Graves, 2009, p. 118), “knowledge of subject-
specific instructional techniques” (Johnston & Goettsch, 2000, p. 449), “the effective
representation of content knowledge to students” (Tsui, 2011, p. 27), and “knowledge of how
to teach the academic domain” (Myhill, Jones, & Watson, 2013, p. 77).
In order to be able to transform the understanding of content into effective instruction,

teachers need to activate the pedagogical reasoning attached to the conception of PCK. This
pedagogical reasoning of PCK is grounded on the following sources of knowledge within
knowledge base of teaching: (1) CK, (2) PK, (3) knowledge of learners, (4) knowledge of
curriculum, and (5) knowledge of context (Grossman, 1990; Gudmundsdottir & Shulman,
1987; Shulman, 1986). In the second language (L2) teaching and learning context, such
pedagogical reasoning, as Richards (2012) exemplifies, is often activated by experienced
teachers for doing the planning aspects of their instruction, such as assessing potential lesson
content from particular resources, mapping content categories (e.g. linguistic features and
skills) from the selected potential content, selecting materials, and adapting materials.
20
In the context of L2 teaching, Andrews (2007) modified the pedagogical reasoning of
PCK by attaching teacher language awareness (TLA) as one subset within “the overarching
knowledge base” of PCK (p. 30). As Andrews argues, the interaction of TLA with the other
knowledge categories, within the pedagogical reasoning of PCK, shapes a unique knowledge
base applicable to exploring acts of expert L2 teaching. This modified model of PCK
pedagogical reasoning is, therefore, used as the framework to investigate L2 teachers’ subject
matter knowledge in action, such as teachers’ subject matter knowledge or CK (Andrews,
2001, 2007), and knowledge about reading instruction (KARI) and knowledge about text
(KAT) (Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014).
2.3.1 Empirical Studies on PCK in English Language Teaching Context
In resonance with research on teacher knowledge in general education, studies on PCK in

English language teaching (ELT) began to emerge when L2 teacher education research was
developed as a field of inquiry (Tsui, 2011). Following the lead of the research tradition on
PCK in general education, studies on PCK in ELT have shown a resemblance in research
focus to that of scholars in general education. Several studies on PCK in ELT have appeared
to form such themes as: (1) the development of PCK and teaching experience (e.g. Asl, Asl,
& Asl, 2014; Atay, Karlioglu, & Kurt, 2010; Komur, 2010); (2) the development of PCK in
classroom practices (e.g. Howey & Grossman, 1989; Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014; Liu,
2013; Richards et al., 1995; Sanchez & Borg, 2014); (3) the role of professional development
activities in the development of PCK (e.g. Huang, 2007; Smith & Anagnostopoulos, 2008;
Walker, 2012); (4) the place of PCK in teacher knowledge base (e.g. Johnston & Goettsch,
2000); (5) the role of subject matter, or CK, on PCK (e.g. Myhill, Jones, & Watson, 2013);
and (6) technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK/ TPACK) (e.g. Tai, Pan, & Lee,
2015; Tseng, 2014; Zainal, 2012). This review discusses the first five themes as they relate to
the discussions of the findings in the present study.
Studies on the development of PCK and teaching experience conclude that teaching
experience contributes to the development of PCK, but it is not the only source of the
development of PCK. Atay et al.’s (2010) and Komur’s (2010) studies found that pre-service
teachers’ development of PCK is hampered by their insufficient teaching experience. The pre-
service teachers faced difficulties in conceptualizing their understanding of content and in
translating such understanding into pedagogical classroom activities. Early studies by Howey
and Grossman (1989) and Richards et al. (1995), however, revealed that, despite insufficient
teaching experience, the beginning teachers’ development of PCK is guided by their teacher
21
education program. The survey study by Asl et al. (2014) points out the inseparable
connection between experience and professional and teacher development activities. The
results of their study show that the participating teachers with more years of teaching
experience did not benefit from their teaching experience for enhancing their CK and PCK.
Further exploration within their study found that teachers’ disengagement from professional
and teacher development activities contributed to the findings of the survey study. Overall,
the studies on the development of PCK and teaching experience confirm that three primary
sources, teaching experience, teacher education, and teachers’ professional development,
shape teachers’ development of PCK.
The studies on the development of PCK in classroom practice mostly capture the
experienced teachers’ development of PCK for teaching various contents of English, such as
English literary texts (e.g. Richards et al., 1995), reading skills (e.g. Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely,
2014), grammar explanations (e.g. Sanchez & Borg, 2014), and grammar in the context of
teaching writing to students (e.g. Myhill et al., 2013). The findings of the aforementioned
studies on the exploration of the experienced teachers’ development of PCK show that these
teachers demonstrate sufficient development of PCK in teaching their course content.
Teachers in such studies were evidenced to be capable of: (1) transforming the literary texts
into meaning-making activities while developing students’ reading skills (Richards et al.,
1995); (2) developing and using a variety of reading activities within the teaching sequence of
pre-, while-, and post-reading activities, and analyzing the macro and micro elements of texts
(e.g. Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014); and (3) using varied instructional techniques for
explaining grammar and pedagogically reasoning their choice of using particular techniques
(e.g. Sanchez & Borg, 2014). Several areas of strength exhibited by experienced teachers’
PCK development are further identified in Richards et al.’s (1995) study. Their study revealed
that experienced teachers: (1) showed a deeper understanding of subject matter, (2) were
better able to present subject matter more appropriately and from learners’ perspectives, and
(3) were more skillful in integrating language learning with broader instructional goals than
were novice teachers.
The studies on the development of PCK and teachers’ professional and personal
development activities (e.g. Huang, 2007; Smith & Anagnostopoulos, 2008; Walker, 2012)
signify the finding that teachers’ professional and personal development activities, such as
taking part in a study group, serving as a teacher mentor, and being assigned to be prospective
assessors of a student-teacher practicum, can be valuable avenues for teachers to continuously
develop their PCK.
22
The studies on the interaction of PCK within the teacher knowledge base show that
the development of PCK is interwoven with other teacher knowledge categories within the
teacher knowledge base. From this line of research came the findings that: teachers’ PCK
closely interacted with teachers’ CK and knowledge of learners (e.g. Johnston & Goettsch,
2000); teachers’ PCK worked with CK, PK, knowledge of learners and knowledge of
teaching context (e.g. Liu, 2013); teachers’ grammatical PCK (GPCK) was needed to support
their grammatical CK (GCK) (e.g. Myhill et al., 2013); and teachers’ grammatical-related
PCK (GPCK) was bound to their knowledge of micro and macro contexts (e.g. Sanchez &
Borg, 2014).
The body of research on PCK in the ELT context opens up opportunities for
continuing study in this area. The challenge for the future lines of research on PCK in ELT is
to establish a stronger position for PCK as a line of inquiry that may inform how L2 teachers
could effectively transform their subject matter into relevant and understandable pedagogical
activities, tackle students’ misconceptions, and find ways to help them (Tsui, 2011).
Therefore, researching PCK in the ELT context should not only deal with the choices of
particular approaches, methods, techniques, and activities to transform teachers’
understanding of content, but should also demonstrate their pedagogical reasoning for their
decision to apply those choices to make content more accessible and understandable to
students. Richards (1998) defines subject matter knowledge, or CK, for L2 teachers as “what
second language teachers need to know about their subject - the specialized concepts,
theories, and disciplinary knowledge that constitute the theoretical basis for the field of
second language teaching” (p. 8). Hence, the intricate challenges of researching PCK in the
ELT context span a vast array, from the content knowledge for English teachers to
multifaceted perspectives of teachers’ pedagogical reasoning skills for effectively, accessibly,
and understandably presenting their CK to their students. These challenges are considered to
form a strong basis for further inquiry into PCK in the ELT context.
In regard to the interconnection between PCK and English instructional curriculum

development, a number of studies on PCK have addressed teachers’ development of PCK in
classroom practices for teaching such content as grammar (e.g. Johnston & Goettsch, 2000;
Sanchez & Borg, 2014), reading (e.g. Niakaries & Kiely, 2014), and literature (e.g. Howey &
Grossman, 1989; Richards et al., 1995). Despite this, teachers’ development of PCK in
classroom practices is not yet portrayed within a complex and dynamic instructional
curriculum development in which the interconnection between teachers’ instructional
curriculum development and their knowledge base for teaching is explored. As argued by
23
Deng (2007), “transforming the subject matter” must be done within “a complex curricular
endeavour” (p. 290). From this perspective, the conceptualization of PCK can be used to
frame “the intellectual roots” (Deng, 2007, p. 279) or “pedagogical reasoning” (Shulman,
1987, p. 12) of teachers’ transformations for their sound and effective instructional curriculum
design and practice.
2.4 Teacher Knowledge and Teacher Expertise
Studies on teacher cognition in the ELT context have involved experienced and inexperienced
teachers. Experienced teachers, which are also called expert teachers (Freeman, 2002; Tsui,
2003), are defined as those with at least four to five years of teaching experience in the
classroom (Gatbonton, 2008). Inexperienced teachers, which are termed as novice teachers
(Freeman, 2002; Gatbonton, 2008; Richards et al., 1995) and less experienced teachers
(Berliner, 1986), are defined as those with less than three years of classroom teaching
experience (Berliner, 1986; Freeman, 2002), or “those who are still undergoing training, who
have just completed their training, or who have just commenced teaching and still have very
little (e.g. less than two years) experience behind them” (Gatbonton, 2008, p. 162).
Research involving L2 experienced teachers has extensively specified the

characteristics of expert teachers (e.g. Borg, 2003, 2006; Farrell, 2013; Tsui, 2003, 2009). In a
comprehensive synthesis, Tsui (2003, 2009) specified the characteristics of expert teachers in
the planning and teaching stages. In the planning stage, expert teachers are capable of: (1)
integrating their knowledge of learners into their lesson planning; (2) demonstrating
autonomy despite contextual constraints; (3) exercising flexibility and adaptability to
contextual cues such as student responses, distractions, and the availability of resources; (4)
being more effective in lesson planning due to their rich schemata constructed from their
working routines; and (5) integrating their knowledge base to develop complex and coherent
lesson planning. In the teaching stage, expert teachers are more efficient and selective in
processing instructional information, more capable of instructionally improvising, and more
systematic in representing and analyzing the complexities of classroom practices. Research on
L2 teacher cognition (e.g. Wette, 2009, 2010) confirms experienced teachers’ expertise in the
planning stage, as in Tsui’s synthesis. In these studies, the experienced teachers of adult
ESOL, in planning their instruction, were able to adjust their lesson plan to accommodate
their learners’ developmental and affective needs, wishes and responses, to construct coherent
instructional curricula from varied components and dimensions of conceptual content,
syllabus pre-specifications, and constraints of teaching context.
24
Within the conception of PCK (Shulman, 1987), expert teachers are required not only
to be able to integrate their knowledge base for teaching into their instruction, but also to
demonstrate the ability to “transform the content knowledge he or she possesses into forms
that are pedagogically powerful and yet adaptive to the variations in ability and background
presented by the students” (p. 15).
Considering distinctive qualities of teacher expertise, it is, therefore, argued that the
number of years of teaching experience does not necessarily entail teacher expertise (Farrell,
2013; Tsui, 2003). This argument offers a premise that, given the long term of teaching
service, experienced teachers can remain non-expert teachers (Tsui, 2003); and that novice
teachers, in their early stage of their career, may show similar expertise to that demonstrated
by experienced teachers (Gatbonton, 2008; Mullock, 2006). Farrel’s (2013) longitudinal study
on the expertise of experienced teachers adds the distinctive characteristic of teaching
experience, as contributing to teacher expertise. This study confirms that rewarding
experience, that strives for the balance of teaching practices, and self-awareness, which
involves reflexive self-observation, self-monitoring, and self-control, is a major characteristic
that develops teacher expertise. Farrel’s study, therefore, has enriched the term ‘expertise’
within the ELT context.
In relation to the conception of teacher expertise, the teachers’ conceptualizations of

PCK in developing their instructional curriculum, in the present study, is expected to provide
insights into the extent to which the experienced teachers participating in this study entail the
characteristics of expert teachers.
2.5 Instructional Curriculum Development
The term ‘curriculum’ relates to “the sum total of organized learnings stated as educational
ends, activities, school subjects and/or topics decided upon and provided within an
educational institution for the attainment of the students” (Garcia, 1976, p. 1). Within this
definition, curriculum development is concerned about decision-making processes for student
learning, within the scope of a school in the form of a syllabus, course of study or teaching
guide, and of a given subject in a lesson in the form of a daily lesson plan, a unit plan or a
long-range plan (Garcia, 1976).
Early language curriculum development in language teaching was primarily

characterized by the selection and sequence of linguistic content to form a course syllabus
(Richards, 1990, 2001). Along with its development, the scope of curriculum development in
25
language teaching has been extended into “an interrelated set of processes that focuses on
designing, revising, implementing, and evaluating language programs” (Richards, 2001, p. 2).
These interrelated processes are perceived as a coherent cycle anchored in a specified purpose
(Hall & Hewings, 2001). This extended view, therefore, considers language curriculum
development (LCD) as a series of development processes in which each process entails
particular activities.
Particular processes of and approaches to curriculum development have been

advanced (e.g. Graves, 2000, 2001, 2008; Nunan & Lamb, 2001; Richards, 1990, 2001,
2013). For the present study, the framework proposed by Graves (2000, 2001, 2008), of
course development processes and a dynamic system approach to curriculum development, is
used to explore Yogyakarta (Indonesia) EFL teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their
instructional curriculum design and practice. The selection of this framework is based on the
consideration that this dynamic system approach not only provides a flexible, interrelated, and
multifaceted nature of curriculum development, but also involves the embedded socio-
educational context, and integrates teacher cognition.
The implementation of processes of and approaches to curriculum development for

classroom practices is termed a curriculum construction in a given subject (Garcia, 1976), an
instructional (Wette, 2009) curriculum, or a micro- (Van den Akker, 2003) or classroom-level
curriculum (Shawer, 2010). In the present thesis, teachers’ curriculum development for
classroom practices is, henceforth, named the instructional curriculum. Curriculum
development involves three phases (Graves, 2008), namely: (1) the planning phase, (2) the
enacting phase, and (3) the evaluating phase. In the present study, these three phases are
adopted and consecutively named as: (1) instructional curriculum design (planning phase), (2)
instructional curriculum practice (enacting/ teaching phase), and (3) instructional curriculum
assessment (assessing phase) for exploring the teachers’ instructional curriculum
development.
The following sections and subsections present the processes of curriculum

development, which are reviewed in conjunction with Graves’s (2000, 2001) framework of
instructional development processes, and Graves’s (2008) dynamic system of language
curriculum development, to provide relevant insights for discussing the findings of the present
study.
26
2.5.1 Instructional Curriculum Design (Planning Phase)
Within instructional curriculum development as a process, designing or planning for

instructional purposes is paramount to teachers’ complex decision making. This decision
making concerns the conceptualization of the four cornerstones of instructional curriculum
development, consisting of content, pedagogy, learners, and context, and the choices of
approaches that teachers use for developing their instructional curriculum (Graves, 2000,
2001; Richards, 2013; Tsui, 2003). Therefore, instructional curriculum design requires
teachers’ pedagogical reasoning, which is formed and informed by such factors as teachers’
prior experiences, teacher education, and teacher cognition (Graves, 2000; Shulman, 1987;
Tsui, 2003).
A set of processes of instructional curriculum design in English language teaching

(ELT) have been proposed to guide teachers’ conceptualization (e.g. Hutchinson & Waters,
1987; Graves, 2000; Nation & Macalister, 2010; Richards, 1990, 2001; Ur, 1991; White,
1988; Yalden, 1987). Although a few of these models offer a dynamic approach to
instructional curriculum design (e.g. Graves, 2000; Nation & Macalister, 2010), the majority
of them adopt the Tyler-Taba technical rational model of instructional curriculum design
(Richards, 1984; White, 1988). This technical rational model follows the mechanism of a
rational, systematic, and hierarchical sequence of designing instructional curriculum. Within
the Tyler’s (1949) model, the process of formulating learning objectives is placed as the
starting point followed by the key processes for designing instruction. The Taba’s (1962)
model puts the process of analyzing needs as the initial process before learning objectives are
formulated, followed by its other key processes for designing instruction.
This technical rational model has been adopted in language teaching since the 1980s,
as “an ends-means model” (Richards, 2001, p. 40). Therefore, instructional curriculum design
in the ELT context, to some extent, still uses such a linear sequence, in which planning
instruction starts from the process of formulating objectives. Such a linear sequence fails to
see that instructional decisions upon a certain process in curriculum development do not
always depend on the preceding processes, and that a different starting point for developing
curriculum may result in different pedagogical consequences and practices (Richards, 2013).
As related to the influence of the Tyler-Taba technical rational model of instructional

curriculum design on ELT, the present study also intended to investigate whether the
teachers’ patterns of PCK conceptualization in designing their instructional curriculum follow
27
the technical rational model, or adopt a cyclical, iterative, and dynamic model. The following
sub-sections present the processes covered in instructional curriculum design.
2.5.1.1 Analyzing Needs
Needs analysis began to be regarded as a formal process for exploring students’ needs, instead
of intuitive or informal conduct, along with the works of the Council of Europe (Richterich,
1983) and Munby’s communicative needs analysis model (Munby, 1978). Defined as a
formal and systematic process, efforts to elaborate the meaning of the term ‘needs’ have been
made (West, 1994). Under the “umbrella term” (West, 1994, p. 3) of ‘needs’, subsumed
classifications of needs are constructed. Needs are interpreted as “felt needs” and “perceived
needs” (Berwick, 1989, p. 55), in which the former needs are viewed from the perspectives of
learners, and the latter needs are seen from the perspectives of teachers, schools, and other
stakeholders. Berwick (1989) further argued that this classification of felt needs and perceived
needs is useful since it locates the source of needs. Felt needs reflect learner-centered inputs,
while perceived needs refer to teacher-centered ones. Within a layer of needs popularly
known as “necessities”, “lacks”, and “wants” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987, pp. 55-57), felt
needs are realized into students’ wants, whereas perceived needs refer to teachers’ perceptions
or interpretations on students’ necessities and lacks. Hence, learner-centered inputs are
similarly described as ‘subjective needs’, while teacher-centered inputs are also labeled as
‘objective needs’ (Richterich, 1980, as cited in Berwick, 1989, p. 56, and in West, 1994, p. 4).
With the purpose of identifying the emerging interpretations leading towards the
concept of needs, Brindley (1989a) came up with the following concepts of needs: necessities
or demands (objective, product-oriented or perceived needs), learners’ wants (subjective or
felt needs), and the methods for linking the gaps between these two (process-oriented needs).
In regard to the classification of the term ‘needs’, the present study adopted Berwick’s (1989,
p. 55) terms of “felt needs” and “perceived needs”. This classification of needs was used to
elaborate on the analysis of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in analyzing their student
needs in terms of the forms and sources of needs analysis.
Varieties of strategies for conducting needs analysis are offered, ranging from formal
ways to informal ones executed by teachers in their classroom, or the combination of these
(Richterich, 1983; Berwick, 1989). School teachers can conduct small-scale needs analysis
through ongoing classroom activities (Tarone & Yule, 1989; Richards, 2001). Particular
selected strategies are applied by considering such variables as the involved parties, time and
place. More specific procedures, strategies, or methods are suggested in the literature (see,
28
e.g. Brown, 1995; Harmer, 2007; Richards, 2001). Recent studies highlight strategies or
procedures and the impacts of teachers’ analysis on their students’ needs in the school context
(e.g. Hite & Evans, 2006; Li, 2013; Yoon, 2007). In such studies, teachers act as the catalyst
in analyzing their students’ needs as English language learners (ELLs) in the English as a
second language (ESL) context. Viewing students’ needs from their own perspectives, or
perceived needs, the school teachers in these studies exemplify efforts to perceive their ELLs’
needs to confidently perform in their mainstream classes, to gain content knowledge, and to
engage with the advancement of technology, through ongoing classroom activities, such as
question and answer activities and classroom observations. These teachers’ informal
perceived needs analyses result in their adjustment of teaching strategies and the integration
of instructional technology to meet the specific needs of ELLs.
Given the strategic position of needs analysis in providing essential curriculum

development-related information (Brown, 1995; Richards, 1990, 2001), concerns about its
reliability and usefulness have been raised. Needs analysis is considered as a clueless process,
since learners are likely to have no ideas as to what and how to learn (Graves, 2001; Nunan &
Lamb, 2001). Valuing learners as the only source of input, therefore, raises other complexities
in the construct of instructional design. These complexities relate to the possibility that needs-
based instructional design can be time-consuming, experience unclear and inadequate
instructional objective, and degrade the importance of other valuable inputs for planning such
as theories of language teaching and learning, and teacher knowledge and experience
(Cunningsworth, 1983; Nunan, 1988; Robinson 1983). In overcoming these issues, teachers
as instructional curriculum designers play an essential role in re-analyzing input from learners
and deciding which needs are feasibly accommodated (Nunan, 1988; Richards, 2001).
Broader definitions regulate needs analysis not only as a way to gather information
about learner needs but also as a system approach that: encompasses “procedures for
identifying and validating needs, and establishing priorities among them” (Pratt, 1980, p. 79);
orients needs according to language proficiency, psychology/ humanity, and specific purposes
for categorizing and grouping learners (Brindley, 1989b); and extends the needs analysis
procedures, so as to be called needs assessment, by involving the step of interpreting needs to
inform pedagogical decisions (Graves, 2000).
Advocating a broader definition of needs analysis as needs assessment, Graves (2001)

views needs assessment as a value-bond process. As such, any decision on what students need
depend upon such interrelated factors as the teachers’ view of what the course is about, the
teacher’s and students’ perceptions of the actual students’ needs, and constraints offered by
29
contexts. Hence, while acknowledging needs assessment as a clueless process, Graves
highlights the feasibility of needs analysis as a systematic process in which teachers’ analysis
is not solely based on learners’ inputs. In so doing, teachers are urged not to view any needs
assessment tool or strategy they use as a static means for generating information about their
students’ needs.
As part of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in analyzing their student needs,

the present study intended to examine the teachers’ forms of transformation in viewing their
student needs, and whether their students’ needs were viewed from the perspective of their
students (felt needs) or from their perspective as teachers (perceived needs). It was also of
significant interest to find out whether the teachers in this study conducted needs assessment
activities.
2.5.1.2 Formulating Goals and Learning Objectives
The term ‘goals’ can often be confused with the term ‘aims’, while the term ‘objectives’ is
often used interchangeably with ‘outcomes’. Goals or aims refer to the general purposes of
the curriculum that contain the expected changes on the part of learners, and reflect the
ideology of the curriculum; while objectives are specific statements of how goals are
interpreted or achieved (Graves, 2000; Richards, 1984, 1990, 2001). Furthermore, Richards
(2001) specifies that objectives are realized in instructional objectives, which describe
attainable learning outcomes. Objectives are varied, in such forms as behavioural, skills-
based, content-based, process-related, and proficiency-related objectives (Richards, 1984,
1990, 2001).
Formulating goals and objectives has been one of the essential processes in
instructional curriculum design. The position of goals and learning objectives is central to
providing a direction to the course development (Anderson, 2015; McCutcheon & Milner,
2002). Within an outcomes-based approach, which follows the rational-linear framework,
objectives are often driven to be behavioral. This leads to “a culture of compliance”, in which
teachers are simply driven to be “technicians who implement the educational ideas and
procedures of others” (Littlewood, 2008, p. 8), and urges teachers to plan by objectives
(McCutcheon & Milner, 2002).
Some empirical studies in the ELT context have recorded how goals and objectives
are positioned within teachers’ selection of approaches to lesson planning. Several studies
reveal that teachers tend to adopt more cyclical and iterative processes of curriculum
30
development, and show their independence from a pre-specified outcomes-based curriculum
design. Such studies as Burns (1996) and Cumming (1989) reveal that objectives are not used
as the starting point for planning instructions. Nunan (1990) and Woods (1996) highlight, that
even though teachers construct general aims in planning their instructions, the aims are
adjusted or altered as the instructions unfold. Other teachers demonstrate the ways they
generate their instructional goals and learning objectives (Campbell, MacPherson, & Sawkins,
2014; Fisher, 1996). In these studies, in order to formulate concrete and teachable learning
objectives, ESL teachers created the objectives or outcomes by linking the general
expectations in the goals to what students need to learn (Fisher, 1996), and by defining first
the real-world activities and contexts of target communities of practice (Campbell et al.,
2014). A contemporary study of an ESL school teacher also shows that long-range, pre-active
planning, which is termed ‘backwards building’, was feasibly adopted in lesson planning
(McCutcheon & Milner, 2002). This contemporary teacher planning activates the teacher’s
envisioning by building up a mental image towards where the teacher wants his/her students
to achieve, and then make the plans backwards from that point. The teacher in the study by
McCutcheon and Milner (2002), thus, plans his/her lesson based on the activities rather than
on particular learning objectives.
As related to Graves’s (2001) framework of course development processes, teachers

may approach the process of formulating goals and objectives from two perspectives. Firstly,
they can set up the boundaries of their teaching outcomes by formulating goals and learning
objectives. Secondly, they may postpone formulating goals and objectives until they have
developed a clear picture on what and how they have to teach (Graves, 2001). The latter
perspective is influenced by the considerations that: (1) language learning is an unpredictable
process (Graves, 2000; Lightbown & Spada, 2013); and (2) setting up goals and learning
objectives is informed by needs analysis (Brown, 1995; Richards, 1990).
In regard to the process of formulating goals and learning objectives, the teachers’
patterns of conceptualization, in the present study, were expected to portray the teachers’
positioning of learning objectives for directing their instructional curriculum design.
2.5.1.3 Conceptualizing Content and Organizing Instruction
2.5.1.3.1 Conceptualizing Content
Within Graves’ (2000) framework of course development processes, the term

‘conceptualizing content’ is characterized as teachers’ articulation of what is called “the
31
territory” of teachers’ teaching (p. 39). To develop this territory, teachers are required to
choose, among various options, “the aspects of language and language learning” (Graves,
2001, p. 183) within the particular content “categories” (Graves, 2000, p. 43) they intend to
include in conceptualizing their instructional content. Taking Graves’s (2000, 2001) term of
‘conceptualizing content’, in the present study this term refers to the teachers’
conceptualization of the content categories of the target skills and texts, as stated in the
standard of competence and basic competence of the 2006 School-based Curriculum (SBC)
implemented in the Indonesian EFL context.
Teachers’ decision-making in conceptualizing content becomes more complex since

teachers face varied content categories to include (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Graves, 2000;
Richards, 2001). These varied content categories are a result of various changes in applied
linguistics (theories in language and language learning), language acquisition, approaches to
language teaching, and the context demands (Graves, 2001). The inclusion of mixed-content
categories is represented by such instruction as competency-based and text-based instruction
(Feez & Joyce, 1998; Richards, 2001). Both of these instructional designs enable teachers to
systematically sequence and integrate mixed-content categories such as skills, situations,
tasks, functions and notions, and structures. In text-based content conceptualization, the
content category of text types is included, and becomes the starting point for designing
learning activities (Burns, 2012; Feez & Joyce, 1998).
Currently, curriculum reform has also included other varieties of content categories
such as learner autonomy, learners and learning, social context, character and citizenship
education, critical thinking and problem solving, and a series of competencies covered in the
so called ‘twenty-first century competencies’ (Graves, 2000; Harmer, 2007; Lee, 2012;
Nunan, 1999). The inclusion of these varieties has added to the complexity of teachers’
decision making in conceptualizing content.
Dealing with feasible, varied content categories that teachers may need to adopt and
conceptualize, Graves (2001), therefore, argues that conceptualizing content is an intricate
process. This is because “the boundaries between categories are permeable; they overlap
conceptually and are not exclusive of each other” (Graves, 2001, p. 184).
2.5.1.3.2 Organizing and Sequencing Content
Along with the process of conceptualizing content, teachers are required to plan how they will
organize and sequence the content and activities for their instruction. Such principles of
32
sequencing and organizing teaching and learning materials as “building and recycling”
(Graves, 2000, pp. 163-164; 2001, p. 189) and of “cyclical and matrix approaches” (Graves,
2001, p. 190) are offered. Richards (2001) suggests several criteria for sequencing content,
which are simple to complex, chronological, needs-based, prerequisite learning, whole to part
or part to whole, and spiral sequencing. Other popular ways for organizing and sequencing a
lesson have been introduced such as the Present, Practice, Produce (PPP) procedure (Harmer,
2007, p. 66; Spratt, Pulverness, & Williams, 2005, pp. 61-62), Engage, Study, Activate (ESA)
(Harmer, 2007, p. 67), task-based learning framework (Spratt et al., 2005, pp. 61-62), and the
teaching and learning cycle of text-based teaching (Feez & Joyce, 1998, p. 28).
As explicated in Chapter 1 Section 1.2, the school curriculum changes that have
occurred in the Indonesian EFL context have resulted in the issuance of particular prescribed
organizing principles. In the school curriculum change within the implementation of the 2006
School-based Curriculum (SBC), teachers across subject matters were required to organize
their instruction with the prescribed organizing principle that comprised the three stages of
Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC). As governed in the Regulation of
Ministry of National Education and Culture (MNEC) No. 41/2007 on the National Standard
of Process, Exploration is defined as a (field) exploration to learn and gain new insights about
new (natural) objects. The suggested activities teachers can do are such as discussing,
observing a model, observing a demonstration, solving a case, experimenting, and playing a
game related to the concept that is going to be discussed. Elaboration is an instructional
process in which students are guided to complete the given activities to reach the determined
competence. Confirmation is the process in which teachers, together with students, enact the
process of confirming, providing feedback, discussing the feedback, giving suggestions,
giving examples, or concluding for all the activities done in the Exploration and Elaboration
stages. In the present study, this prescribed organizing principle of EEC was put into practice
by particular participating teachers. As each organizing and sequencing principle conveys its
own characteristics in regulating how presentation techniques and activities are supposed to
be carried out, teachers are consequently required to understand the overall landscape of their
instruction. The decision to adopt a particular organizing and sequencing principle or a
combination of several principles demands teachers’ pedagogical reasoning, which includes
their overview on the cornerstones of their instructional curriculum development, including
content, pedagogy, learners, and context (Graves, 2000).
In response to such prescribed organizing principles as the stages of EEC, which were
imposed on teachers within the framework of the 2006 SBC, and the scientific-based
33
organizing principle, which is put into practice along with the implementation of the 2013
Curriculum (see Sections 1.2.1 and 1.2.2), English language teachers in the Indonesian EFL
context have faced a dilemma as to how to accommodate those predetermined organizing
principles within the framework of a genre-based approach (GBA), the approach that
characterizes the last two curricula in Indonesia. This dilemma is contributed to by the
different paradigms underlying the prescribed organizing principles and GBA (Agustien,
2014). Agustien (2014), furthermore, emphasizes that the imposed organizing principles are
aimed at developing new knowledge through science-based learning cycles, while GBA
focuses on building skills to communicate by means of the centrality of texts in instruction.
Therefore, the tension in accommodating these prescribed organizing principles in the text-
based teaching and learning cycle within GBA has resulted in teachers’ differing
interpretations.
Linking to the present study, the review in this section particularly informs the
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in the processes of conceptualizing content and
organizing instruction. In conceptualizing content, it was expected that the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK would portray the teachers’ selection of content categories of skills
and texts as stated in the 2006 SBC. Likewise, in organizing instruction, the teachers’ PCK
conceptualizations were expected to identify the organizing principles that the teachers
adopted for their instruction and the stages for sequencing their teaching and learning
activities.
2.5.1.4 Developing Instructional Materials
The need to develop materials arises from the basis that any published instructional materials
are not necessarily capable of catering to a wide range of learners with diverse needs in their
own actual contexts (Block, 1991; McDonough & Shaw, 2003; Richards, 2001; Sheldon,
1988; Tomlinson, 2012). Several aspects of the fitness and appropriateness of published
instructional materials are addressed, such as: the failure to accommodate cultural relevance
and current theories of language and language learning (Sheldon, 1988); the tendency to focus
on the provision of language features as input for classroom practices (Richards, 2001;
Tomlinson, 2012); the claim that published instructional materials (coursebooks) put a
significant emphasis on explicit teaching and practice that may not be relevant to the general
population of their target learners (Tomlinson, Dat, Masuhara, & Rubdy, 2001; Masuhara,
Haan, Yi, & Tomlinson, 2008); and the view that commercial instructional materials are not
always the type of materials that a teacher attempts to find (Block, 1991).
34
Despite the issues of “labour-intensiveness” (Sheldon, 1988, p. 238) and “a deficiency
view” (Allwright, 1981, p. 6) that hinder teachers from developing their own classroom
materials, teachers are suggested to make efforts to do so, to bridge the gap to what
Tomlinson (2012, p. 158) terms “localization, personalization, and choice”, or that Block
(1991, pp. 213-214) identifies as “contextualization, timeliness, and the personal touch”. In
Graves’s (2001) perspective, instructional materials development is a matter of a challenge
and an opportunity. It is a challenge for teachers to be able to do a redevelopment and a
readjustment of materials they have used before for their future instruction. However, it is
also an opportunity for teachers to continuously learn their learners’ needs.
To avoid “intuitive” (Tomlinson, 2012, p. 151) or “ad hoc, impressionistic”

(Tomlinson, 2003, p. 5) materials development, a series of principled processes of materials
development are offered, which include materials selection, evaluation, adaptation, and
writing (Graves, 2000; McDonough & Shaw, 2003; Tomlinson, 2003, 2012; Tomlinson &
Masuhara, 2004). In this section, the review, however, mainly focuses on two processes of
instructional materials development only, which are selecting and adapting instructional
materials. This is because, in taking their challenge and opportunity to provide more local,
contextual, relevant, and personal instructional materials, the teachers in the present study
mainly did these two materials development processes of selecting and adapting materials.
These two processes are further reviewed below.
2.5.1.4.1 Selecting Instructional Materials
The process of materials selection for instructional purposes is classified as micro evaluation
(Ellis, 1997, 1998), in which teachers focus more on the selection of activities and techniques
relevant to their daily lessons and context. The challenge teachers encounter in the selection
process relates to judging the appropriateness of materials in accordance with learners’ needs
and interests (Rubdy, 2003).
Since the process of selecting instructional materials is prone to being done

impressionistically, Ellis (1997) and Tomlinson (2003) suggest that teachers can make their
judgment of the appropriateness of instructional materials more formal and systematic by
doing a micro evaluation at the level of tasks, and devising universal criteria such as content-
specific criteria, age-specific criteria, local criteria, and media-specific criteria. In so doing,
teachers shift from simply selecting materials intuitively to evaluating materials
systematically.
35
Graves (2000) transforms Ellis’s (1997, 1998) micro evaluation by devising a list of
considerations for developing materials. These considerations are derived from teachers’
pedagogical reasons or concerns in selecting and designing instructional materials that include
learning activities, tasks, and other varieties of materials such as texts, pictures, videos, and
the like (see Graves, 2000, pp. 152-156). Within the present study, Graves’s (2000) list of
considerations was used to discuss the findings in relation to the teachers’ pedagogical
concerns for selecting their instructional materials in the forms of texts, and learning
activities.
2.5.1.4.2 Adapting Instructional Materials
The process of adapting instructional materials is principally regarded as the process of

matching (McDonough & Shaw, 2003, p. 74), or the process of achieving the principle of
congruence (Madsen & Bowen, 1978). The former term involves an act of bringing together
external and internal criteria, combining and adjusting learners and contexts with what the
materials offer. Within the latter term, teachers as materials developers are required to seek
for “congruence among several related variables: teaching materials, methodology, students,
course objectives, the target language and its context, and the teacher’s own personality and
style” (Madsen & Bowen, 1978, p. ix).
Another challenge in the process of materials adaptation deals with the process of
making changes or adaptations. Such issues as selecting adaptation procedures and techniques
(see e.g. Islam & Mares, 2003; McDonough & Shaw, 2003; McGrath, 2002; Tomlinson &
Masuhara, 2004), simplifying texts and activities or tasks (Graves, 2000; McDonough &
Shaw, 2003), and measuring authenticity (Graves, 2000; Saraceni, 2003), are in need of
teachers’ careful decision-making. The challenge teachers encounter in selecting adaptation
procedures and techniques is that teachers are required to be able to map out “a gap
(mismatch or non-congruence)” (Islam & Mares, 2003, p. 90) between what published
instructional materials offer and the needs and objectives of the classroom, or between the
external and internal criteria (McDonough & Shaw, 2003). In a circumstance when teachers
do not have much time to do their materials development, Graves (2000) suggests that they
adapt a textbook. Three steps are offered to do so: (1) utilizing a textbook as a tool to learn the
ways authors conceptualize content, organize and sequence materials, and construct
objectives of the provided units; (2) adapting at the unit level; and (3) adapting at the syllabus
level.
36
Simplification of texts and activities is related to the issue of authenticity, in the sense
that authenticity leaves teachers, as instructional materials developers, with the question of to
what extent they have to make simplification and provide authentic or non-authentic texts,
tasks or activities, language inputs and outputs. In doing so, teachers are suggested to have a
balance (Gilmore, 2004). Their decisions to provide either adapted/ contrived/ simplified or
authentic texts depend on the aim of instruction. Furthermore, Gilmore exemplifies that, if the
aim of classroom instruction is to develop learners’ independent language use, teachers are
obliged to provide realistic models of spoken discourse in which learners can learn that
authentic interactions are not always well-structured. However, teachers may provide adapted/
contrived/ simplified conversations for particular purposes.
Arguments concerning whether learners need to be exposed to authentic materials

(Nuttall, 1996; Mishan, 2005; Gilmore, 2007) or not (Ellis, 1999; Day & Bamford, 1998;
Widdowson, 2000) have been advanced. However, researchers such as Graves (2000),
Richards, (2006), and Tomlinson (2012) view the issue of authenticity in instructional
materials development differently. Graves (2000) states that using authentic materials is about
making choices along the continuum of authenticity of materials, tasks or activities, and
language output that teachers will choose in their materials adaptation. Richards (2006)
argues that whether or not materials are authentic is not the central point; what matters is
whether they provide a stimulus for follow-up activities. Tomlinson (2012) stands in the
position that any materials that learners encounter should be considered authentic, since the
developed materials aim to prepare learners for embracing the use of language in real world.
Two matters signify the relation of this section’s review to the present study. Firstly,
reviewing the processes of matching and achieving congruence in instructional materials
adaptation is particularly important for this study to specify what pedagogical concerns the
teachers constructed in their efforts to embrace the external and internal criteria. Secondly,
framing the challenges in the processes of selecting and adapting instructional materials in
this study, the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in the process of developing instructional
materials also encountered such reviewed challenges as the selection of adaptation techniques
and strategies, and the issue of text authenticity (see Chapters 4 and 5).
2.5.2 Instructional Curriculum Practice (Enacting/ Teaching Phase)
Implementing instructional curriculum is viewed as a complex practice that involves teachers’

multifaceted decision making for their classroom practice (Johnson, 1989). It is complex in
the sense that teachers are required to be able to match what is expected at the macro level,
37
involving policy makers and curriculum planners, with what is implemented in classroom
practice (Johnson, 1989). Therefore, it is crucial for teachers to adequately implement
particular approaches to develop their instructional curriculum.
Approaches to instructional or classroom-level curriculum are classified into

curriculum fidelity, adaptation, enactment, and materials and textbooks (Snyder, Bolin, &
Zumwalt, 1992). Of these approaches to instructional curriculum development, the
approaches underlying the implementation of instructional curriculum development in the
present study belong to the intersection of curriculum fidelity and adaptation. This
intersection is the impact of the decentralized system in the Indonesian education system,
which, as a matter of fact, is implemented side by side with the centralized system. The
decentralized system inevitably has compelled Indonesian EFL teachers to apply a fidelity
approach, in which they are required to transmit the top-down curriculum products
determined by the MNEC. On the other hand, teachers have also been demanded to be
curriculum adapters, who have to transform the standard of competence and the basic
competence, as stipulated by the MNEC through the standard of content of the 2006 SBC,
into sound and coherent instructional curriculum according to the characteristics of their
school and classroom context.
In a dynamic system of curriculum development (Graves, 2008), language curriculum

development is operated within a socio-educational context. Such a dynamic system enables
the three phases of instructional curriculum development, designing or planning, teaching,
and assessing, are closely and mutually related to each other. The relation of instructional
curriculum practice and its socio-educational context is, therefore, described as “a microcosm
of the host educational environment” (Holliday, 1994, p. 16), which reflects “how language
curriculum are planned, enacted, and evaluated and that the relationship makes the subject
matter of a language curriculum unique” (Graves, 2008, p. 154).
2.5.2.1 Ecological Approach to English Language Teaching
As previously mentioned, the present study involves the account of socio-educational context
in shaping teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design and
practice. The involvement of such an ecological account in English language teaching (ELT)
is centered around how social contexts or sociocultural factors and ideology affect teachers’
instructional decisions and their classroom realities (e.g. Canagarajah, 1999; Holliday, 1994;
Pennycook, 1994).
38
A number of studies concerning the influence of an ecological account on particular
contextualized teaching practices confirm that teachers’ decision making for their classroom
innovations and curriculum development is strongly influenced by situated, local and
dynamic contextual factors (e.g. Carless, 2007; Hoare, 2010; Hu, 2005; Sharkey, 2004; Wette,
2009, 2010). In these studies, it is evident that such aspects as economic, social, cultural, and
educational contexts shape the adoption of a contextualized method (Carless, 2007), influence
the implementation of particular approaches nationwide (Hoare, 2010; Hu, 2005), function as
‘critical mediator’ in curriculum development (Sharkey, 2004), and affect teachers’ decisions
for instructional curriculum development (Wette, 2009, 2010). Such aspects may even hamper
L2 teachers from conceptualizing practices that reflect their own beliefs (Borg, 2003).
Studies on teachers’ decision making in assessing student learning also report the
influences of sociocultural, educational, and political contexts on teachers’ instructional
decisions, classroom realities, and pedagogical orientations (e.g. Chen, May, Klenowsky, &
Kettle, 2013; Cheng & Wang, 2007; Davison, 2004; De Segovia & Hardison, 2009; Inbar-
Lourie & Donitsa-Schmidt, 2009; Kirkgo, 2008; Lam & Lee, 2010; Lee, 2011; Leung &
Lewkowicz, 2006). Sociocultural beliefs and values may bring pressure and tension to
instructional practice. For example, the sociocultural construct that defines the power relation
of teacher and students in Chinese and Hong Kong EFL contexts limits or even hampers
teachers’ classroom innovations, by not positioning teachers as the only source of knowledge
and information, and in conducting non-summative-oriented assessment (e.g. Chen et al.,
2013; Lam & Lee, 2010; Lee, 2011; also see Section 2.5.3). The sociocultural beliefs that
view educational practices from an exam-oriented culture have also been shown to exert a
great influence on teachers’ orientations in grading practices (e.g. Cheng & Wang, 2007). In
the study by Cheng and Wang (2007), it was found that teachers from an exam-oriented
culture consider very much the validity and reliability of assessment and seriously take into
account the technical quality of their assessment. Meanwhile, teachers from a non-exam-
oriented culture value the grading technique, in which the purposes of assessment are matched
with students’ individual needs. In other studies (e.g. Inbar-Lourie & Donitsa-Schmidt, 2009;
Leung & Lewkowicz, 2006), the impact of political context on teachers’ classroom formative
assessment practices contributes to the politically superior status of the exam-oriented
practices that undermines teachers’ classroom formative assessment. Such studies reveal that,
within the political perspective, EFL teachers’ formative assessment practices are in conflict
with the high-stakes external examinations determined by the ministry, and teachers’
classroom formative assessment practices are possibly not in line with the nationwide
assessment scheme.
39
Referring to the account of the ecological influence, as represented by the educational
and political context within the Indonesian education system, the present study aimed to
reveal how the high-stake national examination affects the Indonesian EFL teachers’
transformations of their understanding on the content into effective instructional curriculum
2.5.3 Instructional Curriculum Assessment (Assessing Phase)
Despite the fact that the concepts of both formative and summative assessments have been
extensively discussed (e.g. Bennet, 2011; Leung, 2004; Taras, 2005, 2009), this section
particularly reviews the concept of formative assessment, since in the present study formative
assessment is scrutinized as part of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their
instructional curriculum design. A number of issues related to formative assessment are
reviewed, to inform the findings or patterns of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in
assessing their student learning as represented in their instructional curriculum design. These
issues concern the terminologies of formative assessment, the characteristics of formative
assessment, and the supporting factors for implementing formative assessment.
2.5.3.1 The Terminological Issue of Formative Assessment
The issue concerning the terminologies of formative assessment is centered around the
varieties of terms attached to formative assessment and the epistemological interpretations
attributed to it. Such terms as alternative assessment (e.g. Inbar-Lourie & Donitsa-Schmidt,
2009), classroom-based assessment (e.g. Leung, 2014), and assessment for learning (as
discussed in e.g. Bennet, 2011; Leung, 2004, 2014) are used interchangeably to refer to FA
(e.g. Bennet, 2011; Cauley & McMillan, 2010; Chen et al., 2013; Leung, 2004; Taras, 2005,
2009).
The classic issue concerning the epistemological interpretation of formative

assessment is related to the place of formative assessment in relation to summative
assessment, and its distinction from summative assessment. Classically, summative
assessment overshadows formative assessment, in the sense that all the acts of judgments
making, measuring, and evaluating students’ work, achievement, or learning, are particularly
associated to formal summative assessment instead of formative assessment (Taras, 2005). In
regard to formative assessment, Taras (2005) argues that formative assessment is considered
as summative assessment followed by feedback for addressing the gap between the actual
40
performance and the determined standard. To better elucidate the nature and scope of the term
‘formative’, Black and William (2009, p. 9) offer the following definition:
Practice in a classroom is formative to the extent that evidence about student achievement is
elicited, interpreted, and used by teachers, learners, or their peers, to make decisions about the
next steps in instruction that are likely to be better, or better founded, than the decisions they
would have taken in the absence of the evidence that was elicited.
Although this definition has defined to what extent classroom practices can be
perceived formative, it does not clearly address a process in terms of students’ active learning
engagement in formative assessment (Chen et al., 2013).
Another terminological issue arises when the term ‘formative’ is interpreted as an

instrument by the ‘Test Industry’, which has a diagnostic function for a certain interim
instructional unit, as in a diagnostic test, or an interim assessment unit (Bennet, 2011). Based
on the same ground as viewing formative assessment as a process, the epistemological
meaning of formative assessment as a test is also challenged, because formative assessment
should refer to a process that orients much more to student understanding than to a score
(Leung, 2004; McNamara, 2001; Teasdale & Leung, 2000; see the following sub-section on
‘The Characteristics of Formative Assessment’).
In the past 15 years, through intensive work in Australia and in the UK, formative
assessment has been widely explored under the term ‘assessment for learning’, as opposed to
the term ‘assessment of learning’ for summative assessment (Bennet, 2011; Leung, 2014;
Chen et al., 2013). A critique for this substitution of terms addresses the idea that the
substitution may undermine the complex relationship of summative assessment and formative
assessment (Bennet, 2011). It is argued that summative assessment can potentially capture
formative assessment if it is carefully and appropriately conducted (Bennet, 2011; Taras,
2005). In the same manner, well-designed formative assessment can effectively inform how
the instruction should be adjusted, and impressionistically illuminates the extent of students’
knowledge and competence (Bennet, 2011). Thus, the substitution of the terms is not
supposed to present summative assessment and formative assessment as discrete functions.
The term ‘classroom-based assessment’ apparently draws a parallel scope with the
term ‘assessment for learning’. In such work as Leung (2014), the term ‘classroom-based
assessment’ is used in referring to the discussion of assessment for learning, and is
specifically adopted for addressing the key issues of teacher-led classroom-based assessment
in second language (L2) teacher education. Therefore, the term ‘classroom-based assessment’
41
here is defined as referring to “all the types of measuring, monitoring, and evaluating student
learning and attainment that are carried out by teachers” (Leung, 2014, p. 1511).
Referring to the varieties of terms attributed to formative assessment, in the present

study the term formative assessment is labeled as ‘classroom-based assessment’. The
consideration underlying the adoption of this term for this study is anchored in the
characteristic of the teachers’ formative assessment design, as revealed in the shared and
merged findings of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in assessing their student learning
(see Chapters 4 and 5). Hence, although such design of formative assessment does not
specifically focus on students’ learning process, it does, however, mark the teacher-led
classroom-based assessment by the teachers in the study.
2.5.3.2 The Characteristics of Formative Assessment
Despite the varied terms for formative assessment, the characteristics of formative assessment
described in those terms are shared. Formative assessment, or any other name attached to
formative assessment, mainly suggests the characteristic of formative assessment that focuses
on the learners’ learning process. It is a planned process in which teachers are required to
assure that their planning and implementation stages have provided opportunities for learners
to take ownership of their learning. A number of works have identified the features that
characterize formative assessment as a process (e.g. Bennet, 2011; Black & William, 2009;
Cauley & McMillan, 2010; Leung, 2004; Leung & Lewkowicz, 2006; Rea-Dickins, 2001;
Taras, 2005).
Understanding the main characteristics of formative assessment requires teachers to

carefully design their formative assessment process at the levels of planning and
implementation (Leung, 2004, 2014; Leung & Lewkowicz, 2006). Teachers’ planning for
formative assessment should be designed in the sense that the process of the instruction
invokes learners’ awareness of why, what and how they are learning. In the implementation
level, formative assessment is central to classroom practice, in which a supporting system for
facilitating learning is directed to support learners’ reflection and empowerment towards their
own learning process and progress, and to gather information about learners’ learning
progress for improving and adjusting instructional plans (the Assessment Reform Group,
2002). Although such a platform for planning and implementing formative assessment has
been specified, in practice some variations occur in terms of teacher focus, assessment criteria
used, and the types of classroom activities (Leung, 2004).
42
A number of works have intended to represent the implementation of formative
assessment process as a continuum (e.g. Rea-Dickins, 2001; Bachman & Palmer, 2010; Black
& William, 2009; Cauley & McMillan, 2010). Such a continuum attempts to specify the
extent to which the formative assessment process is carried out. Varied labels are attached to
indicate this extent. Such labels have been developed as “formal” and “informal” that define
the formative assessment process as having a summative- or formative-oriented purpose (Rea-
Dickins, 2001, p. 437), and as the “explicit” and “implicit” modes of assessment that specify
the degree of the formative assessment process into two modes consecutively entailing
summative and formative orientations (Bachman & Palmer, 2010, p. 29). Such other works as
Black and William (2009) and Cauley and McMillan (2010) construct a continuum that
defines formative assessment in terms of low and high levels of formative assessment. Low
level formative assessment is defined as a rudimentary process which that excludes some of
the determined characteristics, or only superficially includes each given characteristic of
formative assessment as a process. High level formative assessment, by contrast, fully
integrates the characteristics into teacher and student classroom practice.
Despite the works dedicated to characterizing formative assessment as process, a

critique is addressed in relation to the validity and reliability of the construct of the formative
assessment process. The argument behind the critique is particularly informed by the
psychometric paradigm within formative assessment, which requires formative assessment to
demonstrate a clear and certain construct of assessment (Leung, 2004). A premise is advanced
to question the certainty of the formative assessment process. It states that formative
assessment is a risky practice due to uncertainty and variation in its implementation process
(Leung, 2004; Leung & Lewkowicz, 2006).
In response to this critique, it is argued that the formative assessment process should
not be guided by the psychometrically-oriented assessment (McNamara, 2001; Teasdale &
Leung, 2000), since the concept of formative assessment construct focuses on analyzing and
measuring “the interactive and contingent nature” of students’ classroom performance
(Leung, 2004, p. 22). Therefore, an alternative concept for defining the psychometric
measurement of formative assessment is offered (Leung, 2004). Leung (2004) argues that the
construct-referenced formative assessment is anchored in two values: (1) regulated teacher
classroom formative assessment, which is guided by particular sets of principles, values, and
knowledge; and (2) the presumption that a professional community sustains the formative
assessment process as informed practice and professional improvement relevant to pre- and
in-service teacher education and training.
43
Understanding the characteristics of formative assessment is essential to inform the
present study, since the exploration of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in assessing
their student learning leads to the identification of the characteristics of the teachers’
formative assessment, or is named as classroom-based assessment, in this study. Basing on
such a reviewed continuum, this study was also designed to discuss the extent to which the
teachers’ classroom-based assessments were conducted as a process to facilitate student
learning.
2.5.3.3 Supporting Factors of Formative Assessment Implementation
The success of the implementation of formative assessment as a process to help students take
the ownership of their learning depends on a number of factors. Several empirical studies
identify a number of supporting factors for teachers to implement formative assessment (e.g.
Davison, 2004; Hall & Harding, 2002; Inbar-Lourie & Donitsa-Schmidt, 2009; Lee, 2011;
Leung, 2004). These essential factors include teacher knowledge of assessment, teacher
training on formative assessment, school support and teachers’ commitment, and teacher or
professional community.
As previously reviewed, the implementation of formative assessment as a process to

facilitate student learning identifies its uncertainty and variation. Firstly, as Leung and
Lewkowicz (2006) argue, the implementation of formative assessment is nuanced by
uncertainties. That is why careful and systematic planning for conducting the formative
assessment process is required. Secondly, the psychometric measurement of formative
assessment leaves an impression that the measurement of student learning based on the
formative assessment process does not reflect students’ true knowledge and abilities for a
given subject matter, and therefore possibly results in teachers’ lack of trust towards grades
derived from formative assessment instruments (Inbar-Lourie & Donitsa-Schmidt, 2009). As
a result, those studies, at the least suggest the need to provide teachers with more teacher
training to support them with both theoretical and practical aspects of classroom formative
assessment.
School support and teachers’ commitment are specifically identified as supporting

factors for implementing formative assessment in the EFL context. In such EFL contexts as in
China and Hong Kong, teachers’ formative assessment practices are shown to experience
tension and pressure against an exam-oriented culture (e.g. Lee, 2011; Chen et al., 2013; Lam
& Lee, 2010). In these studies, even though teachers’ innovations for formative assessment
practices are implemented, the practices are still considered to be against the mainstream of
44
the exam-oriented assessments with summative purpose. They are also considered
incompatible with traditional values and beliefs that construct teacher authority and regulate
the hierarchical teacher-student relationship, power relationship, and trust (e.g. Chen et al.,
2013). Thus, these sociocultural values undermine the enactment of such formative
assessment practices as feedback and peer-assessment.
Teacher or professional community plays an important role as a source for teachers to

gain support for their decision making in response to particular national assessment policies.
Davison’s (2004) comparative study on teachers’ different interpretations towards assessment
criteria, for example, points out that Australian teachers’ delicate management in balancing
their decision making based on the published criteria and professional judgment was
supported by a strong teacher community. Another study by Hall and Harding (2002) also
identified that teachers’ assessment practices and thinking were very much influenced by their
professional community. The common agreement towards their practices formed what was
called an ‘assessment community’, in which teachers and administrators agreed to comply
with the national policies related to assessment.
In the present study, identifying the supporting factors for formative assessment as a
process to enhance student learning is important for drawing some implications for the
implementation of formative assessment in Indonesian EFL classrooms.
2.6 Text-based Teaching
Adapted from a genre-based approach, text-based teaching was initiated in Australia as part of
the national Adult Migrant Education Program (AMEP) curriculum framework (Feez, 1999).
Transcending the aim of genre-based pedagogy, text-based teaching is, therefore, intended to
equip students with “knowledge and skills for understanding and engaging in extended texts
used in real social contexts” (Burns, 2012, p. 140). Students in text-based instruction are
introduced to varieties of texts from which they learn texts as “stretches of unified,
meaningful and purposeful natural language” (Feez, 1999, p. 11). These stretches of language
constitute specific linguistic features and structures that operate within certain contexts (Feez
& Joyce, 1998; Burns, 2012). Thus, any understanding or interpretation assigned to text is
attached to its text semantics and function (Halliday, 1975). The basic unit through which
meaning is negotiated is, therefore, not limited to size, length, or form of language, as Feez
and Joyce (1998) describe below:
45
Whether a stretch of language is a text or not has nothing to do with its size or form. It has to
do with the meanings of the stretch of language working together as a unified whole. The
single word Stop on a road sign and Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace are both texts because
they are unified wholes. One page of War and Peace, though longer than a stop sign, is not a
text because it cannot stand alone as a unified whole (p. 4).
In summary, text refers to the various types of language people use in their daily
communication, as Halliday (1975) describes in the following:
… the language people produce and react to, what they say and write, and read and listen to,
in the course of daily life. ... The term covers both speech and writing ... it may be language in
action, conversation, telephone talk, debate ... public notices ... intimate monologue or
anything else (p. 123).
Departing from the concept of text in genre-based pedagogy, in text-based teaching

the use of texts as they are found and used in real life is, therefore, the central aspect of the
instruction (Burns, 2012). In this sense, texts are used as the starting point to develop
syllabus, conceptualize content and design activities, plan assessment activities, and
determine the role of teachers (Burns, 2012). The design and implementation of text-based
teaching address several details in relation to its methodology, text authenticity, and
scaffolding, which includes the nature and types of activities as well as the nature of
assessment activities (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Feez, 1999; Burns, 2012). The following
paragraphs present such details.
The methodology level of text-based teaching regulates a system for coherently

sequencing and presenting the mixed-content categories of the text-based syllabus design
within the text-based teaching and learning cycle. This cycle, which was derived and adapted
from genre-based pedagogy, is particularly relevant for enacting text-based instruction
focusing on literacy teaching (Feez, 1999; as further discussed in e.g. Hyland, 2007; Martin,
2013). However, some instructional practices have used the text-based methodology for
teaching spoken exchanges (e.g. Burns, Joyce, & Gollin, 1996; Rivera, 2012; Thai, 2009).
The system of the text-based teaching and learning cycle offers a dynamic approach that
enables teachers to start teaching from different entry stages of the cycle depending on
students’ learning needs, to develop the instruction from any content category, and to
approach it backwards or forwards in the cycle (Feez & Joyce, 1998, Feez, 1999).
The essential characteristic of text-based teaching, which puts its emphasis on the use
of authentic texts, requires teachers to measure the degree of authenticity presented in their
46
given texts. This raises a challenge for teachers, to have sufficient skills and knowledge to
judge the degree of text authenticity. As Mishan (2005) concludes, to be authentic, a text has
to reflect a specific communication purpose in its social context. Therefore, the authenticity of
text lays in its meaning in its context. For this reason, it is argued that, when authentic texts
are used in language learning, their authenticity is difficult to attain (Morrow, 1977, as cited
in Mishan, 2005; Widdowson, 1998). This is because language teaching cannot reproduce
absolute authenticity in the texts (Morrow, 1977, as cited in Mishan, 2005) or cannot replicate
the reality embedded in the texts (Widdowson, 1998). In line with this argument, Burns
(2012) also states that analyzing text authenticity is a difficult task for teachers. In presenting
texts, teachers may be trapped in the use of “trivial examples of daily survival communication
in contrast to more complex, hybrid, or ideologically charged texts …” (Burns, 2012, p. 146),
or in text simplification that leads to “a distortion of natural language” (McDonough & Shaw,
2003, p. 82). The challenge resulting from the demand to use authentic texts in text-based
teaching is also experienced by ESL/ EFL learners. As revealed in the long-standing debate
on text authenticity in materials development (Tomlinson, 2012), giving authentic texts to
learners potentially invokes problems for them. One of the arguments in favour of learners
states that learners may find authentic texts more unattainable than simplified texts (Day,
2003). In text-based teaching, teachers are, consequently, required to provide scaffolding for
their learners.
Literally, scaffolding is described as temporary yet important assistance to help a child

construct his/ her own foundation to successfully do a task by himself/ herself (Gibbons,
2015). In classroom setting, ‘scaffolding’ was used to describe the role of teachers in
supporting students by providing “explicit knowledge and guided practice” to assist students
to move forward through the zone of proximal development (Feez & Joyce, 1998, p. 27).
Thus, as Gibbons (2015, p. 16) states, scaffolding is not a general help; it is a particular
temporary help that is intended to assist learners to acquire new skills and knowledge to do a
learning task independently. In text-based instruction, teachers’ scaffolding, therefore,
represents teachers’ expert guidance for keeping track of learners’ learning progress at various
points in their learning development (Burns, 2012).
The teaching cycle in text-based teaching represents a series of scaffolded

“developmental steps” (Feez & Joyce, 1998, p. 34) that assist students to gain success in
using texts (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Burns, 2012; Hammond & Derewianka, 2001). The overall
devised activities for each cycle reflect teachers’ step-by-step guidance for students, in order
for students to finally take the ownership of producing their own texts in the independent
47
construction stage (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Feez, 1999; Martin, 1999). Teachers’ scaffolding
starts from the first stage, i.e. building the context or building knowledge of field or
deconstruction, in which teachers take the full lead in guiding students to become familiar
with the target text type they are going to learn. In this stage, activities can be directed to
assisting students to investigate the sociocultural context underlying the text and to elicit
relevant vocabulary and facilitate students to investigate particular topics incorporated in the
texts (Derewianka, 2003). The second stage is modeling the text, in which the text exploration
is done to instill the text structure and linguistic features to students. In the next stage of joint
construction, teachers start to collaborate with students in constructing the target text.
Therefore, the nature of activities in this stage is collaborative. Finally, in the last stage of
independent construction, it is the time for teachers to restrain their scaffolding and let
students personally use and produce their texts based on the previously given and explored
models.
The nature of scaffolding within the cycle, therefore, shapes the nature of assessment
in text-based teaching. Diagnostic assessment applies in the context-building stage, formative
classroom assessment is attached to the modeling, deconstruction, and joint construction
stages, and summative-oriented assessment suits being done in the independent construction
stage (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Feez, 1999).
In relation to the present study, the review on text-based teaching is particularly

important to include, for several reasons. Firstly, the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in
this study operated within the implementation of the 2006 School-based Curriculum (SBC),
which involved text-based teaching. Secondly, it was part of this study to examine the
teachers’ transformation of their understanding of the main content categories of skills and
texts into text-based instruction. The teachers’ patterns of their transformation process were,
therefore, expected to provide the big picture of the implementation of the text-based teaching
within the 2006 SBC.
2.7 Summary
This chapter has reviewed literature relevant to the present study. Particular core theories
underlying the conceptual framework of this study were presented. Shulman’s (1987)
conception of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) was firstly reviewed within the umbrella
theory of teacher cognition and teacher knowledge. Then, it proceeded with a review of the
theoretical and empirical perspectives of PCK. The second core theory reviewed was relevant
literature on instructional curriculum development, in which the review presented three
48
phases of curriculum development comprising designing (planning), practice (teaching), and
assessing. The review of this second core theory, therefore, elucidated Graves’s (2000)
framework of course development processes and Graves’s (2008) dynamic system of
curriculum development. The last core theory reviewed was text-based teaching, discussing
such related aspects of text-based instruction as methodology, text authenticity, and
scaffolding, leading to types of activities and assessment. Each section of the review has also
outlined how it informs the present study.
49
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH APPROACH AND PROCEDURES
3.0 Introduction
This chapter elaborates on the study’s methodological approach and procedures. The chapter
includes eight sections. The first section provides the rationale for the research paradigm,
which is followed by the sections related to research method and design, participants and
sampling strategy, and data collection instruments. The last four sections discuss the
procedures of data collection, data organization, data analysis, and the quality evaluation of
the study.
3.1 Rationale for the Interpretive Research Paradigm
This study intended to explore the conceptualizations of pedagogical content knowledge

(PCK) of six EFL teachers, in public junior high schools (PJHS) in the Special Province of
Yogyakarta, Indonesia, in their instructional curriculum design and practice. Falling within a
qualitative multiple-case study approach (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014; Stake, 2006;
Yin, 2014), this study adopts several characteristics of an interpretive paradigm (Bassey,
1999; Patton, 2002). Firstly, this study seeks an in-depth exploration of a “bounded system”,
or a case (or multiple cases) (Stake, 2003, p. 136). Each case studied has its own stories of
particularity and complexity within its own diverse, unique, and bounded setting (Stake,
2003, 2006). To do so, the researcher is required to carefully interpret multiple realities
constructed in multiple sources of information (e.g. observations, interviews, documents, and
audiovisual materials) (Creswell, 2013). Secondly, conceptual research activities embedded in
this qualitative multiple-case study, such as seeking patterns in data to develop themes,
triangulating key observations to be used as bases for interpretations, selecting alternative
interpretations, and developing assertions or generalizations about the case (Stake, 2000, p.
448), also require the researcher’s interpretation. Thirdly, this study allows the researcher to
have an extensive engagement with the data to see what potential insights the data can offer
(Thorne, 2008). This way of interpreting, therefore, generates “new inquiries as well as
applications of ‘evidence’ to practice” (Thorne, 2008, p. 35).
3.2 Research Method and Design
Rooted in a qualitative case study approach, this study employed a multiple-case study
method that involved within- and cross-case study design (Miles et al., 2014; Stake, 2006;
Yin, 2014). Six teachers were the cases in this multiple-case study. The teachers’
50
conceptualizations of PCK, which cover the cognitive and pedagogical processes of
understanding, transforming, and reasoning over their instructional design and practice, were
the focus of the case studies. The six cases were examined within their influencing socio-
educational context.
In a multiple-case study, the number of cases cannot be defined statistically (Miles et

al., 2014; Yin, 2014). The sufficiency of cases depends on how, conceptually, the cases will
provide certainty about the multiple-case results. A multiple-case study with more than 10 to
15 cases becomes unmanageable (Miles et al., 2014). Some qualitative studies on second
language (L2) teacher knowledge (e.g. Akbari & Tajik, 2009; Gatbonton, 2008; Gholami &
Husu, 2010; Golombek, 1998; Johnston & Goettsch, 2000; Wette, 2010) show that the
average number of participants is under nine, with the majority having between two and four
participants. Against this backdrop, six teachers were considered sufficient for this study to
achieve the expected results with rich, complex, yet manageable data. Moreover, the selected
six teachers already represented the distribution of the regencies in which their schools were
located, since the cases were instrumentally intended to provide insights concerning PJHS
EFL teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design and practice
in the Special Province of Yogyakarta.
A replication strategy (Yin, 2014) was adopted for the multiple cases of the study, by
carefully selecting each case teacher so that the study was able to yield “similar results (a
literal replication)” and or “contrasting results (a theoretical replication)” (Yin, 2014, p. 57).
Therefore, it was ensured in this study that the attributive characteristics were attached in each
case, so that the case teachers in each category carried similar attributes.
The six case teachers were subject to a within- and cross-case comparative design
(Miles et al., 2014). In so doing, each of the six teachers was treated as an individual case or a
single unit, belonging to experienced and inexperienced groups of teachers, before the cross-
case analysis was applied (Stake, 2000). As explicated by Yin (2014, p. 59), in order to obtain
the replication logic, each individual case study is regarded as a “whole” study in which
convergent evidence, in relation to the facts and conclusions for the cases, is identified. To
illustrate, the within- and cross-case comparative design (the multiple-case design) for this
study is as shown in Figure 3.1.
51
Group of Experienced Group of Inexperienced
Teachers Teachers
Within-Case Comparison Within-Case Comparison
Case 1 Case 1
Case 2 Shared Shared Case 2

Findings Findings
Case 3 Cross-Case Comparison Case 3
Merged Findings
Figure 3.1: The multiple-case design of the study
3.3 Participants and Sampling Strategy
The cases included six teachers in public junior high schools (PJHS) in the Special Province
of Yogyakarta. The six teachers were drawn from the target population of English language
teachers in four regions within the Special Province of Yogyakarta. These regions comprised
three regencies of Kulonprogo, Bantul, Gunungkidul, and one city or municipality of
Yogyakarta.
The selection of the cases was based on the characteristics of EFL teachers of PJHS in
the Special Province of Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta EFL teachers of PJHS were divided into two
major categories: (1) certified teachers who had gained teaching experience for a minimum of
five years and more, and had passed the National Teacher Certification Program (NTCP); and
(2) uncertified teachers who had less than five years of classroom teaching experience and
were not yet entitled to take the NTCP. In addition to these attributive characteristics, the
extent to which the teachers had attended teacher development activities to enhance their
expertise was also considered. In this study, the specified cases of certified teachers are,
hereafter, termed as experienced teachers, and those of uncertified teachers are labeled as
inexperienced teachers.
In terms of the school category, PJHS was chosen as the attributive characteristic
since the NTCP had given more priority to PJHS teachers than to private school teachers. The
NTCP database, managed by Yogyakarta State University (YSU), shows that, out of 376
52
teachers passing the NTCP from 2008 to 2013, 71 teachers taught at private junior high
schools, and the remaining 304 were PJHS teachers. Moreover, the total number of PJHS was
three times that of the public senior high school. The following table presents the distribution
of the public and private schools in the Special Province of Yogyakarta that were under the
supervision and management of the Ministry of National Education and Culture (MNEC).
Purposive within- and multiple-case sampling techniques were employed to select six
Yogyakarta EFL teachers of PJHS. Each set of three teachers represented experienced and
inexperienced EFL teachers of PJHS in the Special Province of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The
purposive within-case sampling technique “draws a sample of persons and then collects
comparable data points from each one” (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014, p. 33). The
multiple-case sampling technique made it possible for the study to obtain more precise, valid,
stable, and trustworthy findings by looking at the re-occurrence of single case findings across
a range of similar and contrasting cases (Miles et al., 2014).
53
Table 3.1: The number of secondary schools in the Special Province of Yogyakarta in
the academic year of 2011/2012
No. District/Municipality Junior High School Senior High School

Public Private Total Public Private Total
1. Kulonprogo 36 29 65 11 5 16
2. Bantul 47 38 85 19 15 34
3. Gunung Kidul 59 47 106 11 12 23
4. Sleman 54 52 106 17 28 45
5. Yogyakarta 16 42 58 11 36 47
6. Special Province of 212 208 420 69 96 165
Yogyakarta
Source: www.pendidikan-diy.go.id
To recruit the participants, several procedures were followed. Firstly, the population of
certified teachers in the Special Province of Yogyakarta and the database of teachers who
passed the NTCP established by YSU were accessed. Secondly, the cases identification
process officially involved two gatekeepers from: Jogjakarta English Teachers Association
(JETA), as the local English teachers’ association; and the Regency Panel of English Subject
Teachers for the regency of Sleman, or institutionally named Musyawarah Guru Mata
Pelajaran (MGMP) in the Special Province of Yogyakarta. These two gatekeepers were in
charge as the head of the teachers’ association, and of the panel. They were professionally
recognized as experienced teachers who had a long list of achievements. These two
gatekeepers were briefed concerning the aims and expectations of the study, the requirements
for the eligible teachers to participate, and the benefits that the participating teachers could get
from their decision to participate in the study. They were also provided with flyers containing
the above information to be distributed to Yogyakarta PJHS teachers within their reach. In
addition to these, the researcher also sent an invitation of interest to Yogyakarta PJHS
teachers within the researcher’s own professional network.
After one month, 18 teachers had responded to the invitation. An initial identification
form was then sent to these interested teachers to be completed through their email addresses.
The form contained information that was required for mapping their classification and
eligibility to be selected as the teacher participants for the project. Out of the 18 teachers, 15
teachers returned the initial identification form. These 15 potential teacher participants are
labeled with pseudonyms, as shown in Appendix IV, Table 4.1. Of these 15 potential teacher
participants, 11 teachers were classified as experienced teachers and the other 4 teachers
belonged to the inexperienced category. All of them taught in PJHS spreading over three
regencies, and one city or municipality within the Special Province of Yogyakarta. Within the
54
experienced category, 8 teachers had teaching experience of more than 10 years, ranging from
15 to 32 years, and 3 teachers had taught in PJHS for less than 10 years, ranging from 5 to 7
years. All the experienced teachers had passed the NTCP, with 4 of them passing the program
through a portfolio mode, while the remaining teachers had to undergo the NTCP teacher
training before passing it. In terms of their qualifications, the majority had earned a bachelor
degree in an English language education study program. Only 2 of them had gained their
master’s degree. On the other hand, all the inexperienced teachers had less than 5 years of
teaching experience. All of them were not certified, but had completed their bachelor degree
in English language education. Only one of them was undertaking a master’s program, in
Applied Linguistics, at the time of study. Thus, the attributive characteristics attached to the
experienced and inexperienced teachers in the present study were anchored on two primary
characteristics: (1) the teachers’ status as being certified or uncertified teachers; and (2) the
length of the teachers’ teaching experience, which was more than five years for the
experienced teachers and less than five years for the inexperienced teachers.
After a careful examination of the potential teacher participants’ attributes, six

teachers were finally selected to take part in the study. Table 3.2 provides information about
the teacher participants. The names in the table are pseudonyms, and the sequential order
represents the approximate chronological order in which the case studies were conducted.
55
Table 3.2: The profile of the selected teacher participants
No. Teacher PJHS Date of Years of Education Certification

(SMPN) Birth (Age Experience Qualification Status
counted to (Counted Up to
December December
2013) 2013)
Experienced Teachers
1. Meri SMPN X 16 Oct 1970 16 years 10 Bachelor in Certified in 2010
Pajangan, (43 years months English (the NTCP
Bantul old) (from 1 Feb Language Teacher Training)
1997) Education
2. Susan SMPN X 19 April 16 years 11 Bachelor in Certified in 2009
Yogyakarta 1967 months English (the NTCP
(46 years (from 1 Jan Language Teacher Training)
old) 1997) Education
3. Sisilia SMPN X 1 Dec 1964 24 years 9 Bachelor in Certified in 2009
Semanu, (49 years months (from 1 English (Portfolio)
Gunungkidul old) March 1989) Language
Education
Inexperienced Teachers
4. Etta SMPN X 12 Oct 1983 3 years 11 Bachelor in Non-certified
Purwosari, (30 years months English
Gunungkidul old) (from 1 Jan Language
2010) Education
5. Nuri SMPN X 16 Jan 1986 2 years 11 Bachelor in Non-certified
Wates, (27 years months English
Kulonprogo old) (from 1 Jan Language
2011) Education
6. Tria SMPN X 22 July 1 year 5 months Bachelor in Non-certified
Jetis, Bantul 1986 (from 25 July English
(27 years 2012) Language
old) Education
56
All these selected teacher participants met the selection criteria for both the
experienced and inexperienced categories. Within the group of the potential experienced
teachers, the remaining eight teachers were not selected because:
1) Three teachers were professionally acknowledged as Core Teachers (Guru Inti).

Such kind of teachers professionally function as resources for other teachers and
become the teacher partners of the MNEC. The MNEC always involve Guru Inti
when implementing particular new educational policies, such as the
implementation of a new curriculum. They are usually invited as national
instructors and work hand in hand with the MNEC in various workshops and
teacher training programs. Since the level of expertise of core teachers is above the
average of experienced teachers, it was considered that these teachers did not
represent the average expertise of the target population of Yogyakarta EFL
teachers of PJHS. Those three teachers had also passed the NTCP through
portfolio. This means that their professional portfolio was considered excellent and
therefore they did not have to go through the NTCP teacher training.
2) The profile of the other three teachers showed that those teachers had less than ten
years of teaching experience. Even though they had already passed the NTCP, the
number of years of their teaching experience did not meet the set criteria.
3) Two of the potential teacher participants did not provide enough information in the
initial form sent to them. They were also excluded due to a lack of information
about their attributes.
Within the group of the potential inexperienced teachers, of four potential teacher
participants, one was excluded. This inexperienced teacher had other teaching commitments
which prevented her from participating.
3.4 Data Collection Instruments
Four research instruments were designed to collect the required data from the participants,
each seeking a different line of inquiry. As presented in Chapter 1 Section 1.3, the main lines
of inquiry that the study intended to capture were grounded on the conceptualizations of the
teachers’ PCK as represented in their instructional curriculum design and practice. Therefore,
the lines of inquiry covered two scopes of investigation. Firstly, the scope of investigation of
conceptualization of PCK in instructional curriculum design focused on the forms of
transformation, the strategies of transformation, and the pedagogical concerns underlying the
process of designing (planning) the instructional curriculum. A combination of Shulman’s
57
(1987) PCK and Graves’s (2000) framework of course development processes was adopted to
explore the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design.
Secondly, the scope of inquiry in instructional curriculum practice was concerned with the
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in terms of knowledge about reading instruction (KARI)
and knowledge about text (KAT) in their reading instruction. Andrews’s (2007) modified
model of PCK was applied to the framework of L2 reading instruction (Irvine-Niakaris and
Kiely, 2014). These two inquiries were set forth within the particular socio-educational
context (Graves, 2008).
The four data collection instruments used to collect the required data for the present
study were (see Appendix V-A to D):
(1) instructional curriculum design assessment sheet,

(2) pre-lesson semi-structured interview guideline,
(3) stimulated-recall interview guideline, and
(4) classroom observation guideline.
Each of the above four instruments is described and explained in the following sub-
sections.
3.4.1 Instructional Curriculum Design Assessment Sheet
The instructional curriculum design assessment sheet (see Appendix V-A) was prepared in
order to answer the first line of inquiry in this study, which was how the teachers transformed
their understanding of content into effective instructional curriculum design. The assessment
sheet was, therefore, constructed to examine the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their
instructional curriculum design.
The instructional curriculum design assessment sheet was adapted from Graves’s
(2000) framework of course development processes, and contained five processes of
instructional curriculum design, which were followed by the scale of teachers’ PCK
development. Those five processes were: (1) analyzing needs, (2) formulating learning
objectives and competence achievement indicators, (3) developing instructional materials, (4)
conceptualizing content and organizing the instruction, and (5) assessing student learning.
The assessment criteria for each process were constructed within the theoretical framework of
course development processes; while the descriptors for the scale of teachers’ PCK
development were mostly adapted from Danielson’s (2013) Framework for Teaching.
58
3.4.2 Interviews
Interview method was used in this research to collect further data about how the teacher
participants conceptualized their PCK in their instructional curriculum design and practice.
Pre-lesson semi-structured and stimulated-recall interviews were conducted with each teacher.
The pre-lesson interviews with each teacher followed a semi-structured procedure, in which a
list of structured questions (Patton, 2002) was made available and the teacher participants
were probed to allow for an emic perspective on the part of the participants. Hence, this
allowed the teacher participants to freely reveal their true and contextualized narratives, while
being guided by particular interview questions. The one-on-one semi-structured interview was
employed in order for the researcher to draw on the teachers’ concrete and theoretical ideas
related to their conceptualizations of PCK. It also helped the researcher to build and maintain
good relations and communication with the teachers, so as to enable good rapport and mutual
respect. Interview questions were designed in a way that explicitly asked the teachers about
their articulated PCK and required them to produce scenarios or stories, explanations, and
reasons for their instructional plans and practices.
The second segment of interview used for the data collection was stimulated-recall
interview (SRI). Through SRIs, a video recording of the teachers’ classroom teaching was
played back in the interview sessions to elicit critical and reflective comments from the
teachers. Both the interviewed teacher and the researcher could take turns deciding on which
part they wanted to stop and play in the recording for further exploration. The ultimate goal of
this technique was to help the teacher participants reflect on what they had practiced in their
class (Erkmen, 2012). Supporting one-on-one semi-structured interviews with stimulated-
recall ones was particularly important to reduce possible research bias that comes
inadvertently from teachers’ efforts to reconstruct the missing details of their teaching
performances.
3.4.2.1 Pre-Lesson Semi-Structured Interview Guideline
Core pre-lesson interview questions were prepared to stimulate the teachers’ actual
recollections of planning their lessons. The questions were carefully formulated on the basis
of Graves’s (2000) dynamic and multifaceted framework of course development processes
(see Appendix V-B). This framework was adopted as the template for exploring the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design. The pre-lesson semi-
structured interviews mainly sought information about the teachers’ choices or selections of
forms and strategies of transformation, and pedagogical concerns in the five instructional
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curriculum design processes. This line of inquiry was expanded to find out how the socio-
educational context influenced the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional
curriculum design.
Thirteen questions were devised for the pre-lesson interview. The first eleven
questions represented Graves’s (2000) framework of course development processes and were
to inquire as to the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum
design. The last two questions were to figure out the influence of the socio-educational
context on the teacher’s conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design.
3.4.2.2 Stimulated-Recall Interview (SRI) Guideline
In addition to the pre-lesson semi-structured interview guideline, a stimulated-recall interview

(SRI) guideline was prepared to obtain more interview data concerning the teachers’
instructional curriculum practice (see Appendix V-D). The SRIs, which were conducted
immediately after each teacher finished their teaching sessions, were intended to elicit critical
and reflective elaborations from the teachers on their pedagogical reasoning over their
instruction. Therefore, the interview guideline contained a list of probing questions that
stimulated the teacher participants to elaborate on their pedagogical actions in their
instructional practices. The elicitations and probes were based on the video recordings of the
teachers’ instructional practices. The reflective questions were explored at the time the
teacher participants and the researcher were watching the videos. Thus, the content of the
questions was adjusted on the basis of the recorded teaching scenes that needed further
discussion.
3.4.3 Classroom Observation Guideline
A classroom observation guideline was created to record the enactment of the teachers’
instructional curriculum design in their instructional curriculum practice (see Appendix V-C).
The guideline consisted of three parts:
(1) the identity of the lesson,

(2) the lesson structure, and
(3) the overall comments on the teachers’ transformation of their content knowledge
for their instructional purposes.
The first part of the guideline provided some space for the researcher to record such
basic details about the lesson as the name of the teacher, school, teaching session, teaching
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duration, text/ theme/ skill focused, grade level, and the date of the teaching session. The
second part of the guideline allowed the researcher to carefully take notes about what the
teachers did at the three main stages in their instructional practices, constituting the opening,
main, and closing activities. Thus, the researcher made effort to take notes or write down the
teachers’ overall instructional curriculum practice, to ensure that the instructional activities
being observed and recorded were not merely the ones that the researcher intended to find.
Following the column for the teaching stages was the one for evidence of PCK
development, in which the researcher was able to record the forms and strategies of the
teachers’ PCK development as demonstrated in their instructional practices. The last part of
the guideline made it possible for the researcher to write her analytical thoughts on the overall
transformation process the teachers had performed within their instructional curriculum
practice. Such analytical thoughts were raised in the stimulated-recall interview sessions and
subject to the teachers’ clarification and confirmation.
3.5 Data Collection Procedures
Data collection activities started after the researcher obtained a field research approval from
the Human Research Ethics Sub-Committee, Faculty of Human Sciences, Macquarie
University (see Appendix XIII on Ethics Approval). Soon after the approval from the Ethics
Sub-Committee was received, several related authorities were contacted to seek for their
assistance for the identification and recruitment of potential teacher participants (see Section
3.3).
3.5.1 Data Collection Preparation
The data collection preparation activities took place over 19 days from 9 th to 31st January
2014. The timetable of the activities was as outlined in Appendix VI, Table 6.1. As part of the
preparation activities, an orientation session for each of the selected six teacher participants
was organized during the researcher’s first visit to their schools. The orientation sessions
covered the necessary technical and ethical information that the teachers needed to know
about the research. Basically, the information that was delivered in the orientation session had
already been known and read by the teachers in the project’s information flyer and in the
information and consent form. On this first encounter, the teachers were once again informed
about the aims of the project, the research activities they would take part in, the benefits of
participating in the research, and what they and their schools would receive as a token of
appreciation of their participation in the research. On behalf of Macquarie University, which
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funded the data collection for this study, the researcher provided a package for each of the
participating teachers, in the form of an incentive and a piece of ‘batik’-patterned fabric, and
presented all the schools with two English resource books for the school libraries. It was also
emphasized to the teachers that their participation in the research project was totally voluntary
and that they could withdraw from further participation in the research at any time without
any consequence. Moreover, their involvement in the research had nothing to do with the
evaluation of their professional performance and would not have any impact on their
professional career. After the delivery of this information, the information and consent form
was given to the teachers to be signed by them. The signing of the consent form by the
teachers, therefore, marked the beginning of the data collection activities.
3.5.2 Data Collection
The data collection was undertaken from the first week of February 2014, as the new semester
began, to late April 2014. As advised by the teacher participants, it was much better for the
data collection to be completed by May 2014 since, starting from early May 2014, the
teachers would start focusing on the preparation for their students to have the final school
examination, and be busily handling the National Examination for grade IX students in their
schools. For this reason, the teachers and the researcher agreed to schedule the data collection
activities until the end of April 2014, as shown in the data collection timetable in Appendix
VI, Table 6.2.
The data collection schedule, however, was changed several times due to emerging
situations occurring at various times. Further details about the changes and the influencing
factors are explained in Section 3.5.2.5. The data collection was completed in three stages: (1)
pre-lesson data collection, (2) during-lesson data collection, and (3) post-lesson data
collection. The activities, and the procedures for carrying these out, are further elaborated in
the following sections.
3.5.2.1 Pilot Interview
A pilot interview was conducted with two volunteer colleagues in the researcher’s home
institution, English Language Education Study Program, Faculty of Languages and Arts,
Yogyakarta State University (YSU), Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The two volunteer colleagues
were junior lecturers who had a record of supervising PJHS teachers in various teacher
training programs. As such, they made an effort to digest the designed interview questions
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from the perspective of teachers. Therefore, they proposed some modifications to several
interview questions, to the researcher, as outlined below in this section.
This pilot interview was essential to figure out whether the interview questions were
able to generate rich answers from the teacher participants, and to find out how the questions
might be answered by the potential teachers. The questions were trialed and discussed with
the volunteer interviewees. The trial and discussion indicated that most of the interview
questions were clear and understandable. The answers to the questions were satisfactory in
terms of the information produced. The pilot interview, however, suggested the following
minor modifications in the pre-lesson interview questions:
- The 1st question on the pre-lesson interview was reformulated from “How do you
usually plan your daily lesson?” to “How did you plan your today’s lesson?”. This
was done to emphasize the particular day’s lesson plan that the interviewee was
required to share information about.
- It was suggested that the probing question, “How did you organize the
representations of the content of the Indonesian EFL curriculum (e.g. skills, texts,
and characters) in your today’s lesson plan?”, preceded the 3rd question, “To what
extent is your planning organized around the representations of the content of the
Indonesian EFL curriculum (e.g. skills, texts, and characters)?”. This probing
question was considered as an opportunity for the teachers to elaborate on their
overall organization of the representations of the content of the Indonesian EFL
curriculum, before they were required to reflect on the extent to which they had
organized the content representations of the curriculum.
- In line with the minor modification on the 1st question, the 5th question “Can you
tell me the stages or the processes you usually go through in developing your
teaching and learning materials?” was reformulated into “Can you tell me the
stages or the processes you went through in developing your today’s teaching and
learning materials?”, in order to stress the expectation of the teachers to share
about their particular day’s teaching and learning materials.
3.5.2.2 Pre-Lesson Data Collection
The pre-lesson data collection stage covered the data collection activities for portraying the
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design. The activities
consisted of, firstly, assessing the teachers’ instructional curriculum design in the form of
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their lesson plans and the supporting annexes, and secondly, conducting the pre-lesson semi-
structured interviews.
3.5.2.2.1 Instructional Curriculum Design Assessment
Prior to the teaching phase, the teacher participants handed in their instructional curriculum
design, in the form of a lesson plan with its annexes; the latter which consisted of teaching
materials for the lesson either as loose worksheets or systematically designed units, and the
media used such as cards, pictures, and samples of additional texts. The teacher participants
were only requested to do what they had usually done in preparing their lessons, and no
specific change was necessary to be made in the ways they prepared their lesson plans. The
teachers provided their lesson plans in the original format as determined by the MNEC.
Serving as written evidence, the lesson planning documents and their annexes, therefore,
provided a stable and trustworthy account of what was planned and was going to be taught
within the actual context (Hodder, 2003).
Table 3.3 presents the instructional documents provided by the six teacher participants
in this present study.
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Table 3.3: Instructional curriculum design documents provided in the study
Teachers Instructional Curriculum Design Supporting Annexes

Form Skill Focus & Text Focus
Meri Four lesson Reading skill & short functional A set of teaching materials comprising a vocabulary building practice, a set of
plans, for each text (caution/ notice) multiple choice reading questions (10 questions), and a set of cards of cautions &
of the four notices for a reading practice
meetings Listening skill & narrative text A set of teaching materials containing two listening practices
Reading skill & report text A set of teaching materials consisting of one pre-reading activity, one reading
practice, and a set of vocabulary cards for a question and answer activity
Writing skill & descriptive text A worksheet for a pre-writing activity
Susan A lesson plan Listening-Speaking skills & - Menu list (supplementary material for conducting a game)
for the first transactional and interpersonal - Things I eat and drink (a supplementary picture for drilling the target
three meetings texts expressions)
A lesson plan Reading-writing skills & short A set of teaching materials consisting of: (1) a picture of a restaurant, (2) three
for the 4th functional text (advertisement) model texts on restaurant advertisements, (3) two worksheets for reading and
meeting writing practices
Sisilia Four lesson Reading skill & recount text (the A unit design of teaching materials for teaching reading and recount text
plans, for each theme was ‘Holiday’)
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of the four Reading skill & recount text (the A set of teaching materials containing three reading practices (one pre-reading
meetings theme was ‘Football’) activity and two reading practices)
Listening skill & narrative text A set of teaching materials containing four listening practices
(the model text was entitled (two pre-listening activities and two listening practices)
‘Cinderella’)
Listening skill & narrative text A set of teaching materials containing three listening practices (one pre-listening
(the model text was entitled activity and two listening practices)
‘Snow White’)
Etta Four lesson Reading skill & recount text A set of teaching materials containing three reading practices
plans, for each Writing skill & recount text A set of teaching materials consisting of two pre-writing activities and one writing
of the four practice
meetings, Reading skill & recount text A set of teaching materials containing three reading practices
& syllabi Writing skill & recount text A set of teaching materials containing two pre-writing activities, one writing
practice, and one writing homework
Nuri Four lesson Listening skill & recount text A worksheet containing one pre-listening activity and one listening practice
plans, for each Speaking skill & monologue A worksheet for a speaking practice
of the four recount text
meetings, Speaking skill & monologue A set of cards of jumbled paragraphs for a pre-speaking activity and a worksheet
& syllabi recount text for a speaking activity
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Speaking skill & monologue Two sets of pictures for speaking practices
recount text
Tria Four lesson Listening skill & spoken A unit design of teaching materials containing five practices intended for teaching
plans, for each procedure text listening and spoken procedure text
of the four Writing skill & procedure text A unit design of teaching materials containing five practices intended for teaching
meetings, writing and procedure, two sets of scrambled pictures with the themes of ‘Brushing
& syllabi Teeth’ and ‘Washing Hands’, and a set of cards of scrambled procedural steps
Reading skill & short functional A unit design of teaching materials containing five practices intended for teaching
text (birthday invitation) reading and short functional text in the form of birthday invitation, and samples of
birthday invitations
Writing skill & short functional A unit design of teaching materials containing five practices intended for teaching
text (birthday invitation) writing and short functional text in the form of birthday invitation, and samples of
birthday invitations
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During the data collection, the researcher attempted to grasp the extent of the
effectiveness of the teachers’ instructional curriculum design by referring to the rubric of the
instructional curriculum design assessment that had been developed. Prior to the data
collection, the researcher made efforts to make herself familiar with the rubric, so as to ease
the researcher in making a preliminary assessment of the teachers’ instructional curriculum
design. In the next step, the preliminary instructional curriculum design assessment was used
to guide the researcher’s further observation of the evidence of the teachers’ PCK
development in enacting their instruction.
3.5.2.2.2 Pre-Lesson Semi-Structured Interviews
As previously stated, prior to the pre-lesson interviews, the researcher made efforts to
understand the teachers’ lesson plans. This was done to engage the teachers in exploring their
conceptualizations of PCK in their lesson plans during the interviews. Each teacher was
observed four times. Each of the teachers, therefore, took part in four pre-lesson interviews. A
total number of 24 pre-lesson interviews were conducted as part of the data collection. The
interviews took place in the designated rooms determined by the teachers at their schools.
Most of the teachers were able to provide a private room that was mostly sterile from any
interruption or interference. Two teachers, Meri and Susan, however, allocated a guest room
due to the limited availability of the school rooms. In these two cases, occasional distractions
came from the teachers’ colleagues or the school principals who occasionally made friendly
greetings to the two teachers and the researcher.
Each interview lasted for a maximum of 60 minutes and was conducted both in
Bahasa Indonesia and English. The questions were presented in English. However, the
teachers were allowed to provide answers, explanations, or clarifications in Bahasa Indonesia
when deemed necessary. All the interviews were audiotaped and fully transcribed. The
interviews were reasonably similar in length across the six cases. The average pre-lesson
interviews were about 3,262 words for the experienced group and 3,658 words for the
inexperienced group. Overall, the average of the interviews was 3,460 words. These included
short comments and probing questions.
The semi-guided pre-lesson interviews were designed to fully explore the teacher
participants’ accounts of their transformation process for their instructional curriculum
design. However, the interviews were topically guided by the pre-determined questions.
Although relevant and probing questions were allowed to establish conversational rapport,
there was an attempt to elicit similar amounts of information from all the participants (Cohen,
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Manion, & Morrison, 2007). Moreover, despite the order of the questions being occasionally
changed in order to adjust the situation for each participant and to maintain conversational
rapport, the content of the core questions was kept intact. This was to ensure that the wording
of the questions did not substantially yield different responses, which would reduce “the
comparability of responses” (Cohen et al., 2007, p. 353). To establish trust from the teacher
participants and to build the participants’ views (the emic perspective), a neutral stance with a
minimum of involvement in the interaction during the interviews was practiced, so that the
participants feasibly felt at ease in extending their objective perspectives (Cohen et al., 2007;
Marshall & Rossman, 2011; Patton, 2002).
3.5.2.3 During-Lesson Data Collection
The during-lesson data collection stage aimed to capture the teachers’ conceptualizations of
PCK in their instructional curriculum practice. To achieve this aim, a series of non-participant
observation activities of the teachers’ instructional curriculum practice were conducted. The
teachers’ consent for the researcher to make observations and to video record the classroom
activities had been obtained. As stated in the ethics approval, the observations and the video
recordings of the classroom activities did not specifically involve students. The focus of the
observations and the video recordings was the teachers’ instructional curriculum practice in
their classes. Therefore, during the video recording, a single camera, set up on a tripod,
recorded the ways the teachers conducted their instructional curriculum practice. The entire
classroom activities were shot from a strategic location. To obtain clear and audible voice,
one of the crewmen managed to hold a hanging microphone, that was put in the middle of the
class, so that the voice of the students could be clearly recorded. As for the teachers, a small
microphone was attached to them. The teachers had also been informed in the orientation
sessions that the video recording process would involve a small team of video recording crew.
A cameraman and assistant were in charge of the video recording process in all the cases.
In the first meeting on the observation days, before the observation and the video
recording activities began, the teachers informed their students about what would happen in
their classes in the weeks ahead. The teachers explained to their students that their lessons
would be observed and video recorded by a student from Macquarie University, Australia.
They emphasized that the observations and the video recording activities had nothing to do
with any evaluation. The students were, therefore, told to have nothing to worry about or to be
afraid of responding to the lessons as they would usually do.
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During the observations, the researcher sat in the back of the classroom and actively
took notes on perceived evidence of the teachers’ PCK conceptualizations, in terms of the
ways they organized their instruction within their adopted teaching stages. In following the
teachers’ instructional transformations in their teaching stages, the researcher also referred to
the teachers’ lesson plans that they handed in prior to the pre-lesson interviews. The notes
were made on the classroom observation guideline, which was designed to provide space to
record evidence of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional practices.
During each teaching session, each observation lasted 80 minutes. Consequently, the video
recording followed the duration of the teaching session. Hence, the during-lesson data
collection stage yielded 24 classroom observation notes and 24 video recordings.
The researcher’s role as a non-participant was essential for this research. The
characteristic of this multiple-case study required an exploration that portrayed the actual
practices of the teachers’ transformation process and pedagogical reasoning in their own
natural settings. Therefore, it was important for the research to make all the individuals taking
part in the research feel as comfortable as possible (Creswell, 2005). The non-participant
observation could, thus, lead to the teachers’ feeling comfortable in their teaching.
3.5.2.4 Post-Lesson Data Collection
The post-lesson data collection stage covered the data collection activity of the stimulated-
recall interviews (SRIs). This activity aimed to engage the teachers with their self-
conceptualization, self-reflection, and self-reasoning on what they had done in their
instructional curriculum practice.
The SRI was conducted after each teacher enacted their instructional curriculum
practice. This was to ensure that the teachers’ freshest memory of the instructional activities
could be maximally accessed (Dempsey, 2010). The 24 SRIs each took a maximum of 60
minutes for all the cases. Each interview was basically conducted right after the teachers had
done their teaching. However, a short break of about 15 minutes was taken, to give some time
for the teachers to relax for a while, and to provide an opportunity for the researcher to obtain
the copy of the needed video recording from the video recording crew. During the interviews,
the researcher strived to engage the teachers with their self-reflection and self-
conceptualization of their knowledge of teaching, by referring them to the audiovisual
recordings of their own instructional curriculum practice. As in carrying out the pre-lesson
interviews, in the SRIs the teachers were also permitted to present their self-reflection and
self-conceptualization in Bahasa Indonesia when needed. Thus, this interviewing technique
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allowed for “interviewing individuals while playing them audio or audiovisual recordings of
their own behavior in social situations” (Dempsey, 2010, p. 349). The video recordings were
played to the teachers on the researcher’s personal computer.
The scenes worth discussing were decided by both the researcher and the teachers.
Principally, the researcher and the teachers went through all the scenes in a particular video
recording together. The selection of the scenes that were worth discussing were identified
together and confirmed by the teachers. The teachers’ considerations in choosing their own
particular teaching moments to discuss were valuable in revealing significant moments that
the researcher might not have envisaged. Meanwhile, the researcher’s decision to opt for
moments worth exploring was helped by the classroom observation guidelines, which
contained the researcher’s notes on the forms and strategies of the teachers’ classroom
transformations within their teaching stages. On several occasions, both the teachers and the
researcher decided to revisit the same segments of teaching moments. At other points in time,
the researcher sometimes let the video run for some minutes while trying to pinpoint
particular significant moments of teaching. The researcher and the teachers also frequently
stopped or paused to discuss certain chunks of happenings in the recorded teaching sessions.
Some silent moments were sometimes allowed to be present, when the teachers showed some
symptoms of fatigue. This was intended to give the teachers some time in order to be able to
recall the chunks of their actual practices accurately.
All the interviews were also fully transcribed. The SRIs generated 2,145 words on
average for the experienced teachers and 2,400 words for the inexperienced ones, while
overall, the SRIs produced 2,272 words on average across the six cases.
3.5.2.5 Challenges Encountered in Data Collection
The initial site visits were made to meet the teachers and the school principals at the six
public junior high schools (PJHS/ SMPN - Sekolah Menengah Pertama Negeri) in the Special
Province of Yogyakarta, before the data collection activities were conducted. A series of the
initial meetings were attended by the six teacher participants and the three school principals
from SMPN X Pajangan, Bantul (Meri’s school), SMPN X Yogyakarta (Susan’s school), and
SMPN X Semanu, Gunung Kidul (Sisilia’s school). The other three school principals from
SMPN X Purwosari, Gunung Kidul (Etta’s school), SMPN X Wates, Kulonprogo (Nuri’s
school), and SMPN X Jetis, Bantul (Tria’s school) were not able to attend the initial meetings
due to the other commitments they had as the school principals. It was just a coincidence that
all the school principals of the experienced teachers were able to attend the meetings, while
71
those of the inexperienced teachers were not able to do so. To compensate for the absence of
the school principals of the inexperienced teachers, the researcher asked for the inexperienced
teachers’ assistance to communicate with their school principals about the data collection
activities that were going to take place in their schools and about a replacement time for
having another meeting. Soon after they communicated with their school principals, the three
inexperienced teachers informed the researcher that their school principals welcomed and
supported the research activities in their schools. Through these teachers, the school principals
finally decided to meet the researcher on the last visits to all the schools, when the researcher
planned to deliver some souvenirs for the schools as tokens of appreciation to the schools’
support for the project. Despite the challenge in meeting with the school principals, the
researcher felt grateful and fortunate that all the teachers were very eager to participate in the
research and that all the school principals were very supportive and warm-hearted.
The other challenge faced in the data collection stage was the process of fixing the
schedule for conducting the data collection activities. The schedule experienced changes
several times due to three external factors: (1) the teachers’ compelling responsibilities, (2)
the impacts of a volcano eruption, Mount Kelud, in the Districts of Kediri, Malang, and
Blitar, in the province of East Java, and (3) the examinations (the National Examination and
the school final semester examination). The first factor, the teachers’ compelling activities,
was the most influencing factor in forcing the researcher to make some adjustments in the
data collection schedule. For example, two teachers requested some adjustments of the data
collection schedule because of being assigned to take a teacher competence test and holding
responsibilities in two different organizations.
An unexpected challenge came from the eruption of Mount Kelud. Mount Kelud,
which is administratively laid in the Districts of Kediri, Malang, and Blitar, in the province of
East Java, and which is one of the most dangerous volcanoes on Indonesia’s most densely
populated island, erupted on 13 February 2014 at midnight. The eruption of the volcano
spurted ash and sand 17 kilometers into the air and covered some areas within 500 kilometers
away (Jakarta Post, 15 February 2014). Yogyakarta was one of the areas that was quite
severely impacted by the eruption. The rain of volcanic ash and sand thickly blanketed all the
regions around Yogyakarta. This condition seriously affected the data collection activities.
The MNEC, along with the Governor of the Special Province of Yogyakarta and the
Provincial Department of Education, Youth, and Sport (DIKPORA), soon closed all schools in
Yogyakarta and suspended all the school activities until the conditions were considered
conducive. Meri (Case 1) was supposed to teach on Friday, 14 February 2014, the following
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day after the eruption. Consequently, the data collection activities scheduled for her on that
day were cancelled. It took six days after the eruption for most of the schools to resume their
regular teaching and learning activities.
The National Examination (NE) and the school final semester examination contributed
to the complexity of the schedule for the data collection activities. Referring to the academic
calendar of PJHS for the academic year of 2013/2014, which was made available on the
website of DIKPORA, the teaching and learning activities were still running up to the 3rd
week of May 2014 before the final semester examination was administered in early June
2014. In reality, in the 1st week of May (5th – 8th May, 2014), the NE for PJHS students was
nationally held. Soon after the NE, all the teachers had the same agenda, which was directing
their instructional activities for preparing their students of grades VII and VIII to successfully
take the school final semester examination. For these reasons, there was no choice but to
schedule the data collection activities up to the end of April 2014.
The data collection stage was even more challenging regarding the fact that the
distance of one school to another within one regency or across regencies was considerable. To
go to two cases was difficult, since those schools were located in a quite hilly area that
required the researcher to pass through steep and hilly roads. These two cases were the site
visits to the two schools in Gunung Kidul, where Sisilia (SMPN X Semanu) and Etta (SMPN X
Purwosari) taught. One school, which was Meri’s school (SMPN X Pajangan, Bantul), was
provided with difficult access since, in some areas approaching the school, the street was
rough and stony. Access to the remaining three cases was, however, much easier: Susan’s
(SMPN X Yogyakarta) and Nuri’s (SMPN X Wates, Kulonprogo) schools were located in the
heart of the Yogyakarta municipality and in the center of the Kulonprogo District; while
Tria’s school (SMPN X Jetis, Bantul) was on the edge of the main road leading to the school.
3.6 Data Organization
The required data for this study were generated from 24 instructional curriculum design
assessments, 48 interviews consisting of pre-lesson and stimulated-recall interviews, notes on
24 classroom observations, and 24 video recordings. The preparation of data for analysis
began by compiling a complete set of the research instruments for each teacher into a PCK
development repertoire (PCK-dev-Rep). Inspired by the work of Loughran, Milroy, Berry,
Gunstone, and Mulhall (2001), with their series of resource folios called CoRe (content
representation) and PaP-eRs (pedagogical and professional-experience repertoires), in the
present study the data on the teachers’ PCK conceptualizations were compiled into a PCK
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conceptualization repertoire (PCK-con-Rep), which comprised the data on the teachers’ PCK
conceptualizations in their instructional curriculum design and practice. Each teacher’s PCK-
con-Rep, thus, comprised a complete set of the teachers’ lesson plans and annexes, the
assessments, the transcripts of the interviews, and the classroom observation notes, which
were completed by the transcripts of the video recordings of the teachers’ teaching
performances. The repertoire for each case was filed in loose-leaf folders, and indexed
according to the sequence of the cases studied and the meetings of each case study. The audio
files of the interview data, the interview transcripts, the video files, and the video transcripts,
were stored securely on the researcher’s personal computer data, and on an external hard disk,
as well as in the NVivo 10 software program.
The audio and audiovisual data, in the forms of interviews and videos, were
transcribed verbatim. The interview transcripts were generated from the digital recording
device, which had a high quality. The transcripts were checked with the audiotapes, and any
errors, such as mistyped words and unclear words because of some external noise interfering
with the interviews, were corrected. In addition, the interview segments in Bahasa Indonesia
were translated by the researcher. The accuracy of the translation for the selected interview
data segments was verified by the teacher participants.
3.7 Data Analysis
The data analysis process in this study was initiated by efforts to determine relevant analytic
strategies. Four main strategies were applied for the data analysis:
1) employing a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software, i.e. the NVivo 10

program, for the interview data analysis;
(2) following the research questions, and the theoretical and conceptual framework of
the study;
(3) extracting the units of analysis in separate tabulations; and
(4) identifying patterns of conceptualization within- and cross-cases (Yin, 2014).
The data analysis was taken from the multiple data sources encompassing the
teachers’ instructional curriculum design assessments, the interviews, the classroom
observation notes, and the teaching transcripts. The data analysis process for each data source
is consecutively presented in the following sections.
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3.7.1 The Instructional Curriculum Design Assessments Data Analysis
As previously mentioned in Section 3.5.2.2.1, the instructional curriculum design assessment

sheet has two functions:
1) as a guideline for the researcher to quickly grasp the effectiveness of the teachers’
instructional curriculum design;
2) as a guideline for drawing and identifying further evidence on the teachers’ PCK
conceptualizations in their instructional curriculum design.
Therefore, the data contained in the instructional curriculum design assessments were
the researcher’s initial assessments of the teachers’ lesson plans and the supporting materials
made prior to the pre-lesson interviews, and the researcher’s further assessments of evidence
of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK after the pre-lesson interviews.
The data analysis process was performed by developing matrices to map the teachers’
evidence of their PCK conceptualizations in each process of instructional curriculum design.
Emerging patterns in the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in each process of instructional
curriculum design were identified. For example, within the second process of formulating
goals and competence achievement indicators, it was identified that the group of the
experienced teachers shared three similar patterns in conceptualizing their competence
achievement indicators. The competence achievement indicators showed that they: (1) were
partially clear in the way that they did not clearly specify the micro skills and the texts
features the teachers intended to achieve; (2) were irrelevant, in the sense that they did not
directly relate to the learning outcomes for developing the target macro skills; and 3) reflected
a limited rigour in learning activities (see Chapter 4, Section 4.1.2). Shared and merged
findings of the within- and cross-case comparison of the teachers’ patterns of PCK
conceptualization were, therefore, generated from the matrices (Stake, 2006).
3.7.2 The Interview Data Analysis
The analysis of the interview data was done by employing three processes of data analysis:
(1) the provisional data coding process (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014); (2) the manual
content analysis for the data coding (Patton, 2002; Saldana, 2013; Yin, 2014); (3) the
summative data analysis in relation to each participant within the same group of teachers
(within-case analysis), and then across the two different groups of teachers (cross-case
analysis) (Creswell, 2005).
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3.7.2.1 The Provisional Interview Data Coding Process
The NVivo 10 program was used in the initial stage of the interview data analysis to organize
the data, to portray the overall contents of the interview data, and to serve as the template for
generating categories and sub-categories from the interview data segments. This provisional
coding process was conducted by segmenting and labeling particular units of meaning of the
interview transcripts into pre-conceived categories, derived from the “start list” within the
research questions, and the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study (Miles et al.,
2014, p. 82). For example, in relation to the line of inquiry concerning how the teachers
transform their understanding of content into effective instructional curriculum design, five
major themes referring to instructional curriculum design, derived from Graves’s (2000)
framework of course development processes, were established. These pre-conceived themes
were: (1) analyzing needs, (2) formulating learning objectives and competence achievement
indicators, (3) conceptualizing content and organizing instruction, (4) developing instructional
materials, and (5) assessing student learning. Then, related data segments were attached to
each theme, and these data segments were provisionally classified in the NVivo 10 program.
Inter-coding data checking was done to verify the accuracy of the thematic analysis
and the data coding of the pre-lesson interviews. This was to see whether another researcher
(a colleague) was able to identify the preconceived themes and the related codes for the pre-
lesson interview data sets, which were based on the five processes of instructional curriculum
design underlying the pre-lesson interview questions. About 20% of samples of the pre-lesson
interview extracts, which were randomly chosen from both of the two groups, were
categorized into particular themes and coded by the other researcher. The inter-coding
checking showed a similarity in which similar codes were attached to the selected data
segments of the pre-lesson interviews for each of the five preconceived themes. The example
of the comparison of the inter- and intra-coding data reliability for the theme of Analyzing
Needs, within the experienced teachers’ pre-lesson interview data set, is illustrated in Table
3.4.
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Table 3.4: The inter- and intra-coding data reliability of the experienced teachers’ pre-
lesson interview data
Theme Inter-Coding (by the Other Intra-Coding (by the Researcher)

Researcher)
Code Category Code Category
Analyzing Current Forms of Socioeconomic Forms of Student
Needs situation Student Needs background Needs
Environment Background
knowledge
Responses in Background
the previous knowledge
meeting
Topic of Topic of interest
interest
3.7.2.2 The Manual Content Analysis for the Data Coding
The manual content analysis was carried out for the further data coding process in which the
selected units of meaning or the interview data segments done with the NVivo 10 program
were manually coded (Patton, 2002; Saldana, 2013; Yin, 2014). The selected units of meaning
attached to each of the preconceived themes were manually analyzed and coded in the manual
matrices, to identify the theme-based assertions from the within- and cross-case patterns of
conceptualization of PCK (Stake, 2006).
The In Vivo and process coding techniques were also applied as part of the coding
techniques (Miles et al., 2014). The former coding made use of words or short phrases
coming out of the teachers’ utterances in the data; while the latter one adopted the use of
gerunds to indicate “observable and conceptual action” as well as actions that were
“intertwined with the dynamic of time, such as things that emerge, change, occur in particular
sequences, or become strategically implemented” (Miles et al., 2014, p. 75).
3.7.2.3 Within- and Cross-Case Interview Data Analysis
In this stage of data analysis, the coded data within each preconceived theme were
categorized and put into the matrices of the pre-lesson and stimulated-recall interview data
sets for the two groups of teachers. Then, summative data analysis was undertaken in relation
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to each participant within the same group of teachers (within-case analysis) and then across
the two different groups of teachers (cross-case analysis) (Creswell, 2013).
3.7.3 Classroom Observation and Teaching Video Transcripts Data Analysis
The analysis of the classroom observation notes and the teaching video transcripts was to
provide evidence of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum
practice. The inquiry focused on the exploration of the teachers’ conceptualizations of
knowledge about text (KAT) and knowledge about reading instruction (KARI) in their
reading instruction (Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014). The unit analysis of classroom
observation notes and the teaching transcripts focused on the conceptualization of KAT in the
form of knowledge of genre, and that of KARI in terms of organization of reading instruction
and explicit instruction of reading strategies.
3.7.4 Constant Comparison
Constant comparison in this present study was done to gain sufficient plausibility for
understanding the cases, data analysis, and interpretation (Marshall & Rosman, 2016; Stake,
2003). The comparative analysis was constantly and iteratively made from the beginning of
the study. A particular data collection stage was informed by the analysis of the data that were
previously collected; while the data analysis and interpretation were constantly compared to
the relevant literature underlying the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study, and
the research questions of the study. In so doing, this present study followed the iterative
process of theory development (Sturman, 1997).
3.8 Quality Evaluation of the Study
Judging the quality and credibility of qualitative inquiry requires different criteria depending
on the theoretical orientations and purposes of inquiry. The quality criteria for the present
study were sought within the social construction and constructivist or interpretive criteria.
Five criteria, consisting of internal validity (credibility), external validity (transferability),
reliability (dependability), and objectivity (confirmability), were considered for evaluating the
quality of this study (Guba & Lincoln, 1989; Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014).
3.8.1 Internal Validity (Credibility)
As part of research quality and credibility, internal validity is concerned with the truth value
of findings, interpretations or conclusions (Miles et al., 2014). Several strategies, including
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systematic data collection procedures, have been listed for qualitative researchers to defend
the internal validity of their studies (Bazeley, 2013; Miles et al., 2014). The internal validity
of the present study was enhanced mainly through two strategies, outlined below.
3.8.1.1 Data Collection and Analysis Procedures
In the aforementioned sections, the procedures to gather the data of this study from multiple
sources have been elaborated. The data analyses for all these data sources have also been
described (as presented in Sections 3.7.1 to 3.7.3). The coding process was thoroughly
discussed in order to reveal how the codification was derived from the preconceived themes
and accordingly categorized. The presentation of the findings is closely linked to the evidence
grounded in verbatim quotes and citations, which were particularly used to corroborate the
authenticity of the data sources and the credibility of all the interpretations concerning the
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design and practice.
This way of presenting the findings was also used as a confirmation procedure for any
interpretation, conclusion, and assertion outlined in the study (Miles et al., 2014). Thus,
thorough and reflective explanations of the processes of collecting and analyzing the data
were expected to establish the transparency of process in this study (Bazeley, 2013). This
transparency was, in turn, important to cater for sufficient understanding of how this study
was advanced from the initial stages of formulating the research questions and constructing
the conceptual framework to the stages of drawing findings and interpretations.
During the researcher’s engagement in the data collection process in the field, some
efforts were made to avoid “the effects of the researcher on the case” (Miles et al., 2014, p.
296). Emphatic stance, neutral and non-judgmental responses were maintained in the
interviewing process to reduce the researcher’s personal and preconceived ideas that
unconsciously might have been incurred. Some elaborations on the questions were sometimes
made in order to make the teachers better understand them. This attempt was, however, not
intended to lead the teachers’ points of view towards particular preconceived ideas. The
researcher also considers that the data collection process was honestly executed, as the
interview transcripts truthfully reflect the interview sessions and portray the teachers’ real
transformation process and pedagogical reasoning over their instruction. All the video
recordings on the teachers’ teaching practices faithfully captured the teachers’ real
instructional curriculum enactment. There was no interference or direction from the
researcher in the teachers’ instructional curriculum practice. In the interview sessions, all the
teachers admitted that they did not change the ways in which they prepared and enacted their
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instruction. What they did in the project was what they usually carried out in their daily
planning and teaching. However, they confessed that constantly assessing and reflecting on
what they had done was something that they did not usually do. They commented that, even
though they found reflective teaching was very much helpful in improving their teaching
awareness, they were not able to guarantee that they would consistently continue in practicing
it. Hence, as a researcher is “likely, especially at the outset, to create social behavior in others
that would not have occurred ordinarily” (Miles et al., p. 296), it was inevitable that the
process of carrying out this study influenced the teachers. However, the influence did not
substantially change the teachers’ typical conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional
curriculum design and practice.
In regard to the question of the extent to which the data and findings have provided an
authentic portrayal of what this study attempted to examine, this study was absolutely unable
to report the complete data and findings encompassing the teachers’ entire teaching sessions
in one semester. Even though rich and meaningful elaborations on the data analysis, findings,
and interpretations were provided, the study was unable to present the teachers’ every single
moment and reasoning for conceptualizing their PCK in planning and enacting their entire
instructional practices during the related semester. Consequently, all the conclusions and
assertions are only made on the basis of the data. The study does not make any assertion or
conclusion that a particular practice did not occur because it did not exist in the data. Rather,
rival explanations were keenly sought for amending any point of uncertainty.
3.8.1.2 Triangulation of the Data
Triangulation is done as a way to corroborate the truth value of analysis, findings, and
interpretations from at least three different sources (Miles et al., 2014), reinforcing the study
by means of combined methods (Patton, 2002). Referring to the strategy of triangulation
(Patton, 2002), the present study managed to employ triangulation by the data methods or
sources (e.g. document assessments, observations, and interviews), so that the validity of the
selected data segments to answer the research questions, and to prove the theoretical
propositions was obtained through the different data sources.
Within the triangulation of the data sources for the teachers’ conceptualizations of
PCK in their instructional curriculum design, the teachers’ lesson plans and the supporting
instructional annexes were used to corroborate what the teachers said they had done in their
instructional curriculum practice. The teachers’ statements concerning their transformation
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process and pedagogical reasoning for making their instructional curriculum design were
constantly checked against the actual lesson plans they had made.
As for the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum

practice, the classroom observation notes, complemented by the teachers’ teaching video
transcripts, and the stimulated-recall interviews, served as data sources that complemented
each other for corroborating the teachers’ transformation process and pedagogical reasoning
over their instructional curriculum practice, as captured in the videos of their teaching
performances. The identified interview segments, observation notes, and video transcripts,
were used as evidence for the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their reading instruction.
3.8.2 External Validity (Transferability)
To what extent the findings and conclusions extracted in a case study research are
generalizable or transferable to other contexts and other populations has been a critical issue.
As an inquiry, the main characteristic of a case study research is to investigate particulars, the
findings for which are only applicable to the studied cases and contexts (Stake, 2000, 2003).
However, several points have been suggested to increase the resonance of the findings of a
case study research to other individuals, sites, and times (Miles et al., 2014; Silverman, 2005).
This study managed to execute two ways to enhance its external validity. Firstly, this
study was an instrumental multiple-case study research, which involved six teachers in
multiple sites. The sampling was carefully and purposively done to select six teachers whose
cases were projected to represent their population. The fact that the six cases were embedded
with particular characteristics, and ranged over two different groups of the teacher
participants, encompassing the experienced and inexperienced teachers, a variety of grades of
public junior high school students taught, and a variety of socio-educational contexts, may
make the cases more likely to yield patterns that are particularly similar to other teachers,
lessons, and contexts in their population, and that are generally resonant to other similar
teaching contexts. Secondly, the rich and thick descriptions of the characteristics of the cases,
the settings, and the course processes, as well as the findings, were provided to feasibly assess
to what extent the constructs of this study are potentially transferable to other similar teachers
and contexts. Hence, commonalities are possibly applicable to other teachers, classes, and
contexts when the salient characteristics of the cases are sufficiently described (Miles et al.,
2014).
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3.8.3 Reliability (Dependability)
A study is claimed to be reliable if it offers to a sufficient extent the capacity for being
replicated and conducted with the same results. This can be done by establishing and
conducting a consistent and dependable research procedure.
As outlined in the previous sections, efforts to conduct consistent and dependable

procedures of data collection and analysis were made in this study. A variety of data, in the
forms of document assessments, interviews, and classroom observation notes completed by
teaching video transcripts, were gathered by following clear and consistent procedures. The
teachers’ lesson plans were consistently used for elaborating the pre-lesson interviews, and
the further assessments were completed soon after the site visit. To produce congruent
interview data, a list of questions and approximately similar probing questions were asked to
the teacher participants in the semi-structured interviews. The lengths of the interviews were
kept to a similar duration, so that the need to deeply understand the cases was balanced
against the requirement to yield comparable data. The researcher’s role as the non-participant
observer was consistently played during the entire classroom observations, while an emphatic
and non-judgmental stance was implemented in the interviews. To warrant the replication of
the study, both the data collection and analysis procedures were safely documented.
Inter- and intra-coding data reliability for the pre-lesson interview data sets were done
to figure out the similarity of the data coding attached to the preconceived themes. The inter-
coder was the researcher’s research colleague who attributed particular units of meaning or
interview data segments to the themes derived from the five processes of instructional
curriculum design. The inter-coding data reliability resulted in the similarity of the codes.
3.8.4 Objectivity (Confirmability)
Qualitative inquiries, including case studies, have been suspected of lacking the display of
objectivity in their body of work (Patton, 2002). Objectivity, in contrast to subjectivity, is
centered around the extent to which a study is relatively neutral and is reasonably free from
“unacknowledged researcher biases” (Miles et al., 2014, p. 311). On the contrary, subjectivity
contains “opinion rather than fact, intuition rather than logic, impression rather than
confirmation” (Patton, 2002, p. 574).
For the present study, the researcher made an endeavor to self-consciously restrain her
personal values and knowledge from coming into play during the data collection and analysis.
In the data collection stage, not only was a neutral and non-judgmental stance extended, but
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the degree of closeness to the teacher participants was also kept in balance in the interviewing
process, in the sense that the interaction was neither too close nor too detached from the
participants. Occasionally, when the teachers did not understand the questions, the researcher
provided further probing questions, with the main intention to help them better understand the
questions, rather than leading them to come to particular points of view. The provision of
probing questions was also intended to raise the teacher participants’ awareness of their
“recurring patterns” in their conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum
design and practice (Marshall & Rossman, 2011, p. 145).
In the data analysis stage, an interactive engagement to ground the analysis on the
teachers’ voices and stance as the insiders, to view the data from the researcher’s angle as the
outsider, and to take into account the theoretical literature, was managed. Theoretical
literature played a crucial role as a supporting source for comparing and verifying all the
findings, interpretations, and discussions on the teachers’ PCK transformation process and
pedagogical reasoning for their planning and teaching purposes.
3.9. Summary
This chapter presented the research approach and procedures followed in the multiple-case
study design in the present research. The relevant interpretive research paradigm was
elaborated to support the within- and cross-case study design underlying this multiple-case
study.
The section on participants and sampling strategy systematically illustrated how

purposive within- and multiple-case sampling techniques, in which the determined attributive
criteria were taken into account, were executed to select six EFL teachers of public junior
high schools (PJHS) in the Special Province of Yogyakarta. The data collection instruments
and procedures showed how the six cases’ actual instructional curriculum development was
systematically and ethically explored, to answer the two main lines of inquiries concerning
the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK as represented in their instructional curriculum
design and practice. Descriptions concerning how the data were organized and analyzed
aimed to provide transparency on how the data were filed and stored, and objectivity or
neutrality on how they were analyzed and interpreted. The overall judgment on the quality of
the research activities was finally discussed in terms of the quality evaluation of the study.
Based on the methodological approach as explained in this chapter, the presentation

and discussion of the findings of the data analysis are presented in Chapters 4 to 6.
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PART TWO INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN AND PRACTICE:
INDONESIAN EFL TEACHERS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF PEDAGOGICAL
CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK)
The results section of the study comprises Chapters 4 to 6, which present the teachers’
conceptualizations of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in their instructional curriculum
Chapter 4 presents the shared findings drawn from the within-case comparisons of the
PCK conceptualizations of the experienced and inexperienced teachers in regard to their
instructional curriculum design. The within-case comparisons provide evidence on how the
teachers transformed their understanding of content into a teachable instructional curriculum
design. The evidence of PCK conceptualization includes forms of transformation, strategies
of transformation, and pedagogical concerns underlying the teachers’ transformation process
within the five processes of instructional curriculum design. The five processes comprise: (1)
assessing needs, (2) formulating learning objectives and competence achievement indicators,
(3) conceptualizing content and organizing the instruction, (4) developing instructional
materials, and (5) assessing student learning.
Chapter 5 compares and discusses the within- and cross-case comparisons of

conceptualizations of PCK from the two groups of teachers in their instructional curriculum
design. The shared and merged findings coming from the comparisons of the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK are specified.
Chapter 6 is the second layer of investigation in this study, which deals with the
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum practice. The line of
inquiry elaborated in Chapter 6 is central to how the teachers put into practice their PCK for
teaching reading and particular text types. Reading instruction was selected since all the
teacher participants in the present study were involved in teaching this skill. The investigation
of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK included knowledge about text (KAT) and
knowledge about reading instruction (KARI) (Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014).
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KNOWLEDGE (PCK) IN INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN
4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the within-case comparisons of both the experienced and inexperienced
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design. The findings are
organized within the five processes of instructional curriculum design. The analysis was
carried out on the basis of the data sources, comprising the pre-lesson interviews and the
instructional curriculum design assessments that were anchored in the teachers’ lesson plans
and the supporting lesson planning annexes. Some minor editing was made on the interview
excerpts presented in this chapter to make them more readable. The minor editing was done
by correcting grammar and adding some words in brackets.
To support the analysis presented in this chapter, a snapshot of how the experienced
and inexperienced teachers planned their lessons is provided in Appendix VII-A, 1-3 and VII-
B, 1-3. The snapshot portrays the teachers’ lesson plans before they were analyzed within the
five processes of instructional curriculum design. Finally, a summary of the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK as related to their instructional curriculum design is presented.
4.1 Conceptualization of PCK within the Five Processes of Instructional Curriculum

Design
The following sub-sections present the findings on the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK
over the five processes of instructional curriculum design, namely, analyzing needs,
formulating learning objectives and competence achievement indicators, conceptualizing
content and organizing the instruction, developing instructional materials, and assessing
student learning.
4.1.1 Process 1: Analyzing Needs
The conceptualization of PCK for the process of analyzing needs required teachers to use
knowledge of students by gathering information about the students’ characteristics (e.g.
sociocultural background, their level of language proficiency, their interest, and their
preferences for particular types of learning activities) and about their future aspirations (e.g.
expectations, communicative skills and tasks, target topics and content of texts) from a variety
of sources when planning their lessons.
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4.1.1.1 The Case of Experienced Teachers
The student needs and sources of needs analysis for the three experienced teachers, Meri,
Susan, and Sisilia, based on the pre-lesson interview data, included the following:
1) Teachers’ conceptualizations of student needs to learn text types, and macro and
micro English skills, which were obtained from the teachers’ inferences drawn
from the standard of competence (SC) and the basic competence (BC) in the 2006
School-based Curriculum (SBC);
2) Teachers’ perceived student needs to be exposed to relevant learning activities and
topics of interest, and to have their learning expectations fulfilled, as inferred from
the teachers’ reflection on their own past teaching experience;
3) Teachers’ perceived student needs to have the instruction in accordance with the
students’ background knowledge and their socioeconomic background, as
identified from the teachers’ observations.
4) Teachers’ perceived student needs to have the instruction in accordance with the
students’ level of competence measured from the students’ average school entry
scores and the students’ mixed language ability, as drawn from the teachers’
observations.
The teachers’ perceived student needs, inferred from the 2006 SBC, were frequently
stated by the three experienced teachers in their pre-lesson interviews, as reflected in Meri,
Pre-LI Process 1, 2a, 3a, 4a-b, Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 3c-d, and Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 1a,
3a, 4a. Some examples of the teachers’ interview excerpts are as follows.
The basis for planning my lesson was from the standar kompetensi, sama kompetensi dasar.
Yak, yang harus diajarkan pada semester ini. Karena kalau kelas sembilan semester dua
memang harus mengajarkan semua teks. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 1, 4a-b)
(The translated version)

The basis for planning my lesson was from the standard of competence and the basic
competence. Yeah, that’s what must be taught in this semester because I must teach all the
texts to the grade IX students in this second semester. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 1, 4a-b)
Their assessment of what their students needed to learn, as required by the curriculum,
was reflected in their decision to plan their lessons around the target text types and skills, as
stated in the SC and the BC. For example, in the first observed teaching session, Sisilia
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planned to explain the use of simple past tense and to provide the examples of sentences in
simple past tense, so as to ease her students’ understanding of the recount genre:
Itu saya tayangkan tentang past tense … saya jelaskan tentang past tense. Inilah past tense
seperti ini dan saya berikan beberapa contoh-contoh kalimat tentang past tense … (Sisilia,
Pre-LI Process 1, 1b)
I am going to present past tense … I am going to explain about past tense. This is past tense
and I am going to give the students some examples of sentences in simple past tense …
(Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 1b)
Another example was shown in Susan’s plan for her first three teaching sessions. She
realized, when she decided to develop the students’ speaking skill, that she had to plan the
lessons in a way to provide her students with the experience of using target language
expressions:
So, today I’m going to have assessment on speaking utterances on offering, accepting, and
declining things, and also how to ask, to give or to reject things. And I’m going to have
students in group presentation. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 3c-d)
The second shared pattern of teachers’ perceived student needs was having been
exposed to relevant learning activities and topics of interest, and having students’ learning
expectations fulfilled. This pattern derived from the teachers’ observation and reflection on
their own past instruction (Meri, Pre-LI Process 1, 3c-d; Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 4d-e;
Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 2a-c, 4a-c). Susan and Meri, for instance, planned more relevant
learning activities to embrace their students’ learning needs after reflecting back on their past
teaching experiences. Reflecting on her writing class that she previously taught, Susan took
into account students’ constraints in learning writing, which were in lacking confidence and
being worried about making mistakes. Therefore, in the fourth observed teaching session, she
planned to assign the students a writing practice task in groups so that the students had a
chance to share their ideas and to collaboratively construct meaning on the given topic to
write. In the same manner, Meri prepared a fun activity, i.e. a game, for her students in her
third observed teaching session, as she reflected that the activity of identifying implied
information of the text in the second session was hard for the students:
Ya, usually students are worry (worried) about making mistakes on writing. So, they are not
confident. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 4d)
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So, I make the activities in group first, in pairs actually, and then in group of four, and then
finally they have individually. So, in writing sometimes they are stuck in idea, they don’t
know what to write, they don’t have any idea to write, but when I have the activity in group
they will share the idea. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 4e)
Reflecting on her past experience of collecting materials for her last year’s class,
Sisilia found that students were likely to be interested in the topic of ‘football’. In her second
observed teaching session, she therefore related her previous students’ general interest in
football to her current teaching of recounts:
Because I know that some of my students like football. So, I take the material(s) which are
essential for their interest. We know that last year I teach (taught) this material also for my
students. They said to me that “Wah kalau pelajaran bahasa Inggris seperti ini mudah sekali”
(“Wow, if the English lesson is like this, it’s so easy”) (laughing) … they said like that …
“enak” (“easy”), mereka senang ya (they were happy yeah). (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 2b-c)
Relying on her reflection on the unfulfilled expectations of her students’ past learning
in her third observed teaching session, Sisilia decided to continue teaching the listening skill
and narrative in the fourth observed teaching session. She found that her students’ learning
expectation in the third observed teaching session was not sufficiently fulfilled because of the
time limitation and poor quality of audio recording:
Di pelajaran sebelumnya waktunya masih kurang. Kenapa saya berikan listening lagi karena
di pertemuan sebelumnya suaranya atau audio recording-nya kurang jelas. Jadi saya merasa
kebutuhan belajar siswa kurang terpenuhi. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 4a-c)
In the previous lesson, the time was not enough. That’s why I am going to teach listening
again; because in the last meeting the sound or the audio recording was not clear. So, I found
that the students’ learning need was not satisfactorily fulfilled. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 4a-c)
Having the instruction in accordance with the students’ background knowledge and
their socioeconomic background is the third major pattern shared by the experienced teachers
(Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 3a-b, 4a-b; Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 4a). In the third observed
teaching session, Susan included the students’ background knowledge about restaurants in
Yogyakarta to support the students’ speaking practice:
Ya (Yes), this is on the theme, the context is on the restaurant, but different purpose on the
intended text. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 3a-b)
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Susan also used the students’ background (prior) knowledge of restaurants,
constructed in the third observed teaching session, as the foundation for facilitating the
students’ learning process in the fourth observed teaching session:
So, I hope that my teaching will flow well because my students’ thought and idea is (are) still
there around the restaurant, but (the topic on ‘restaurant’ was used for) different language
teaching, (and) language skills. So, I hope (my) plan will shift (my teaching) from speaking to
written text. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 4a)
Perceiving the students’ needs to learn more oral language (listening and speaking
skills) due to their life circumstance of living in a village and getting no English exposure
from their parents, Sisilia decided to add more hours to teach the listening skill:
Yeah, I hope my students will accustom to hear English words. I am sure they almost never
hear English at home. They never speak with their parents in English because they never hear
English at home. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 4a)
Planning instruction based on the students’ level of language competence and mixed
language ability was made by Meri in her first observed teaching session and Susan in her
second teaching session (Meri, Pre-LI Process 1, 1a-b; Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 2a-b). Meri
adjusted her selection of learning materials based on the students’ average entry level of
competence, as reflected in their entry test scores, in her first observed teaching session.
Whereas, Susan considered the heterogeneity of her students’ speaking skills when organizing
the student group performances in her second observed teaching session. She planned to mix
the students with less, average, and good speaking skills in one group.
I think today I will use heterogen in grouping so I hope that students will cooperate the one
who has good speaking skill with the one who are not. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 2a-b)
4.1.1.2 The Case of Inexperienced Teachers
The results of the within-case comparison on the corresponding data show that, on the basis
of reflecting on their past teaching experience and observation, the inexperienced teachers
developed several forms of teachers’ perceived student needs, encompassing student needs
for: (1) having the continuation of the past lessons; (2) being presented with relevant
instructional materials that could be related to their background and life experiences; and (3)
being facilitated in their learning process by having clear instructions about classroom
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learning activities and experiencing activities that helped them gain more confidence and a
sense of learning achievement.
The pre-lesson interviews showed that the inexperienced teachers felt each lesson
should have been built on and continue from the previous lessons. On the basis of her
reflection on her first observed teaching session, Etta perceived her students’ need to learn the
writing skill in her second observed teaching session, after they were previously taught the
reading skill:
Iya saya membuatnya berdasarkan kemaren kan sudah ada pembelajaran kemaren … terus
ini saya mengambilnya karena berdasar urutan kemaren kan reading, dan sekarang yang
writing nya … . (Etta, Pre-LI Process 1, 2a-b)
Yes, I made (the lesson plan) based on what I had taught in the first observed teaching session
… then I took writing skill because previously I taught reading skill. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 1,
2a-b)
Attempting to accommodate the students’ life experiences, Etta integrated their

perceived life experience of going camping into a particular model text for teaching recount in
her fourth observed teaching session. She also accommodated the students’ background
knowledge on such famous tourism destinations as Yogyakarta and Bali in the model texts,
for teaching the same text type in her third observed teaching session (Etta, Pre-LI Process 1,
3c-d, 4c-d). Meanwhile, concerning providing clear instructions, by reflecting on her first
observed teaching session, Etta realized that the students did not actively participate in the
class discussion she managed. She predicted that her instructions were probably not clear
enough, so she planned to provide clear instructions in managing a group activity for her
second observed teaching session:
Hmm ... kalau kemarin kan diskusi ya, tapi anak-anak itu masih kurang aktif ya. Ini nanti
mungkin saya akan memperjelas lagi perintahnya jadi biar anak-anak itu langsung bisa
membentuk kelompok. Jadi gak kaya kemarin itu. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 1, 2b)
Hmm … yesterday during the discussion the students were not really active. For today’s
lesson I am planning to make my instructions clear so that the children will be able to make
groups. So, it is not like yesterday’s activity. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 1, 2b)
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In the case of Nuri, her perception of her students’ need was that they needed to
continue learning a different example of recount text, i.e. biography, in her first observed
teaching session. Nuri’s perception was informed by her general observation that, in the
previous semester, her students had learnt about someone’s past experience along with
learning particular skills:
… . I know that they already learnt about recount text, but they learnt the experience only. So,
in the second semester I try to get another kind of text, that is Biography. And then I know
that my students need someone who inspire(s) their life. So, I will give them Thomas Alfa
Edison Biography so that they can learn from him. What else? I think yeah. (Nuri, Pre-LI
Process 1, 1a-b)
Nuri continuously used her reflection-on-action to provide other particular linguistic

features of recount such as conjunctions and expressions used in spoken monologue recount,
for her third observed teaching session. She realized that her students had learnt past tense as
the main linguistic feature of recount in her second observed teaching session:
I use my previous teaching experience to this students in which I know that they already learn
about recount text, so that we can continue it. I already told them or the students already learn
about past tense. So, here I did not talk more about past tense, but directly here today I move
to the use of conjunction and also some expressions used in oral expression. (Nuri, Pre-LI
Process 1, 3a-b)
To relate the students’ sociocultural background and their life experience to the
instruction, Nuri planned to present some pictures on local tourism spots in Yogyakarta in her
second observed teaching session, and a series of pictures on going camping for teaching
recount in her fourth observed teaching session (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 1, 2c-d, 4a-b).
Resulting from her reflection on her first and third observed teaching sessions, Nuri
perceived that her students needed to obtain more confidence in their learning. Therefore, for
her second and fourth teaching sessions, she prepared such interactive activities as a role play
and a chain story for her students to better express themselves in practicing monologue
recount:
In the previous lesson I know that my students a bit … what is it … afraid in expressing
something by themselves or alone. In this activity today, I try to make a lot of group works
such as a role playing with their friends, and then after that I try to improve … what is it …
their confidence to retell … what is it … the result of the interview, there will be an interview
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too alone. So, I develop my activity from group and then individual. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 1,
2a-b)
Because I know that my students are quite afraid of telling something alone. Here I plan to
make a chain story in which it is more relaxing. It will be more fun for them so that they will
forget their fear for a while and they can just learn more comfortable and then they will learn
with bigger confidence. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 1, 4e-f)
Finally, in the case of Tria, she perceived the need for her students to learn the writing
skill, and a birthday invitation text in her fourth observed teaching session. This perceived
student need was grounded on Tria’s consideration that, in their previous class, the students
had learnt the reading skill and the same text type:
Well this … today’s lesson is still … it relates with the previous one. The last lesson talked
about the invitation texts, and I wanted them to be able to read. So, the skill was on reading
and today I want my students to be able to write, the skill is on writing. I relate my today’s
lesson plan with the previous one because I still bring the same and maybe some other new
examples of invitation cards. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 1, 4a-b)
In order to accommodate students’ daily life experiences, Tria integrated topics on

healthy habits, such as eating fruits, washing their hands, or brushing their teeth, and going to
a birthday party, into the model texts (Tria, Pre-LI Process 1, 1a-b, 2a-b, 3a-b).
Yes, uumm … I relate this topic, this healthy habits with our daily routines, I mean uumm ...
at school or at home, the students must be aware of their health about being healthy and umm
... I believe that most of them eemm … are diligent to washing their hand to wash their hands
to do the ... to brush their teeth or to comb their hair or change their clothes. So, uumm … I
have related this topic with their daily routines, their daily activities. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 1,
2a-b)
Of course before making the lesson plan or making the media I have to relate to some aspects
related to my students or other teaching context, for example a birthday invitation is the most
familiar one for the students, that’s my opinion, because they are quite familiar with birthday
party, with celebration of someone’s birthday (Tria, Pre-LI Process 1, 3a-b)
Activating her reflection on her students’ difficulty in completing the given activity in
her third observed teaching session, Tria perceived the need for her students to develop a
sense of learning achievement, providing another doable activity, to explore the generic
structure of birthday invitations in her writing class for her fourth teaching session. Tria
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considered that the activity of choosing suitable details for completing the parts of a birthday
invitation was more easily completed by her students in her fourth teaching session:
… and today, I want my students to be able to write, the skill is on writing. I relate my today’s
lesson plan with the previous one because I still bring the same and maybe some other new
examples of invitation cards. And I will still remind them about main parts of invitation texts
and the language focus is still the same. Looking back to my experience, today I will bring a
filling-in blank (paragraph) activity because choosing words, choosing some suitable words
are easier for my students in my own opinion … (Tria, Pre-LI Process 1, 4b)
4.1.2 Process 2: Formulating Learning Objectives and Competence Achievement Indicators
The process of formulating learning objectives and competence achievement indicators

required the teachers to transform their understanding of the content categories of texts and
(macro and micro) skills of English language into relevant learning objectives and
competence achievement indicators. In the Indonesian EFL context, learning objectives were
generated from the standard of competence (SC) and the basic competence (BC), as stated in
the standard of content within the 2006 School-based Curriculum (SBC) (see Appendix I).
Competence achievement indicators form a component of a lesson plan that represents what
students are expected to achieve in order to successfully do the given learning activities, and
these indicators are expected to cover rich spectrums of learning. The formulation of a
number of competence achievement indicators is expected to lead to the development of
macro skills, and the comprehension or production of texts that reflect the SC, the BC, and the
determined learning objective. The following outlines the patterns of the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in terms of formulating their learning objectives and competence
achievement indicators.
In formulating learning objectives, the experienced teachers consistently referred to the SC

and the BC that they selected. The skills and texts that the teachers intended to achieve were
explicitly stated. One teacher, Sisilia, however, was not able to distinguish the difference
between learning objectives and competence achievement indicators. She formulated the
learning objectives for her first observed teaching session exactly the same as the competence
achievement indicators.
In terms of conceptualizing competence achievement indicators, two cases, Meri and

Sisilia, shared several similar patterns of conceptualization; while Susan did not particularly
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share these patterns of conceptualization. The patterns of conceptualizing competence
achievement indicators as demonstrated by Meri and Sisilia were unclearly articulated, as
follows:
1) The formulations of some competence achievement indicators were only partially

clear in the sense that they did not clearly indicate the micro skills and texts the
teachers intended to achieve (Meri, Assessments-Process 2, Meetings 2-4; Sisilia,
Assessments-Process 2, Meetings 2-4);
2) Particular indicators did not directly relate to the competencies for developing the
target macro skills as stated in the SC and the BC, even though they supported the
students’ understanding of the target texts (Meri, Assessments-Process 2, Meetings
3-4; Sisilia, Assessments-Process 2, Meetings 2-3);
3) Several indicators showed a limited rigour of learning activities (Meri,
Assessments-Process 2, Meetings 1-4; Sisilia, Assessments-Process 2, Meetings 2-
4).
The partially clear indicators are exemplified in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Examples of activities in which competence achievement indicators were

partially clear
No. Competence Achievement Indicators

Meri (in the second to fourth teaching sessions)
1 identifying missing words in the narrative essay
2 determining the correct order of jumbled paragraphs of a report text
3 developing the micro skills as implied in the comprehension questions of the report
essay
4 completing the missing information in the descriptive essay
Sisilia (in the second to fourth teaching sessions)
5 arranging words into sentences
6 answering questions based on the given text
7 completing an incomplete story
Such competence achievement indicators did not clearly indicate the micro skills and
the features of the target texts that they aimed to achieve. Sisilia’s competence achievement
indicators, for instance, were, in fact, composed for teaching different macro skills and texts,
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which were the reading skill and recount for the second observed teaching session, and the
listening skill and narrative for the third and fourth observed teaching sessions.
Particular indicators were realized in activities that were not relevant to the
development of the target macro skills, even though these activities supported the students’
understanding of the given texts. Such indicators were identified in Meri’s and Sisilia’s lesson
plans. Meri formulated the indicator of identifying the correct words pronounced (by the
teacher), which was part of the competence achievement indicators for teaching the reading
skill and report text in the third observed teaching session, and the writing skill and
descriptive text in the fourth session. This indicator was represented by the activity of
underlining the correct words related to the target texts pronounced by the teacher, and aimed
to be vocabulary practice to support the students’ understanding of the text that they were
going to learn:
Untuk ke teks nya gitu ya? Untuk ke teks yang pertama mesti ada vocab dulu … (Meri, Pre-LI
Process 4, 3a)
For understanding the text, isn’t it? For understanding the text, first vocab must be given, …
(Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 3a)
Similarly, Sisilia formulated such competence achievement indicators for her second
observed teaching session as (1) identifying the names of football player based on the pictures
given, and (2) stating the names of football clubs in the English Premier League. When asked
how the first two indicators reflected the learning activities for developing the students’
reading skills, Sisilia clarified that these two indicators were intended to enhance the students’
vocabulary in order to better understand the meaning of the recount text they were going to
read in the second observed teaching session:
First, about vocabulary, it is the linguistic competence ya. First, I ask the students to see the
slide of power point that is about football ya and I give about the foreign players for the
material. I ask the students to mention the names of the players based on the slide. There are
two foreign players and then I ask them to mention the name of the club in English Premier. I
hope because some of them like football match I’m sure that they know about the name of the
club based on the picture and then for … untuk yang lebih memperdalam (for further
strengthening) understanding about recount text, I ask my students to arrange the words to
make good sentence and I give recount text about David Beckham. I ask the students to
answer the questions based on the text. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 2a-b)
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Several competence achievement indicators developed both by Meri and Sisilia
showed a limited rigour of learning. The formulations of some indicators indicate similar or
even the same learning activities for teaching reading and listening skills with particular target
texts. In the case of Meri, three competence achievement indicators were repeatedly
constructed. Those indicators were: (1) identifying the implied meaning of the text (for
teaching reading and listening), (2) identifying/ completing missing words of the text (for
teaching reading, listening, and writing), and (3) identifying the correct words pronounced by
the teacher (for teaching reading and writing). In the case of Sisilia, exactly the same
competence achievement indicators were constructed for teaching reading and listening for
her second up to fourth teaching sessions. These indicators were: (1) finding the meaning of
words, which was transformed into a vocabulary practice, (2) arranging jumbled words into
correct sentences, (3) answering some questions based on the given texts, and (4) completing
some missing words of the given texts. These frequently constructed indicators were made by
Meri and Sisilia, since these two indicators reflected typical practices tested in the National
Examination:
... usually in (the) final exam there are some questions about main idea, and then rearrange,
and then implied information, and then the purpose of the text, the generic structure of the
text. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 2, 1a-c)
… lalu menyusun kata menjadi kalimat (then arranging words into sentences). This always
appears in the National Examination … (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 4c)
Unlike Meri and Sisilia, who shared several similarities in their PCK
conceptualization, Susan demonstrated different patterns of conceptualization (Susan,
Assessments-Process 2, Meetings 1-4). Susan transformed the SC and the BC into particular
competence achievement indicators for exploring texts in skills integration. For example, in
the first three meetings, she formulated the following indicators: (1) identifying the meaning
of the target expressions of asking for (requesting), giving, and declining things, and the ones
of offering, accepting, and declining things; (2) responding to the target expressions; and (3)
using and responding to the expressions in target situations. The competence achievement
indicators, therefore, aimed to teach the target speech acts and to blend the spectrums of
learning for developing the students’ listening and speaking skills, as she further clarified in
her first pre-lesson interview:
Ya (Yes), one is they will learn how to offer something in good manner. They will experience,
especially for the waiter and I think their cognitive competence will be seen on how to choose
on food, how to say a certain food in English maybe some food is beyond their knowledge and
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in their performance I want to make them use these expressions well like in their own
language. I mean they put their action, their performance well. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 2, 2a)
The assessment of the inexperienced teachers’ lesson plans showed that the learning
objectives formulated by the three inexperienced teachers referred to the SC and the BC in the
2006 SBC. One case, Tria, formulated clear learning objectives that covered the techniques
involved in the instruction, and the content of the skills and the text types she intended to
teach. In the cases of Etta and Nuri, however, the learning objectives were stated in exactly
the same way as those of competence achievement indicators. The learning objectives,
therefore, were not different from the competence achievement indicators.
In terms of constructing the competence achievement indicators, the inexperienced

teachers shared the following patterns of conceptualization in their first to fourth teaching
sessions (see Appendix VIII, Table 8.1):
1) The formulated competence achievement indicators consistently contained the

content of skills and texts that the students would learn as required by the SC and
the BC in the 2006 curriculum;
2) The indicators clearly showed the sequence of varied learning activities to learn
particular micro skills and to comprehend texts, and the sequence led to the
development of particular macro skills.
As shown in Appendix VIII, Table 8.1, for her third and fourth observed teaching
sessions, Etta planned to consecutively teach recount text and the skills of reading and
writing. In the third session, she identified some micro reading skills, such as identifying
stated/ specific information, word meaning, and word reference, for her students to learn. Etta
then continued the lesson by planning to teach the same text type and the writing skill in the
fourth session. The indicators that Etta formulated for teaching micro writing skills showed
her efforts to teach the use of simple past tense, as the main linguistic feature of recount. The
sequence of these indicators was directed to achieve the development of micro writing skills
and the students’ production of recount, which was writing a short and simple recount by
constructing sentences in simple past tense based on a given series of pictures:
Kalau di rencana saya ini kan sebenarnya yang saya fokuskan untuk lebih ke kalimatnya.
Anak itu bisa paham kalimat itu, kalau teks itu masih anak belum terlalu … itu masih
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tambahan saja. Yang di kalimat rumpang itu saya kasih dalam bentuk teks kan, nah itu
mengenalkan sedikit kalau itu. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 2, 4a-b)
… jadi dengan bantuan gambar harapannya anak bisa menceritakan pengalaman tentang dia
camping. Kenapa masih dalam bentuk kalimat belum langsung teks? … karena saya pikir
waktunya nanti tidak cukup kan. Jadi saya fokus ke kalimat dulu yang simple. (Etta, Pre-LI
Process 2, 4c-d)
In this plan, I actually focus on sentence development (in simple past tense) first. Students will
easily understand sentences, but not yet text. Then in the next activity students will be
introduced to recount text. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 2, 4a-b)
… so with the help of these pictures students will hopefully be able to write their story about
going on camping. Why the focus is still on sentence development, not yet on paragraph
development to create a text? … because I think the time won’t be enough. So, I decided to
focus on constructing simple sentences first. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 2, 4c-d)
In the case of Nuri, the competence achievement indicators were, for example,
formulated for subsequently teaching listening and speaking skills and monologue recount
text for her first and second observed teaching sessions. In the first session, the indicators for
exploring monologue recount along with the teaching of listening skills were intended to
provide a model of monologue recount in the form of biography, and to develop her students’
better understanding of this text. Therefore, two indicators that were intended to develop the
students’ micro listening skills for understanding and identifying specific or stated
information in the text and the communicative purpose of the text were constructed:
I want them … what is it … to build the listening skill and also I want them to learn more
comprehension in the recount text, which is in the form of biography. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 2,
1a-b)
In the second observed teaching session, Nuri continued the teaching of the listening
skill with that of the speaking skill and the same text type. The formulated indicators reflected
a series of speaking activities, and were directed to make the students able to present the
results of a group interview as monologue recount:
To make them able to speak, or to give a monologue or simple monologue. Of course, I have
to give them an input which is in the form of dialogue too. First, so, I will give them the
dialogue about the related text about holidays. After they understand and they maybe get the
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confidence in a … they get confidence about the text, they comprehend it, I will let them to go
to the next step that is to build their speaking skills by first answering the questions about the
text. Then I will let them to do some role playing still (by) using the same texts. After that I
will ask them to do role playing by with some … I will let them to do role playing using their
own … what is it ... answer, maybe using their own information, e.g. they will tell their own
experiences. After that I will let them to do a guided interview with their friends using
appropriate ... using the worksheet that I have prepared before and after that I will let them tell
their friends alone the result of the guided interview. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 2, 2a-b)
In the same manner, Tria prepared her lesson plan with certain competence
achievement indicators. These indicators required students to develop their reading and
writing skills as they were practicing on birthday invitation texts in her third and fourth
observed teaching sessions. As shown in Appendix VIII, Table 8.1, the indicators constructed
for each session were realized into varied learning activities for exploring birthday invitations,
through reading and writing activities. In the third session, the formulated competence
achievement indicators were transformed into a variety of reading practices to achieve a
number of micro reading skills, such as identifying the social purpose of birthday invitation,
finding stated/ specific information, and inferring implied information. Despite focusing on
the development of these micro reading skills, Tria also intended to make her students
actively practice their speaking ability:
Well, I have some activities to do, for the students and the teacher, for me to do. In the first
activity I want my students observe or look at some several samples of invitations, here I want
them to motivate themselves to ... I want them to motivate themselves for today’s lesson and
to dig their knowledge about the text. And the next activity, activity 1 is reading and reading
skill but sometimes I want them to speak up. So, I want them to use their speaking skill as
well. For activity 2, is of course it’s another reading skill. I want them to use … I want my
students use ... I want them to activate their reading skills while sometimes I want them
answer it orally, I want to them to activate their speaking skill also, and for activity 3, 4, and 5
I want my students to activate their reading skill especially to the extent that they will answer
the task or activity correctly. Ya, that’s it. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 2, 3b)
In the fourth session, the indicators revealed a sequence of writing activities for the
students, to finally be able to write their own birthday invitation based on their own
information:
About the skills, I will exemplify an activity for the first competence. I want my students to
have … I want them to fill in some blanks in a short functional text. The example is the
activity 2. After observing an invitation text written on the board, I want my students to fill in
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the blanks with suitable words or phrases. Those words or phrases are those that we have
previously learned, I want them to remember and recall their previous knowledge. Another
example is activity 3. I want my students to complete (the) missing parts of an invitation.
Well, it’s a pair work and I want them to discuss with their mates to complete. Finally,
complete an invitation text based on a given situation. For the third indicator, I want my
students to be able to finally write an invitation of their own, this is shown by Activity 5. The
students make an invitation card based on the information about himself or herself. (Tria, Pre-
LI Process 2, 4b)
4.1.3 Process 3: Conceptualizing Content and Organizing the Instruction
The conceptualization of PCK in the fourth process of instructional curriculum design

intended to examine how the teachers articulated the content categories of skills and texts, and
how they organized their lessons by means of particular organizing principles to form a
coherent instruction. As part of the process of conceptualizing content, this section also
presents how the teachers’ content conceptualization shaped particular forms of integration of
skills. The following subsections present the teachers’ ways of conceptualizing content,
integrating skills, and organizing their teaching and learning activities.
4.1.3.1 Conceptualizing Content
4.1.3.1.1 The Case of Experienced Teachers
In conceptualizing content, two teachers, Meri and Sisilia, shared some similar patterns of
conceptualization. They conceptualized the main contents of their instruction as being mainly
for teaching the skills of reading and listening and particular types of texts. In terms of
conceptualizing the content category of texts for the reading lessons, Meri frequently explored
the linguistic features of the texts (e.g. vocabulary, grammar, verbs, and sentence patterns/
sentence construction), while such other content representation as the generic structure of the
texts remained untouched. For conceptualizing the reading skill, Meri planned to develop
such micro reading skills as identifying the implied meaning of the text and finding
information of the text through particular games. Meri’s content conceptualization for her
reading instructions is outlined in Appendix X, A, Table 10.1.
As shown in Appendix X, A, Table 10.1, Meri’s conceptualization of micro reading

skills with the report text was unclear. She was not able to specify what micro reading skills
she intended to achieve by planning the last two activities. In the pre-lesson interviews, she
simply clarified that the activity of arranging jumbled paragraphs into a report text was
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intended to develop a writing skill (Pre-LI Process 3, 3h), and the game was for finding
information in the text (Pre-LI Process 3, 3e):
Kemudian kalau yang jumbled sentence, jumbled paragraph, itu untuk anak juga mempelajari
skill writing. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 3, 3h)
Then arranging jumbled sentences into a good paragraph is for the students to learn writing
skill. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 3, 3h)
Game tapi masih berkaitan dengan ... game cara-cara mencari informasi yang ada di dalam
teks, gitu. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 3, 3e)
The game is still related to … the game is for finding information in the text. (Meri, Pre-LI
Process 3, 3e)
Similarly, Sisilia conceptualized her reading instructions by building two levels of

activities. The first layer was to explore the content of recount text; and the other level was for
developing particular micro reading skills; as shown in Appendix X, A, Table 10.1. As
identified in Appendix X, A, Table 10.1, Sisilia planned to transform the content of recount
mostly into activities in which the students would learn the linguistic features of the text
(vocabulary and grammar), and that of the reading skill into several reading practices for
developing particular micro reading skills. However, neither in the lesson plan nor in the pre-
lesson interview did Sisilia specify clearly which micro reading skills she intended to achieve
by assigning the students to answer the ten reading comprehension questions based on the text
‘David Beckham’. She came up to a very general identification, that the ten questions were
intended to support the students’ understanding of the text (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 2f-g, 2j):
… untuk yang lebih memperdalam (in order to provide more) understanding about recount
text I ask my students to arrange the words to make good sentence and I give recount text
about David Beckham. I ask the students to answer the question based on the text. (Sisilia,
Pre-LI Process 3, 2f-g)
In conceptualizing the content of a report with the theme ‘football’ into the linguistic
feature of the text (verbs in simple past tense), Sisilia also attempted to involve the listening
skill. She allocated the activity of listening to teach a certain recount text, which was
continued with the activity of completing some missing words of the text. She admitted that
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this activity aimed to work out whether or not the students were able to identify the missing
words from the text they listened to (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 2l):
Just to test the students about English words ya, do they really hear well or not. (Sisilia, Pre-LI
Process 3, 2l)
For listening lessons, both Meri and Sisilia conceptualized the content representations
of listening skills and narrative text. In doing so, they followed the similar patterns of content
conceptualization as in their reading classes. The content of text was mostly transformed into
such activities as vocabulary practices, completing the missing words in the texts, and
arranging jumbled words into correct sentences that explored the linguistic features of the text
(vocabulary and grammar). Meanwhile, the listening skill was represented in several listening
activities, such as stating T/F on statements based on the text and answering listening
comprehension questions in which particular micro listening skills were inherent. The content
conceptualization done by Meri and Sisilia for their listening classes is presented in Appendix
X, A, Table 10.1.
As previously occurred in conceptualizing her reading instruction, Meri did not seem
to be fully aware of which micro listening skills she intended to achieve by planning her
listening activities. Although in her lesson plan for her second observed teaching session she
formulated the micro listening skills of identifying the implied meaning of the text and
identifying word meanings through the listening activities she planned, Meri was unable to
identify which particular micro listening skill was incorporated in which particular listening
activity. In the second pre-lesson interview, Meri doubtfully stated that the activity of stating
T/F on eight statements about the story of ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’ was intended to check the
students’ comprehension (Meri, Pre-LI Process 5, 2l-n), and that the activity of listening to
the video of the story of ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’ and completing the missing words in the
story was to develop micro listening skills, especially pronunciation (Meri, Pre-LI Process 5,
2o-p):
Iya itu listening, ejaan tuh apa ya? Dengan mendengarkan ini kira-kira kata apa yang harus
ditulis? Pronunciation ya? (Meri, Pre-LI Process 5, 2p)
That’s listening, it’s probably spelling, isn’t it? By listening to the story (the students) have to
write the words they have heard? Is it pronunciation? (Meri, Pre-LI Process 5, 2p)
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Similarly, Sisilia did not specifically identify which micro listening skills she intended
to achieve in the formulations of the competence achievement indicators, in her lesson plans
for the third and fourth observed teaching sessions. In the third pre-lesson interview, however,
she identified that, among other skills, the micro listening skill of finding specific information
was integrated into the activity of answering ten listening comprehension questions based on
the story of ‘Cinderella’ (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 3a-c):
... when I give the task to the students to answer the questions based on the text, there are 10
questions ya like reading ... develop their skills like about finding the specific information.
(Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 3a-c)
Sisilia was also unable to specifically identify the micro listening skills underlying the
activity of listening to the text and completing the missing words in the stories of ‘Cinderella’
and ‘Snow White’, in her third and fourth observed teaching sessions. In the third and fourth
pre-lesson interviews, she simply stated that the listening activity of completing the missing
words was to find out whether the students were able to listen to and identify English words
correctly (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 3h-i, 4e-f):
To test the students’ listening ya (yeah), bagaimana ya istilahnya apakah telinga mereka bisa
mendengarkan dengan benar English words (to find out whether they can listen to English
words correctly) ... (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 3h-i)
and then ... melengkapi disini (completing here) ... lebih ke listeningnya (more to practice
listening) ... understand about ... apa ya (what is it?) ... listening nya, do they hear the words in
English or not. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 4e-f)
Unlike Meri and Sisilia, Susan conceptualized the content categories of skills and texts
in the integrations of skills. She transformed spoken expressions and their meanings into
listening and speaking activities in her first three observed teaching sessions. Susan’s
integration of listening and speaking formed particular layers of integration. In the first layer,
the integration was initiated by the teaching of listening skill in her first observed teaching
session, which focused on the development of listening skills, text exploration and
comprehension. This first listening lesson in the first layer served as the provision of initial
input texts for her second and third observed instructions. The second layer was shaped by the
integration of listening and speaking skills within the strand of the lesson in her second
observed teaching session. The listening lesson was intended as comprehensible input for the
following speaking activity within the lesson. The third layer occurred in her second and third
observed teaching sessions, in which the comprehensible inputs and outputs practiced in the
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integration of listening and speaking skills in these teaching sessions supported the speaking
skill focus in the fourth observed teaching session. In this last teaching session, the speaking
lesson practiced the use of the target expressions in a speaking activity (role play).
The blend, of micro reading skills, the linguistic features, and the generic structure of
the text, was conceptualized to form the other integration within the strand of reading and
writing skills in the fourth observed teaching session. In this session, the integration was
realized into a series of reading activities leading to writing ones. Susan’s content
conceptualization for all her observed teaching sessions is depicted in Appendix X, A, Table
10.1. As shown in Appendix X, A, Table 10.1, the content categories of skills and texts that
Susan intended to explore were clearly reflected in the learning activities she planned.
In addition to conceptualizing the skills and texts, the three experienced teachers also
made efforts to extend their content conceptualization for building character, interpersonal
skills, and sociolinguistic skills. For building character, they selected particular values, that
they intended to integrate into their instruction, from the list of values determined by the
Regency Panel of English Subject Teachers (MGMP-Musyawarah Guru Mata Pelajaran)
(Meri, Pre-LI, Meeting 3; Sisilia, Pre-LI, Meeting 3 & 4). In the case of Meri and Sisilia, the
values planned for integration into their instruction were promoted through the ways
particular activities were carried out (Meri, Pre-LI, Meeting 3; Sisilia, Pre-LI, Meeting 1 & 2).
For example, to develop the values of being responsible and cooperative, Meri planned such
activities as discussion and group work. In the same vein, Sisilia admitted that, by assigning
group work, she would be able to observe how the expected values were demonstrated by her
students when carrying out the activity and participating in their groups:
… . Dalam kegiatan pembelajaran itu misalnya, hmm ... bekerjasama … kan dibagi dalam
kelompok kan … kalau dalam kelompok kalau tidak bekerjasama kayanya susah juga. Ha …
itu dengan saya kasih tugas untuk berkelompok, mengajarkan siswa bagaimana supaya
bekerjasama. (Meri, Pre-LI, Meeting 3)

In the teaching and learning process, for example, hmm … the character of being cooperative
… the students are divided into some groups … if being assigned to work in groups, they have
to cooperate. That’s why I assign them to work in groups to teach them how to cooperate with
others. (Meri, Pre-LI, Meeting 3)
R: So, you stated the characters of religious and friendly, and then polite, critical, and so on.
How do you transform this aspect of characters building into real teaching learning activities?
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T: I see from their working in a group, for example, how do they work in a group. Do they
work individualism or they work cooperate with their friends together friendly, and how do
they answer the questions, they answer logically critical something like that. (Sisilia, Pre-LI,
Meeting 2)
In the case of Susan, the integration of values was planned more thoroughly. To
incorporate good manners, she intentionally brought a communication exchange in a
restaurant setting in order to provide an authentic situation in which the students were
required to act the target expressions out with good manners. In addition, by introducing a
variety of expressions used in the restaurant setting, Susan intended to conceptualize
sociolinguistic skills, with which the students would be equipped with the ability to measure
the range of politeness within the given expressions. In this way, she expected her students to
be able to choose and use appropriate language in its context (Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 1,
1a-e):
Oya, jadi, (Yeah, so) for example, today I will teach offering something. So, I will include
good manners. So, I will … well … force students to use this and act it out in good way, in
good manner how to offering something. So, I choose the situations, situations of the
dialogues the conversations so that students will be able to demonstrate oh this is the way to
say in good way in this situation, to which people I could talk about. So, for example, in the
restaurant of course you have to use good manner in expression. You have to be selective, for
example, you use ‘could’ instead of ‘can’. (Pre-LI Process 3, 1a-e)
4.1.3.1.2 The Case of Inexperienced Teachers
A particular pattern of conceptualization is shared by all the inexperienced teachers. The

teachers’ content conceptualization was mostly projected to teach the integration of skills and
to focus on a specific text type, for their entire two or four observed teaching sessions. As
shown in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2, Etta’s conceptualization of content for her four
observed teaching sessions focused on the integration of reading and writing skills for
exploring the recount genre. In her reading instruction for her first and third observed
teaching sessions, she focused on the development of particular reading micro skills. Her
writing instruction, in her second and fourth observed teaching sessions, focused on the
exploration of the linguistic features and the structure of the text (generic structure), in order
to prepare her students to be able to construct a series of fragmented sentences of recount
based on the provided series of pictures.
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Nuri’s content conceptualization shaped the integration of listening-speaking skills
and focused on the exploration of a recount in the form of a monologue in all her four
observed teaching sessions. Her content conceptualization is elaborated in Appendix X, B,
Table 10.2. As shown in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2, Nuri’s content conceptualization for the
integration of these skills formed several patterns. The first pattern of integration occurred
when the focus on listening skills and text exploration, in the first teaching session, was to
serve as the initial input for the students to learn monologue recount in the following speaking
lessons:
I want them … what is it … to build the listening skill and also I want them to learn more
comprehension in the recount text, which is in the form of biography. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 3,
Meeting 1)
The learning activities in this first observed teaching session were conceptualized to
develop a particular micro listening skill, of identifying specific information, and to explore
the text by identifying the communicative purpose and examining the linguistic features of the
text.
The second pattern of integration occurred within the strand of the lesson. This
integration took place in the second observed teaching session, in which the listening practice
was to provide the model text for a recount in the form of a monologue. With the purpose of
exercising a whole recount as one turn in a dialogue, Nuri provided a model recount in the
form of dialogue, which was to be used as the input for further text reconstruction in the
following speaking activities within the lesson:
To make them able to speak, or to give a monologue or simple monologue … of course, I

have to give them an input which is in the form of dialogue too. First, so, I will give them the
dialogue about the related text about holidays after they understand, and they maybe get the
confidence in a ... they get confidence about the text, they comprehend it. I will let them to go
to the next step, that is to build their speaking skills by first answering the questions about the
text. Then I will let them to do some role playing, still using the same texts. After that I will
ask them to do role playing by … with some ... I will let them to do role playing using their
own, what is it ... answer, maybe using their own information, for example, they will tell their
own experiences. After that I will let them to do a guided interview with their friends using
appropriate ... using the worksheet that I have prepared before, and after that I will let them
tell to their friends alone the result of the guided interview. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 3, 2a-e)
As stated in the above interview extract and in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2, after
providing an input model text, Nuri planned particular speaking practices that were intended
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to practice the related language expressions used in the text and to build the students’ self-
confidence. These practices were to prepare the students to do the following speaking
activities, in the form of a guided interview and the interview presentation to the class.
The third pattern of integration was carried out within the division of focuses, in the
third and fourth teaching sessions. Continuing the exploration of the same text as in the
second teaching session, the third and fourth teaching sessions carried different focuses. The
third session focused on listening skills, text exploration, and text comprehension; while the
fourth session continued this integration by focusing on speaking skills, text exploration, and
text production. In the third session, the focus on listening skills was to develop
comprehension of the text and to examine the linguistic feature and the text structure. By
gaining this understanding, the students were expected to be able to construct an extended
recount as a monologue in subsequent speaking activities that were planned in this third
session and were continued in the fourth session:
… . First I give them an opportunity to listen to the example of monologue recount in the form
of audio and then I make them realize and notice the differences between the expression used
in a monologue and in a recount text. After they realise it, I give them some comprehension
question so that they can comprehend more what monologue text is so that they become more
aware of the language feature and the organisation of the text to give them more confidence in
arranging monologue recount text. And after they comprehend I will give them group
activities that will give them much or enough confidence to make monologue text. And after
that I plan to give them individual activities. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 3, 3a-d)
The fourth observed teaching session was the continuation of the third session. The
focus was on speaking skills, and the following activities were to provide further
opportunities for the students to apply the understanding they had gained in the third session,
by constructing monologue recount in a chain story activity, and finally producing their own
monologue recount in a class presentation:
Because in the previous meeting I have given the students some explanations and also some
activities to build or to make them comprehend the materials better, this time I will focus more
my plan on the practice, using their knowledge to make a short monologue recount. Here the
first activities this day is making a short monologue recount text based on series of pictures
orally. I mean, it is not written as in the previous activities. So, here I will try to make the
students use their knowledge that they have gained in the previous lesson and try to use them
to make short monologue recount. After that, I will ask my students to make a chain story in
which I will not show any pictures. It will be based on their creativity, all of the students’
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creativity in the class, and there they can use their knowledge in the previous lesson too. And
then, the final activity is to make or to compose the short monologue recount by themselves
and to present the results. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 3, 4a-c)
Finally, Tria conceptualized the contents of her instructions for two types of
integration of skills, each of which explored a particular text type. The first integration
combined the listening and writing skills for exploring a procedure text, in the first and
second observed teaching sessions, as shown in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2.
As elaborated in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2, Tria conceptualized the listening skill

focus, in her first observed teaching session, to develop various micro skills of listening and
the students’ comprehension of the given procedure. A video of a spoken procedure, titled
‘How to Make Fruit Salad’, was taken as the model text to explore the linguistic features and
the text structure (generic structure). Another listening activity to practice the text structure
was given with another topic, on ‘How to Boil an Egg’:
I will try to teach my students with procedure text. The skill is listening and I will show them
a video. First of all, I will show them a video, a video about making fruit salad. But, I will not
tell them first, so they will guess and they will observe the video. And after the video ends, I
will give them some questions about the video they saw before. The questions are for
example: what do they see in the video, and what are the things in the video. From the
questions, I do not know whether they will answer it correctly or as what I want, I expect, but
from their answer I will try to … eee … what is it … I will try to direct them to the next lesson
activities. I use the four stages of genre-based approach, the BKOF, MOT, JCOT, and ICOT.
After that, I show the video, I will... my students and I, we will try to identify the words or the
scattered word, or the phrases or the sentences in the videos and then I go to the main lesson
material, the procedural text and its language focus and … rhetorical steps nya (= its). After
that, we will go to the next step, the JCOT. I will show them the video once again and then I
want them to work in pairs to do a task. It is a pair work and I only have 5 questions. The
questions are about gambaran umum (general information of the text), informasi tersirat
(implied information of the text), dan (and) informasi tertentu (specific information of the
text). … . (Tria, Pre-LI Process 3, 1a-d)
For the writing skill focus in the second observed teaching session, the integration
within the strand of the lesson, as found in one of Nuri’s integration patterns, occurred.
Within this writing skill focus, Tria provided a reading practice, on ‘How to Wash Your
Hands’, as an input for the students to better understand procedures, in addition to the input
texts that the students had learnt in the first session:
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Ok, I have learned that from our previous classes we had the procedure texts, on the previous
classes, so emm ... I think my students will, will understand the today’s class better. They had
the ... e … e ... all the things about procedure ... about the parts, the main part of procedure
texts and then some, they have the vocab, vocabulary about previous, the previous classes. We
have ... we had discussed about food and drink and I had asked them to find words on health,
on health and today as I bring the topic about health about healthy habits, I think they had the
umm ... a little information on this topic, on healthy habits. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 2)
The exploration of procedure was done through the provided reading practices, with
‘healthy habits’ as the topic. This was intended to prepare the students to achieve the writing
learning outcome, which was being able to construct a short and simple procedure by
completing the given text skeleton of procedure (Tria, Pre LI Process 3, 2a-b, 2a1-b1):
Ok, before arranging the phrases, the scrambled phrases or sentences, they have to read at
glance, read the sentences for a while before they arrange the sentences, so I think this kind of
activities, the students have to use their reading skills, they have to use their reading skill for
coming to the final goal to write an essay. (Tria, Pre LI Process 3, 2a1-b1)
The second integration that Tria conceptualized focused on the reading and writing
skills, along with the birthday invitation text, for the third and fourth teaching sessions. Her
content conceptualization for this integration was as shown in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2.
Similar to her content conceptualization for her first integration, in the second
integration Tria conceptualized the reading skill focus to develop reading skills and to explore
the given birthday invitation by identifying the text structure and some related vocabulary.
The text exploration through some reading activities was intended to prepare the students to
deal with the writing skill focus in the fourth teaching session. More learning activities
emphasizing the identification of the text structure were prepared to ease the students to be
able to write a birthday invitation in both semi-guided and free writing activities in the fourth
teaching session.
In addition to the content of skills and texts, the inexperienced teachers also intended
to conceptualize the content as related to the building of characters or values in their
instruction. The intended values were integrated into the ways or the procedure of particular
activities. In the case of Tria, the integration of such values as curiosity, confidence, and
cooperation in teamwork was, for example, blended in the ways the students carried out the
prepared activities for her first and fourth observed teaching sessions (Tria, Pre-LI Process 3,
Meetings 1 & 4). In her first teaching session, the integration to develop the students’
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curiosity was, for instance, planned to be integrated through the activity of observing the
video on the procedure genre given at the beginning of the lesson. The subsequent activities,
of identifying vocabulary and answering multiple choice questions related to the text
presented in the video, were expected to raise student confidence. The activity of answering
the multiple-choice questions in pairs was also used to develop the students’ ability to work in
team:
... from the video movie, they will, from observing the video, they will develop their curiosity,
the characters, and from doing the task, for example task two, or three, they will show their
confidence, that they are confident, they’re confident enough, their cooperation, their
cooperative skill, in task three and four. And their confident character and their being honest
in doing the last task. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 1)
The same means was also used by the other two case teachers, Etta and Nuri.
Although Etta confirmed this means of integration, she did not provide further examples
(Etta, Pre-LI Process 3, Meetings 1 & 2). However, Nuri exemplified this means of
integration, in her first observed teaching session, as she described in her clarification in the
pre-lesson interview, as follows:
In my teaching and learning process, I build the character of cooperative by asking them to
work with their next friends to answer some questions, like when they have to find the
meaning of difficult words by their dictionary, they can share … they can … what is it …
discuss with their friend, they change the information. I want to develop my students’
cooperativeness by using that activities and from the … what is it … percaya diri (self
confidence) itu (that) I build from the question I gave to them whether they brave enough to
answer or they are still shy to … what is it … express their ideas in the classroom. (Nuri, Pre-
LI Process 3, Meeting 1)
4.1.3.2 Organizing the Instruction
Organizing at “the level of the course as a whole” (Graves, 2000, p. 125) was the major
shared course organization done by all the three experienced teachers. Each of them
demonstrated different ways of adopting a particular approach or an organizing principle.
Following the characteristic of the text-based national EFL curriculum, which was called the
2006 School-based Curriculum, Meri primarily adopted the four stages of text-based teaching.
Therefore, she organized and sequenced her lessons based on the four stages of Building
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Knowledge of the Field, Modeling of the Text, Joint Construction of the Text, and
Independent Construction of the Text. In addition, her lesson plans also showed that she
attempted to link and match the four stages of the text-based teaching with the prescribed
organizing stages determined by the Ministry of Education and Culture, which comprised
Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC). When asked why she attempted to do so,
Meri clarified that it was to satisfy the administrative requirement from her school supervisor,
in which teachers were required to adopt the EEC organizing stages (Meri, Pre-LI Process 3,
Meeting 1):
… kalau yang ini tu memang harus ada, kalau kita juga kan kadang-kadang kan dari
pengawas gitu kan. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 1)

… for this (the EEC organizing stages) must be stated (in the lesson plan) … we are
sometimes required to do so by the school supervisor. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 1)
In contrast, Sisilia explicitly put the prescribed EEC stages for organizing her lessons
in her lesson plans, yet strived to mentally match the EEC stages with the four stages of text-
based teaching. The same concern was expressed by Sisilia, when she attempted to put these
two organizing stages side by side (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 4c). She admitted that such
authorities as the MGMP and the school supervisor always required teachers to adopt the
prescribed organizing stages:
Ya karena dari MGMP menentukan seperti itu ... Pak Pengawas juga ketika itu memberikan
pelatihan dikumpulkan bareng-bareng ... ya mengajarkan ini lho kalau kita ngajar itu harus
benar2 pake EEK ... ya memang dulu pake BKOF ... sekarang ini pake ini ... ya sama saja
sebenarnya langkah-langkahnya. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 4c)
Yes, because the MGMP has determined so … in the trainings the school supervisor also
taught us to use the EEC stages … yeah I previously implemented BKOF … now I have used
this (the EEC stages) … yeah I think the stages are just the same. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3,
4c)
Despite trying to make the two organizing stages equal, Meri and Sisilia exhibited
different interpretations of the equality of each other’s stages. Sisilia believed that the stages
of EEC and those of the text-based teaching cycle were equal. In her knowledge, the stage of
Building Knowledge of the Field was equal to Exploration, the Modeling of the Text stage
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was in line with Elaboration, and the Joint Construction of the Text and Independent
Construction of the Text were identical to Confirmation (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 1b).
However, Meri stated that the stages of Building Knowledge of the Field and Modelling of
the Text were covered in the Exploration stage, the Joint Construction of the Text stage was
equal to the Elaboration one, and the Independent Construction of the Text reflected the
Confirmation stage (Meri, Pre-LI Process 3, 4b).
In the case of Susan, she not only did the organization at the level of the whole lesson
but also at the level of “strands” within the lesson (Graves, 2000, p. 125) by following the
stages of EEC. For her first integration of skills, within the stages of EEC the strands were
organized by planning the listening lesson for modeling the target language expressions and
for practicing the usage of these expressions through what she called mechanical and
situational drills. In the next step, she switched the focus from the listening to speaking
strand, by planning the focus-on-speaking strand for practicing the use of the target
expressions in a restaurant setting, through a game and a role-play:
After … what’s that … lead in or explore the material … of course they should have enough
practice for that material. They will get both the language form and the usage in certain
situations. In listening, of course they will get the information, in speaking they will be able to
have practice … drill. I will do drill on speaking … ya (yeah) … drilling which is not only
mechanical, but also in situations. So, role play, short role play but in the form of games. And
then at the end they should present something. They should be able to perform the skill, for
example, listening, they will be able to get information from listening. Then, they will be able
to act the dialogue on asking, offering with their partners. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 3, 1b)
For her second integration of skills, Susan organized her lesson by adopting the
general stages of organizing a lesson, which are the opening, main, and closing activities. At
the level of strands within the lesson, she sequenced the reading activities to function as the
input for the students to be able to write a restaurant advertisement. By choosing the
restaurant situation, Susan aimed to correlate the four teaching sessions she designed. In her
first three lessons, the students’ background knowledge on restaurants had been established.
This developed background knowledge was then continuously used to help the students learn
to read and write a short functional text, in the form of restaurant advertisements, in her fourth
meeting:
… . I hope that this will bring them an idea how to write good advertisement and I will
explore the students’ knowledge about restaurant and they will ask questions to me, I hope.
From there link their knowledge to new knowledge by observing written advertisement, then
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they will connect their question (to) what is written there. So, they will get information … oh
this is what we call advertisement and the words are familiar to the sentence pattern, maybe
the simple present, of course, it will have certain style of language. And then, they will have
enough practice, so, I’ll present many kinds of advertisement. So, they will get more
knowledge and more varieties of language. So, I hope that it will be their capital to write there
and this material is quite familiar to them because I also used the advertisement around
Jogjakarta, the sample is from countryside maybe and also from downtown. Maybe some of
them have ever gone (been) there to. I hope they are familiar with restaurant, and maybe the
text that is written (is) actually modification (of) what is written by the restaurant and also my
own change, so that it (is) easily to be understood by the students. (Susan, Pre-LI, Meeting 1)
Within the process of organizing the instruction, the three inexperienced teachers applied
different organizing principles supported by their own pedagogical reasoning. These
principles were: (1) the combination of the text-based teaching and learning cycle and the
prescribed organizing principle of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC); (2) the
presentation stages of Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP); and (3) the organizing
principle of pre-, while-/ whilst-, and post-activities.
The use of the first organizing principle was found in the cases of Etta and Tria. Etta
used the prescribed organizing principle of EEC for all her lessons. However, she put the text-
based teaching and learning cycle as the organizing principle at the same time (Etta,
Assessments-Process 4, Meetings 1-4). In her clarification in the pre-lesson interview, she
admitted that she applied the EEC organizing principle as required by the ministry while
managing to put it equal to the text-based teaching and learning cycle. When asked how she
would do this, Etta demonstrated uncertainty as to how she was supposed to organize her
instruction with the EEC organizing principle and how the prescribed organizing principle of
EEC was in line with the text-based teaching and learning cycle (Etta, Pre-LI Process 3,
Meetings 1-4):
Kalau menurut saya pribadi sebenarnya EEK itu kan sudah masuk kedalam ini … nggak usah
kita jabar-jabarkan oh EEK itu ini ini dan ini. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 1)

In my view, EEC has been included in … we don’t need to elaborate EEC into this, this, and
this. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 1)
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Uumm … (saya memakai EEK karena) masih sesuai dengan kebijakan dari kurikulum sih.
(Etta, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 4)
Uumm … (I use EEC because) it complies with the policy as stated in the national curriculum.
(Etta, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 4)
As shown in Etta’s conceptualization of content and lesson plans, Etta’s instruction

focused on the teaching of reading and writing skills, all of which were organized based on
the prescribed organizing principle of EEC (Etta, Assessments, Process 3, Meetings 1-4). For
teaching the receptive skills (reading) in her first and third observed teaching sessions, Etta
organized the activities in the Exploration stage for teaching vocabulary and the related
linguistic features of the text such as identifying and understanding verbs, and for getting the
general information of the text. In the Elaboration stage, the activities were projected to build
student comprehension of the text by providing them with two or three reading
comprehension practices. In these practices the students had to identify several details related
to the given texts (also see Appendix X, B, Table 10.2). The Confirmation stage was filled
with an assignment for the students to independently seek for their own example of a recount
text. For teaching the productive skill (writing), in her second and fourth teaching sessions,
the Exploration stage was spent providing the students with some exercises to practice the
generic structure and the linguistic features of recount text. The Elaboration stage was used
for further writing activities to reach the determined learning outcome of writing, which was
constructing sentences in simple past tense to form a simple recount, by referring to a series
of pictures (also see Appendix X, B, Table 10.2). However, no particular activity was
designed in the Confirmation stage.
In a similar manner, in her lesson plans Tria planned to utilize the text-based teaching
and learning cycle while managing to use the EEC organizing principle, for her first to third
observed teaching sessions (Tria, Assessments-Process 3, Meetings 1-3). She was not sure,
however, of the equivalence of the text-based teaching and learning cycle and the EEC stages.
She simply put the prescribed teaching stages of EEC because it was required by the regional
authorities, such as the MGMP and school supervisors (pengawas sekolah):
I don’t know whether the four stages and the principles of EEK itu (the EEC), can they go
together or not. But, from the lesson plans that I see from my friends, their lesson plans have
been supervised by the supervisor. Some of them have the same with this kind of thing. They
put the four stages here and the principle there. The last time I went to MGMP, the lesson
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study, I was the one that should plan to review it and next time I will have to do (it). There
they, the MGMP teachers, told me to put EEK (the EEC). (Tria, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 1)
Tria adopted the text-based teaching and learning cycle for consecutively teaching the
listening and writing skills with procedures, in the first and second observed teaching
sessions, and the reading skill with birthday invitations in the third teaching session. She
reasoned that the text-based teaching and learning cycle was suitable for teaching texts:
Sometimes I use the PPP or the CLT, but I usually use the genre-based approach when I come
to the text because it will help me a lot to sequence the activities. The first stage I have to do
this and that, and the next stage I have to do this and that compared to in PPP. … . Therefore, I
choose this kind of method or approach every time I come to genre text. (Tria, Pre-LI Process
3, Meeting 2)
The adopted cycle comprised four stages: (1) Building Knowledge of the Field, (2)
Modeling of the Text, (3) Joint Construction of the Text, and (4) Independent Construction of
the Text. For teaching the receptive skills (listening and reading) with procedure and birthday
invitation, the activities were organized as shown in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2.
As shown in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2, one or two learning activities were allocated
for each stage of the text-based teaching and learning cycle. In teaching the receptive skills,
the Building Knowledge of the Field stage was represented by the activities in which the
students were given opportunities to observe the video of a spoken procedure and the samples
of birthday invitations, and to activate their knowledge of the field (Activity 1). The activation
of the students’ knowledge of the field was guided by a number of questions. The Modeling
of the Text stage in the teaching of listening was carried out by a listening practice in which
Tria initiated teaching the vocabulary related to the model text on ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’
(Activity 2). In the teaching of reading, the Modeling of the Text stage was conducted by
exposing the students to a birthday invitation text and its parts of text structure (Activity 2).
The activity completed within this stage, therefore, required the students to identify the parts
composing the text structure. The Joint Construction of the Text stage was basically
represented by the pair work activities. In the teaching of listening, this stage was completed
by requiring the students to once again listen to the video on ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’, and
asking them to identify specific information related to the text. In this activity (Activity 3),
Tria intended to develop the target micro skills of listening. For teaching the reading skill, the
Joint Construction of the Text stage was represented by the pair work activities (Activities 3
and 4), in which the exploration of the linguistic features of the text (related vocabulary) and
the development of the reading micro skill of identifying specific information of the text were
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planned. Finally, the Independent Construction of the Text stage was fulfilled by individual
activities. In the teaching of the listening skill, the activity (Activity 4) required the students
to listen to their teacher reading the procedural steps of ‘How to Boil an Egg’, and to
sequence the steps in accordance with what they had heard. In the reading class, the
Independent Construction of the Text activity (Activity 5) exposed the students to a particular
adapted birthday invitation, and required them to answer ten multiple choice questions in
order to develop a number of reading micro skills.
For teaching the productive skills of writing and procedure text in her second teaching
session, Tria’s organization of activities is shown in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2. As stated in
Appendix X, B, Table 10.2, and as elaborated in Tria’s document of the lesson plan, particular
activities were prepared to comply with the characteristic of each stage of the text-based
teaching and learning cycle. In the Building Knowledge of the Field stage, Tria prepared a set
of pictures for eliciting the students’ knowledge of the field about a daily habit of washing
their hands. The elicitation was guided by a number of questions as created for Activity 1. In
the Modelling of the Text stage, Activity 2 was designed to explore the linguistic features of
procedure by assigning the students to match the provided pictures of washing hands with
their sequential steps. Within this activity, Tria intended to construct a series of procedural
steps of washing hands together with the students. The procedure text constructed from this
activity was then projected as the model text. The Joint Construction of the Text stage was
represented by Activity 3, in which the students were required to identify specific information
related to the model text constructed in Activity 2. To do so, the students had to answer five
multiple choice questions in pairs. The Independent Construction of the Text stage was
represented by Activity 4 and Activity 5, which were done individually. Activity 4 was
actually the same as Activity 2, except that it was for exploring the procedural steps of ‘How
to Brush Your Teeth’. In Activity 5, the students were finally required to write their own
simple procedure text by following the provided text skeleton.
For her fourth observed teaching session, Tria decided to use the presentation stages
of PPP for teaching the writing skill and birthday invitation text. She confirmed that she chose
these presentation stages because she intended to present and explore the model text of
birthday invitation from the beginning. She intended to immediately present the example of a
birthday invitation, instead of eliciting the students’ knowledge of the field if she had adopted
the text-based teaching and learning cycle:
Because mostly I want to present an invitation text, I want to read an invitation text, so I want
to present something after opening the class, if I use the genre-based approach, then I will
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have the building knowledge of the texts. Actually, it is almost the same. But, I want to
present something first instead of asking many questions to my students. Therefore, I decided
to choose this method of teaching. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 4)
When asked why she did not use the text-based teaching and learning cycle, Tria
reasoned that, actually, the flow of the activities following the presentation stages of PPP was
similar to that of the activities guided by the text-based teaching and learning cycle. Her
reasoning was based on the way she sequenced the prepared activities, which started from
group work, considered equal to joint construction, to individual work, viewed as similar to
individual construction:
… . If I use (the teaching method) the genre-based approach, I will follow the 4 stages in it.
But here, I use the PPP (presentation, practice, production method), so the main flow of the
activities is similar but is not exactly the same. But the flow of activities from presenting,
practicing, and producing are almost the same because finally we come to Activity 5, which is
the final task and is assessed for individual work today. Here I want to say that these five
activities flow from an activity that (is) intended for classical work, and then design for group
or pair work and then finally to individual work. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 4)
The way Tria organized the activities according to PPP stages is depicted in Appendix
X, B, Table 10.2.
As shown in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2, and as elaborated in Tria’s lesson plan for
her fourth observed teaching session, in the Presentation stage the students were presented
with an example of a birthday invitation and were engaged with four general questions that
connected the students’ association with birthday invitations. In the Practice stage, three
writing activities were prepared. These activities guided the students to finally be able to
construct their own birthday invitation, which was planned to be done in the Production stage.
The organizing principle of pre-, while-/ whilst-, and post-listening/ speaking stages
was employed by Nuri for teaching the listening and speaking skills and monologue recount
in all her observed teaching sessions. She reasoned that this organizing principle was simpler
and easier than the other organizing principles of the text-based teaching and learning cycle
and the EEC, so as to ease her students into better comprehending the instructional materials:
It is (maybe) to make the materials easier to comprehend by the students. Before I give them
the whilst-speaking, I give them the pre-speaking to arouse their interest before they learn,
before they did their speaking activity. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 2)
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In regard to the prescribed organizing principle of EEC, she admitted that she did not
have sufficient understanding of it:
… First, I haven’t really comprehend the EEK (EEC), and for the BKOF, it needs four stages.
That’s one is only 3 stages, so for me it is simple one. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 3, Meeting 2)
For teaching the listening skill and a recount in the form of a monologue, Nuri
organized a question and answer activity in the pre-listening stage to prepare the students to
get to know the topic about ‘Thomas Alva Edison’ (biography) that they were going to listen
to. Several general questions related to the topic were addressed to the students. In addition to
this question and answer activity, Nuri also engaged the students with a vocabulary building
activity. In the while-/ whilst-listening stage, three main activities to develop particular micro
skills of listening were set up. Finally, the post-listening stage was spent in doing some
reflection and concluding the lesson. Nuri’s organization of activities is as shown in
Appendix X, B, Table 10.2.
In a similar manner, Nuri used the same stages to organize her activities for teaching
speaking and the same text type, in her second to fourth observed teaching sessions. In all her
last three sessions, Nuri planned the activity of reviewing the previous lesson to be done in
the pre-speaking stage. A number of main speaking activities that were preceded by a
listening activity were designed for the while-/ whilst-speaking stage. The post-speaking stage
was represented by the same activities planned for the pre-listening stage, which were
reflecting and concluding the lesson. Nuri’s organization for her speaking instructions within
these stages is depicted in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2.
4.1.4 Process 4: Developing Instructional Materials
The process of developing instructional materials involved how the teachers conceptualized
PCK when selecting and adapting their instructional materials. The following subsections
present evidence of the teachers’ PCK conceptualizations in regard to the form of texts and
activities, strategies for adapting instructional materials, and the teachers’ pedagogical
concerns in selecting and adapting instructional materials as related to their PCK
conceptualizations.
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4.1.4.1 Selecting Texts and Activities
Selecting Texts
Following the list of the SC and the BC in the 2006 SBC, the teachers selected texts and
activities that they considered relevant to the target skills and texts, as shown in Appendix IX,
A-1, Table 9.1. In selecting instructional materials, the three experienced teachers used the
Internet as their main source. The teachers relied on four pedagogical concerns when selecting
their texts:
1) being matched with the text types derived from the curriculum;
2) being familiar and related to the students’ sociocultural background and to their
prior knowledge about the texts;
3) attracting the students’ interest and motivation to learn; and
4) fitting the students’ levels of competence.
These pedagogical concerns were derived from the teachers’ pre-lesson interviews, as
presented in the following paragraphs.
In relation to the first concern, the three experienced teachers confirmed that they
selected the model texts mainly to represent the text types as required in the 2006 SBC. This
was clear from Meri’s decision to choose the report text entitled ‘Whales’ (Meri, Pre-LI
Process 4, 3c), or Sisilia’s choice of the story of ‘Cinderella’ (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 3c):
… . Saya ambil teks itu pokoknya gini, teks itu termasuk salah satu jenis teks report gitu. …
Pertimbangan pertama pokoknya yang saya cari adalah yang termasuk teks report. (Meri,
Pre-LI Process 4, 3c)

… . Basically, I chose texts which are classified as report text. … The first priority was that I
was trying to find the texts classified as report text. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 3c)
Similarly, in her second teaching session, Susan played some more videos containing
the typical expressions used in a restaurant setting for her students. Susan did this to provide
more variety of expressions for the target speech acts, as stated in the SC and the BC she was
relying on:
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Actually, for example asking for something there are many ways of expressions. I want them
to try in a polite way. So, I choose ‘would I’; ‘I would’; ‘I’d like’; and maybe even if it is in
declining expressions, they should not have it in rude ways. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 2c)
Sisilia and Susan demonstrated their concern to accommodate their students’

sociocultural background in their text selection. Accordingly, Sisilia chose the text on the
beauty of beaches in Bali for her first observed teaching session, since she perceived that the
beach was part of her students’ life in the regency of Gunung Kidul, the regency where the
students lived:
… . Let me tell you, Bu Anita, there are some beaches in Gunung Kidul. So, I took (a) text
about the beach because some students have known about the beach here. Iya itu yang melatar
belakangi (Yes, that was the reason.). Jadi, saya ambil teks yang sesuai dengan keadaan
siswa disini (So, I chose the texts which reflect the students’ condition here.). (Sisilia, Pre-LI
Process 4, 1a & 1c).
For her fourth observed teaching session, Susan incorporated some specific
information about two famous local restaurants in Yogyakarta, to make the model
advertisements related to the students’ sociocultural context and to help them better
understand the texts:
Yes, I think this kind of restaurant … ya familiar to the students in Yogyakarta, especially on
jamur, mushroom. I think they are familiar and the location that I choose is also near
Yogyakarta. Maybe some of the students have ever gone there and maybe the kind of food
also they know like satay and tongseng. And then this one, this kind of restaurant is very
familiar to young people and this is in downtown in Yogyakarta in the center of Yogyakarta
and many youth have been to the restaurant. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 3a & 3c)
The concern to relate the selected texts to the students’ prior knowledge was shown
when Meri and Sisilia decided to continue with the stories of ‘Cinderella’, ‘Jack and the
Beanstalk’, and ‘Snow White’. They perceived that the stories were familiar to the students
and that they possibly had some background knowledge about these stories:
Kalau milih Cinderella karena udah familiar. Udah, anak-anak udah tahu gitu loh. (Meri,
Pre-LI Process 4, 1a & 1c)
(I) chose Cinderella because the students have known this story. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 1a &
1c)
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The third pedagogical concern, related to attracting the students’ interest in selecting
texts, was exemplified by Meri’s decision to select the texts in the form of videos in her
second observed teaching session, and Sisilia’s selection of a text related to ‘football’ in her
second observed teaching session. Meri clarified that her decision to select the videos of
animated cartoon films was because she thought that her students loved the attractive features
of animated cartoon films:
Iya, ini kan yang akan saya berikan ini kan cerita animasi. Nah, itu anak-anak itu kan suka
tho sama film-film kartun. Nah, itu paling gak kan ada gambarnya kartun begini, anak-anak
akan lebih tertarik, gitu. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 2c)
Yes, I am going to provide animated stories. The children love cartoon films because such
films have animated images that will attract the students. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 2c)
Based on her experience of teaching her past classes, Sisilia found that students
commonly enjoyed the lesson when it was related to ‘football’. She, therefore, decided to
integrate this theme into her adapted recount, titled ‘David Beckham’, to attract the students’
interest in her second observed teaching session.
Because I know that some of my students like football, so, I take the materials which are
essential for their interest. We know that last year I teach this material also for my students.
They said to me that “Wah kalau pelajaran bahasa Inggris seperti ini mudah sekali” (“Wow,
if the English lesson is like this, it’s so easy”) (laughing) … they said like that … “enak”
(“easy”), mereka senang ya (they were happy yeah). (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 2b-c/ Pre-LI
Process 4, 2h)
The teachers’ fourth concern with the level of difficulty of the texts was related to the
complexity of the vocabulary and the length of the texts. The three teachers stated that they
selected texts in which the difficulty level of the vocabulary was suitable to their students’
competence level. In selecting the text titled ‘Whales’ for her third teaching session, Meri
made an effort to introduce more advanced vocabulary in the selected report text to the IX
grade students (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 3c). She considered that it was necessary for the IX
grade students to upgrade their vocabulary repertoire:
Ya itu, kemudian ... kemudian untuk vocab-nya itu saya mengambil memang tidak yang
sederhana sekali, karena sudah kelas 9 ya. Saya ambil yang tidak sederhana itu untuk
memperkenalkan siswa terhadap vocab-vocab yang tidak biasa, gitu. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4,
3c)
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Yeah, then … then for the vocabulary, I chose words which are not too simple because they
are at grade 9 already. I did that for introducing them to vocabulary which are not usual.
(Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 3c)
For all her observed teaching sessions, Susan admitted that she considered the texts
that included familiar vocabulary and were within the reach of her students’ knowledge and
life experience (Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 1c, 3c, 4b-c). For example, in choosing the examples
of dialogues in a restaurant setting for her third observed teaching session, she chose videos
that exposed her students to familiar words such as ‘taste’, ‘crispy’, and ‘fries’:
… . They are familiar like ‘taste’, ‘have’, ‘crispy’, they know that, ‘fries’. Maybe some of
them are beyond their skill. I will explain this in context. … (Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 3c)
Susan even made efforts to include such familiar words as sate (chicken or lamb
skewers), tongseng (spicy lamb soup), and ‘mushroom’, which were rooted in her students’
life experience when visiting typical Indonesian restaurants offering their local specialties, in
her adapted advertisements for her fourth teaching session.
Of course it is not far beyond on their knowledge of students. They will (be) hopeless and then
if it is too difficult, they will not (be) interested. But, I hope when they once see that it is sate
and tongseng, they will (be) interested. But, there is something that maybe not all students are
familiar or never eat mushroom. But, there the restaurant has a good offer. It’s special. It’s
tongseng, but with mushroom. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 4c)
In a similar manner, Sisilia was consistently concerned with the selection of the texts
having simple and understandable vocabulary and being suitable for the 8th graders’
competence. For example, when choosing the story of ‘Cinderella’, Sisilia (Pre-LI Process 4,
1c, 2c, 3c, 4c) stated:
… . Kemudian saya banyak sekali teks-teks yang sesuai lalu saya pilih Cinderella ... kenapa?
ini karena memang kosa katanya ga terlalu sulit. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 3c)
… . Of many suitable options of the text, I chose Cinderella … why? This is because its
vocabulary is not too difficult. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 3c)
In addition to the level of complexity of the vocabulary, Sisilia was also concerned
about the length of the texts, for instance when selecting the model text titled ‘David
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Beckham’ for her second observed teaching session, and about the duration of the spoken
texts in the form of videos when choosing the video of the story of ‘Snow White’ for her
fourth observed teaching session (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 2c & 4c):
Iya kesesuaian ini kan mereka kelas 8, jadi memang masih sangat-sangat sederhana. Jadi
saya cari yang sederhana gitu, kemudian filmnya tidak ... kalau yang bener sekitar satu jam
ya, tapi ini saya cari yang kira-kira 15 menit kuranglah tapi sudah mencakup keseluruhan
dari cerita itu. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 4c)
Yes, the suitability of the texts to the grade eight students, so the texts which are still very
simple. I chose a simple text and then for the animated film … the real film lasted for about
one hour, but I attempted to find the one that lasted for about 15 minutes yet it covered the
entire story. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 4c)
Selecting Learning Activities

In addition to selecting appropriate texts, the teachers’ process of developing materials also
involved selecting learning activities (see Appendix IX, A-1, Table 9.1). As reflected in the
formulations of competence achievement indicators, Meri and Sisilia shared three major
activities that they planned for teaching reading and listening in particular, using different
target texts:
1) arranging jumbled words into correct sentences or arranging jumbled paragraphs

into a good text;
2) providing missing words in the texts; and
3) answering reading comprehension questions.
As stated in Process 2, the two teachers admitted that the selection of these particular
activities was mostly influenced by their pedagogical concern for the students’ performance in
the National Examination (NE - Ujian Nasional/ UNAS). Their intention to prepare their
students for successfully doing the NE influenced them to plan typical activities that were
usually tested in the NE (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 4d & 4f; Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 1f, 2c, 3i,
4c). Sisilia, for example, frequently repeated her pedagogical concern for relating the
activities she prepared to the NE, in her four pre-lesson interviews. When questioned why she
planned such similar activities as finding related words to the texts, arranging jumbled words
into correct sentences, completing the missing words in the texts, and answering reading
comprehension questions, she consistently answered that she was primarily concerned about
the fact that those activities usually appeared in the NE:
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Because in the National Examination these kinds of practices always appear. … . Jadi kita
menyiapkan siswa untuk terbiasa menghadapi soal-soal seperti ini (So, we prepare students to
get used to doing such exam items). (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 4c)
Susan, by contrast, demonstrated her courage in not planning and selecting typical
activities that were usually tested in the NE. Instead, she was, for example, more concerned
with how the target expressions taught in her integration of listening and speaking skills in her
first three observed teaching sessions were used in their context. Therefore, she provided
meaningful examples of the varieties of the target expressions and how the expressions were
put in context through the selected activities (Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 2c). Such activities
were listening to dialogues and identifying the foods ordered by customers, and listening to
the expressions of the target speech acts for drills, followed by some communicative
activities. When the drilled expressions were practiced in the game titled ‘The Best Waiter’
and the role-play, the combination of these activities were intended as a useful way to
minimize the chance of the students memorizing the expressions without knowing the
context:
Drill dan role-play … jadi meminimalis cara … cara yang lebih bermanfaat yang menghafal,
iya tapi langsung use to interact with friends or others. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 2d-f)
Drill and role-play … so, they are ways for minimizing … more useful ways for memorizing,
yet directly applying the expressions to interact with friends or others. (Susan, Pre-LI Process
4, 2d-f)
Selecting Texts
In selecting appropriate texts, the inexperienced teachers shared two major considerations that
represented their pedagogical concerns (see Appendix IX, B-1, Table 9.2 for the list of the
selected texts). Their considerations were mostly concerned with: (1) the difficulty level of
texts, and (2) the extent to which the selected model texts were related to the students’ life
experiences and their sociocultural backgrounds. The level of text difficulty was mostly
featured by the extent to which the selected texts were simple in terms of containing familiar
words and simple sentence structure for the grade seven and eight students. These two
pedagogical concerns in selecting the model texts were frequently stated in the teachers’
clarifications of their conceptualization. In the case of Etta, for instance, these two
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pedagogical concerns were consistently held for selecting the model texts for all her four
observed teaching sessions. The model texts titled ‘Barbecue in the Park’, ‘National Park’, ‘A
Beautiful Day at Jogja’, ‘My Holiday in Bali’, and ‘Going Camping’, were selected because
these texts were considered simple and familiar. In addition, such texts about going to
national park, spending a holiday in Yogyakarta and Bali, and going camping, were perceived
to relate to the students’ life experiences or background knowledge, and sociocultural
background. Etta considered that the students’ background knowledge would help them better
understand the texts that she prepared for them:
Karena ini masih kelas 8 jadi saya memberikan teks nya itu yang kata-katanya tidak terlalu
asing untuk anak dibaca, contohnya kayak walk ... Nah ini nanti dicari bersama, kayak trip,
ini kan kata-katanya masih simple. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 4, 2-c1)
Because this is for Grade 8, so I provided texts whose words are familiar to the students to
read, for example walk … We can discuss such word as ‘trip’ together, this word is still
simple. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 4, 2-c1)
Kalau sekarang iya, jadi umpamanya kayak National Park, otomatis anak-anak kan mungkin
ada pandangan sedikit gitu. Kalau kemaren yang ‘Barbecue’ kan anak belum tahu, jadi kalau
sekarang kayak ‘National Park’ ada playground nya, ada animals nya mungkin kan sudah
punya bayangan, ini hampir mungkin kaya zoo gitu. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 4, 2-c2)
In this meeting, for such text as National Park the students probably have some background
knowledge. Unlike yesterday’s text about ‘Barbecue’, the students have better knowledge
about today’s text since a national park is like a zoo in which they can find animals and some
playgrounds. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 4, 2-c2)
In a similar manner, Nuri’s decision in selecting the model texts of spoken monologue
recount titled ‘Thomas Alva Edison’ and ‘Last Holiday’ for her first and second observed
teaching sessions was related to the complexity level of the texts. She mostly considered that
the selected texts were supposed to be comprehensible in terms of having vocabulary that was
familiar and easy to understand for her students and contained simple language that entailed
simple and short sentences:
For the text I use the criteria, of course it should be in the form of dialogue, in the form … in
the theme is telling something in the past or holidays that someone ever takes. And then, the
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vocabulary should not be weird for my students and the grammar maybe it should be not too
complicated. I choose the simple one and then I decided to use this text. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process
4, 2c)
Another pedagogical concern held by Nuri was related to the students’ sociocultural
background, and was shown when she decided to prepare the text titled ‘Vacation at Glagah
Beach’ for teaching the same text type, which was monologue recount, in her third observed
teaching session. By preparing a text about one of the local beaches in one of the regencies in
Yogyakarta, Nuri hoped that her students would be able to understand the text better.
The last case, Tria, also showed her consistency in referring to the aforementioned
pedagogical concerns in selecting the model texts for procedure, such as ‘How to Make Fruit
Salad’, ‘How to Wash Your Hands’, and birthday invitations, in all her observed teaching
sessions. She selected the model texts for teaching procedure and birthday invitation texts
based on the degree of the text complexity, whether the texts contained familiar, simple, and
meaningful words or sentences that fitted to her grade seven students’ level of competence,
and on the extent to which the texts related to her students’ life experiences or daily habits:
In my opinion, the ... the appropriate one ... the appropriate texts for my students, knowing my
students’ ability, I will bring a text or a paragraph that is simpler, simple. The sentences are
not too long and we have dealt with the criteria. So, in my previous classes I have told to my
students to pay attention to the conjunctions, to the connectors. So, they will see the
connectors there, and they will see the imperative verbs there, and maybe the difficulties ... the
challenges that come is the vocab. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 4, 2-c1)
I look back at the materials that I should follow from the government and from the regency, in
this semester we have to give the students the topic on daily activities and daily needs;
therefore I have to find some activities that are related to their daily routines. I have found
some activities such as how to do exercises regularly, or how to wash the clothes, or how to
prepare the things before going to bed, but these two texts are simpler than the others, washing
hands and brushing teeth are two samples of activities that are that everyone mostly do
including my students, I believe so. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 4, 2-c2)
In the case of Tria, three other pedagogical concerns emerged. The first dealt with the
length of a model text in a video clip. In selecting a video for modelling the procedure text,
about ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’, for her first observed teaching session, Tria considered that
the video, which had a short duration, was more suitable for her students:
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I prefer food and drinks to, for example, how to make paper boxes. Maybe later on my next
meeting I’ll show them the video of how to make boxes. But, this one is, I think, the simplest
one. The others are longer, the videos are longer. It takes ten to twelve minutes and so many
new words. I think those two videos are easier for my students. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 4, 1c)
The second pedagogical concern for Tria emerged when selecting the model texts for
birthday invitation for her third observed teaching session. Tria raised a concern about
wishing to choose some generic birthday invitations samples that could feature unique and
recent invitations. Tria, therefore, prepared some adapted samples of birthday invitations with
contextual information attached, and some current invitations that were commonly found in
English-speaking countries:
I have got some samples of invitation texts, and these two samples were (the two most) the
two simplest but rather complete sample or examples of invitations, some others were (more)
longer (in sentences or in phrases but they were not complete). For example, they did not have
name of the invitee or (the) name of the inviter. These two texts, they are the most complete I
think, although the second text, it does not put the name of the invitee there but I think it is
quite complete. That’s why I choose these two samples of texts, and then for the invitation
text for the activities, I choose the text ... this one is the same, Activity 2 is the same with the
sample. For Activity 3, it is a unique birthday invitation. Therefore, I want my students to
experience that an invitation could be unique, could be different, could be modern one. Nah,
this one is the modern one I think, and the last one is quite the same with the one in the
samples. So, the different, the one that is quite different from the others is the text on Activity
4. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 4, 3-c1)
Selecting Learning Activities

The selection of learning activities comprised the second layer of the process of selecting
instructional materials by the inexperienced teachers. In selecting the learning activities, the
three inexperienced teachers shared one major pedagogical concern. This major pedagogical
concern was to match the characteristics of the learning activities to the characteristics of the
stages in the organizing principles they adopted. The organizing principles that the
inexperienced teachers used are as listed in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2, and the teachers’
selection of learning activities is as shown in Appendix IX, B-1, Table 9.2.
In the case of Etta, the pedagogical concern to provide the learning activities in
accordance with the sequence of the stages of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation
(EEC) was shown, for example, when preparing her fourth observed instruction. In order for
her students to be able to construct sentences in simple past tense in their short and simple
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recounts, Etta prepared three activities. The first activity was to practice simple past tense; the
second one was to practice the use of simple past tense in text; and the last one was a semi-
guided writing activity to construct simple past tense sentences based on a series of pictures in
order to form a short recount:
Untuk memudahkan, jadi dikasih modal untuk, dikasih modal yang mudah dulu gitu lho ... jadi
tau grammarnya dulu gitu kan, cara … o, kalau lampau menggunakan kata kerja ke 2, ini
masih dalam kalimat, ini dalam bentuk teksnya, paragraf, lalu mereka ke langkah menulisnya
kan mereka sudah punya bayangan. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 4, 4c)
To facilitate the students’ (learning), I provided them with a grammar practice in which they
were introduced to the structure of simple past tense in simple sentences. Then I introduced
the use of simple past tense within a recount text. So, before writing a short recount, they have
had some picture about it. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 4, 4c)
Other examples were well reflected in the other two teachers’ selection of learning
activities. In the case of Nuri, her concern about the compatibility of the activities to her
teaching stages of pre-, whilst-, and post-activities was consistently shown in her
clarifications for all her observed teaching sessions. For her second and third observed
teaching sessions, for example, Nuri prepared and selected learning activities that were in line
with the sequence of pre-, while-/ whilst-, and post-activities for teaching speaking skills and
monologue recount text. In the second session, a mini role play done in pairs was chosen for
the while-/ whilst-speaking stage, with the consideration that the activity would facilitate the
students’ practice related to the expressions as exemplified in the model text, and to equip
them with some confidence before they were required to do the interviewing and perform the
result of their interviewing in the form of a monologue recount:
For the activities, I decided to give them time to have a role playing so that they will feel
confident with their spoken English first. After that, with the expressions used in the text, after
that, after they feel confident, I will let them to do some interview which is in the form (of) a
guided interview. So, they still can see what thing that they will ask to their friends, but it is
not only read but they will think what questions (are) suitable to ask based on any certain
information to their friends. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 4, 2c)
For her third observed teaching session, the pre-speaking activity was planned to help
the students to recall their previous knowledge, the while-/ whilst-speaking activity was
realized in the activity of providing input texts that was followed by a group activity for
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constructing a recount in the form of a monologue, and the post-speaking activities were
actualized in the activities of concluding and reflecting on the lesson:
For the pre-speaking (stage) I plan to make my students recall their previous knowledge and
then I will relate it to the teaching and learning, to the material that they will learn today. And
then for (the) whilst speaking (stage) I plan to give my student many inputs in the form of
monologue text. After I give them input I want to give them more comprehension on the input
text that they hear and they read. After that I want to get their confidence by some group-
works in arranging short monologue recount text. And in the post speaking (stage) I plan to
conclude and do some reflection on the learning process that they have done. (Nuri, Pre-LI
Process 4, 3c)
In a similar manner, Tria selected activities by considering the fitness of the activities
to the organizing principles she had planned, to teach the target skills and texts. For her first
observed teaching session, for instance, Tria prepared five activities for teaching the listening
skill and spoken procedure text. These five activities were directed to fulfill the characteristics
of the text-based teaching and learning cycle that she planned to apply. The first activity,
which was answering five general questions related to the given video, was selected with the
consideration that the activity would be able to stimulate the students’ knowledge and
motivate them to relate their answers to a video clip, in the first stage of the text-based
teaching and learning cycle that she applied, which was the Building Knowledge of the Field
stage. The second activity, which was listening to the teacher and arranging the given letters
into words, was prepared with the consideration of enriching the students’ vocabulary
learning in the stage of Modeling of the Text. The third activity, which was listening to and
watching the same video once again and answering five multiple choice questions, was
created with the purpose of developing micro listening skills of identifying varied information
in pairs, at the stage of Joint Construction of the Text. Finally, the fourth and fifth activities,
which were listening to the teacher and arranging a series of jumbled spoken procedures, were
prepared in order for the students to be able to construct the procedure texts that they listened
to individually, in the stage of Independent Construction of the Text:
In task 2, I want them to know more words. They enrich their vocabulary … I want them to
enrich their vocab in this task. So, task 1 is to stimulate their knowledge, task 2 to enrich their
vocab, task 3 is for cooperative work, pair work and they can also identify some of the
information they should find there. Almost the same with task 4, they can find the implied
information, and specific information, and then general ideas. And for task 5, this is rather the
same but it’s for their confidence that they can do the task individually. (Tria, Pre-LI Process
4, 1c)
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In addition to this major pedagogical concern, a minor concern in relation to the
National Examination (NE) preparation was also revealed in the case of Etta. This concern
was expressed by Etta when she was discussing preparing the learning activities for her third
observed teaching session (Etta, Pre-LI Process 4, 3c). In line with her concern, she prepared
a number of reading comprehension practices to achieve the micro reading skills as tested in
the NE. The examples of such micro reading skills were identifying: (1) general idea of
recount, (2) stated/ specific information, (3) word reference, and (4) word meaning.
4.1.4.2 Adapting Instructional Materials
The three experienced teachers demonstrated techniques that they used to adapt instructional
materials to fit the level and the learning activities so that they could satisfy their particular
pedagogical concerns. Two cases, Susan and Sisilia (Susan, Assessment, Meeting 4; Sisilia,
Assessment, Meeting 2), adapted texts by making some changes in the original texts at the
level of sentences, phrases, and words, as outlined below.
For preparing her materials in her fourth observed teaching session, Susan made some
adaptations on the model advertisements of two famous local restaurants in Yogyakarta,
‘Jejamuran’ and ‘House of Raminten’, by applying the techniques of adding (extending),
reducing, and simplifying (rewriting) parts of the texts. To adapt the restaurant advertisement
on ‘Jejamuran’ (see Appendix IX, A-3, 3.3), Susan took a Jejamuran restaurant review,
contributed by a certain customer from the Internet, as the original source for her text
adaptation (see Appendix IX, A-3, 3.1). She took particular original sentences, which are
underlined in the appendix referred to below, and simplified them into typical language of an
advertisement (see Appendix IX, A-3, 3.2). For example, Susan simplified the original
sentence, “My parents are happy as they could enjoy the taste of sate and tongseng without
worrying about health problem”, into an imperative sentence, “Enjoy the taste of sate and
tongseng without worrying about health problem.”
For preparing the model recount of ‘David Beckham’, Sisilia chose a number of
sources about David Beckham from the Internet. Then, she took a number of sentences from
the original sources and executed such adaptation techniques as expansion (adding the
complexity of sentences/ paragraphs/ texts), reduction (decreasing the length/ complexity of
sentences/ paragraphs/ texts), and reorganization (changing the positions of particular details
of sentences/ paragraphs/ texts). She, however, left some original sentences unchanged. The
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process of Sisilia’s text adaptation is shown in Appendix IX, A-3, 3.4. She put all the original
and adapted sentences together, and assembled them into the adapted recount of ‘David
Beckham’ (see Appendix IX, A-3, 3.5). Sisilia admitted that her text adaptations aimed to
make the texts more understandable to her students (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 2a-b):
Iya (Yes) adopt, I change some words. I think that it make my students easy to understand.
(Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 2a-b)
At the level of adapting learning activities, modifying the procedures of such activities
as a question and answer game and a role-play was done by Meri and Susan (Meri, Pre-LI
Process 4, 3a-c; Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 2c-e). Meri modified the procedure of doing a group
activity in her third observed teaching session, from originally working in pairs into groups of
four, to provide more opportunities for her students to collaborate in groupwork. Susan also
changed the ways for doing the role-play in her second observed teaching session, for creating
a competitive learning atmosphere:
Kemudian kalau dalam buku itu siswa dibagi 2. Kalau saya gak, oh saya bagi 4 saja supaya
kerjasama nya lebih apa ... benar-benar supaya kerjasama nya itu betul-betul, gitu. Ya,
misalnya seperti itu. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 3a-c)
Then in the book, students work in pairs. I will not do that, oh I will divide the students into
groups of four in order that the students will be able to cooperate … the cooperation will be
really done. Yes, that is the example. (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 3a-c)
Some activities were developed by the teachers themselves. For her fourth observed
teaching session, Susan created the reading activity in the form of completing a worksheet
with specific information such as food category, the location, the special offer, and the
atmosphere of the real restaurants in Yogyakarta, for linking the reading activity to the
writing one (Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 4e-g). Similarly, Sisilia created the questions for the
text she had chosen in her second observed teaching session, in order to practice the reading
micro skills that were usually practiced in the school examination or the NE (Sisilia, Pre-LI
Process 4, 2d-e):
Reading activity when they read this … oh ya the first sample they will get some ideas on this
and then they write and I will present them like column worksheet and then, for example, food
category and then the location and then the special offer and then the atmosphere of the
restaurant and they will make a note based on that reading, for example, the atmosphere they
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write nice and music. Maybe the facilities like the spacious parking area and kind of food is
Indonesian. (Susan, Pre-LI Process 4, 4e-g)
I make the questions based on the text from the news, dari soal-soal yang biasanya keluar
dalam tes atau ulangan umum biasanya seperti itu (from the questions that usually appear in
the test or examination). (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 2d-e)
When dealing with spoken texts taken from audiovisual sources, the teachers made
some effort to provide alternative materials for helping the students to better understand the
texts (Meri, Pre-LI Process 4, 2a-c; Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 4a-c). These efforts were done
since the teachers were not capable of making changes directly on the original audiovisual
sources. For example, to enhance the students’ understanding of the story of ‘Snow White’,
Sisilia developed material to accompany the audio of the story. She rewrote a simpler version
of the story shown in the video, for the activity of completing missing words in the story, in
her fourth observed teaching session. She did this in order to ease the students’ understanding,
since she considered that the original video of ‘Snow White’ was too complicated for her
students:
Ya (Yeah) because the video is very complicated for the students. So, I make it easy for the
students to understand. (Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 4, 4c)
For developing their instructional materials, the inexperienced teachers’ conceptualizations of

PCK were realized into the use of particular text adaptation techniques (Tomlinson &
Masuhara, 2004), strategies for the adaptation and material writing, and pedagogical concerns
underlying the instructional material development.
In the case of Etta, the text adaptation techniques used involve modification,
replacement, reduction, and the combination of replacement and reduction. The modification
technique was used for adding a line of instruction of a practice in her second observed
teaching session. The addition was made because Etta intended to insert her own particular
step for completing the practice, to facilitate her students’ learning. The replacement
technique was done when she intended to replace the third paragraph of the model text titled
‘A Beautiful Day in Jogja’ with her own paragraph, in her third observed teaching session.
This change was made since Etta found that the original paragraph was too long for her
students. Another adaptation technique of reduction was also carried out in this third observed
session: Etta shortened the length of the second paragraph of the same text, with the same
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concern of making the text shorter in order for the students to be able to better understand the
text provided. Finally, the combination of replacement and reduction techniques was done for
Etta’s fourth observed teaching session. The replacement technique was utilized for deleting
the third paragraph of the original source of the recount text about going camping that was
prepared for practicing the grammatical features of the text. The original long paragraph was
replaced by the teacher’s shorter paragraph. The combination of these techniques was applied
because Etta considered that the original details put in this third paragraph were not really
relevant to her students’ experiences when going camping. The following is one of the
interview extracts that represents the teacher’s text adaptations:
… . di paragraf ke 3, paragaraf ke 3 itu kan menceritakan tentang … intinya tentang pas

kemah malemnya itu ada hujan lebat gitu kan banjir. Terus itu tak hapus bagian yang itu,
yang menceritakan yang itu karena saya pikir anak itu kan maksudnya kayaknya itu gak
familiar, kayak banjir dll itu kan gak familiar, kan ga ini banget. Jadi tak hapus, saya bikin
lebih … di paragraf pertama itu tak ceritain, tak tambah mereka kesana naik apa terus di
tempatnya juga tak ganti, terus ada yang tak ganti dari wake up – woke up gitu. Setelah itu
apa yang mereka lakukan gitu, ada beberapa kalimat sih yang tak bikin. (Etta, Pre-LI Process
4, 4a-c)
… . The 3rd paragraph is about one night when a group of students experienced heavy rain and
flood. I deleted that part since I thought the students are not really familiar with this kind of
experience. It just doesn’t fit them. So, I omitted that part and replaced the paragraph with the
one having more familiar details to my students. I also made other changes such as changing
the 1st paragraph into the one with such details as how students went to the camping site, the
place, and so on, and adding a certain verb option like wake up-woke up. Basically, I made
some sentences by myself. (Etta, Pre-LI Process 4, 4a-c)
Unlike Etta, Nuri, mostly conducted material writing, and did not involve herself
much in text adaptation. One reason for this was related to her teaching of listening and
speaking skills, in which she found difficulties in finding a written text with a corresponding
audio recording. Therefore, she made an audio recording for a dialogue on ‘Last Holiday’ that
she found from the Internet, in her second observed teaching session (see Appendix IX, B-2,
2.2.2). Another reason was related to her difficulty in finding a text that was close to her
students’ life experiences in the district they lived in. This concern motivated her to finally
write a recount text about going on vacation to a local beach located in that district, for her
third observed teaching session. The created text, which was titled ‘Going on Vacation to
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Glagah Beach’, was particularly used as the model for the students to learn the text structure
(generic structure) of spoken monologue recount (see Appendix IX, B, 4.1):
Ya, actually I only got the text and then I use this without any changes because I think it is
already appropriate for my students without I modified it. Maybe I made the audio recording.
Ya, I think I need the audio recording for giving my students a spoken input, so I modified that
way. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 4, 2a-c)
For the first text I do not change anything, but the second text I made it myself because I find
it difficult to find a text which is close to my students’ real life so I made this text myself.
(Nuri, Pre-LI Process 4, 3a-c)
For the instructional material adaptation, Nuri applied the technique of reduction to
reduce the length of the biography on ‘Thomas Alva Edison’, for her first teaching session
(see Appendix IX, B-3, 3.1 & 3.2). She decided to use the first six paragraphs of the original
source, since she considered the original text was too long for her students.
Finally, Tria conducted both material adaptation and material writing techniques. For
her material adaptations, she made some modifications on the script she wrote from the video,
‘How to Make Fruit Salad’, that she got from the Internet in her first observed teaching
session (see Appendix IX, B-3, 3.3 – 3.5). To make the text extract of procedure more
understandable to her students, Tria made three changes: (1) omitting some words that were
potentially confusing to her students; (2) adding some words/ conjunctions that are part of the
linguistic features of procedure; and (3) changing the words into more familiar words to help
the students better understand the video. These modifications included, for example, changing
the word ‘sprinkle’ from the original video into the word ‘add’ or ‘pour’ in the script that she
made. This modification was done since Tria considered that the word ‘sprinkle’ was less
familiar than the alternate words that she added:
I found that on the video, the first video, how to make fruit salad, they said they sprinkle
mayonnaise, they sprinkle the milk, they repeat the word ‘sprinkle’ many times. And I think
that I have to modify it when it comes to the script so that my students will not get confused
with the word ‘sprinkle’, which means menaburkan, menaburi. I have to change with ‘add’ or
‘pour’. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 4, Meeting 1, 1a-c)
Tria also made some other modifications on the model birthday invitation texts that
she had for her third and fourth observed teaching sessions (see Appendix IX, B-3, 3.6 & 3.7).
The modification made was to change some specific information found on birthday
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invitations, such as name, address, and venue, into more familiar details relevant to the
students’ context:
The two texts in the examples, in the teaching materials, I make modification and changes. I
put the name of the invitee there. For the 2nd text, I change the address, place and venue of
the party. The 3rd text is the same with the sample. The 3rd one there is no changing and
modification, and the last one is another modification of the 2nd sample. I put the name of the
invitee there and I change the name of the person who celebrate the birthday. (Tria, Pre-LI
Process 4, 3a-c)
For exploring procedure in her second observed teaching session, Tria adapted a
procedure text based on a series of pictures along with their related phrases, which she
obtained from the Internet (see Appendix IX, B-3, 3.8). She made materials modification
from this series of pictures and the phrases, since she found them relevant for teaching a
simple procedure (see Appendix IX, B-3, 3.9 & 3.10):
The text is umm ... is a modification one because from the Internet sources as written here I
only got the pictures, and the pictures only come with the phrases only not the sentences and
not the procedural text, therefore I made the procedural text myself. I develop the procedure
from the pictures and the phrases that come with the pictures. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 4, 2a-c)
In terms of materials writing, Tria developed a writing activity in which her students
had to personalize their own birthday invitation (see Appendix IX, B-4, 4.3). She also created
a situation for the students to write birthday invitations for her fourth observed teaching
session (see Appendix IX, B-4, 4.4). This materials writing activity was done with the
concern to provide new learning experiences for her students:
Actually it’s totally my own text; I did not take from any resource. I did not take a text from
any source because I want my student to experience another new activity. It’s quite new for
them. I have made similar activity like this before but whenever had a chance to do the same.
So, today I will try to give my students this kind of activity. They have information or a new
given situation, then they have to complete the missing part of the invitation text. (Tria, Pre-LI
Process 4, 4a1-c1)
… . I’ve seen many kinds of things like making a birthday invitation, but the prologue here I
created myself, I want them to dream or to pretend that they will celebrate a birthday party. So
that, I want them to imagine if they will have their own party, what they want their party like.
… (Tria, Pre-LI Process 4, 4a2-c2)
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4.1.5 Process 5: Assessing Student Learning
The conceptualization of PCK in the process of assessing student learning focuses on what
classroom-based assessment activities were chosen by the teachers as stated in their lesson
plans. This conceptualization was also related to how the selection of their classroom-based
assessment was aligned with and supported the expected competences, as represented in their
adopted standard of competence (SC) and the basic competence (BC).
Meri and Susan consistently allocated a certain classroom-based assessment activity in their
lesson plans. In the case of Sisilia, despite the fact that she planned to manage several
classroom learning activities, she did not, however, specifically identify in her lesson plans
which particular assessment activities she intended to do for her second to fourth observed
teaching sessions. The experienced teachers’ selection of the classroom-based assessment
activities, which shows the relation of the assessment activities to the underlying SCs and
BCs, and the specification of the following competences, are presented in Appendix XI, A-1,
Table 11.1.
As shown in Appendix XI, A-1, Table 11.1, all the assessment activities that Meri
prepared contained particular micro skills and text representations to achieve the target
competences as stated in the selected SCs and BCs of the curriculum. Two characteristics
emerge from Meri’s classroom-based assessment activities:
1) The micro skills (competences) covered in the assessment activities do not match
with those initially planned as stated in Meri’s lesson plans. For example, the ten
multiple choice questions in the first assessment activity accommodated richer
micro reading skills in their question items (see Appendix XI, A-2, Table 11.2).
Only one micro skill matched, i.e. identifying the implied meaning of the text;
while the other micro skills assessed through the items were different from those
she initially stated in her lesson plan.
2) The micro skills previously taught did not support the development of the target
macro skill. For instance, the macro skill of writing a short descriptive text that
was formulated for the fourth assessment activity was not supported by relevant
micro skills of writing. As shown in Appendix IX, A-1, Table 9.1, two learning
activities preceded the activity of writing a short descriptive text. These two
activities were underlining the correct words pronounced by the teacher and
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completing some missing words in the text entitled ‘Anwar is a student’. The
micro skills attached in these two activities do not likely provide a sufficient
foundation for the students to be able to compose a short descriptive text.
In the case of Sisilia, a particular assessment activity was only identified in her lesson
plan for the first meeting, while no specific activity was chosen for assessing her students’
learning in her second to fourth observed teaching sessions, as shown in Appendix XI, A-1,
Table 11.1. The correspondence of the ten reading comprehension questions with their
underlying micro skills, as shown in Appendix XI, A-2, Table 11.3, indicates that the majority
of the questions were made to accommodate the micro skills that Sisilia stated in her
competence achievement indicators. A few questions, however, were not applicable to any
micro skill stated in the indicators.
Susan, as reflected in the findings of her previous instructional curriculum design

processes, demonstrated the most proficient plans, including the ones for assessing her
student learning. As shown in Appendix XI, A-1, Table 11.1, her assessment activities, both
for the integration of the listening-speaking skills and that of the reading-writing skills, were
relevant to addressing the underlying SC and BC and to accommodate the intended micro
skills. The students’ development of micro listening skills was assessed by asking them to
listen to dialogues containing the target expressions in the restaurant setting and to identify
specific information as stated in the given worksheets. The speaking skills of asking for,
giving, and declining services/ things, and offering, accepting, and declining services/ things
were assessed through a role play, which was assigned in groups. For the integration of the
reading and writing skills, the first assessment activity, i.e. reading an advertisement on
‘Jejamuran Restaurant’ and identifying specific information (food category, location, price,
atmosphere, special offer, reasons why the restaurant is considered interesting, reasons for
choosing the restaurant), assessed the reading competences, which provided a foundation for
the students to write. The second assessment activity, which was writing an advertisement on
any restaurant of the students’ interest, was intended to assess the students’ ability in writing a
short restaurant advertisement. To support this assessed ability, the students’ knowledge of
the linguistic features of the text and the generic structure of the text, which was developed
through the activity of recognizing and writing typical sentences or statements that usually
appear in restaurant advertisements, had been constructed in the reading skill session.
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The shared pattern of the inexperienced teachers’ PCK conceptualization shows that all the
three teachers allocated a particular activity for assessing their student learning (Etta, Nuri,
Tria, Assessments-Process 5, Meetings 1-4). The teachers’ classroom-based assessment
activities and the specification of the following competences are outlined in Appendix XI, B-
1, Table 11.4.
As identified in Appendix XI, B-1, Table 11.4, the three teachers intended to
consistently provide classroom-based assessment activities that assessed the target
competences as generated from the SC, the BC, and the competence achievement indicators.
However, some incompatibilities between the target competences as planned and the attached
competences covered in the assessment activity occurred.
In the case of Etta, the assessment activity that she prepared for her first observed
teaching session did not cover the entire target reading micro skills she had planned. In
addition to this incompatibility, she did not specifically allocate a particular assessment
activity for her second observed teaching session.
Nuri prepared a listening task for her assessment activity in her first observed teaching
session, and speaking activities for assessing her students’ performance of monologue recount
in her second and fourth teaching sessions. Within Nuri’s assessment activity for her first
observed teaching session, the competence attached in the listening practice was not covered
in the planned competences. The listening micro skills of identifying specific information and
communicative purpose of monologue recount were not covered in the attached listening
micro skill of identifying missing verbs (in simple past tense) in the text. As for the
assessment activity in her third observed teaching session, Nuri planned to conduct this
assessment activity in her fourth teaching session, since the third and fourth teaching sessions
were designed as the integration of teaching the listening and speaking skills. Even though the
focus of the sessions were on teaching the speaking skill, the third teaching session focused
on listening skills development and text exploration, which served as the input for developing
the students’ speaking skills and text production in the fourth teaching session. Therefore, the
activity for assessing the students’ performance of monologue recount for this integration was
allocated to the fourth teaching session:
Actually, I plan to assess the students not in group but one by one after they develop their own
recount text. After the group session, I will ask them to make their own short monologue
recount text as we can see in the third activity siswa menyusun monologue pendek sederhana
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berdasarkan pengalaman mereka sendiri (the students constructed their own simple and short
monologue recount based on their own experience). So, it is an individual activity, and then
they will also perform in front of the class individually. (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 5, 4a-b)
Finally, in the case of Tria, an incompatibility was identified within the planned target
competences and the attached competences, inherent in the assessment activity for her first
observed teaching session. The target competences were to develop three listening micro
skills, of identifying general information, implied information, and stated/ specific
information; while the attached competence covered in the assessment activity was to identify
the sequential order of the procedural steps for a procedure text about boiling an egg. As Tria
clarified in the pre-lesson interview, the focus of the assessment activity was to develop the
students’ listening skills:
Task five ... I want my students to listen to me, reading the script, and they have to answer all
five questions by listening carefully to me, mentioning the short paragraph of procedure. And
I want them to improve or activate their listening skill to the task directly. (Tria, Pre-LI
Process 5, 1a-b)
The other assessment activities for the remaining teaching sessions were compatible
with the target competences that Tria planned for these last three observed teaching sessions.
The same focus on assessing the development of the students’ skills was shown in Tria’s
assessment activity for her third observed teaching session. The assessment activity, in the
form of multiple choice questions, was projected for developing the planned micro skills of
reading, as Tria stated, below:
I will make an assessment by giving them multiple choice questions. It is on activity 5. They
will have 10 numbers there. It’s multiple choices and written. I want them to read and finally
answer the question that follow. The questions are mostly intended to activate their reading
skills and by doing this activity, by answering those questions on activity 5, that will show
whether my students are able to reach the competencies of the day or not. (Tria, Pre-LI
Process 5, 3a-b)
The classroom-based assessment activities, in the form of writing activities in the

second and fourth teaching sessions, were intended to assess the students’ ability in writing
the target texts by following the text structure and the situation provided by the teacher:
I will assess their lesson today by giving them a final task. It will be a written test, a written
one. They have to write an essay, a simple and short one. I want them to arrange phrases or
sentences; scrambled one into a good procedure text, the next one is to write what they have
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arranged into a good procedure text on their own. But, I have the clues here. I have the … I
give them the … what is it ... the skeletons, by giving them the title, what should they write on
the title, and what they need and the steps. Because if I do not attach this kind of skeleton, this
kind of helping ... maybe some of them or most of them will get confused, what do they have
to write, what do they have to do. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 5, 2a-b)
Today is about writing skill, so I want my students to be able to write a short, simple,
meaningful functional text about invitation. The form is birthday invitation. I want them to be
confident to write his or her own birthday invitation based on information they have. I have
allocated 15 minutes time for them to do the essay for writing the cards. I want them to follow
the rhetorical stages of writing an invitation text. (Tria, Pre-LI Process 5, Meeting 4, 4a-b)
4.2 The Influence of Socio-Educational Context on the Teachers’ Conceptualizations of

PCK in their Instructional Curriculum Design: The Regency and School Levels of
Context
The influence of the National Examination (NE), as the macro level of the educational
context, has been portrayed in the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK. In addition to this, the
within-case and cross-case comparisons of the data analysis on the teachers’ pre-lesson
interviews revealed the shared factors, related to socio-educational context, that influenced
their conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design. The influential
factors, anchored on the teachers’ micro level of the socio-educational context, are as follows:
1) The role of the Regency Panel of English Subject Teachers (Musyawarah Guru Mata
Pelajaran – MGMP)
2) School facilities, which included the sufficiency of supporting classroom facilities, of

library collection, and of internet connection
The majority of the participating teachers, as expressed by Meri and Sisilia, the
experienced teachers, and by Etta and Tria, the inexperienced teachers, admitted that the role
of the MGMP was influential in designing their instructional curriculum design. Functioning
as the Regency Panel of English Subject Teachers, the MGMP was primarily responsible for
coordinating teachers in implementing the products of the national curriculum, such as the
prescribed organizing principles of EEC, the national syllabus, and the integration of
character education in teachers’ instruction. As Meri and Sisilia stated in their pre-lesson
interviews, they felt obliged to accommodate the EEC stages in their instruction since the
MGMP instructed teachers to apply the national curriculum as the Ministry of National
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Education and Culture (MNEC) outlined (see Section 4.1.3.2.1, Meri, Pre-LI Process 3,
Meeting 1, and Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 4c). Meanwhile, in the case of the inexperienced
teachers, Etta and Tria stated that their content conceptualization was partly influenced by the
content mapping made by the MGMP, as Tria stated in her pre-lesson interview for her first
meeting:
Of course, the policy from the MGMP, we should follow the material, the mapping one, the
mapping materials from MGMP and it’s a must. (Tria, Pre-LI, Meeting 1)
These two teachers adopted some elements of the content mapping from the MGMP, and
made some changes for their own lesson plans:
Yes, well, actually this one is the standard format from MGMP, but the differences maybe in
the learning activities. I usually use my own and I don’t put the nilai karakter (values) and
prinsip EEK (the EEC organizing principles) here, because I don’t really understand what it is
for actually … (Tria, Pre-LI, Meeting 1)
The influence of the MGMP’s content mapping was also admitted by Meri, the experienced
teacher. In her pre-lesson interview for her first observed teaching session, Meri stated that
she adopted the themes for selecting texts as determined in the MGMP’s content mapping:
Kalau untuk pembelajaran di kelas, itu kita sesuaikan dengan tema itu tadi. (Meri, Pre-LI,
Meeting 1)
For my instruction, those (i.e. texts) were selected in accordance with the themes.
Tema … kan teks itu kan kita kalau di kasih tema, di masing-masing kabupaten itu kan kaya
ada pemetaan materi gitu. (Meri, Pre-LI, Meeting 1)
Themes … for the themes of the texts, every regency has their own content mapping. (Meri,
Pre-LI, Meeting 1)
In relation to the influence of school facilities, all the three experienced teachers
revealed the ways the classroom and school facilities affected their instructional curriculum
design. Meri and Susan were concerned with their classroom furniture. Dealing with heavy
wooden desks and chairs encouraged Meri to prepare a pair work classroom activity rather
than a group one. In so doing, the students did not have to move or arrange the desks and the
chairs in such a way as when doing a group activity:
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Ya seperti biasa, kalo fasilitas ya adanya ya ruang seperti itu, terus kita mendesain supaya
enak seperti apa, jadi kita membuat kelompoknya dua orang saja, supaya ndak ribet ...
(tertawa). Kalau dua orang kan tinggal … dah nggak usah apa … ndak usah memindahkan
kursi juga ndak pa-pa. (Meri, Pre-LI, Meeting 4)
As usual, I just have to prepare classroom activities which are easily done in the classroom, so
I will have a pair work activity to make it more practical to do (laughing). By having two
students in a group … they will not have to move their chairs. (Meri, Pre-LI, Meeting 4)
While Meri preferred to have a pair activity for a practical reason, Susan kept planning
to conduct such speaking activities as a game and a role play, which required the students to
have some space to move, in her second observed teaching session (see Appendix X, A, Table
10.1). Susan still preferred to manage these speaking activities, even though she realized that
she would have to spend extra effort to arrange the classroom layout as expected for carrying
out the activities.
The influence of school facilities, in terms of the sufficiency of library collection and
internet connection, was stated by Sisilia, the experienced teacher, and Nuri, the
inexperienced teacher. Sisilia admitted that the poor collection of her school library made her
primarily seek for instructional materials from the Internet. In regard to the Internet
connection, Sisilia stated that the Internet connection in her school was so slow that it was
even not possible for her to send an email:
Disini … internet, maaf ... kadang ngadat … iya ... iya … kalau kita harus mengirim email,
lambat ya. (Sisilia, Pre-LI, Meeting 1)
Here … the Internet connection, sorry to say this, sometimes, does not work well … yes …
yes … when we want to send an email, for example, the connection is so slow. (Sisilia, Pre-
LI, Meeting 1)
… . Ya memang kalau saya cari-cari buku disini tidak memungkinkan ya ... makanya saya cari
di internet. (Sisilia, Pre-LI, Meeting 4)
… . Yes, indeed it’s not possible to find books (English resources) here … that’s why I seek
for (instructional materials) on the Internet. (Sisilia, Pre-LI, Meeting 4)
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Similarly, Nuri, the inexperienced teacher, explicitly mentioned the availability of her school
Internet connection to support her preparation for her second observed teaching session:
Ya, of course, the school, in this case, support my preparation because I can use the hot spot
area to get some input texts for my teaching. (Nuri, Pre-LI, Meeting 2)
In regard to the sufficiency of her school library collection, Nuri believed that the library had
a sufficient collection for students. However, the library did not provide a sufficient collection
of teacher resources that she needed as an English language teacher:
Kami punyanya ensiklopedia. Iya, tapi yang buku-buku untuk teachers’ development belum
terperhatikan, Bu. Utamanya the books for students. (Nuri, Pre-LI, Meeting 1)
What we have is encyclopedia. Yes, but books for teacher development do not yet become the
priority. The priority is books for students.
I don’t think that my library can support my teaching and learning activities. (Nuri, Pre-LI,
Meeting 2)
4.3 Summary of the Teachers’ Conceptualizations of PCK
The teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in the five processes of instructional curriculum

design, as presented in this chapter, have portrayed how overall, and at a macro level, these
six teachers designed their language instruction. In the case of the experienced teachers, as
represented by Meri and Sisilia, the macro level of their instructional curriculum design was
highly attached to their pedagogical concern for preparing the students to successfully
complete the National Examination (NE), an educational policy applied nationwide in
Indonesia, while managing to plan learnable and interesting instruction. One case, Susan,
however, did not show such attachment to the NE in her instructional curriculum design.
A similar sense of detachment from the NE, as shown by Susan, was demonstrated by
two inexperienced teachers, Nuri and Tria, while the other inexperienced teacher, Etta,
displayed the same attachment to the NE as did the two experienced teachers, Meri and
Sisilia. The influence of the NE on the teachers’ instructional curriculum design was well
reflected in their transformation process in the five processes of instructional curriculum
design, which constitutes an amalgamation of content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical
knowledge (PK).
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In the case of the experienced teachers, the teachers’ transformation process for
designing effective instruction was mostly informed by the national curriculum- and national
examination-driven needs analysis, which did not provide sufficient space for exploring their
students’ immediate felt needs in their ongoing classroom activities. Meanwhile, the
inexperienced teachers’ instructional curriculum design was informed by the teachers’ active
reflections-on-action and observations towards their classroom practices to obtain their
students’ felt needs.
As related to content knowledge (CK), the experienced teachers’ content

conceptualization was national examination-driven, which was specified within their content
focuses and pedagogical concerns. Such content focuses and pedagogical concerns limited the
rigour of their learning activities. However, the inexperienced teachers’ content
conceptualization covered specific content focuses and formed particular patterns of skills
integration for developing skills, and exploring, comprehending and constructing texts. The
inexperienced teachers’ content conceptualization resulted in more varied activities detached
from typical NE-based activities.
In regard to pedagogical knowledge (PK), the aspects of PK are represented by the

teachers’ conceptualizations in formulating the competence achievement indicators,
developing the instructional materials, organizing the instruction, and assessing student
learning. As corresponding to the content conceptualization, the formulations of the
experienced teachers’ competence achievement indicators reflected a limited rigour of
learning, since the indicators were mostly transformed into some typical activities that usually
appeared in the NE. The teachers’ conceptualizations in formulating their competence
achievement indicators also revealed their difficulty in specifying the target micro skills
attached to their learning activities. The inexperienced teachers, on the other hand, were able
to transform the indicators into more varied learning activities for teaching the integration of
skills and texts. While managing to comply with the standard of competence (SC) and the
basic competence (BC) of the 2006 School-based Curriculum (SBC), the indicators displayed
a sequence of learning activities to attain particular learning outcomes for developing macro
skills.
For organizing the instruction, the experienced teachers’ pedagogical reasoning was
mostly influenced by the authorities’ requirement to adopt the prescribed organizing principle
of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC). This prescribed organizing principle
was regarded as interchangeable with the text-based teaching and learning cycle. In the case
of the inexperienced teachers, the same issue, in regard to the insufficient adoption of the
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prescribed organizing principle of EEC in the teachers’ instructional curriculum design along
with the text-based teaching cycle, emerged. The inexperienced teachers were also shown to
adopt more varied organizing principles than did the experienced ones.
In developing instructional materials, the key evidence of both the experienced and
inexperienced teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK, in selecting and adapting texts and
activities, showed that their instructional materials development was anchored in varied
pedagogical concerns and techniques of instructional material adaptation. The teachers from
both of the groups demonstrated their efforts to perform accuracy and authenticity in their
instructional material adaptations and writing.
Despite some identified incompatibilities of the representation of the competences in

their classroom-based assessment, the experienced and inexperienced teachers’ classroom-
based assessment activities were prepared to assess the development of skills, text
comprehension, exploration, and construction in student learning.
Finally, in resonance with the influence of the NE at the macro level of context, the
influence of the socio-educational context at the regency and school levels was realized
through the role of the Regency Panel of English Subject Teachers (Musyawarah Guru Mata
Pelajaran – MGMP) in the regency in which the schools were located, and in the school
facilities. The shared findings indicate that the role and function of the MGMP contributed to
the teachers’ pedagogical decision in accommodating the stages of EEC in their instruction,
and that the MGMP’s content mapping became the teachers’ departure point in
conceptualizing content. Besides this, the school facilities, in terms of the classroom facilities,
the school library collection, and the Internet connection, influenced the teachers’ pedagogical
decisions for their classroom management and instructional materials development.
The following chapter, Chapter 5, will discuss the within-case findings as presented in
this chapter. Chapter 5 will also interpret and discuss the cross-case findings of the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design.
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CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION OF CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PEDAGOGICAL
CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK) IN INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN
5.0 Introduction
This chapter discusses the findings of this study, in three sections. The first section analyzes
and discusses the within- and cross-case comparisons of conceptualization of PCK by the
experienced and inexperienced teachers. In the second section, the influence of the National
Examination (NE) is discussed and linked to related literature, to elaborate on the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design. Finally, in the third
section, the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design are
discussed from the perspectives of pedagogical reasoning of PCK and teacher expertise.
5.1 Within- and Cross-Case Comparisons of Conceptualization of PCK in Instructional

Curriculum Design
The following subsections compare and discuss the patterns of conceptualization of PCK as
related to the five processes of instructional curriculum design demonstrated by the
participating teachers.
5.1.1 Process 1: Analyzing Needs
Through this process, the teachers’ PCK conceptualizations of their student needs yielded
some forms and sources. The comparison of the shared patterns of PCK conceptualization in
this process is shown in Table 5.1.
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Table 5.1: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization as relates to student
needs analysis
Experienced Teachers Inexperienced Teachers

Perceived Student Needs Source of Perceived Student Needs Source of
Needs Needs
Analysis Analysis
Learning text types, macro The 2006 Having the continuation of Reflections
and micro English skills as SBC the past lessons on past
stated in the standard of teaching
competence (SC) and basic experience
competence (BC) of the
2006 School-based
Curriculum (SBC)
Being exposed to relevant Reflections Being presented with Teachers’
learning activities and topics on past relevant instructional observations
of interest, and having teaching materials that fit the
students’ learning experience students’ background and
expectations fulfilled. life experiences
Having the instruction in Teachers’ Having clear instructions Reflections
accordance with the observations about classroom learning on past
students’ background activities and experiencing teaching
knowledge and their activities that helped the experience
socioeconomic background students gain more
confidence and a sense of
learning achievement.
Having the instruction in Teachers’
accordance with the observations
students’ level of
competence as informed by
the students’ average school
entry scores and their mixed
language ability
As can be seen from Table 5.1, the teachers from both groups have shared a
commonality in terms of drawing “student perceived needs” (Berwick, 1989, p. 55) from
three main sources: the 2006 SBC, the teachers’ reflections on their past teaching experience,
and their observations. In drawing perceived student needs from the basis of the 2006 SBC, as
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presented in Chapter 4, Section 4.1.1, and as depicted in Table 5.1, the experienced teachers
explicitly stated their intention, in their pre-lesson interviews, to accommodate the students’
learning needs to learn text types and develop macro and micro English language skills as
indicated in the SC and BC of the 2006 SBC they adopted. In the case of the inexperienced
teachers, although such intention was not explicitly stated in their pre-lesson interviews, the
inexperienced teachers’ instructional curriculum design referred to the SC and BC of the 2006
SBC. The experienced and inexperienced teachers’ intention to refer to the 2006 SBC was
also shown when they observed and attended to the aspects of their students’ social,
economic, and cultural background, and incorporated such aspects into their instructional
curriculum design.
Activating reflective teaching, both the experienced and inexperienced teachers were
shown to reflect on their past teaching experience in order to perceive their students “felt
needs” (Berwick, 1989, p. 55; Brindley, 1989, p. 65). Their reflections-on-action (Schon,
1983; Gebhard & Oprandi, 1999) led them to make necessary changes and adjustments in
their instructional curriculum design, based on the students’ learning needs they perceived.
However, the evidence on the teachers’ conceptualizations of student needs analysis, as
presented in Chapter 4, Section 4.1.1, showed that, compared to the experienced teachers, the
inexperienced teachers were more consistent in drawing perceived student needs from their
previous observed classroom practices as the primary sources that provided “immediate
perceptions” (Richards, 2001, p. 53) about their student needs. As shown in Table 5.1, their
reflections were, therefore, concerned with providing what their students needed in their
future instruction, such as the continuation of the lessons, the relevance of the materials,
activities and procedure, to best facilitate student learning. For this reason, the inexperienced
teachers’ perceived student needs were more informed and validated, in being captured from
their ongoing classroom activities as their primary source of needs analysis (Graves, 2000;
Richards, 2001).
In the case of the experienced teachers, their reflections were occasionally anchored in
their past experiences when teaching particular groups of the same grade in the previous
semester or year. This is exemplified by Sisilia’s reflection-on-action for her second observed
teaching session, when she decided to present the topic of ‘football’ for her students to teach
the recount text (see Chapter 4, Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 1, 2b-c). Basing on the general interest
of her last year’s students in ‘football’, Sisilia developed her perception that the students that
she was going to teach would also like learning English with the topic ‘football’. She,
therefore, related this general interest in ‘football’ to her current teaching of recount in her
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second observed teaching session. Another example was shown when Susan channeled her
reflection-on-action to students’ common constraints in learning writing (see Chapter 4,
Susan, Pre-LI Process 1, 4d) in her past writing class. Realizing that students lack confidence
and worried about making mistakes when learning writing, Susan planned a collaborative
writing practice in her fourth observed teaching session.
5.1.2 Process 2: Formulating Learning Objectives and Competence Achievement Indicators
The experienced and inexperienced teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK, as related to

formulating learning objectives and competence achievement indicators, showed their
consistency in referring to the SCs and BCs of the 2006 SBC that they adopted. However, one
case in the group of the experienced teachers, Sisilia, and two cases in the group of the
inexperienced teachers, Etta and Nuri, demonstrated their confusion in formulating learning
objectives and competence achievement indicators in their lesson plans. These three teachers
formulated their learning objectives exactly the same as the competence achievement
indicators. This implies that these teachers need to further differentiate among learning
objectives and competence achievement indicators as applied in the Indonesian educational
system.
In terms of constructing competence achievement indicators, the comparison of the

findings from the two groups of teachers revealed that their conceptualizations of PCK lead to
a different direction as a result of the influence of the National Examination (NE), a high-
stake national examination policy in practice in the Indonesian educational system at the time
this study was being conducted. This different direction of the teachers’ PCK
conceptualizations as a result of the existence of the NE is depicted in Figure 5.1.
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The National Examination
The experienced The inexperienced

teachers’ teachers’
conceptualizations conceptualizations
Articulating Driving the Leading to Balancing Articulating Leading the

perceived indicators to content the the indicators
student the national coverage teachers’ indicators into
needs based examination tensions in perceived into a integrations
primarily on -based the student sequence of of skills
the 2006 learning indicators needs with varied
SBC activities felt needs learning
generated activities to
from achieve the
classroom development
practices of particular
macro skills
Attachment line
Detachment line
Figure 5.1: The direction of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in constructing

competence achievement indicators
As shown in Figure 5.1, the experienced teachers’ PCK conceptualizations are

influenced by the national EFL curriculum and the NE. Their strong attachment to these
formal procedures guided them to derive their students’ perceived needs mostly from the
2006 SBC, and to transform their competence achievement indicators into the national
examination-driven learning activities. Such learning activities entail a limited rigour of
learning experience. These teachers’ strong attachment to the formal procedures also drove
their indicators to display content coverage tensions (Graves, 1996), which resulted from the
division of the indicators to reach two different pedagogical purposes. As Graves (1996, p.
19) argued, in formulating lesson objectives, teachers can encounter a tension between
“coverage objectives” and “mastery objectives”. Such tension occurs when teachers have to
meet two expectations, for reaching student learning mastery and for covering the subject
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matter content, as determined in a syllabus, within the limited time allocation. In the present
study, the tension occurred when the teachers attempted to formulate the indicators , on one
hand, for achieving student learning mastery on typical practices as examined in the NE, and
on the other hand, for developing skills and sufficient comprehension and construction of the
target texts as stated in the syllabus and the curriculum within the allotted time.
In contrast, such attachment to the NE was not exhibited in the inexperienced

teachers’ PCK conceptualizations in their competence achievement indicators. The indicators
indicated the extent of the teachers’ independence to plan their instruction based on the SCs
and BCs of the 2006 SBC. In transforming the content representations of the SCs and the BCs
taken from the 2006 SBC, unlike the experienced teachers, the inexperienced teachers
formulated competence achievement indicators in ways that did not reflect typical national
examination test indicators and covered richer learning experience for their students. The
inexperienced teachers’ sense of being unattached to the NE also corresponds to the finding in
the first process, analysing student needs, in which it was found that the teachers’ perceived
student needs were informed by their immediate perceptions obtained from their own
classroom practices.
The two groups of teachers’ conceptualizations, from the learning objectives and from
the competence achievement indicators, as generated from the SCs and BCs of the 2006 SBC,
showed that the teachers’ approach in designing their instructional curriculum tended to
follow the rational-linear framework of curriculum development (Richards, 1984, 2001;
White, 1988). This framework considers instructional goals and their related properties to be
central in determining the direction of instruction (Anderson, 2015; McCutcheon & Milner,
2002). This practice led the teachers to principally plan by learning objectives and the related
competence achievement indicators. Within an outcomes-based education system as applied
in the Indonesian EFL context, teachers do not have much freedom to overlook learning
objectives and competence achievement indicators as the starting point in their instructional
curriculum design, given the text-based pedagogy inherent in the 2006 SBC, which, by
nature, offers more dynamic and multifaceted approaches for Indonesian teachers to design a
blend of skill- and text-based instruction.
5.1.3 Process 3: Conceptualizing Content and Organizing Instruction
The following subsections compare and discuss the findings of the teachers’ PCK
conceptualizations as related to articulating the content categories of skills and texts, and
organizing instruction.
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5.1.3.1 Conceptualizing Content
The teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in mapping their content, as shown in Appendices

X-A, Table 10.1 and X-B, Table 10.2, indicate an intricate process of transforming the
content categories of skills and texts into relevant learning activities, to develop micro and
macro skills of English language, and to comprehend and produce texts.
The cross-case comparisons of the teachers’ content conceptualizations are viewed in

terms of teachers’ content focuses (Graves, 2000), and of teachers’ patterns in blending skills
and texts in their content conceptualization. Table 5.2 presents the cross-case comparison of
the teachers’ content focuses, specifying their choices of content categories.
As shown in Table 5.2, the teachers’ content conceptualization focuses on language,

learning and learners. The focus on language is elaborated into the content categories
representing skills and texts. Skills are transformed into learning activities for developing
micro and macro skills, while texts are conceptualized into learning activities to explore the
features of texts. Focus on learning and learners is translated into activities that involve the
integration of character (moral values) building and interpersonal skills. In integrating moral
values, the teachers from the two groups shared the same pattern of integration. Both the
experienced and inexperienced teachers planned to promote several selected values through
the procedures of particular activities. The only content focus that is not shared across within-
and cross-cases is the focus on social context. This focus is related to the case of Susan, the
experienced teacher, who incorporated the continuum of politeness within the variety of
expressions for a communication exchange in a restaurant setting.
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Table 5.2: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization in mapping content
focuses
Content Focuses Content Categories

The Experienced Teachers The
Inexperienced
Teachers
Focus on Skills: macro & micro skills The same content
Language categories
Texts: linguistic features (vocabulary, The same content
expressions, grammar, verbs, and sentence categories
patterns), generic structure (organization of
text), functions, situations, tasks, communicative
competence, and topics/ themes, the social
purpose of the text
Focus on Character building & interpersonal skills The same content
Learning & categories
Learners
Focus on Social Sociolinguistic skills (in the case of Susan) -
Context (unshared
content focus)
From the second point of view, the teachers’ content conceptualizations portray the
patterns of integration in which skills and texts are blended for developing micro and macro
skills. The blend of skills and texts forms several patterns of teaching texts, while particularly
emphasizing the development of micro and macro skills. The shared patterns of the within-
case comparison from the two groups of teachers yielded two main different patterns. These
two patterns are: (1) the blend within a single skill focus, and (2) the blend within the
integration of skills. The first pattern blends skills and texts in the receptive skill focus. This
pattern is as demonstrated in the case of the experienced teachers, when Meri and Sisilia
mostly conceptualized the content of skills and texts, within the teaching of reading and
listening, and that of particular text types (see Appendix X, A, Table 10.1). In this blending
pattern, the content categories of skills and texts are transformed into learning activities to
develop micro and macro skills, explore the linguistic features of the target texts, and
comprehend the texts (see Appendix X, A, Table 10.1). Figure 5.2 illustrates this blending
pattern.
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(Activity 1) Skills development, text
Focus on receptive skills

exploration, & text comprehension



Figure 5.2: The blend of skills and texts within a single skill focus
Susan, however, was the only experienced teacher who demonstrated the second
pattern, which was mostly conceptualized by the inexperienced teachers. This pattern blends
the content of skills and texts within such integration of skills as reading-writing skills and
listening-speaking skills. As a result, two patterns of integration were demonstrated from the
second blending pattern. The first pattern of integration shapes a layer of integration within
different single skill focuses, as shown in Etta’s integration of reading-writing skills, Nuri’s
integration of listening-speaking skills for her entire teaching sessions, and Tria’s integration
of reading-writing skills for her third and fourth teaching sessions (see Appendix X, B, Table
10.2). The first lesson focuses on the receptive skill and functions as the base or input for
developing the target productive skills in the second and third lessons. The receptive skills are
conceptualized for developing the target receptive skills, and exploring and comprehending
the target texts. The productive skills, on the other hand, are for building the target skills
while exploring and producing the target text types. This first pattern of integration is
depicted in Figure 5.3.
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(Lesson 1) Input (Lesson 2) Focus on (Lesson 3) Output
Focus on receptive skills productive skills (skills Focus on productive skills
(skills development, text development, text (skills development, text
exploration, & text exploration, and text exploration, and text
comprehension) construction) construction)
Figure 5.2: A layer of integration within different single skill focuses
The second pattern of integration was the integration within the strand of a lesson
(Graves, 2000), as shown in Nuri’s integration for her second and third teaching sessions and
Tria’s integration for her second teaching session (see Appendix X, B, Table 10.2). This
pattern of integration divides the lesson into two strands of skill focus, in which the division
of the receptive skills as the input for the following productive skills was blended in one
single lesson. The productive skills become the primary skill focus in this pattern of
integration. The integration within the strand of a lesson is illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Focus on productive skills
(Strand 1) Input
Focus on receptive skills (skills development, text
exploration, & text comprehension)
(Strand 2) Output
Focus on productive skills (skills development,
text exploration, and text construction)
Figure 5.3: Integration within the strand of a lesson
To sum up, in blending the content of skills and texts, two cases from the group of the
experienced teachers tended to do so in a single skill focus. One case from this group,
however, conceptualized skills and texts within the integration of skills, following the two
integration patterns shared by the inexperienced teachers.
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5.1.3.2 Organizing the Instruction
Several findings were identified from the cross-case comparison of the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in organizing their instruction. The first finding, which is
obviously shown from the teachers’ organizing principle, is the insufficient adoption of the
prescribed organizing principle of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC)
determined by the Ministry of National Education and Culture (MNEC). The teachers’
pedagogical concern for using this prescribed principle was more influenced by
administrative requirements than by their understanding of the compatibility of the
characteristics of this organizing principle with their instruction. In the case of the
experienced teachers, two teachers, Sisilia and Susan, explicitly used and stated this
prescribed organizing principle in their lesson plans, and the other teacher, Meri, adopted the
text-based teaching and learning cycle while managing to put this cycle alongside the
prescribed organizing principle in her lesson plans (see Appendix X-A, Table 10.1).
In the case of the inexperienced teachers, the explicit adoption of the prescribed
organizing stages of EEC was only done by Etta, while the other teacher, Tria, made a similar
attempt to Meri’s (see Appendix X, B, Table 10.2). Tria stated that she adopted the organizing
principles side by side with the stages of EEC to satisfy the administrative requirement she
had to deal with. All three inexperienced teachers admitted that they had insufficient
understanding of the prescribed organizing stages of EEC. The inexperienced teachers were
also shown to adopt other organizing principles. Nuri employed the pre-, while-/ whilst-, and
post-speaking/ listening stages for all her teaching sessions. Tria planned to apply the text-
based teaching and learning cycle for teaching the receptive skills (listening and reading) in
her first and third teaching sessions and the productive skill (writing) in her second teaching
session. Tria also adopted the stages of Presentation, Practice, and Production (PPP) for her
fourth observed teaching session. The adoption of these organizing principles is also not
pedagogically grounded in the substantial concern for why such stages are effective and
relevant for organizing their instruction to enhance student learning. Tria and Nuri reasoned
that the PPP stages and the pre-, while-/ whilst-, and post-speaking/ listening stages they
adopted were relatively simpler than the text-based teaching and learning cycle. Besides, in
the case of Tria, she reasoned that the PPP stages enabled her to present the model text of
birthday invitation from the beginning; whereas, in adopting the text-based teaching and
learning cycle, Tria simply clarified that this cycle was suitable for teaching texts.
The second merged finding is that both the experienced and inexperienced teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in organizing their instruction showed some inconsistencies
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between theories and practice. The inconsistencies were shown in the ways their designed
activities were incompatible with the characteristics of the organizing principles, as
exemplified in the cases of Meri from the group of the experienced teachers, and Tria, from
that of the inexperienced teachers.
In the case of Tria, for example, the inconsistency was shown when the characteristic
of the PPP stages, as the variety of Audiolingualism (Harmer, 2007; Spratt et al., 2005), was
used for organizing Tria’s writing class to explore birthday invitation text. Tria’s writing
instruction in her fourth observed teaching session could have been more appropriately
organized by means of the text-based teaching cycle for two reasons. Firstly, referring back to
the characteristic of the text-based teaching methodology, the text-based teaching and
learning cycle was particularly designed for literacy teaching (Feez, 1999). Secondly, the
design of Tria’s activities had demonstrated a certain degree of compatibility with the
characteristics of the stages in the text-based teaching and learning cycle. As shown in Tria’s
prepared activities for her fourth observed teaching session (see Appendix IX, B, 4.2 - 4.4),
the activities for her writing instruction were designed at the level of whole text. The
exploration of the text structure was carried out through the presentation of texts in contexts,
as shown in Activities 2, 3, and 4, which were planned to be done in the Practice stage (see
Appendix X, B, Table 10.2). These activities represent the modeling and deconstructing text
activities in which teachers and students have the opportunities to examine the text structure
and the linguistic features of the model text (Feez & Joyce, 1998). After experiencing this text
exploration, the students were provided with the last activity, which was Activity 5 in the
Production stage, in which the students were required to individually write a birthday
invitation with the context they personally created (see Appendix X, B, Table 10.2).
Another inconsistency was found in Nuri’s implementation of the pre-, while-/whilst-,

and post-speaking stages. This inconsistency was related to the appropriateness of activities
designed for the pre- and post-speaking stages to the characteristics of these stages. As shown
in Appendix X, B, Table 10.2, in the pre-speaking stage Nuri did not prepare a particular
activity in which the students were introduced to the new topic in the monologue recount that
they were going to learn, to build up background knowledge, or to practice related
vocabulary. Similarly, the post-speaking stage was not represented by any follow-up activity
in which the students could link the follow-up activity to what they had learned in the
previous stages.
In the case of implementing the text-based teaching and learning cycle for teaching the
receptive skills (listening and reading) and the productive skill (writing), the inconsistencies
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between theories and practices were reflected in both of the experienced and inexperienced
teachers’ instructional curriculum design. The inconsistency was centered around the practice
that texts were not used as the departing point to conceptualize content and design activities.
As Burns states (2012), in text-based teaching texts are central for conceptualizing content
and designing activities. Accordingly, the design of instruction focuses on providing students
with “knowledge and skills for understanding and engaging in extended texts used in real
social contexts” (p. 140).
In the present study, the core content categories of skills and texts made the teachers,
as exemplified in the cases of Meri and Tria, depart their conceptualizations from two central
points which encompassed skills and texts. The blend of these two content categories created
tensions, as shown in Meri’s and Tria’s conceptualizations of PCK for organizing their
learning activities within the text-based teaching and learning cycle (see Appendix X, A & B,
Table 10.1 & Table 10.2). As a result, the designed activities in each stage of the cycle did not
fully explore texts to help students engage with meaning in context, understand the language
system realized in text, or interpret and respond to social communication occurring in texts
(Feez & Joyce, 1998). For example, in the stage of Building Knowledge of the Field, Tria
prepared some general questions for teaching the listening skill and procedure in her first
observed teaching session. In this stage, such general questions as, (1) What do you see in the
video? (2) Can you make fruit salad by yourself? (3) Is it easy or difficult for you to make
fruit salad? and (4) How do you make fruit salad? were addressed to the students after they
had watched the video on ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’, in the stage of Building Knowledge of
the Field. Such designed questions did not fully engage the students to investigate the social
context of the model text, the social purpose of the text, and the immediate context of
situation by grasping the purpose, audience, language and structural features attached to the
model text (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Derewianka, 2003; Paltridge, 2004).
Moreover, within her first teaching session, another example can further be found in
Tria’s design of the activity for the stage of Joint Construction of the Text (see Appendix X,
B, Table 10.2). As Feez and Joyce (1998) suggest, at this stage “students begin to contribute
to the construction of whole examples of the text-type and the teacher gradually reduces the
contribution to text construction, as the students move closer to being able to control the text-
type independently” (p. 30). Instead of preparing an activity that matches the characteristic of
the Joint Construction of the Text stage as aforementioned, Tria designed a pair work activity
in which the students were required to answer five multiple choice questions for identifying
various specific information after listening to the video on ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’. This
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activity was mainly intended to develop particular micro listening skills as elaborated in
Tria’s content conceptualization for her first observed teaching session (see Appendix X, B,
Table 10.1). This kind of listening comprehension activity is obviously intended to transform
the content representation of the target micro listening skills. It does not, however, provide the
students with an opportunity to jointly construct the target procedure text.
In the present study, the findings in conceptualizing content and organizing instruction
have, therefore, shown how the teacher’s knowledge deficiency of the text-based teaching and
learning cycle, and the tensions inherent in the transformations of the content of skills and
texts that become teachers’ central conceptualization, shaped the profile of the
implementation of the text-based teaching incorporated in the 2006 SBC in the Indonesian
EFL context. The text exploration, in this study, is done for the sake of developing particular
micro and macro skills of English. By contrast, skills development in text-based teaching is
carried out along with text exploration for meaning making, that is, to engage students with
language use and how this language use operates in its context (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Burns,
2012). Teachers are, therefore, required to select essential micro and macro skills that students
need in order to comprehend and/or compose texts. In this intersection, the teachers’
transformations of skills and texts, in this study, do not fully represent the text-based
pedagogy that characterizes the 2006 SBC.
5.1.4 Process 4: Developing Instructional Materials
The following subsections discuss the shared and merged findings of the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in developing instructional materials.
5.1.4.1 Selecting Texts and Activities
The teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in developing their instructional materials exhibited

particular pedagogical concerns that influenced their decisions for selecting relevant texts and
activities. As shown in Table 5.3, in selecting texts, the experienced and inexperienced
teachers’ conceptualizations referred to several pedagogical concerns. Departing from the
same intention, to transform the content of skills and texts, as stated in the SCs and BCs of the
2006 SBC, the experienced teachers referred to a richer repertoire of pedagogical concerns for
selecting texts than did the inexperienced ones. The experienced and inexperienced teachers’
pedagogical concerns reflected two similar concerns, that were related to the difficulty level
of the selected texts and the degree to which the selected texts were connected to the students’
life experiences and their sociocultural background. One distinctive pedagogical concern that
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was not mentioned by the inexperienced teachers was the concern to select texts for attracting
the students’ interest and increasing their motivation to learn.
The teachers’ pedagogical concerns also served as their standard for the
appropriateness for their text selection (Rubdy, 2003). Three main criteria were reflected
within the teachers’ shared pedagogical concerns: local, content-specific, and age-specific
criteria (Tomlinson, 2003). The teachers’ efforts in selecting relevant texts based on the 2006
SBC, and in incorporating the students’ sociocultural background into the target texts,
transcended their local criteria. Content-specific criteria were realized when the teachers
considered the complexity of the texts by measuring the difficulty of vocabulary and the
length of the texts. Then, age-specific criteria were transmitted through the teachers’ decisions
in selecting particular texts in accordance with the students’ interests and their life
experiences. Finally, a media-specific criterion was realized when, for example, the duration
of such spoken texts in the form of video was considered.
As presented in Chapter 4, the teachers’ PCK conceptualizations in selecting learning

activities were influenced by a different pedagogical concern. As previously stated, the
experienced teachers’ formulation of competence achievement indicators was in line with
what the students had to do in the NE learning practices. This was because the experienced
teachers’ selection of activities was triggered by their concern to prepare their students for the
NE. As a result, the types of learning activities they prepared were characterized by the NE-
based learning activities (also see Appendix IX, A-1, Table 9.1).
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Table 5.3: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization in selecting texts

Pedagogical Texts Selection Pedagogical Concerns Texts Selection
Concerns
Being compatible Selecting the model report text titled ‘Whales’ Fitting the difficulty level Selecting such model texts as: ‘Barbecue in the Park’,
with the text types (Meri) and the model narrative titled of texts (texts having ‘National Park’, ‘A Beautiful Day at Jogja’, ‘My
and the learning ‘Cinderella’ (Sisilia) familiar words and simple Holiday in Bali’, and ‘Going Camping’ (Etta),
needs derived from sentence structure) to the ‘Thomas Alva Edison’ and ‘Last Holiday’ (Nuri), and
the 2006 School- students’ competence ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’ and ‘How to Wash Your
based Curriculum Hands’ (Tria)
Presenting some videos to provide varieties of Relating the selected texts Accommodating topics that were familiar to the
the target expressions typically used in a to the students’ life students’ life experiences such as going to national
restaurant setting for transactional and experiences and their park, spending holiday in Yogyakarta and Bali, and
interpersonal text (Susan) sociocultural background going camping (Etta)
Being familiar and Choosing the stories of ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’ Promoting a local beach in the district in the adapted
related to the (Meri) and of ‘Cinderella’ and ‘Snow White’ recount titled ‘Vacation at Glagah Beach’ (Nuri)
students’ prior (Sisilia) for these stories were considered well
knowledge about the known among secondary school students
target texts and to Selecting the model recount on the beauty of Accommodating the topic of daily healthy habits in the
their sociocultural beaches in Bali for the beach was part of the selected texts titled ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’ and
background students’ lives (Sisilia) ‘How to Wash Your Hands’ (Tria)
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Promoting local famous restaurants in
Yogyakarta in the adapted texts titled
‘Jejamuran’, and ‘House of Raminten’ for
teaching advertisement (Susan)
Attracting the Choosing some animated cartoon films for
students’ interest and teaching narrative and listening skills (Meri)
motivation to learn Taking the theme of ‘football’ for teaching
recount and reading skills (Sisilia)
Containing the Selecting the model texts with simple and
difficulty level of familiar vocabulary & considering the length of
texts that was within the texts (all the case teachers)
the students’
competence
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On the other hand, the inexperienced teachers demonstrated a sense of detachment
from the concern to replicate the NE learning practices. Even though the concern for
preparing students for the NE was demonstrated in Etta’s selection of learning practices, in
her third observed teaching session, the inexperienced teachers’ PCK conceptualizations for
selecting activities were predominantly guided by their pedagogical concern to fit the
activities to the characteristics of the stages of the organizing principles they adopted (also see
Appendix X, B, Table 10.2). Since the selection of activities was primarily intended to work
within the teaching stages, this pedagogical concern transcended an array of considerations
specified by Graves’s (2000), including such considerations as:
1) Building students’ confidence and helping them practice specific language and
skills they need for authentic communication
This consideration was conveyed through the inexperienced teachers’ decision to
conceptualize the content of skills and texts into communicative activities such as
role-plays, interviews, monologue recount performance, and discussion. The teachers’
clarifications in their pre-lesson interviews, as elaborated in the presentation of
findings in Chapter 4, vividly stated that such activities were designed with the
consideration to improve the students’ confidence. In terms of helping students
practice specific language and language skills that they need for authentic
communication, the teachers made efforts to develop the students’ understanding of
the related vocabulary, grammar, language functions, and language expressions within
the target texts and skills, before they were required to engage in spoken and written,
meaning-focused learning activities. Such efforts were found, for example, in Etta’s
fourth session, Nuri’s third session, and Tria’s third and fourth teaching sessions.
2) Helping students develop specific skills and strategies
As shown in Appendix IX, B, Table 9.2, the inexperienced teachers designed varied
learning activities to achieve the development of the target skills and texts. This
consideration was also conveyed through the findings presented in Chapter 4, in
which all the inexperienced teachers stated that the direction of the sequence of their
learning activities was to develop particular target macro skills.
3) Understanding how a text is constructed
This consideration was particularly well reflected in Tria’s instructional curriculum
design. Tria designed the integration of reading and writing skills for exploring the
birthday invitation text, in her third and fourth observed teaching sessions. Her design
demonstrated a sequence of reading and writing activities, which were projected to
make her students construct their own birthday invitation.
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4) Varying the roles of students and groupings
This consideration was well shown in Nuri’s statements for her second and third
observed teaching sessions, in which she planned to manage several interactive group
and individual learning activities (Nuri, Pre-LI Process 4, 2c, 3c; see Chapter 4
Section 4.1.4.1).
5.1.4.2 Adapting and Writing Instructional Materials
To make instructional materials more accessible to the students, the teachers made some
adaptations at the levels of texts and learning activities, with particular adaptation techniques.
These adaptations were affected by specific pedagogical concerns, as outlined in Table 5.4.
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Table 5.4: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization in adapting instructional materials

Adaptation Teachers Pedagogical Techniques of Adaptation Teachers Pedagogical Techniques of
Level Concerns Instructional Level Concerns Instructional Materials
Materials Adaptation Adaptation
Text Susan Shortening the length Adding (extending), Writing Etta Easing the students to Modifying by adding a
of particular sentences reducing, and activity complete the practice line of instruction to the
and providing specific simplifying (rewriting) writing practice
advertisement details
that were familiar to
the students’
sociocultural
background
Sisilia Making the text more Extension, reduction, Text Replacing the original Replacing the third
understandable to the and reorganization long paragraph into the paragraph of the model
students teacher’s own version text titled ‘A Beautiful
to make the text more Day in Jogja’
understandable
Activity Meri Providing more Modifying the Text Shortening part of the Reducing by shortening
opportunities for the procedure of doing a second paragraph to the length of the second
students to collaborate question-answer game make the text more paragraph of the same
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in groups from originally understandable text
working in pairs into
groups of four
Activity Susan Creating a competitive Modifying the Text Shortening the original Applying the
atmosphere procedure for doing a long paragraph and combination of
role play ‘The Best changing the irrelevant replacement and
Waiter’ paragraph into the reduction techniques on
more relevant one to the recount about going
the students’ camping
experience of going
camping
Text Tria Making the model Modifying the text by
procedure on ‘How to making some
Make Fruits Salad’ modification changes
more understandable
to the students
Text Making the details of Changing some specific
birthday invitation information of birthday
more familiar to the invitation such as name,
students’ context address, and venue with
more contextual details
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As specified in Table 5.4, both the experienced and inexperienced teachers practiced
particular material adaptation techniques, and based their instructional material adaptation on
particular pedagogical concerns. The instructional adaptation techniques that the teachers
performed (Islam & Mares, 2003; McDonough & Shaw, 2003; Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2004)
verify that their instructional material adaptations did not simply rely on their “impromptu
intuitions” (Tomlinson, 2003a, p. 101) or on “ad hoc and spontaneous” (Tomlinson, 2003b, p.
107) adaptations. Planned and systematic material adaptation was done to build the parts that
made up the whole (McDonough and Shaw, 2003). Meanwhile, their pedagogical concerns
guided them to achieve the congruence of their instructional material development with the
external (what information that the teachers have) and internal (what the materials offer)
points of reference (McDonough & Shaw, 2003).
As shown in Table 5.4, the teachers’ pedagogical concerns for adapting their
instructional materials merged into two main concerns: (1) facilitating student learning by
adapting the given texts and learning activities to make them accessible to the students; and
(2) integrating the students’ sociocultural background or context into the adapted instructional
materials. Given the teachers’ pedagogical concerns, the cross-comparison shows that the
experienced teachers made more effort in adapting learning activities to improve the
classroom dynamics. Two experienced teachers, Meri and Susan, were concerned with
providing more opportunities for the students to engage in a group collaboration and creating
a competitive atmosphere.
In terms of instructional material writing, the teachers’ pedagogical concerns mostly

merged into a concern for fulfilling the availability of the sources to meet the students’
learning needs, as shown in Table 5.5. Other pedagogical concerns merged into facilitating
student learning, as displayed in Susan’s concern for linking the reading practice to writing
and Tria’s concern for providing a new learning experience for the students by creating
writing activities. In line with the findings for the processes of formulating competence
achievement indicators and selecting activities, the concern of preparing for the National
Examination (NE) was expressed by the experienced teachers, as reflected in Sisilia’s
pedagogical concern for creating reading comprehension questions for accommodating the
key micro reading skills that were feasibly to be examined in the NE.
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Table 5.5: The cross-case comparison of PCK conceptualization in writing instructional materials

Kinds of Teachers Pedagogical Strategies of Kinds of Teachers Pedagogical Strategies of
Instructional Concerns Instructional Materials Instructional Concerns Instructional Materials
Materials Writing Materials Writing
Writing Writing
Reading Susan Linking the reading Creating a reading Text Nuri Supplementing the Making an audio
practice practice to the practice in the form of dialogue on ‘Last recording for the dialogue
writing one completing a worksheet Holiday’ with an on ‘Last Holiday’
with specific audio recording
information such as food
category, location, the
special offer, and the
atmosphere
Reading Sisilia Practicing the micro Creating the questions Text Providing a text that Writing a recount titled
comprehension reading skills that for the text titled ‘David was close to the ‘Going on Vacation to
questions were usually tested Beckham’ she had students’ context, due Glagah Beach’
in the school chosen for teaching to the scarcity of such
examination or the reading skill and recount texts
NE
Model text for Supplementing the Writing the simpler text Text Tria Finding the pictures Conversing a model
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narrative video of ‘Snow for the story of ‘Snow and their phrases that procedure on ‘How to
White’ with the White’ were relevant for Wash Your Hands’ from a
simpler version of teaching procedure series of pictures and their
the story since the phrases
original video was
considered too
complicated for the
students
Writing Providing a new Writing a situation for
activity learning experience constructing a birthday
for the students invitation and developing
a writing activity in which
the students’ personal
information was required
for writing their own
birthday invitation
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In addition to the findings for the teachers’ pedagogical concerns in adapting and
writing instructional materials, the teachers’ instructional material adaptations shared the
issues of text authenticity in terms of: “the genuineness of language use” (Widdowson, 1978,
p. 80), and the sufficiency of comprehensible input (Ellis, 1994). The adapted texts by both
the experienced and inexperienced teachers exhibited the teachers’ struggle in perceiving “the
genuineness of language use” (Widdowson, 1978, p. 80) of the target texts. In the case of the
experienced teachers, this was shown in Susan’s adapted model texts (see Appendix IX, A-2,
2.2.2., & A-3, 3.3), titled ‘House of Raminten’ and ‘Jejamuran’. These two adapted texts
experience “a distortion of natural language” (McDonough & Shaw, 2003, p. 82) as a result of
the simplifying (rewriting) process. Even though Susan only used the original sentences in the
original text as the ideas for constructing the language of advertisements, her simplified
sentences fell short of the corresponding stylistic effects of authentic advertisements. In the
case of the inexperienced teachers, a recount in the form a monologue titled ‘Going on
Vacation to Glagah Beach’, created by Nuri (see Appendix IX, B, 4.1.), reflected Nuri’s effort
in perceiving “the genuineness of language use” (Widdowson, 1978, p. 80) of the text, which
recounted a natural contextual condition when one was on the beach. In the case of Tria, she
made choices within a continuum in presenting her students with a range of semi-authentic
and authentic birthday invitations (Graves 2000). She obtained some samples of authentic
birthday invitations from the Internet and prepared some modified samples of invitations with
the addition of some details relevant to the students’ context.
These findings on text authenticity corroborate Morrow’s argument (1977), in the

long-standing debate on authenticity, that “the concept of authentic in language teaching is
unattainable” (as cited in Mishan, 2005, p. 13). In the case of EFL teachers such as Susan and
Nuri, they encounter difficulties in matching or sensing the reality surrounding the target texts
so as to be able to produce genuine language use. These findings also signify the teachers’
competence in adapting texts and the quality of their adapted texts to be called as
comprehensible input (Ellis, 1994). As Ellis (1994) argued, that even though comprehensible
input can facilitate language learning, it does not necessarily guarantee language learning. It
depends on teachers’ strategies in “externally manipulating the input” (Mishan, 2005, p. 23).
5.1.5 Process 5: Assessing Student Learning
The cross-case comparison of the teachers’ PCK conceptualizations for assessing their student
learning resulted in three themes: (1) the extent to which the classroom-based assessment was
influenced by the NE; (2) the degree to which the classroom-based assessment carried the
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formative orientation to facilitate the students’ learning process; and (3) the way in which the
classroom-based assessment reflected the tensions as a result of the blend of skills and texts.
As reflected in the previous processes of the teachers’ instructional curriculum design,

the national policy of the NE affected in particular the experienced teachers’ design of
classroom-based assessment, as was shown in the cases of Meri and Sisilia. The influence of
the NE took place in the adoption of such NE-based assessment activities as multiple-choice
questions and reading comprehension questions in their classroom-based assessment
activities. From the group of the inexperienced teachers, one case, Etta exhibited the strongest
concern to accommodate the typical NE practices in her instruction. However, the other two
inexperienced teachers mostly planned non-NE classroom-based assessment activities.
Referring to the characteristic of classroom-based assessment that focuses on the

learners’ learning process (e.g. Bennet, 2011; Black & William, 2009; Cauley & McMillan,
2010; Leung, 2004; Leung & Lewkowicz, 2006, Rea-Dickins, 2001; Taras, 2005), the design
of the inexperienced teachers’ classroom-based assessment activities indicates two features.
Firstly, the design of the assessment activities, particularly the assessment activities that focus
on the development of skills, text exploration and text production, reflects the inexperienced
teachers’ intention to plan a supporting system that facilitates the students’ learning process.
The supporting system was shown from the teachers’ provision of several prior learning
activities preceding the assessment activities, in which the students were equipped with skills
and knowledge of texts needed to complete the assessment activities. A certain degree of
teachers’ scaffolding was also evidenced through the teachers’ intentions to ease the students’
learning process, such as the provision of a series of pictures to guide the students’ sentence
construction for a recount text by Etta, the formation of pair work or group work by all the
teachers, and the provision of the text skeleton and contexts or situations for the students to
compose their own simple and short procedure and birthday invitation texts by Tria.
Secondly, such design, therefore, characterized the inexperienced teachers’ assessment
activities as having a formative-oriented purpose (Rea-Dickins, 2001). This formative
orientation was also supported by the types of the assessment activities, which did not inherit
the influence of such high-stake external examination as the National Examination (NE)
implemented nationwide in Indonesia.
In the case of the experienced teachers, the classroom-based assessment design with a
formative orientation was particularly reflected in Susan’s classroom-based assessment
activities, in which such non-NE activities as a role-play and a writing activity were
incorporated into her classroom-based assessment design. Meanwhile, in the case of the other
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two experienced teachers, Meri and Sisilia, the nature of their classroom-based assessment
was national examination-based.
This last finding confirms the presence of the tension resulting from the intersection of
skills and texts in the teachers’ classroom-based assessment design. Within the process of
assessing student learning, the tension is displayed in the teachers’ conceptualizations for
linking and matching the classroom-based assessment activities to the SC and BC of the 2006
SBC, and in mapping the representation of the planned competences to the actual
competences attached in the classroom-based assessment activities. The classroom-based
assessment activities prepared by the teachers from the two groups mark some
incompatibilities between the planned competences and the actual ones in the classroom-
based assessment activities. Such incompatibilities, therefore, result in the deviation of the
micro skills, as identified in the shared findings of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in
assessing their student learning (also see Appendix XI, A-2, Table 11.2 & Table 11.3;
Appendix XI, B-1, Table 11.4).
5.2 The Influence of the National Examination (NE) on the Teachers’

Conceptualizations of PCK in Instructional Curriculum Design: The Macro Level of
Context
The influential effect of the educational context, in this case the National Examination (NE)
as one of the national educational policies in Indonesia, is evident in the present study. The
influence is evident in two polar opposite approaches. The first approach is a strong
adherence to the NE, as represented by Meri and Sisilia in the case of the experienced
teachers, and Etta in the case of the inexperienced teachers. The second approach is a sense of
detachment and flexibility in designing non-NE instructions, as mostly demonstrated by the
inexperienced teachers, Nuri and Tria, and one experienced teacher, Susan. The awareness of
the teachers in the first approach of the crucial importance of the NE in their wider
institutional and educational context had shaped their conceptualizations of PCK, or
knowledge for teaching, to help their students become accustomed to typical activities or
practices tested in the NE, as the teachers frequently stated in the pre-lesson interviews (Meri,
Pre-LI Process 3, 4d & 4f; Sisilia, Pre-LI Process 3, 1f, 2c, 3i).
The two opposite approaches of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK, in this study,
confirm the two dimensions of the influence of context on teachers’ instructional decision
making, and of curriculum development. In one dimension, the influence of context was
pivotal in shaping teachers’ instructional decisions for classroom innovations and curriculum
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development (e.g. Borg, 2003; Carless, 2007; Hoare, 2010; Hu, 2005; Sharkey, 2004; Wette,
2009, 2010). Corresponding to the findings of such studies, the experienced teachers’ strong
adherence to the NE, in the present study, hampered their conceptualizations of PCK for
designing instruction that reflected their true pedagogical concerns (Borg, 2003), and
therefore shaped their instructional curriculum design in favour of the students’ perceived
needs to succeed in the NE. From another dimension, as Sanchez and Borg (2014) argue, the
influence of context is not “an objective entity external to teachers” (p. 52), which
automatically impacts teaching; rather, context is internally and individually constructed by
teachers’ cognitions, which is termed “teacher constructed context” (p. 52). Such teacher
constructed context, therefore, explains why teachers, being surrounded by the same
educational context, may regard the influence of the context differently. Within this argument,
the polar differences in the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in this study can be justified.
Dealing with the same constraint and pressure brought by the educational policy of the NE,
the teachers in this study transformed their understanding of the content of skills and texts
into polar opposite conceptualizations of PCK for their instructional curriculum design.
5.3 The Influence of Socio-Educational Context on the Teachers’ Conceptualizations of

PCK in their Instructional Curriculum Design: The Regency and School Levels of
Context
As presented in Chapter 4 Section 4.2, the within-case and cross-case analysis on the
teachers’ pre-lesson interviews revealed the influence of the socio-educational context at the
regency and school levels. At the former level, the influence was manifested in the role and
function of the Regency Panel of English Subject Teachers (Musyawarah Guru Mata
Pelajaran – MGMP) as the regency panel, which coordinated the design and implementation
of the 2006 SBC in each regency in the Special Province of Yogyakarta. The role and
function of the MGMP in each regency, therefore, have transferred a formal obligation for
teachers to accommodate any product of the national curriculum as determined by the
ministry. This was also the case with some teachers in this study, as represented by Meri,
Sisilia, and Etta (also as elaborated in Chapter 4 Section 4.1.3.2), who made effort to
accommodate the prescribed organizing principle of Exploration, Elaboration, and
Confirmation (EEC) in their instructional curriculum design. Another influence of the MGMP
was evident in some teachers’ pedagogical decisions, as admitted by Meri, Etta, and Tria, to
refer to the content mapping from the MGMP as a point of reference in conceptualizing their
instructional content. The influence of the educational context at the regency level, as
revealed in this study, has shown the complexity of developing instructional curriculum by
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EFL teachers, particularly in the Special Province of Yogyakarta, and generally in Indonesia.
This complexity is contributed by the nature of the implementation of the 2006 SBC, which
was in the intersection between the curriculum fidelity and curriculum adaptation approaches
(Snyder et al., 1992). Within this intersection, Indonesian EFL teachers, such as the teachers
in this study, are required to accommodate the prespecified national goals and outcomes as
well as their local contexts in developing their instructional curriculum.
In regard to the influence of educational context at school, the insufficiency of the

school facilities, as admitted by the teachers in this study, has been the major constraint
suffered by the majority of public junior high schools (PJHS) in Indonesia, especially PJHS in
disadvantaged or rural areas. As stated in Chapter 1 Section 1.2.1, the curriculum changes
aimed to improve the quality of education in Indonesia were and have been coincided with a
classic national problem concerning the insufficient school facilities to support the process of
teaching and learning at school (Hamied, 2014; Jazadi, 2000). Hamied (2014, p. 14), further,
made a strong point about this as follows:
There are a lot to take into consideration when we intend to improve education as any
educational improvement involves groups of people such as the staff, faculty, administration
and students and at the same time it requires supporting software and hardware facilities,
which are commonly lacking at our educational institutions.
In this study, the participating schools, based on the distribution of the regencies in
which the schools are located (see Appendix III), are classified into city, urban, and rural/
regional schools. Schools in city and urban areas usually have better school facilities than
those in rural/ regional areas. This is as exemplified by the schools where Sisilia, the
experienced teacher, and Nuri, the inexperienced teacher, taught. Sisilia’s school, which is
located in Semanu, Gunungkidul, is classified as a rural school, while Nuri’s school, that is
located in Wates, Kulonprogo, belongs to an urban (non-rural) school. Working in a rural
school, Sisilia admitted the condition of the school, which is characterized by such
insufficient school facilities as the school library and the school Internet connection. On the
contrary, being an urban school and having a status as the ex-pilot international standard
school, the school, where Nuri worked, has had more sufficient school facilities, as shown
from the better condition of the school library, the provision of the hot-spot facility, and the
quality of the internet connection to support its students and teachers. The influence of the
school facilities was evident in the teachers’ pedagogical decisions for developing their
instructional materials, as demonstrated by the teachers’ reliance on the Internet instead of
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books in selecting instructional materials, and the teachers’ pedagogical decisions to cope
with the existing classroom furniture in selecting learning activities.
5.4 Conclusion: The Landscape of the Experienced and Inexperienced Teachers’

Expertise
The within-case and cross-case comparisons of the experienced and inexperienced teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional curriculum design, in this study, provide the
macro and micro landscape of expertise of the teachers from the two groups. As depicted in
the macro landscape of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional
curriculum design, in most cases, the experienced teachers’ strong commitment to the
National Examination (NE) led their conceptualizations of PCK in favour of the NE. On the
other hand, the majority of the inexperienced teachers demonstrated the sense of being
detached from the NE, so as to enable them to transform the content categories of skills and
texts into more non-NE-based instruction.
Viewing the patterns of conceptualization of PCK from both groups of teachers,

within the teacher knowledge base for teaching (Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987; Shulman,
1987), the micro construction of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK, as represented in
the five processes of instructional curriculum design, reflected the extent of the teachers’
pedagogical reasoning of PCK (Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987; Shulman, 1987), which
Tsui (2003) identifies as teacher expertise, in activating and connecting a complex array from
their knowledge base for teaching. The pedagogical reasoning of PCK demonstrated by the
experienced teachers, in this study, portrays how the amalgamation of content knowledge
(CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), knowledge of learners, and context, is driven by the NE.
As a result, the experienced teachers’ CK is translated into the NE-based indicators and
learning activities, and their PK is manifested into teaching strategies to assist their students
to well perform in the NE.
To sum up, the micro construction of the experienced teachers’ conceptualizations of

PCK in the five processes of instructional curriculum design shows the teachers’
conceptualizations as related to: (1) perceiving the students’ learning needs based on the
students’ need to succeed in the NE; (2) translating the competence achievement indicators
mostly into NE-driven learning activities; (3) relying on an array of pedagogical concerns in
selecting texts, applying particular techniques for adapting instructional materials and
strategies for writing materials, and performing a certain extent of authenticity; (4)
conceptualizing content categories into three content focuses, comprising focus on language,
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learning and learners, and social context; 5) blending the content of skills and texts mostly
into a single skill focus; and (6) preparing classroom-based assessment activities with the
national examination orientation.
In the case of the inexperienced teachers, their micro construction of conceptualization

of PCK in their instructional curriculum design shows that their pedagogical reasoning of
PCK exhibited, to a certain degree, an integrated knowledge base for teaching. Within the
constraint offered by the educational context (the NE), the blend of CK and PK that the
inexperienced teachers exhibited reflects the inexperienced teachers’ extent of expertise in
transforming the content of skills and texts, as stated in the 2006 SBC, into learnable and
coherent instruction to enhance their student learning.
In terms of the micro construction of conceptualization of PCK within the five

processes of instructional curriculum design, the inexperienced teachers were found to be
capable of: (1) providing immediate perceptions of their students’ perceived needs by
engaging themselves in their reflections-on-action; (2) transforming the competence
achievement indicators into more varied learning activities, in which more non-NE learning
activities were prepared to provide the students with a richer rigour of learning experience; (3)
mapping the content categories of skills and texts, and blending the content within particular
forms of integration of skills; (4) relating the prepared learning activities to their compatibility
with the characteristics of the organizing stages adopted, which led the learning activities to
entail a richer strand of pedagogical concerns or considerations; (5) performing techniques of
instructional material adaptation, and attending to a certain degree of authenticity in their
adapted texts and accuracy in their instructional material writing; and (6) designing
classroom-based assessment activities that conveyed a certain degree of formative orientation.
Given major research findings on the insufficient development of inexperienced

teachers’ PCK due to their lower teaching schemata and experience (e.g. Atay et al., 2010;
Komur, 2010; Richards et al., 1995; Van Driel & Berry, 2010), the micro construction of the
inexperienced teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in the five processes of instructional
curriculum design, in the present study, shows that it was possible for the inexperienced
teachers to demonstrate particular patterns of PCK development exhibited by experienced
teachers (e.g. Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014; Johnston & Goettsch, 2000; Richards et al.,
1995; Sanchez & Borg, 2014). This finding, therefore, supports teacher cognition research
confirming that inexperienced teachers, in the early stages of their career, may show similar
expertise to that demonstrated by experienced ones (e.g. Gatbonton, 2008; Mullock, 2006).
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KNOWLEDGE (PCK) IN INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM PRACTICE
6.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings drawn from the within-case comparison, and discusses the
within- and cross-case comparisons of conceptualization of PCK of the experienced and
inexperienced teachers in their instructional curriculum practice. The key inquiry of
conceptualization of PCK in instructional curriculum practice was to examine the teachers’
knowledge about text (KAT) and knowledge about reading instruction (KARI) (Irvine-
Niakaris & Kiely, 2014) inherent in their teaching of reading and particular text types.
Reading instruction was selected since both the experienced and inexperienced teachers were
teaching this skill. The analysis of the teachers’ KAT and KARI was based on multiple data
sources, encompassing the transcripts of the videos of the teachers’ teaching, the classroom
observation notes, and the stimulated-recall interviews.
6.1 Conceptualization of Knowledge about Text (KAT) and Knowledge about Reading
Instruction (KARI)
The following subsections present the teachers’ knowledge about text (KAT) and knowledge
about reading instruction (KARI) as conceptualization of PCK for L2 reading instruction,
proposed by Irvine-Niakaris and Kiely (2014). Following this framework of PCK
conceptualization for L2 reading instruction, KAT manifests content knowledge (CK) dealing
with knowledge of genre, while KARI constitutes two aspects of pedagogical knowledge
(PK): (1) organization of reading instruction, and (2) explicit instruction and demonstration of
reading strategies. These aspects, of KAT and KARI, therefore, form the key exploration of
the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional practices, in this study.
6.1.1 Knowledge about Text (KAT)
Referring to the blend of the skills-based and text-based teaching that characterized the 2006
School-based Curriculum underlying the teachers’ instructional curriculum practice in this
study, knowledge about text (KAT) refers to the teachers’ explicit knowledge of how the
features of texts were explored in their reading instruction. Hence, the findings of the
teachers’ KAT foreground the teachers’ ways in accommodating these text features (Feez &
Joyce, 1998), which comprise: (1) the context of culture (the social purpose of the text or
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genre), (2) the context of situation (register); which shapes such properties as (3) the language
features, and (4) the text structure.
The three experienced teachers demonstrated evidence of presenting the features of text
through their teaching and learning activities enacted in their organizing principle. The
identification of the explored text features is as listed in Table 6.1.
Meri’s presentation and explanation of the text features in the stages of Modeling of
the Text and Joint Construction of the Text represented her understanding of the repertoire of
the target text features. This was exemplified by her decision to ask the students to sense the
ideational meanings (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Christie, 1999) of the given notice and caution, by
prompting her students to translate the target notice or caution in Bahasa Indonesia:
22 T: This is the example of notice. What does it mean? Ya (Yeah) … articles are considered
sold if you broke them. What does it mean?
23 T: Ya barang harus dibeli kalau kamu merusaknya (Yes, broken items must be bought).
OK, for example … this one is the example of notice ya. And then the other one. (Meri,
Teaching Script, Meeting 1)
98 T: Please close the gates or the deer will eat the garden. Close the gates … kon ngopo?
(What do you have to do?)
99 Ss: Nutup pagar (Close the gates).
100 T: Iya nutup pagar atau? (Yes, close the gates) Kalau tidak ditutup bisa? (If not?)
101 Ss: Dimakan rusa (The deer will eat the garden.). (Meri, Teaching Script, Meeting 1)
Other example was shown when Meri presented all the features of report, which
included the definition, the social purpose, the text structure, and the difference between
report and descriptive in the Modeling of the Text stage for her second observed teaching
session:
42 T: Sekarang yang akan saya perlihatkan adalah beberapa hal tentang teks report. Yang
pertama … teks report itu apa?
43 Ss: (The students tried to respond to the question.)
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44 T: Yaa … kind of text with the purpose to give information about general characteristics.
Tentang apa?
45 Ss: Informasi secara umum.
46 T: Ya informasi secara umum. OK, kamu bisa lihat disini … memberikan informasi ciri-
ciri secara umum ... berbeda dengan teks deskriptif. Tadi perbedaannya sudah ya. Sudah bisa
membedakan. Sekarang social function nya. Ya ini social function nya … bisa memberikan
informasi, kemudian menyediakan informasi, kemudian mendokumentasi, mendeskripsikan
apa saja ya. Kemudian untuk generic structure nya? … generic structure nya? Bedanya
dengan deskriptif bagaimana?
47 Ss: No response.
48 T: Kalau deskriptif yang pertama apa? Identification. Kalau report? General

classification. Jadi secara umum. Ya general classification kemudian baru description. Nah
sekarang kita contohkan yang tadi adalah … apa tadi?
49 Ss: Pause.
50 T: Ya, whales. Ya itu contohnya ya … whales. … . (Meri, Teaching Script, Meeting 3)
(The Translation Version)
42 T: Now, I will show you some features of report. First … what is report?
43 Ss: (The students tried to respond to the question.)
44 T: Yes … kind of text with the purpose to give information about general characteristics.
About what?
45 Ss: General information.
46 T: Yes, general information. OK, you can see here … it’s to provide general information or
characteristics … it’s different from descriptive. I have explained to you the difference
between report and descriptive. You must have been able to differentiate them. Now, the
social function. Yes, the social function is … to provide information, then document and
describe things. Then, what about the text structure? … the text structure? What is the
difference of the text structure of report and that of descriptive?
47 Ss: No response.
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48 T: What is the first part in the text structure of descriptive? Identification. What about
report? General classification. So, it’s about general information first and then followed by
description. What is the example of report we have just discussed?
49 Ss: Whales.
50 T: Yes, whales. Yes, that’s the example … whales …
(Meri, Teaching Script, Meeting 3)
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Table 6.1: The experienced and inexperienced teachers’ exploration of text features
Meeting Text Feature Teaching Stage

The Experienced Teachers
Meri
Meeting 1 - (Ideational) meaning of text (notice and caution) Modeling of the Text
- The language feature of notice and caution (the use of imperative sentences for notice and the use of
‘No’ and ‘Don’t followed by V1 or be for caution) and verbs that go with notice (e.g. allow, suggest,
permit) and with caution (e.g. prohibit, ban, forbid)
- The language feature of notice and caution: (1) vocabulary and verbs used in notice and caution), (2) Joint Construction of the Text
sentence pattern/ imperative sentences used in notice or caution
Meeting 2 - The characteristic (definition) of report, its social purpose, and its text structure Modeling of the Text
- The language feature of the text (vocabulary related to the report text titled ‘Elephants’) Independent Construction of the
Text
- The text structure of the report text titled ‘Elephants’ Joint Construction of the Text
Sisilia
Meeting 1 - The definition of recount, the text structure, and the language feature (past tense, circumstances of Pre-Exploration, Elaboration,
time, circumstances of place) Confirmation
- The language feature of recount (vocabulary related to the theme ‘holiday’ and past tense: sentence Elaboration
construction)
Meeting 2 The language feature (vocabulary related to the theme ‘football’) Exploration
The language feature (past tense: sentence construction) Elaboration
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Susan
Meeting 4 The language features of advertisement (vocabulary, typical restaurant advertisement expressions, the Main Activities
text structure)
The Inexperienced Teachers

Etta
Meeting 1 The language feature of recount (past tense: regular and irregular verbs, to be) Exploration
Meeting 3
Tria
Meeting 4 The text structure (parts of birthday invitation) Modeling of the Text
The language feature (vocabulary/ word synonyms related to the given birthday invitation) Joint Construction of the Text
The text structure (parts of birthday invitation)
The social purpose of the text Independent Construction of the
The text structure (parts of birthday invitation) Text
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Similarly, Sisilia’s KAT was also evident in her presentation of the features of
recount, as identified in Table 6.1, in the pre-EEC stage. It was in this stage that Sisilia
explained what was meant by recount, the text structure, and the language features
encompassing the use of simple past tense, circumstances of time, and circumstances of place.
She used the technique of explanation so that the students might better understand the text
features, as confirmed in her SRI excerpt below:
R: Why did you choose the technique of explanation to explore the text features?
T: Hanya memajangkan itu supaya dengan demikian mereka bisa lebih paham lah. (It’s only
for making the students better understand.) (Sisilia, SRI, Meeting 1, C1)
Finally, Susan demonstrated her KAT when she engaged her students to specify
relevant information specific to a restaurant advertisement text. Her instruction to the
students, to specify the important attributes of restaurant that were worth advertising, reflected
her knowledge of the text structure of restaurant advertisements:
86 T: OK, oh ya (yeah) the owner of the restaurant asked me to sell this restaurant. Please help
me what I should think about to make good advertisement. Apa yang harus aku pikirkan?
(What should I think about?) Ya apa yang aku harus pertimbangkan untuk menjual restaurant
ini? (Yeah, what should I consider to sell this restaurant?) Aspeknya apa saja? (What are the
aspects?) What are the aspects of the restaurant? Coba kamu menanyakan itu kepada saya.
(Could you think of some questions for the considerations?) Ask me. Kamu tadi kan sudah
melihat … eeh apa iklan tadi ya. (You have watched … the advertisement.) Dari situ kalau
kamu harus menjual ini apa yang harus aku pikirkan. (From that advertisement, you can tell
me what I should consider if you were me).
87 Ss: Place.
88 T: Place … good very good. Can you make a good question about place? The answer about
place. The question is where is the restaurant? OK, where is the restaurant? OK, good this is
what I am thinking about. Any marker? OK, place or the location. Ya (Yeah) should I sell this
restaurant maybe in downtown or maybe in countryside or on top of hill or on the beach. What
is the atmosphere I want to sell? The environment so that I can invite more customers. OK,
what are the other things? Apa lagi? (What else?) Give me questions, dalam bentuk
pertanyaan (in the forms of questions). Put up your hand. (Susan, Teaching Script, Meeting 4)
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In the case of the inexperienced teachers, KAT was reflected in the presentation of the text
features of recount and birthday invitation by Etta and Tria in their reading instruction. The
text features explored in their teaching stages are as identified in Table 6.1 above.
Etta’s exploration of the recount text features highlighted the use of simple past tense
in the model text titled ‘A Beautiful Day at Jogja’. She prompted the students to identify the
verbs and adverb of time that mark the use of simple past tense in the given text, as shown in
the following excerpt:
32 T: … OK … eee ini sekilas text, sebuah teks, ini saya ambil dua paragraph saja. Kalau
seandainya kalian tau … tadi gimana kalau recount teks tadi itu … eee pengalaman, sudah
pernah di lakukan, menggunakan kata kerja lampau. Kalau sudah tau seperti itu berarti kan
tau kalimat lampau itu yang seperti apa ya? Kata kerjanya menggunakan kata kerja ke?
33 Ss: Kemarin.
34 T: Iya, kemarin atau kata kerja ke dua. OK, sekarang tolong ee garis bawahi kata-kata
yang menggunakan kata kerja ke dua. Saya pengen ada yang maju … emm … Ridwan …
where is Ridwan? … (Etta, Teaching Script, Meeting 1)
(The Translated Version)
32 T: … OK … emm let me show you this text, I am going to take two paragraphs of it. If you
still remember the features of recount … emm telling past experience, using past participles. If
you have learnt these features, you must have known the use of simple past tense, right? This
tense uses which verbs?
33 Ss: Past time.
34 T: Yes, past participles or V2. OK, now please underline the past participles in the
sentences in this text. I want you to come forward … emm … Ridwan … where is Ridwan?
… . (Etta, Teaching Script, Meeting 1)
In a similar vein, Tria’s KAT was consistently evident in guiding her students to
identify the parts of a birthday invitation, vocabulary, and specific information related to the
given birthday invitations, in the reading activities she managed throughout the text-based
teaching and learning cycle. Her effort in engaging her students to identify the parts of a
birthday invitation is illustrated below:
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54 T: OK, clear. OK, please see this a sample of birthday invitation. Do you know to present?
Ini kira-kira buat siapa ya undangannya? (Who is the invitation for?)
55 Ss: Ian.
56 T: Ian, OK, good. Who has the birthday? Yang berulang tahun siapa? Yang berulang tahun
siapa? (Who celebrates birthday?)
57 Ss: Tyler Anderson.
58 T: Shavira, who is the birthday boy or girl? Who is the name of the boy or the girl? Siapa
namanya yang berulang tahun? (What’s the name of the birthday child?)
59 Shavira: Tyler Anderson, Andre
60 T: Is it Ian or Andre? Tyler? OK, siapa ni namanya yang berulang tahun? (What’s the
name of the birthday child?)
61 Ss: Tyler Anderson.
62 T: OK, Tyler Anderson. Next any other information about? Tentang apa lagi? (What other
information is stated in the invitation?) Tadi sudah ya yang diundang Ian (The invited one is
Ian.). Kemudian yang berulang tahun adalah Tyler Anderson (Then, the birthday boy is Tyler
Anderson.). Ada keterangan apa lagi disitu yang bisa kita lihat? (What other information can
we find?)
63 Ss: Tanggal (Date).
64 T: Tanggal, waktu berarti (Date or time). There are the date. The date of birthday. Good.
Next any other information? Any other? Arjuna, another information? Any other? About?
Tentang apa ini lagi? (What other information can you find?) Tadi waktunya sudah, date and
time sudah (You have got date and time.). Diadakan dimana disebutkan gak disitu? (Where is
the venue?) Ada yang bisa menemukan ada dimana disitu diadakan? (Can anybody tell me
where the venue is?)
65 Student: 9612 Tackaberry Road, Lafayette.
66 T: Iya disitu ya, itu alamat rumahnya (Yes, that’s the home address.). Kalau kita dibalik ya
Jalan Parangtritis kilometer sekian (In our way, we state the street name first, for example
Parangtritis street, and then followed by the home number). Kalau disana nomornya dulu nine
six twelve Tackaberry Road, Lafayette (In the western system, the home number is stated first
and then the street name). OK, kalau yang bawah itu apa ya kira-kira? (OK, what about the
information following the venue?) Name of … name of …?
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67 Ss: Name of bapaknya (Name of his father).
68 T: Ya name of bapaknya (Yes, the name of his father). Name of Tyler’s father and name of
Tyler’s mother. OK, his parents. Kira-kira ini a boy or a girl? Dari namanya? (Can you guess
whether the birthday child is a boy or a girl? From the name?) OK, there are two choices.
Fandi, is it a boy or a girl?
69 Fandi: A boy
70 T: OK, a boy. Kira-kira anak laki-laki ya (A boy). OK, so we have the parts of birthday
invitation. Kita punya bagian-bagian penting dari suatu birthday invitation (Now, we have
learnt the parts of birthday invitation) … (Tria, Teaching Script, Meeting 4)
As elaborated in Section 6.1.2, in the Modeling of the Text stage Tria prompted and
stimulated the students to come up with the parts of a birthday invitation by writing the model
birthday invitation on the white board. Tria reasoned that she used this technique to stimulate
and activate the students’ learning schemata, since she believed that basically there were
similarities between the text structure of a birthday invitation and such other short functional
text as announcements that the students had previously learnt. Thus, in so doing, the students
were able to guess the parts of birthday invitation. The following SRI excerpt depicts Tria’s
pedagogical reasoning for adopting her technique of engaging the students by directly
exposing them to the model of a birthday invitation written on the whiteboard:
By writing such an example of invitation on the board, I want the whole class to see a
complete sample of invitation and then I want them to mention the parts that are found in an
invitation. This activity was intended to activate their previous knowledge since invitation is
almost quite similar with another previously learned functional text, such as announcement.
So, instead of guessing, I want them to activate their previous knowledge on announcement to
do this activity. (Tria, SRI, Meeting 3, C3)
6.1.2 KARI: Organization of Reading Instruction
The presentation of findings of the teachers’ KARI in terms of their organization of reading
instruction focuses on the ways the teachers organize their teaching and learning activities
based on the stages of the organizing principle they adopted. The implementation of particular
teaching and learning activities in each stage is identified and elaborated.
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The three experienced teachers employed different organizing principles for organizing their
reading instruction. Meri applied the text-based teaching and learning cycle, Sisilia adopted
the prescribed organizing principle of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC), and
Susan implemented the stages of Opening, Main, and Closing Activities (also see Appendix
X, A, Table 10.1).
Despite the three different organizing principles adopted by the experienced teachers,
all three teachers’ organization of reading instruction consisted of three phases. These three
phases were: (1) the phase of preparing the students to learn the target texts, (2) the phase of
exploring the target texts, and (3) the phase of developing students’ comprehension skills. In
the case of Meri, the phase of preparing the students to learn the target notice, caution, and
report texts was carried out within the stage of Building Knowledge of the Field. In the stage
of Building Knowledge of the Field, Meri’s learning activities were typically anchored in
eliciting the students’ prior knowledge of the texts they were going to learn. The teacher
managed to deliver several questions to prompt what the students had previously learnt in
regard to the target texts. Sisilia used the pre-EEC stage, in which the teacher managed to
elicit and to build on the students’ knowledge about the topics to be integrated in the target
recount texts. This was done through questions stimulated by pictures. In the case of Susan,
she prepared her students to learn advertisements by presenting a video on a restaurant
advertisement and providing some stimulating questions for the students to answer after
watching and listening to the video. The discussion activity that was prompted by the video of
the restaurant advertisement and the related questions was done in the stage of Opening
Activities. The preparation phase by the experienced teachers is illustrated from one of the
observation notes, below:
Stage: Pre-Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (Sisilia, Observation Note, Meeting 2)
1. Prior to the exploration stage, Sisilia conducted a question and answer activity to lead the
students’ prior knowledge on the topic of football.
2. Then, she proceeded to build the students’ knowledge of the field by showing the pictures
of English Premier League, UK flag, and Manchester United team, and probing the
students to mention any word associated to these pictures.
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For the second phase of exploring the target texts, Meri conducted a series of teaching
activities in the stage of Modeling of the Text. The teaching activities aimed to explore the
target texts in terms of providing the model texts, explaining the language features of the
texts, and presenting the social function and the generic structure of each text. In prompting
the students to explore the text, Meri also made use of the students’ lingua franca, Bahasa
Indonesia, to particularly examine the meaning of the exemplified texts and to identify the
characteristic of the texts, for example, to show the difference between report and descriptive
texts. Sisilia practiced the phase of Exploration through providing the definition of recount,
the generic structure of the text, and the language features, as well as preparing the students to
become familiar with relevant information related to the topic of ‘football’, including football
jargon, and names of international football players and clubs.
In the case of Susan, the second and third phases were blended in the stage of Main
Activities. For the learning activities to explore the target texts, Susan provided a restaurant
advertisement titled ‘Jejamuran’, and engaged the students to generate specific information or
aspects of a restaurant advertisement from the given advertisement. She prompted the
students with some questions leading to relevant details. She further asked the students to
identify the features of advertisement as previously discussed, and required them to write their
answers on the provided worksheet. Following this activity, Susan discussed the related
vocabulary and the identified information. The learning activities for the text exploration were
then continued for the text comprehension and the development of the micro reading skill of
identifying specific information. For this purpose, Susan provided another example of a
restaurant advertisement, titled ‘House of Raminten’, and assigned the students to once again
identify the features of a restaurant advertisement. The following observation note illustrates
one teacher’s organization of the reading instruction in the phase of exploring the target texts:
Stage: Modeling of the Text (Meri, Observation Note, Meeting 1)
1) Meri provided some model notice and caution texts.
2) She then prompted the students to examine the meaning of the given notice and helped
them understand the text by translating it into Indonesian language (Bahasa Indonesia).
3) Afterwards, Meri showed the example of caution followed by some more examples of
notice and caution.
4) Finally, she explained the sentence structure of notice and caution while eliciting the
students’ responses. The explanation of the language features covered the use of
imperative sentences for notice and the use of ‘No’ and ‘Don’t’ for caution, and typical
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verbs that go with notice (e.g. allow, suggest, and permit) and with caution (e.g. prohibit,
ban, and forbid).
The phase of developing skills and comprehending the target texts was realized in the
stages of Joint Construction of the Text, and Independent Construction of the Text, by Meri,
and in the stage of Elaboration by Sisilia. Through the Joint Construction of the Text stage,
Meri conducted two or three activities that were done in pairs or in groups. As shown in
Meri’s content conceptualization in her instructional curriculum design (see Appendix X, A,
Table 10.1), some learning activities for the reading skills development, as well as for the
further exploration of the text features of caution and notice, and report texts, were assigned
to the students. The text exploration inherent in those learning activities focused on the
practice of language features of the text encompassing vocabulary, verbs, and (imperative)
sentence construction, and the text structure of the report text titled ‘Elephants’ (also see
Table 6.1).
The skills development emphasized the development of the micro reading skill of
identifying implied information. The final stage of Independent Construction of the Text was
missed in the first observed teaching session because of the time limitation, and was
conducted before the Joint Construction of the Text stage in the third teaching session. When
asked why the Independent Construction of the Text came first before the Joint Construction
of the Text, in the stimulated-recall interview (SRI) for her third observed teaching session,
Meri believed that it was acceptable to sequence in that way since she intended to assign an
individual activity first, which was the activity of underlining the correct words related to the
report text titled ‘Elephants’ pronounced by the teacher, and then followed by a group work in
the form of a game. She reasoned that the game done in groups was usually conducted in the
last stage. That was why she decided to change the order, in which the Joint Construction of
the Text stage came later than the Independent Construction of the Text stage. Meri’s
clarification is depicted in her SRI excerpt as follows:
JCOT, kalau misalnya dibalik gak papa ya, ICOT dulu. Itu misalnya saya mau game, kalau
game itu kalau buat ICOT kan susah. Hoo emang gitu, yang disampaikan ada kegiatan
bersama, ada individu. Lha terus kan kita kan terpancang pada individu. Nek individu kalau
misalnya game dikasihkan game dulu gak enak juga kan? Iya kan? Iya, misalnya game itu kan
biasanya terakhir aja, walaupun ini untuk tujuan kan tujuan disini ada. Tapi misalnya dikasih
dulu kan gak ini … iya hoo. (Meri, SRI, Meeting 1, A1)
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It’s fine to reverse the sequence in which ICOT comes first and it is then followed by JCOT.
That’s feasible when, for example, I intend to assign a game done in groups and an individual
activity. If I assign the game in the stage of JCOT earlier, it will be awkward since a game is
usually conducted in the last stage. That’s why I assigned this game in the stage of JCOT at
the end and managed the individual activity as the ICOT stage beforehand. (Meri, SRI,
Meeting 1, A1)
By the end of the first observed teaching session, Meri reminded the students about
typical questions following notice and caution as tested in the National Examination, such as
‘What does the notice mean?’ or ‘What is the text about?’, and ‘Where can you find such
notice?’.
In the case of Sisilia, the phase of developing students’ comprehension skills was done
in the Elaboration stage for her first and second observed teaching sessions. Two layers of
activities were constructed in this stage. The first layer was carried out for the learning
activities to practice the language features of recount, before the students were given the
target texts to comprehend. Such activities included arranging words into correct sentences
and completing missing words of a text (also see Appendix X, A, Table 10.1), and preceded
the learning activities for the text comprehension. However, Sisilia was, at first, uncertain
whether this phase was implemented in the Exploration or the Elaboration stage, as shown in
the following SRI excerpt:
R: ... What is your reason for assigning this activity before the students were given the model
text?
T: Because I hope they will understand about some sentences. After they know the sentences,
they will understand about the text. Jadi ketika mereka tau paham kalau kalimat ini past tense
... ooh berarti untuk teks-teks recount paling tidak seperti itu (So, when they have understood
the use of simple past tense in sentences ... oh it will give them insight about the use of simple
past tense in recount texts.).
R: Jadi tujuan Ibu untuk memberi gambaran pada siswa bahwa kalimat-kalimat yang akan
mereka jumpai dalam teks model itu seperti ini gitu ya. (So, your purpose was to provide your
students with the samples of sentences in simple past tense that they would find in the model
texts?)
T: Iya (Yes).
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R: Jadi ini bisa dikatakan masih Exploration belum Elaboration ya, Bu, menurut Ibu? (So, do
you think this was still done in the Exploration stage and was not yet conducted in the
Elaboration one?)
T: Sepertinya … (I think so ...) (Laughing).(Sisilia, SRI, Meeting 2, A3)
The reading comprehension activities were then conducted in the second layer of the
stage to develop particular micro reading skills appearing in the National Examination (NE)
(as presented in Chapter 4 and in Appendix X, A, Table 10.1). Sisilia reasoned that, by having
this kind of activity, her students would firstly learn the grammatical features used in the texts
before they dealt with the texts and the following comprehension questions.
The Confirmation stage, the last stage of the EEC organizing principle, was carried
out along with the Elaboration stage. In this stage, Sisilia confirmed the students’ answers and
responses on the learning activities done in the Elaboration stage. The realization of the phase
of developing skills and comprehending the target texts was as exemplified by the following
observation note:
Stage: Elaboration (Sisilia, Observation Note, Meeting 1)
1) In this stage, Sisilia assigned the students to arrange jumbled words into correct sentences
in simple past tense to practice the language feature of recount (Activity 1). She divided
the students into groups of four.
2) Each group was assigned to write the allocated items on the whiteboard.
3) She appointed certain students to write their sentences on the board and discussed the
constructed sentences.
4) The second activity was assigned. Sisilia introduced some vocabulary related to a text
titled ‘Detective Alibi’ by engaging the students to name the pictures shown to them.
Then, the teacher assigned the students to complete the missing words of the given text
individually.
5) Afterwards, Sisilia assigned the activity of answering five pre-reading questions on the
provided text about ‘Study Tour in Bali’. She engaged the students to answer five pre-
reading questions about spending holidays on the beach.
6) Finally, the activity of answering ten reading comprehension questions was conducted.
Before the students were required to do this reading comprehension activity individually,
they were asked to read the text aloud and to do a matching practice. The students had to
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match the synonyms of the related words. Sisilia discussed and probed the students to
guess the synonyms used in sentences. She spontaneously created a sentence for each
word to ease the students’ performance in guessing the word synonyms.
In the case of the inexperienced teachers, Etta and Tria practiced reading instruction, while
Nuri planned and conducted the integration of the listening and speaking skills (also see
Appendix X-B, Table 10.2). As shown in appendix X, B, Table 10.2, Etta employed the
prescribed organizing principle of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC), and
Tria adopted the text-based teaching and learning cycle.
The implementation of the inexperienced teachers’ organization of reading instruction

was also constructed in three phases, as emerged in the case of the experienced teachers: (1)
the phase of preparing the students to learn the target texts; (2) the phase of exploring the
target texts; and (3) the phase of developing students’ comprehension skills. In Etta’s reading
instruction, preparing the students to learn the target texts was done in the stage of
Exploration. Such activities as asking what the students did on the previous day or on their
last weekend, and eliciting what was meant by recount, characterized Etta’s stage of
Exploration. In the case of Tria, the students were prepared to learn the target text of birthday
invitation in the stage of Building Knowledge of the Field, in which she distributed some
samples of birthday invitations and asked the students to observe the given samples. In the
next step, Tria elicited some general information related to birthday invitations. The following
observation note exemplifies the teachers’ organization for preparing the students to learn the
target text:
Stage: Building Knowledge of the Field (Tria, Observation Note, Meeting 3)
1) Tria started to build the students’ knowledge of birthday invitations by asking a question,
‘Any one of you celebrates your birthday today?’.
2) She then followed her question by distributing an example of birthday invitation to the
students to observe.
3) She further asked several students at random to guess the kind of text they had observed.
4) After some appointed students answered the question, Tria elicited general information
related to invitations.
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The second and third phases were managed in the stage of Elaboration in Etta’s
reading instruction. The phase of exploring the target texts was realized through the teaching
activities to develop the students’ awareness of the language features of the target texts, such
as asking the students to underline the past tense verbs in the recount text on the whiteboard,
and explaining simple past tense as the grammatical feature of recount. Etta further linked the
text exploration phase to the phase of developing comprehension skills. By using the same
text previously explored, Etta asked the students to answer several typical reading
comprehension questions tested in the National Examination (NE), and explained the strategy
or the formula to answer such NE-based questions. The following observation note illustrates
the way Etta shifted the text exploration activities to the NE-based explanation:
Stage: Elaboration (Etta, Observation Note, Meeting 1)
1) The stage of Elaboration started when Etta asked the secretary of the class to write two
paragraphs of the text entitled ‘Barbecue in the Park’ on the whiteboard.
2) She then asked some students to come forward to underline the past tense verbs.
3) After that, she explained simple past tense (main verbs and verb to be) used in recount.
4) Etta further related the text being explored to particular questions that went with recount
in the National Examination, such as ‘What does the text tell you about?’ and ‘What is the
purpose of the text?’. She explained how to find the answer of the question that asked
about the general information of the text. She suggested the students to use the formula L1
or L2, which meant that the answer to the question was usually found in the first or second
line of the paragraph.
For exploring the target text of birthday invitation in the stage of Modeling of the
Text, Tria wrote a birthday invitation on the whiteboard and engaged the students with her
prompting questions for the students to name the parts of birthday invitation, such as the
name of the invitee, the event/occasion, date and time, place/venue, the name of the inviter,
and additional information (e.g. RSVP). In the next stages of Joint Construction of the Text
and Independent Construction of the Text, a variety of reading comprehension practices done
in pairs and individually were assigned to develop particular micro reading skills and text
comprehension. The variety of the reading comprehension activities are outlined in Appendix
X, B, Table 10.2.
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6.1.3 KARI: Knowledge about Reading Instruction
The teachers’ conceptualizations of KARI in terms of their knowledge about reading

instruction highlight the teachers’ moves in their teaching strategies in developing the target
micro reading skills, as elaborated below.
The three experienced teachers’ knowledge about reading instruction was primarily
manifested in developing the students’ comprehension of the texts. Their teaching strategies
were primarily directed to help the students understand the content of the texts, for example,
by translating the meaning of some parts of the texts being discussed and by confirming the
students’ responses. In some moments, the teachers demonstrated reading instructional
strategies to develop the students’ awareness of reading skills, for example, by giving word
clues when identifying implied information, guiding the students to figure out the answer to
the given reading comprehension questions from particular paragraphs, probing them to
predict the answer by analyzing the sentences surrounding it, and dialogically engaging them
with probing questions when identifying specific information.
Meri eagerly focused on helping her students to understand the content of the texts
they were discussing in her first and third observed teaching sessions. To do so, she
occasionally translated the content of caution and notice in Indonesian language or Bahasa
Indonesia:
148 T: The notice is this one … “Parking by permit only”. Jawabannya (the answer is) at a
parking lot … kira-kira betul ndak (do you think the answer is correct?)
149 Ss: Betul (Correct).
150 T: Jadi kalau mau parkir harus dengan ijin (So, to park you must get a parking permit).
OK good … (Meri, Teaching Script, Meeting 1)
In addition, Meri also exhibited efforts to raise the students’ awareness of reading
strategies, as indicated by the target micro reading skills she planned, by providing word clues
to predict implied information when discussing caution and notice, and by guiding her
students to predict to which subject a word reference was associated from particular
surrounding sentences, when exploring reports. The following excerpt illustrates the strategy
of providing word clues:
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152 T: OK, Didi and Ari. (Reading the caution) Due to many corals, visitors are prohibited to
swim in this area. Kata-kata apa tadi? (What are the clues?) Swim berarti dimana? (referring
to which place?)
153 Ss: Pantai (Beach).
154 T: At the beach … OK good … (Meri, Teaching Script, Meeting 1)
164 T: OK, Mita and Bayu. (Reading the notice) Please scan your room key card to activate
your room key card. Kira-kira dimana? (Where do you think this notice can be found?) Key
card … key card. Dimana, dimana? (Where is it?)
165 Ss: Hotel.
166 T: It is in the hotel … yes. (Meri, Teaching Script, Meeting 1)
As shown in these extracts, Meri made efforts to emphasize the word clues of ‘swim’
and ‘key card’ to stimulate the students’ prediction about feasible places where they could
find such cautions and notices. The latter strategy of guiding the students to predict to which
subject a word reference referred is shown in the following extract:
157 T: Tadi yang disini (The answer right here) female elephants … yang disini (the answer
right there) baby elephants (while collecting the papers). Kenapa kok (Why is it) baby
elephants? Karena jawabannya ada pada paragraph berapa? (Because the answer is in which
paragraph?)
158 Ss: Satu (One).
159 T: Coba coba (Let’s analyze it) when a baby elephant is born … (translated in Bahasa
Indonesia into) ketika bayi gajah lahir … other females … (translated in Bahasa Indonesia
into) para betina-betina yang lain … help raise it … (translated into Bahasa Indonesia into)
membantunya berdiri. Yang dibantu siapa? (Whom is being helped?)
160 Ss: Baby.
161 T: Baby elephant … jadi (so) ‘it’ nya siapa menggantikan siapa? (what does ‘it’ refer to?)
162 Ss: Baby.
163 T: Yaaa (Yes) baby elephant … bukan, bukan (not) female elephant, tapi (but) baby
elephant. (Meri, Teaching Script, Meeting 3)
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This extract depicts how Meri guided the students to come to the right answer, after
knowing that they came up with different answers to the given question. She checked the
students’ understanding of the paragraph so that they could find the answer, and led them to
analyze the sentences surrounding the reference ‘it’.
In the case of Sisilia, when discussing the ten reading comprehension questions for the
texts, ‘A Study Tour to Bali’ and ‘David Beckham’, in her first and second observed teaching
sessions, Sisilia operationalized her knowledge of reading instruction primarily through
confirming her students’ responses. Sisilia’s strategy is illustrated below:
145 T: OK, what is the main idea of paragraph 1?
146 Ss: The writer went to Bali for the first time.
147 T: Ya … the writer went to Bali for the first time. Next, I was so exhausted because I had
to sit along the journey. The word ‘exhausted’ means? Apa tadi? (What is it?)
148 Ss: Tired.
149 T: Tired, very good. There were so many activities to do there. ‘There’ refers to?
150 Ss: Bali.
151 T: Bali, good. What did they do along the journey?
152 Ss: Playing games.
153 T: Playing games, laughing, kidding, OK, good. What does the text tell us about? Tentang
apa? (What is it about?)
154 Ss: (Unclear response)
155 T: Very good. I was in senior high school when I went to Bali island for the first time. I
went there with my teachers and my friends. Mereka bersama-sama guru dan teman-teman
(They were together with their teachers and friends). Sedang apa mereka? (What were they
doing?)
156 Ss: Study tour.
157 T: Study tour, very good. OK, now, what did the writer do in Kuta beach?
158 Ss: Parasailing, banana boat.
159 T: Very good. What was Garuda Wisnu Kencana?

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160 Ss: Statue.
161 T: Ya (Yes) statue, very very big. (Sisilia, Teaching Script, Meeting 1)
Thus, as shown in the above extract, Sisilia’s turns mainly reassured the students’
answers to the questions that she had read.
Susan prompted and led her students to check the features of information, relevant to a
restaurant advertisement, that they identified from the corresponding text in her fourth
teaching session. The teacher activated “a dialogic approach” (Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014,
p. 15) to make the students reveal their identification of the features of information related to
the given restaurant advertisement, titled ‘Jejamuran’, as depicted in the following extract:
143 T: (After a while) Ya (Yeah) I see that some of your friends have completed the chart.
OK, ya (yes) this is advertisement answer … the criteria here … yook kita discuss ya (let’s
discuss this). Diskusi kita singkat ini (We discuss this briefly.). Place and location. Do you
think this is a nice place?
144 Ss: Yes.
145 T: Siapa pernah kesana? (Who has ever been there?) Cocok ga kira-kira untuk ini? (Is the
location suitable?)
146 Ss: Ya, cocok (Yes, it’s a suitable location.).
147 T: Cocok kenapa cocok? (Why is it suitable?) Is it relaxing too? Cukup relax ya karena
suasananya (It’s a quite relaxing place because of its situation). Next the food and the variety?
What is the food?
148 Ss: Mushroom.
149 T: Ya (Yes) all foods are made of mushroom. Something unique or not? Apakah makanan
ini akan menarik banyak pelanggan? (Is this food potentially attracting a lot of customers?)
Kenapa menurutmu (Why do you think so?) … why?
150 Ss: (Attempting to answer the question, unclear response)
151 T: Oh karena jamur itu … sudah pernah makan jamur? (Oh because of the mushroom …
have you ever tasted mushroom?)
152 Ss: Sudah (We did.).
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153 T: Do you like it? Siapa yang ga suka jamur? (Who doesn’t like mushroom?) Gimana
bisa membuat yang lain suka jamur? (How to make others like mushrooms?) Yang remaja …
youth ya nanti akan suka (yes, youth will eventually like mushroom.). Dikasih pilihan ga
disitu untuk youth? (Does the restaurant offer options of menu for youth?) Ada sate … ada
tongseng … ada juga yang crispy. Kalau crispy suka ga? (There are mushroom skewers,
mushroom spicy soup, mushroom crackers. Do they possibly like mushroom crackers?)
154 Ss: Yes, they do.
155 T: Suka ya … lumayan (They like it too … so so). OK and for adult or old people? Untuk
orang tua gimana? (What about for adult?) Apa? (What) Kira-kira mushroom soup …
problem ga dengan mushroom? (What about with mushroom soup? … Does mushroom soup
create a health problem for them?) OK, nah ini yang ditawarkan ini memberikan solusi ga?
(OK, do the options offer health solutions?) Misalnya untuk yang diet (For example, to those
who go on diet) … untuk yang punya penyakit ya (to those who have illness) … illnesses …
you have illness. Apa kata apa? (What is the clue?)
156 Ss: Without worrying about health problem.
157 T: OK without worrying about health problem. OK, and then atmosphere? What do you
like about that?
158 Ss: Nice.
159 T: Nice and apa yang membuat (what makes) nice?
160 S: Live music.
161 T: Ya ada live music (Yeah, there is live music). Musiknya cuman hari-hari tertentu
kayaknya dan musiknya bagus. (The live music is only provided on certain days and the music
is great.) Next, the price.
162 S: Proper.
163 T: Proper … maybe not too expensive ya … cheap maybe. Ya and then service or
facilities?
164 S: Spacious parking area.
165 T: Ya (Yes) spacious.
(Susan, Teaching Script, Meeting 4)
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In the case of inexperienced teachers, reading instruction was practiced by Etta in her first and
third observed teaching sessions, and by Tria in her third observed teaching session. Etta
reflected on three strategies regarding her knowledge about reading instruction: (1) guiding
the students to answer typical National Examination (NE) reading comprehension questions;
(2) facilitating the students’ understanding of the given reading comprehension questions by
translating parts of the questions in Bahasa Indonesia; and (3) confirming the students’
responses to the given questions. As shown in the following extract, in Turns 152, 156, and
160, Etta guided the students to apply the formulations she created for her students to answer
such typical NE reading comprehension questions as ‘What does the text tell you about?’,
which was part of the reading comprehension questions she provided for her students’ reading
practices in her first observed teaching session:
152 T: … Seandainya ini soalnya (Suppose the question is) “What does the text tell you
about?” Menurut kalian jawabannya apa? (What do you think the answer is?) Kita
menggunakan empat teknik. Pertama L1 tadi apa? (We use the four techniques. First, we use
L1. What does it mean by the technique of L1?)
153 Ss: Lihat kalimat pertama (Checking the first sentence).
154 T: Kalimat pertama (The first sentence) … kita garis bawahi kalimat pertama (We
underline the first sentence.). Bawa spidol tho? (Use your color marker) Sambil di garis
bawah, sampai mana? (Underline the sentence) “Last Sunday my friend and I went to the
park because David’s family invited us to barbeque party in the park.” … sampai ini ya (up to
this, right?).
155 Ss: Yes.
156 T: Berarti kita sudah pegang kalimat pertama (So, we have underlined the first sentence).
Judul … judulnya mana? (What is the title?) Ini ‘Barbeque in the Park’ kata yang sering
muncul? (The title is ‘Barbecue in the Park’. What words do frequently appear?) Kata yang
sering muncul kata apa? Apa? (What words do frequently appear? What?)
157 Ss: Barbeque.
158 T: Barbeque, and then?
159 Ss: We.
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160 T: Hmm … Park. OK, ini kalimat pertama, judul, terus kalimat yang sering muncul
adalah Barbeque Park (OK, this is the first sentence. The most frequent words are ‘Barbecue’
and ‘Park’). Kata kuncinya apa? (What are the key words?) Expe … experience, berarti kalau
kita gabungkan kira-kira jawabannya apa? (what about we combine the key words of
‘Experience’, ‘Barbecue’, and ‘Park’?) atau kita patokannya ke judulnya (or we decide to
refer to the title), what does the text tell you about? Berarti jawabannya adalah (So, the
answer is …) Barbeque in …
161 Ss: the Park.
162 T: OK, good … (Etta, Teaching Script, Meeting 1)
In Turn 152, in order to find the general idea of the text, she prompted her students to
apply L1, which referred to a strategy of examining the first line or sentence of the text. She
further prompted her students to identify the most frequently mentioned words or phrases that
could be used as clues to determine the general idea of the text.
The second and third strategies that Etta demonstrated in her reading instruction are
illustrated in the following excerpt:
362 T: Kata kunci (The key word) … OK, now number six … eeee the first question, what is
the text about? Apa? (What?)
363 Ss: A Beautiful Day at Jogja.
364 T: A Beautiful Day at Jogja … very good. And then, how did they go to Jogja? How …
how itu menanyakan bagai …? (How is to ask about the way to do something.)
365 Ss: Bagaimana … (the translation of ‘How’)
366 T: Ya (Yes)… how did they go to Jogja? How did … bagaimana mereka pergi ke
Jogjanya? (translating the question in Bahasa Indonesia)
367 Ss: Bis (Bus) … naik motor (by motorcycle) by motorcycle (Citra)
368 T: By motorcycle … good! Citra … OK, Citra OK. Where did the writers and his friend
visit first?
369 Ss: … (No response)
370 T: Ya, first, where?
371 Ss: Parangtritis …
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372 T: Parangtritis …?
373 Ss: Beach.
374 T: Beach. What does the main idea of the third paragraph? Third paragraph, paragraph
ke? (which paragraph?)
375 Candra: Tiga (three).
376 T: Good, ya (yes), very good Citra. What does the main idea of the third paragraph?
377 Ss: Visited Gembira Loka Zoo.
378 T: Visited Gembira Loka Zoo … very good. “We visited many places” … the underlined
word ‘we’ refers to? ‘We’ itu mengacu ke? (‘We’ refers to?)
379 Ss: The writers and friend.
380 T: The writers and friend … good! … . (Etta, Teaching Script, Meeting 2)
A series of Turns (364-367) show Etta’s strategy to help her students understand the
provided reading comprehension questions by translating the questions; whereas assuring the
students’ responses to the given questions was evident in Turns 368, 374, 378, and 380. In
these Turns, Etta straightforwardly confirmed the students’ answers to the questions that she
read to them.
Tria’s knowledge about reading instruction focused on engaging the students with her
provision of prompting questions and clues to guide the students’ comprehension. The
prompting questions were to direct the students to always connect their answers to the given
information in the text. In addition, she offered the clues by explaining the context on the
given birthday invitation and translating information on the text into Bahasa Indonesia, to
foster the students’ comprehension, as she clarified in her third SRI excerpt below:
R: When none of the students was able to come up with the correct answer for the synonym of
‘celebrate’, you finally translated the meaning in Indonesian and your students could finally
guess what celebrate meant from your translation. Why did you translate the meaning of this
word?
T: Because we have to find the meaning, so I decided to give them clue in Indonesian word.
(Tria, SRI, Meeting 3, D1)
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Tria’s moves in her reading instruction were demonstrated when managing the reading
activities of stating the given statements as true or false (Activity 4) and answering ten
multiple questions related to the given invitation (Activity 5) (see Appendix X, B, Table
10.2), as illustrated by the following excerpt:
189 T: OK, kita lihat ke teks nya kita kroscek ya (let’s check the text again). Join us for an
XBOX tournament Slumber Party. Ini kok ada turnamen to? (How come there is a
tournament?) Padahal dibawahnya itu (As a matter of fact, it follows) we have to celebrate
Joey’s 13th birthday. Nah mungkin gak kalau misalnya temanmu berulang tahun yang
ketigabelas? (Suppose your friend celebrates his 13th birthday) Dia bernama Joey (His name
is Joey.). Nah, Joey ini ingin ulang tahunnya (Joey wants to celebrate his birthday) different
from the others, unik dia pengen yang unik, yang lainnya (unique, he wants it unique.). Pada
waktu dia berulang tahun ke tigabelas dia ingin lain dengan yang lainnya makanya dia mau
mengadakan pestanya sambil ada turnamen XBOX ini kalau kalian semacam main (For his
13th birthday, he wants to run an XBOX tournament in his party. It’s probably like …) …
190 Ss: Game.
191 T: That’s right, PlayStation games. Almost the same ini hampir sama. Miss Ani gak tahu
(Miss Ani doesn’t know). I never play a game like this. Ini gak update ini ya, gak tahu (I’m
really out of fashion). What is an XBOX? Tahunya saya cuma mainan Dakon and Bentik (I
only know my childhood games like ‘Dakon’ and ‘Bentik’). OK, besok saya di ajari main
XBOX ya (you can teach me XBOX). OK, to celebrate Joey’s 13th birthday. Nah Joey itu
betul berulangtahun ke tigabelas tetapi di ulang tahunnya dia ingin merayakan turnamen (So,
Joey will celebrate his 13th birthday and run a tournament). Mengapa diadakan turnamen?
(Why running a tournament?) Mungkin untuk teman-temannya gitu ya (Maybe for his friends).
So, is number one true or false? The occasion is Joey’s 13th birthday.
192 Ss: True.
193 T: Yes, true. Betul ya (It’s right, isn’t?). Ada yang salah? (Anybody got a wrong
answer?)
194 Ss: No.
195 T: OK, semua betul ya (everybody got a right answer.). Number two will be Nadia.
Nadia number two, Nad.
196 Nadia: True.
197 T: True. Why true? Why false? OK, the date and time is? Waktu dan tanggalnya itu Sabtu
24 November jam 10 tepat (The time and date is Saturday, 24 November at 10 o’clock.). Is it
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true or false? Kita lihat di atas, tadi ulang tahun Joey itu diadakan (Check the previous
information, Joey’s birthday was held on) Saturday the November twenty four. Betul ya
tanggalnya (The date is right, isn’t?). Nah sampai disitu kita lihat dibawahnya (Check the
following information) there is information. That the games the tournament to begin will be at
2 pm. Jam berapa mulainya? (What time does it start?).
198 Ss: Dua (Two).
199 T: Dua (two), sedangkan (what about) trophy? What does ‘trophy’ mean? (translated
into) Trofi itu apa sih?
200 Ss: Piala (translating ‘trophy’).
201 T: Iya berarti ini penyerahan hadiahnya jam berapa? (So, what time is it for giving the
trophy?).
202 Ss: Jam sepuluh (Ten o’clock).
203 T: Iya jam sepuluh (Yes, at ten o’clock). … .
204 Fandi: Andre mulu, Miss.
205 T: … Nah, OK, pesta nya itu sendiri dimulai dengan game dengan turnamennya.
Mulainya jam sepuluh apa jam dua? (OK, thus, what time does the party followed by the
game begin?)
206 Ss: Jam dua (At two o’clock).
207 T: So, we answer true or false? The correct answer is false. Number two is false.
(Tria, Teaching Script, Meeting 3, Activity 4)
As shown in Turns 189 and 191, Tria provided some clues by explaining the context
attached in the given birthday invitation in Bahasa Indonesia; whereas, from Turn 197 up to
Turn 206, Tria consistently prompted the students to examine the text again for finally
choosing the right option.
6.2 Discussion of Conceptualization of KAT and KARI
This section presents the discussion of the findings of the teachers’ conceptualizations of
KAT and KARI in their reading instruction.
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6.2.1 Conceptualization of Knowledge about Text (KAT)
As shown in the presentation of the teachers’ instructional practices in exploring the

properties of the target texts, the teachers’ KAT was drawn from two repertoires: (1) their
identification of the text features, as listed in Table 6.1; and (2) the ways they explored the
text features. The identification of the text features that the teachers explored shows that the
language features of the texts were the most frequent text feature that the teachers explicitly
explored in their reading instruction. The exploration of the text structure was mostly not
done as explicitly as that of the language features of the text; and the contextual features of
the text, in most cases, remained unnoticed.
The five teachers’ conceptualizations of KAT in their reading instruction, in this

study, show the degree of their knowledge of how to properly explore texts as a meaning-
making system, in which the exploration of the text features, as identified in Table 6.1, is
related to their contextual features (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Feez, 1999; Paltridge, 2004). This
was shown, for example, in the way Meri, Sisilia, and Etta presented the target text features.
Their adopted technique of presentation did not enable them to guide their students to
carefully examine the features of the texts and to investigate how meanings are related to and
shaped by their diverse contexts. On the other hand, Susan and Tria were shown to be able to
deliver a better text exploration in the phase of the text exploration of their reading
instruction. These two teachers’ text exploration was done at the whole text level, which
implicitly led the students to be aware of the functional properties of the texts, revealing the
field, tenor, and mode of the texts, and how the functional properties were shaped by these
contextual features (Martin & Rose, 2007).
6.2.2 Conceptualization of KARI: Organization of Reading Instruction
As shown in the presentation of findings, most of the experienced and inexperienced teachers
shared the implementation of two kinds of organizing principle: the prescribed organizing
stages of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC); and the text-based teaching and
learning cycle. One experienced teacher, Susan, applied the three-phase procedure of
Opening, Main, and Closing Activities. The teachers enacted each kind of the organizing
principles by conducting particular activities in each stage (also see Appendix X, A & B,
Tables 10.1 & 10.2). Table 6.2 summarizes the characteristics of the activities that the
teachers enacted within the shared organizing principles of EEC and the text-based teaching
and learning cycle.
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Table 6.2: The cross-case comparison of organization of reading instruction
The Characteristic of Activities Stages of EEC The Characteristic of Activities Stages of EEC
Sisilia (Experienced Teacher) Etta (Inexperienced Teacher)
Building the students’ knowledge about the topics integrated in Pre-EEC Preparing the students to learn recount by asking what Exploration
the target recount texts and eliciting some related vocabulary by the students did on the previous day or on their last
means of pictures weekend and eliciting what was meant by recount
Explaining the features of the text, such as the definition of Exploration (1) Exploring the target texts by developing the Elaboration
recount, the generic structure, and the language features, and for students’ awareness of the language features of the
preparing the students to become familiar with relevant target texts
information related to the topic of ‘football’, such as related (2) Linking the text exploration phase to the phase of
words to football, and names of international football players developing skills and comprehending the target texts,
and clubs by asking the students to answer several typical
reading comprehension questions tested in the National
Examination (NE), and explaining the strategy or the
formula to answer such NE-based questions.
(1) Practicing the language features of recount before the Elaboration Confirming the students’ answers on the reading Confirmation
students were given the target texts to comprehend comprehension questions being discussed
(2) Developing particular micro reading skills appearing in the
National Examination (NE), through the reading comprehension
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activities
Confirming the students’ answers and responses on the learning Confirmation
activities done in the Elaboration stage
Meri (Experienced Teacher) Text-based Tria (Inexperienced Teacher) Text-based
Teaching and Teaching and
Learning Cycle Learning Cycle
Eliciting the students’ prior knowledge of the texts they were Building Observing the given samples of birthday invitation and Building
going to learn by delivering several questions to prompt what Knowledge of eliciting some general information related to birthday Knowledge of the
the students had previously learnt in regard to the target texts. the Field invitations Field
Exploring the target texts in terms of providing the model texts, Modeling of the Exploring the parts of a birthday invitation Modeling of the
explaining the language features of the texts, and presenting the Text Text
social function and the text structure.
Assigning some learning activities (games) for the reading skills Joint Assigning reading activities to practice the language Joint Construction
development as well as for the further exploration of the text Construction of feature, and to develop particular micro reading skills of the Text
properties of caution and notice, and report texts the Text and text comprehension, done in pairs
Assigning individual work (e.g. vocabulary practice pronounced Independent Assigning a reading activity to develop particular Independent
by the teacher) Construction of micro reading skills and text comprehension, done Construction of the
the Text individually Text
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Following the teachers’ adoption of their organizing principles, the discussion of the
teachers’ conceptualizations of KARI, in terms of organization of reading instruction, is
organized with respect to these two kinds of organizing principle.
6.2.2.1 The Organizing Principle of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC)
As presented in Section 6.1.2 and as shown in the cross-case comparisons of the teachers’
shared organizing principles, the teachers’ conceptualizations of KARI for organizing their
reading instruction within the EEC stages yield two points to discuss: (1) the different
characteristics of the activities enacted in the stages of EEC; and (2) the ways the teachers’
different interpretations of the EEC stages show a delicate blend of the teachers’ prior
knowledge about organizing reading instruction and their insufficient understanding of the
EEC stages as determined in the Regulation of Ministry of National Education No. 41/2007.
As summarized in Table 6.2, some similar characteristics of activities, representing the

phase of preparing the students to learn or understand the target texts and that of exploring the
texts, were attached to certain different stages of EEC. In the case of Sisilia, the experienced
teacher, the characteristics of activities that served for preparing the students’ comprehension
were managed in a stage prior to the EEC stages; whereas Etta, the inexperienced teacher,
delivered such activities in the Exploration stage. The other difference lays in the phase for
exploring the target texts. The experienced teacher conducted the activities intended for
exploring the target texts in the Exploration stage; while the inexperienced teacher blended
the activities for the text exploration with those of the skill development and text
comprehension in the Elaboration stage. A similarity of a particular characteristic of activities
was, though, found in the Elaboration stage: in this Elaboration stage, both of the teachers
carried out the reading comprehension activities for the sake of preparing the students to
successfully do the National Examination.
The different ways in which Sisilia and Etta placed the similar characteristics of
teaching and learning activities in the different stages of EEC reflect their different
interpretations of the characteristics of the EEC stages as officially determined in the
Regulation of Ministry of National Education No. 41/2007 (as presented in Chapter 2, Section
2.5.1.4). These different interpretations resulted from their insufficient understanding of the
nature or the characteristics of the EEC stages for teaching English, and the influence of their
prior knowledge of organizing instruction. As the teachers confirmed in their pre-lesson
interviews for their instructional curriculum design in the process of organizing instruction
(see Chapter 4 Sections 4.1.3.2), they admitted that they did not fully understand the stages of
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EEC even though they stated this organizing principle in their lesson plans. This insufficient
understanding was also justified in their clarifications in the stimulated-recall interviews for
organizing their reading instruction (e.g. Sisilia, SRI, Meeting 2, A3).
The influence of the teachers’ prior and existing knowledge of organizing instruction
is transcended through the characteristics of the activities they put into practice. A delicate
mixture of the influences of ESL/EFL reading instruction principles, text-based teaching, the
stages of EEC, and the pressure of conducting reading instruction for an examination
preparation, shaped the teachers’ conceptualizations of their knowledge of organizing
instruction in each stage. For example, in the pre-EEC and Exploration stages, both Sisilia
and Etta elicited content schemata by activating their students’ personal experience, and
generated some related vocabulary through pictures and questions. The characteristic of this
activity is in line with activities done in the pre-reading stage as part of three phase
procedures of pre-, while-, and post-reading stages applied in ESL/EFL reading instruction
(Aebersold & Field, 1997; Alyousef, 2005). The text-based teaching foreshadowed the
characteristics of the activities in the Exploration and Elaboration stages, in which both of the
teachers explored the language features of the target texts. In the case of Sisilia, the influence
of text-based teaching, as occurred in the stage of Exploration, was as confirmed in her pre-
lesson interview for designing her first observed teaching session (see Chapter 4 Section
4.1.4.2). Sisilia admitted that she believed that the EEC stages were equal to or had the same
characteristics as the stages of the text-based teaching and learning cycle. In addition, the
existence of reading comprehension questions signifies the presence of ESL/EFL intensive
reading in the teachers’ reading instruction (Macalister, 2014). Meanwhile, to deal with the
demand of the high-stakes National Examination (NE), both of the teachers shifted from the
exploration of the language feature of the texts to the skill-based reading instruction for
practicing the micro reading skills tested in the NE in the Elaboration stage.
6.2.2.2 The Text-based Teaching and Learning Cycle
The organization of activities with the text-based teaching and learning cycle, as shown in
Table 6.2, shows the operationalization of Meri’s and Tria’s knowledge of the text-based
teaching characterizing the 2006 School-based Curriculum (SBC) in their reading instruction.
These teachers’ knowledge of organizing instruction with the text-based teaching and learning
cycle exhibits several inconsistencies between theory and practice, as discussed in Chapter 5,
Section 5.1.3.2. The first inconsistency is concerned with the teachers’ characteristics of
activities that indicate that text is explored as a means to develop micro and macro skills. This
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finding is contradictory to the main principle of text-based teaching, which regulates that texts
are “the starting point for developing tasks and activities” (Burns, 2012, p. 140). Accordingly,
learning activities for exploring, comprehending, and using texts involve skills development,
yet they aim at engaging students with language use in context (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Burns,
2012).
The second inconsistency, as reflected in the characteristics of the activities in Table

6.2, deals with the incompatibility of the activities with the stages in which they were carried
out. This incompatibility is exemplified by Meri’s and Tria’s activities in the stages of Joint
Construction of the Text and Independent Construction of the Text (other example was also
discussed in Chapter 5, Section 5.1.4.2). The stages of Joint Construction of the Text and
Independent Construction of the Text were characterized by the teachers’ pair or small group
work and individual work to further practice the use of the text features and to develop micro
reading skills. In these two stages, the activities, however, did not require the students to
collaboratively construct the target text types that they had explored. Instead, the exploration
of text features came into practice through reading activities and reading comprehension
questions, which particularly characterize ESL/EFL intensive reading instruction (Macalister,
2011).
In summary, the teachers’ conceptualizations of their knowledge of organizing

instruction show how their knowledge on the organizing principles they adopted, the delicate
mixture of the influence of their prior or existing knowledge about organizing instruction, and
the pressure of the National Examination, shaped and formed their reading instruction. The
characteristics of the teaching and learning activities that the teachers conducted, as
previously elaborated, do not show a clear direction as to which focus their instruction intends
to achieve. The reading instruction neither reflected EFL reading instruction that focuses on
the development of effective reading strategies, which help students become good and
effective readers (Aebersold & Field, 1997; Carrell, 1998), nor concentrated on the
accommodation of genre-based pedagogy, which emphasizes meaningful and purposeful
engagement between teachers and students to acquire knowledge and skills for understanding,
responding to, and creating texts as they are used and function in real social contexts (Burns,
2012; Hyland, 2003).
6.2.3 Conceptualization of KARI: Knowledge about Reading Instruction
The findings related to the teachers’ knowledge about reading instruction merge into two
major instructional strategies they used. These strategies encompass: (1) facilitating the
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students’ comprehension of the content of the texts; and (2) developing the students’
awareness of reading skills. In terms of the first instructional strategy, both the experienced
and inexperienced teachers, Meri, Etta, and Tria, translated some parts of the texts and the
questions in Indonesian language, called Bahasa Indonesia, to provide the students with clues
and to explain the context underlying the given text. Sisilia and Etta, on the other hand,
facilitated the students’ comprehension solely by confirming the students’ answers or
responses to the reading comprehension questions that the teachers provided.
The teachers’ use of students’ native language, Bahasa Indonesia, was influenced by
the teachers’ belief that Bahasa Indonesia can be used as an effective tool to provide clues for
fostering their students’ comprehension, as confirmed in their stimulated-recall interviews
(e.g. Tria, SRI, Meeting 3, D1). In regard to fostering the students’ comprehension to answer
the provided reading comprehension questions, both the experienced and inexperienced
teachers, Sisilia and Etta, were shown to apply “a read and test orientation to instruction” in
which the teachers took “a more autocratic approach” (Li & Wilhelm, 2008, p. 101) to their
examination-based reading instruction. The teachers were shown not to make efforts for
bridging and scaffolding their student learning for the students to be able to constantly check
whether the reading strategy being practiced could help them find the answers to the
comprehension questions and make any adjustment if the result is the other way around
(Aebersold & Field, 1997). Hence, the teachers’ autocratic approach in facilitating the
students’ reading comprehension, in which monitoring and adjusting comprehension
(Aebersold & Field, 1997) was not done, is in line with the traditional approach to the
teaching of reading, which merely regulates students to answer a number of comprehension
questions in a testing-oriented strategy rather than a teaching strategy, and which, therefore,
does not provide an actual teaching strategy to develop students’ reading skills and strategies
(Dubin & Bycina, 1991; Farrell, 2005; Li & Wilhelm, 2008).
Referring to the second instructional strategy, which is developing the students’

awareness of reading skills, the experienced teachers, Meri and Susan, demonstrated more
effort to raise the students’ awareness of activating their reading skills by providing clues,
guiding and prompting them to predict and to connect their predictions to the texts. This
strategy was, however, also exhibited by the inexperienced teacher, Tria. As shown in Tria’s
reading instruction, she actively engaged and prompted her students to always channel their
answers to the information stated in the text. Although this instructional strategy does not
appear to be a dominant practice, the instructional practices managed by Meri, Susan, and
Tria show that some efforts to monitor the students’ comprehension were done. These
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teachers demonstrated their intention to monitor what the texts being discussed stated in
comparison to what the students thought the texts said (Aebersold & Field, 1997).
6.3 Conceptualization of PCK (KAT and KARI) and Teacher Language Awareness
(TLA)
Viewing the teachers’ conceptualizations of KAT and KARI from the perspective of TLA, a
subset within the extended knowledge base of PCK for L2 teachers (Andrews, 2007), the
teachers’ KAT and KARI reflected the interrelation between their awareness of what they had
practiced and the extent to which they had acquired declarative and procedural knowledge for
teaching reading skills and particular texts. As Andrews (2007) argued, in resonance with
Duff (1988), sufficient knowledge informs L2 teachers’ awareness. This argument leads to a
premise that knowledge and awareness are interrelated; without either of which, it is
considered inadequate.
In terms of declarative knowledge, the teachers’ KAT shows that the teachers, in most
cases, were highly aware of exploring such primary features of text as linguistic features and
the text structure, and were less aware of encouraging their students to investigate such other
essential features of text as the social purpose of the text, the intended audience of the text,
and the relation of the context and purpose of the text to the choice of language features and
the meanings in the text (Thai, 2009) (see Table 6.1). The teachers’ awareness of the partial
features of the text, therefore, indicates their insufficient content knowledge of the scope of
text features that they have to explore to help their students understand the model texts. In the
same vein, the teachers’ awareness of organizing their instruction reveals the extent to which
they had acquired knowledge about organizing instruction. The inconsistencies between the
principles and the teachers’ practices in organizing their instruction inform the teachers’
inadequate understanding of the organizing principles that they adopted. In regard to
knowledge about reading instruction, despite the teachers’ awareness to enact an autocratic
approach (Li & Wilhelm, 2008) to their teaching of reading as part of an examination
preparation for their students, the teachers also demonstrated instructional practices for raising
their students’ awareness of activating their reading skills and monitoring the students’
comprehension. The teachers’ awareness to help their students activate reading skills by
providing clues in Bahasa Indonesia, explaining the context of the text, confirming the
students’ answers, and engaging the students to connect their answers to the text, shows the
degree of the teachers’ repertoire of declarative knowledge of how to help their students
practice reading skills.
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In terms of procedural knowledge, as presented in Section 6.1 and discussed in
Section 6.2, the teachers’ awareness or knowledge-in-action in exploring the features of text
and in encouraging the students to activate reading skills confirms the finding of the teachers’
content conceptualization. This finding captures that the teachers’ exploration of texts was not
properly done, while the teaching of the prespecified micro and macro skills was not fully
intended to help the students understand and/or compose texts. As presented in Subsections
6.1.1 and 6.1.3, the teachers’ exploration of texts was directed to develop particular micro
reading skills. This awareness, therefore, shows the teachers’ inadequate understanding of the
methodology of text-based teaching (Feez & Joyce, 1998), which regulates the cycle for
teaching texts. Within this methodology, the selection of micro and macro skills is, therefore,
to be carefully made to assist students to comprehend texts and, finally, produce or compose
their own texts.
6.4 Summary of Conceptualization of PCK (KAT and KARI)
This chapter has examined the conceptualization of PCK developed in EFL reading
instruction by three experienced teachers and two inexperienced teachers in the Indonesian
EFL context. Shulman’s (1987) conception of PCK, combined with Andrews’s (2007)
modified model of PCK, which involves L2 teachers’ subject matter knowledge, was used as
the framework to employ Irvine-Niakaris’ and Kiely’s (2014) framework of PCK
conceptualization for L2 reading instruction.
The cross-case comparison of conceptualization of PCK in terms of KAT and KARI

portrays how the experienced and inexperienced teachers in this study put into practice their
KAT and KARI to transform the content of skills and texts. The teachers’ KAT confirms the
finding, in their PCK conceptualization for their instructional curriculum design, concerning
the implementation of the text-based teaching in the Indonesian EFL classroom. The teachers’
KAT, which was mostly evident in the phase of the text exploration, captures the teachers’
exploration of such text features as the language features and the text structure of the target
texts. Their ways of exploration did not build the students’ awareness to examine how the text
features discussed were informed by their context analysis, encompassing the social context,
the general cultural context, and the context of situation of the text (Feez & Joyce, 1998;
Feez, 1999; Paltridge, 2004). Exceptions, however, occurred in the KAT conceptualizations
of Susan and Tria. These two teachers were quite able to discuss the language features and the
text structure of the target texts, related these text features to the underlying contexts, and
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implicitly resulted in the students’ understanding of the functional analysis of the texts (Feez
& Joyce, 1998; Feez, 1999; Paltridge, 2004; Martin & Rose, 2007).
In terms of conceptualization of KARI for organizing reading instruction, despite the

organizing principles they adopted, both the experienced and inexperienced teachers’
knowledge of organizing instruction revealed the teachers’ degree of understanding of the
text-based teaching and the prescribed EEC stages. These shaped the teachers’ different ways
in structuring their teaching and learning activities as determined by the principles attached in
their adopted organizing stages, and resulted in particular deviances, in regard to the
conformity of the activities in each stage to the underlying characteristics of the stages. In
addition, the pressure of the high-stake National Examination (NE) contributed to driving the
teachers to conduct examination-based reading instruction.
Finally, the teachers’ KARI, in terms of knowledge about reading instruction,

confirms that the teachers’ reading instructional strategies were primarily for fostering the
students’ comprehension of the content of the texts and confirming the students’ answers to
the given reading comprehension questions. These strategies signified the teachers’ lack of
assistance for monitoring and adjusting their students’ comprehension (Aebersold & Field,
1997), and employment of an autocratic approach that entailed a testing-oriented strategy
(Dubin & Bycina, 1991; Farrell, 2005; Li & Wilhelm, 2008). The other emerging
instructional strategy focused on developing the students’ awareness of reading skills. In
regard to this latter instructional strategy, the experienced teachers demonstrated more variety
of strategies, including giving clues for the students’ guesses, and guiding and prompting the
students to predict and to relate their predictions to the texts.
6.5 Conclusion: Framing the Findings of Conceptualization of PCK (KAT and KARI)
This section concludes the findings of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in terms of
KAT and KARI in their reading instruction, by viewing the findings from three perspectives:
(1) how the findings add to and are in line with L2 studies on the conceptualization of PCK in
reading instruction; (2) how the findings reflect Shulman’s (1987) conception of teacher
expertise in PCK and manifest TLA (Andrews, 2007); and (3) what the findings mean in the
Indonesian EFL context.
L2 studies on the conceptualization of PCK in reading instruction involving

experienced and inexperienced teachers (e.g. Howey & Grossman, 1989; Irvine-Niakaris &
Kiely, 2014; Li & Wilhelm, 2008) have mostly investigated the experienced teachers’
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conceptualization of PCK, and describe teachers’ conceptualization as: (1) being more
teacher-directed and more concerned with testing outcomes (Li & Wilhelm, 2008); and (2)
implementing varieties of activities in each stage of pre-reading, while-reading, and post-
reading, enacting instructional strategies to develop students’ awareness of reading strategies
such as guiding students to predict the content, reading with a purpose, and guessing words in
context (Irvine-Niakaris & Kiely, 2014). On the other hand, the inexperienced teachers are
portrayed to: (1) have more awareness to put theory into practice and take a more learner-
centered approach (Li & Wilhelm, 2008); and (2) focus on enhancing the students’ knowledge
of the world and developing language skills to foster comprehension (Howey & Grossman,
1989).
The findings of the present study regarding the experienced and inexperienced
teachers’ conceptualizations of KAT and KARI support previous research in several ways.
Firstly, one of the experienced teachers, Susan, exhibited her knowledge about how the target
text was meaningfully structured by exploring the text features at the whole text level and
relating the text to the underlying contexts. Another insight, however, emerged in this study in
regard to the inexperienced teachers’ capability to explore the target texts: it was shown in
this study that Tria, the inexperienced teacher, was also capable of demonstrating knowledge
of how the target text was structured. Secondly, the experienced teachers in this study, Meri
and Sisilia, were found to have a stronger concern for the National Examination (NE), and
accordingly integrated a testing strategy into their reading instruction. This is while one of the
inexperienced teachers, Etta, was also not completely detached from the NE. Thirdly,
although in this study developing instructional strategies for raising the students’ awareness
of reading skills did not appear as a consistent and frequent practice, the experienced teachers
did provide evidence of demonstrating more variety in this instructional strategy than did the
inexperienced ones.
Relating the findings to Shulman’s (1987) conception of teacher expertise in PCK (as
reviewed in Chapter 2, Section 2.4), overall the experienced teachers’ conceptualizations of
KAT and KARI show that the experienced teachers’ expertise is not strongly evidenced in
their conceptualizations of KAT and KARI. Their conceptualizations of KAT and KARI were
not pedagogically powerful enough to transform the content of skills and texts into reading
instruction, which was properly organized within the adopted organizing stages, and to
develop the students’ reading skills and sufficient understanding of texts as a meaning-
making system. This meaning-making system enables students to understand texts as unified,
meaningful, and purposeful stretches of language, whose meaning and use are bound to the
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actual context (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Feez, 1999; Burns, 2012). Their expertise is, however,
inconspicuously signified by their knowledge-in-action to raise the students’ awareness for
using several varieties of reading strategies to foster the students’ comprehension; which was,
as a matter of fact, also exhibited by Tria, the inexperienced teacher. The teachers’
knowledge-in-action, which is also termed teacher language awareness (Andrews, 2007),
therefore, reflects the extent to which their content knowledge informs the adequacy of their
language and language teaching awareness in enacting their reading instruction.
Within the Indonesian EFL context, the teachers’ conceptualizations of their KAT and
KARI in this study portray the uncertain direction of the Indonesian EFL classroom practices
as a result of the tensions between the content of skills and texts and the framework of text-
based teaching involved in the 2006 School-based Curriculum (SBC). Within the framework
of the 2006 SBC, teachers are required to integrate skills and texts to facilitate students for
comprehending and, finally, producing their own texts. Meanwhile, in practice, text-based
teaching in the Indonesian EFL context tends to be shifted to particularly focus on the
development of micro and macro skills. In so doing, text exploration is not fully done to make
students understand how texts are meaningful in their underlying context. These tensions of
focus appear to influence the adequacy of teachers’ text-based instruction. As a result,
teachers’ instruction is neither skills-based nor text-based instruction. In developing reading
instruction, for example, the teachers in this study were neither able to effectively conduct
reading strategy instruction nor to properly enact reading instruction within text-based
teaching. It was evident, in this study, that reading instructional strategies for raising and
developing students’ awareness of reading skills were not strongly demonstrated in the
teachers’ reading instruction. At the same time, in most cases, texts were not appropriately
explored for developing the students’ understanding of texts as a meaning-making system.
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PART THREE CONCLUSION
The last part of this study is composed of a concluding chapter, Chapter 7. This chapter
provides the summary of the main findings of conceptualization of pedagogical content
knowledge (PCK) in instructional curriculum design and practice, before it proceeds with the
conclusions. The conclusions section relates the findings of the study to the instrumental
significance of the study. The implications highlight the need to strengthen in- and pre-service
teacher training programs with reference to the findings of the study. The limitations of the
study are presented next, followed by the recommendations of the study, which call for
systematic follow-ups to better prepare teachers for facing future curriculum changes. Finally,
the chapter provides suggestions for further future research on teacher development, which
involves research on teacher cognition and curriculum development.
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CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, LIMITATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
7.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the summary of the main findings, the conclusions, implications,
limitations, recommendations for further follow up improvement, and suggestions for future
research. Firstly, the summary of the main findings of the study is presented. Secondly, the
chapter proceeds with the conclusions. Following the conclusions, the implications of the
findings of the study are discussed, and the limitations of the study are addressed. Finally, the
chapter presents some recommendations for future improvement in preparing teachers for
current and future curriculum changes, and suggests a range of research on teacher cognition
and instructional curriculum development. Such a line of research is suggested to improve the
quality of teaching and classroom practices in the Indonesian EFL context.
7.1 Summary of Main Findings
This section summarizes the main findings on the six participating teachers’
conceptualizations of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in their instructional curriculum
design and practice, to answer the research questions as formulated in Chapter 1. These
research questions focus on two areas of exploration, as follows:
1) How do teachers transform their understanding of content into effective

instructional curriculum design within the particular socio-educational
context?
2) How do teachers conceptualize their PCK, in terms of knowledge about text
(KAT) and knowledge about reading instruction (KARI), in their instructional
curriculum practice within the particular socio-educational context?
The first research inquiry examined the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in terms
of forms of transformation, strategies of transformation, and pedagogical concerns underlying
the teachers’ transformation, to develop their effective instructional curriculum design. The
inquiry was expected to reveal the teachers’ macro and micro patterns of conceptualization of
PCK within the five processes of instructional curriculum design. The second part of the
inquiry was intended to explore the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK, in terms of KAT
and KARI, in their reading instruction. The teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in the two
areas of exploration were captured within their influential socio-educational context.
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7.1.1 Main Findings of Conceptualization of PCK in Instructional Curriculum Design
One of the main findings of this study was the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in
planning their instructional curriculum as related to the National Examination (NE), a policy
in the Indonesian EFL context at the time the study was conducted. In most cases, the
experienced teachers’ conceptualizations, as represented by Meri and Sisilia, were under
tension from the demands of the NE; while the majority of the inexperienced teachers’
conceptualizations, as reflected in the conceptualizations of Nuri and Tria, demonstrated a
certain extent of detachment from the NE. This macro pattern was reflected in the teachers’
micro patterns of conceptualization of PCK, in designing their instructional curriculum based
on the 2006 School-based Curriculum (SBC) within the five processes of instructional
curriculum design. The experienced and inexperienced teachers’ micro patterns of their
conceptualization of PCK are as outlined below.
7.1.1.1 Pattern 1
In analyzing needs, the main difference in the teachers’ needs analysis was the extent to
which the teachers’ needs analysis was informed by primary sources to accommodate the
students’ felt needs. The experienced teachers’ needs analysis was highly informed by the
students’ perceived needs, as inferred from the standard of competence (SC) and the basic
competence (BC) of the 2006 SBC. The inexperienced teachers’ needs analysis, on the other
hand, was mostly informed by the students’ perceived needs as derived from the teachers’
active reflection-on-action, perception, and observation of their current classroom practices.
To gain insights into their students’ perceived needs, the experienced teachers were also
shown to activate their reflections-on-action and observations. However, their reflections
were grounded on their past experience teaching other groups of students rather than on their
current classroom activities as their primary source of needs analysis.
7.1.1.2 Pattern 2
Relating to the process of formulating learning objectives and competence achievement

indicators, the teachers’ transformation showed two main patterns. Firstly, three teachers, one
experienced teacher and two inexperienced teachers, encountered a difficulty in
understanding the difference between learning objectives and competence achievement
indicators as applied in the Indonesian EFL context. Secondly, the formulations of
competence achievement indicators by the experienced and inexperienced teachers were
guided by the extent of their adherence to the National Examination (NE). In the case of the
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experienced teachers, the competence achievement indicators were mostly transformed into
typical activities that appeared in the NE. Therefore, their competence achievement indicators
reflected a tension between coverage and mastery objectives (Graves, 1996). The
inexperienced teachers, on the other hand, were able to transform the indicators into more
varied learning activities as a result of their sense of detachment from the NE. While
managing to comply with the SC and the BC taken from the 2006 SBC, the inexperienced
teachers’ indicators displayed a sequence of learning activities to attain specific learning
outcomes for developing particular macro skills.
7.1.1.3 Pattern 3
Three main content categories, constituting macro and micro skills, text features, and
character building and interpersonal skills, were conceptualized by the teachers in the form of
blending skills and texts. In the case of the experienced teachers, these content categories
were mostly blended within a single receptive skill (listening or reading). Meanwhile, the
inexperienced teachers blended the three main content categories within two forms of skills
integration: (1) a layer of integration from different single skill focuses, and (2) integration
within the strand of a lesson.
7.1.1.4 Pattern 4
Within the process of organizing the instruction, both the experienced and inexperienced
teachers’ pedagogical concerns showed that their adoption of organizing principles was not
supported by a substantial concern for why their adopted organizing principles were effective
and suitable for organizing their instruction. Two main organizing principles were adopted,
constituting the prescribed organizing principle of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation
(EEC), and the text-based teaching and learning cycle, in addition to such other organizing
principles as the PPP stages, and the three-phase procedure (pre-, while-/ whilst-, and post-
speaking/ listening activities). The teachers’ insufficient understanding of the characteristics
of their adopted organizing principles resulted in particular inconsistencies and gaps between
the theory (the characteristics of the adopted organizing principles) and the implementation of
the organizing principles.
7.1.1.5 Pattern 5
In developing instructional materials, the key evidence of the teachers’ conceptualizations of

PCK in selecting and adapting texts and activities showed that their instructional materials
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development was not impressionistically done, and was anchored on varied pedagogical
concerns and techniques of materials adaptation to achieve the appropriateness and
congruence of their instructional material development. In terms of selecting texts, two
pedagogical concerns were shared by both the experienced and inexperienced teachers: (1) the
difficulty level of the selected texts, and (2) the relation of the texts to the students’ life
experience, prior knowledge, and sociocultural background. Even though the teachers mostly
shared the same pedagogical concerns that reflected their criteria for the text selection, the
experienced teachers were shown to have richer pedagogical concerns. Two other pedagogical
concerns were mentioned by the experienced teachers: (1) the potential of the texts to be
compatible with the text types and the learning needs derived from the 2006 SBC; and (2) the
potential of the texts in attracting the students’ interest and motivation to learn. In selecting
learning activities, as indicated by the teachers’ patterns of conceptualization in formulating
their competence achievement indicators, the experienced teachers’ learning activities were
NE-driven. The inexperienced teachers, in contrast, were concerned with matching the
learning activities to their teaching stages, which accordingly entailed more rigorous learning
experiences and pedagogical concerns for students.
The teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in the process of adapting and writing

instructional materials were evident in their strategies of adapting and writing instructional
materials and their pedagogical concerns. In adapting instructional materials, both the
experienced and inexperienced teachers made instructional materials adaptation at the level of
texts and learning activities by employing varied instructional materials adaptation techniques
(Islam & Mares, 2003; McDonough & Shaw, 2003; Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2004). The
experienced teachers more frequently adapted their instructional materials in the learning
activities to improve the classroom dynamics. As related to pedagogical concerns, two main
concerns were shared across the experienced and inexperienced groups: (1) facilitating
student learning by adapting the texts and the learning activities to make them more
accessible to the students; and (2) accommodating the students’ sociocultural background or
context in the adapted instructional materials.
In writing instructional materials, the two groups of teachers did this at the level of
texts and learning activities. The experienced teachers mostly did instructional material
writing at the level of learning activities, which was particularly directed to reading activities.
The inexperienced teachers mostly conducted instructional material writing at the level of
texts, which aimed to create texts that were relevant to their types and covered the students’
learning context. Therefore, the pedagogical concerns underlying the teachers’ instructional
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material writing merged in their intention to provide the availability of the sources that met
their students’ learning needs.
Finally, to reach accuracy and authenticity in instructional material development, the

inexperienced teachers demonstrated a better sense of preserving accuracy and authenticity, as
was shown in their adapted and written instructional materials (see Appendix IX).
7.1.1.6 Pattern 6
As corresponding to the influence of the NE, the experienced teachers’ transformation process
in assessing student learning was mostly affected by the impact of the NE. This influence was
realized in the selection of the NE-based assessment activities such as multiple-choice
questions and reading comprehension questions. On the contrary, the inexperienced teachers’
design of their assessment activities, as a result of a certain degree of detachment from the
influence of the NE, reflected the inexperienced teachers’ efforts to provide the types of non-
NE-based assessment activities and a supporting system to assist and foster their students’
learning process. Therefore, the experienced teachers’ assessment activities were more
examination-oriented, while the inexperienced teachers practiced a certain degree of
formative orientation.
7.1.2 Main Findings of Conceptualization of PCK in Instructional Curriculum Practice
The teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in instructional curriculum practice were examined

within the framework of PCK conceptualization for L2 reading instruction. This involves:
(1) knowledge about text (KAT), and

(2) knowledge about reading instruction (KARI) for organizing reading instruction
and for explicitly teaching and fostering reading strategies.
Each of these are elaborated below.
1) The teachers’ conceptualizations of KAT in their reading instruction showed that

the teachers’ target texts were not properly and maximally explored in accordance
with the principles underlying text-based teaching. The exploration of text features
was limited to encouraging the students to investigate the use of language features
of the given texts and the text structure. Therefore, the text explorations, in most
cases, were not further directed to develop the students’ awareness of such other
features of the text as the social purpose of the text, the target audience, how the
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context and the purpose shape the meanings, and the selection of language features
used in the text, and why the text is structured in such a way to reach its purpose
(Thai, 2009).
2) The teachers’ conceptualizations of KARI for organizing instruction were in line
with their conceptualizations of PCK in planning the organization of their
instruction using the stages of Exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation (EEC),
and the text-based teaching and learning cycle. The teachers’ KARI for organizing
their reading instruction showed their insufficient understanding of how their
adopted organizing principles had to be implemented, and therefore resulted in
different interpretations on how the stages had to be principally conducted and
completed with relevant teaching and learning activities.
3) The teachers’ conceptualizations of KARI in terms of knowledge about reading
instruction revealed that their reading instructional strategies were directed to
support student learning in two ways: (1) by mainly fostering the students’ reading
comprehension on the content of the texts, and on the discussed reading
comprehension questions, by activating a testing-oriented strategy; and (2) by
developing the students’ awareness of the reading skills. In regard to the second
way, the experienced teachers exhibited more strategies than the inexperienced
ones, in which the experienced teachers stimulated the students’ predictions by
giving clues, guiding and prompting their students to make predictions and to link
their predictions to the target texts being discussed.
7.2 Conclusions
The findings of this study, as summarized in Section 7.1, represented the macro and micro
patterns of instructional curriculum development at two phases, designing (planning) and
enacting (teaching). As stated in research approach and procedure, the cases in this study were
instrumental (reference). The main purpose of the study was to provide insights on public
junior high school (PJHS) EFL teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK as represented in their
instructional curriculum design and practice, particularly in the local scope in the Special
Province of Yogyakarta and generally in the national scope in Indonesia. Therefore, the
findings of this study can be interpreted in the light of the current challenges that Indonesian
EFL teachers are facing.
The micro patterns of conceptualization of PCK in designing and enacting instruction

in this study provide empirical evidence of the complexities that the six participating PJHS
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teachers experienced in transforming their understanding of the content categories of skills
and texts, as determined in the 2006 School-based Curriculum (SBC), into the forms of
transformation (e.g. forms and sources of needs analysis, characteristics of competence
achievement indicators, techniques of instructional materials adaptation), their strategies of
transformation, and pedagogical concerns underlying the use of those transformation forms
and strategies. These micro patterns of conceptualization of PCK, as demonstrated by the six
participating EFL teachers of PJHS, provide a detailed picture of the curriculum development
micro strategies that Yogyakarta (Indonesia) PJHS EFL teachers deal with. Moreover, the
factors supporting the external validity of this study, as elucidated in Chapter 3 Section 3.8.2,
may make the cases in this study feasibly mirror similar patterns of conceptualization of other
Indonesian EFL teachers, who have to transform the same standard of content of the 2006
SBC within similar constraints resulting from the NE as the macro level of the educational
context, and the regency and school levels of context.
The complexities, within the teachers’ transformations, also reflect the extent to which
the experienced and inexperienced teachers are entitled to the expertise of expert teachers. As
discussed in Chapter 5, relating teacher expertise to teachers’ pedagogical reasoning of PCK
(Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987), the findings of the experienced teachers’ pedagogical
reasoning in designing their instruction revealed that most of the experienced teachers were
shown to demonstrate static pedagogical reasoning, which was anchored on tensions with the
NE. Meanwhile, the majority of the inexperienced teachers exhibited a certain degree of more
dynamic pedagogical reasoning. This difference in the teachers’ pedagogical reasoning was
influenced by the degree of the teachers’ adherence to the tensions brought by the NE. Thus,
most of the experienced teachers’ strong adherence to preparing their students to successfully
undertake the NE urged them, for example, to solely infer their judgments on their students’
perceived learning needs from the curriculum, or to prepare NE-based learning activities. On
the other hand, the majority of the inexperienced teachers’ sense of being detached from the
tension imposed by the NE in planning their lessons made them, for example, activate their
reflections-on-action towards their own current classroom activities to capture their students’
felt needs, and to provide more varied non-NE activities with more rigorous learning
experiences.
Relating the degree of attachment to the NE to the socio-educational context at the

regency level, the teachers’ attachment to the NE in this study reveals two patterns. The
teachers teaching in such rural or regional schools, as shown in the cases of Meri and Sisilia,
from the group of the experienced teachers, and Etta, the inexperienced teacher, demonstrated
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a strong attachment to the NE. However, those teaching in city and urban schools, Susan (the
experienced teacher) and Nuri (the inexperienced teacher), exhibited a sense of detachment
from the NE (see Profiles of the School Contexts in Appendix III). Considering the
representation of the regencies in which those teachers taught, it is possible that Yogyakarta
(Indonesia) PJHS EFL teachers who teach in such rural or regional schools demonstrate a
stronger attachment to the NE than those who teach in city and urban schools. One of the
alternative explanations is that rural or regional schools in the Special Province of Yogkarta
usually have a low level of input, so that teachers have to make extra effort to start preparing
students for the NE from the beginning. This condition was, as Meri clarified in her pre-
lesson interview (Meri, Pre-LI Process 1, 1a-b), when she admitted the fact that her school
had the average low input in the students’ entry level of competence (see Chapter 4 Section
4.1.1).
The other characteristic of schools, as represented by the distribution of the regencies

in the Special Province of Yogkarta, is the range of the sufficiency of school facilities. School
facilities of city and urban schools are usually better than those of rural/ regional schools. As
revealed in this study, the school facilities forced the participating teachers to conceptualize
their PCK within their schools’ existing constraints. The insufficient support from the school
libraries and the Internet connection brought an impact in particular on the teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK within the process of developing their instructional materials, in
terms of selecting texts and learning activities, as thoroughly elaborated in Chapter 4,
Sections 4.1.4, 4.2, and Chapter 5, Sections 5.1.4, 5.3.
As related to the conceptualizations of PCK in instructional curriculum practice, the

experienced and inexperienced teachers’ KAT and KARI were similar in several ways.
Firstly, the teachers’ KAT showed the teachers’ insufficient understanding of what features of
texts need to be explored, and how to properly explore texts within the framework of text-
based teaching that characterizes the 2006 SBC. Secondly, the teachers’ KARI, in terms of
organizing instruction, confirmed the teachers’ insufficient knowledge about organizing
instruction within their adopted organizing principles. Thirdly, their KARI for managing
reading instruction captured the presence of a testing strategy for supporting the students’
reading comprehension, when discussing the NE-based reading comprehension questions, and
signified instructional strategies for raising the students’ awareness of reading skills. In
resonance with teacher language awareness (TLA), as one subset of PCK (Andrews, 2007),
the teachers’ conceptualizations of KAT and KARI, therefore, confirm the argument that
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teachers’ inadequate instructional practices mirror their inadequate knowledge, which
involves content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge for teaching texts and reading skills.
Hence, viewing the findings in terms of teacher expertise, the experienced teachers in
this study were not really able to represent themselves as experienced expert teachers
(Shulman, 1987; Tsui, 2003), particularly in designing their instructional curriculum. In
enacting their reading instruction, however, the experienced teachers’ expertise was indicated
by their ability in raising their students’ awareness of reading strategies. Meanwhile, it was
feasible for the inexperienced teachers in this study to demonstrate some effective
conceptualization, as usually done by experienced expert teachers, in their early stage of their
teaching career. This feasibility was particularly shown in the inexperienced teachers’
pedagogical reasoning of PCK in designing their instructional curriculum. In enacting their
reading instruction, one inexperienced teacher, Tria, was able to develop reading instructional
strategies for developing her students’ awareness of reading skills, and exploring the target
text features by linking the text features to their underlying context.
Extending the finding on the expertise of the experienced teachers in this study to a
group of PJHS teachers who had passed the National Teacher Certification Program (NTCP)
in the Special Province of Yogyakarta, the portrayal of the experienced teachers’ expertise in
this study provides the insight that Yogyakarta experienced teachers who had passed this
program and been certified have not necessarily gained knowledge and skills of expert
teachers. As Shulman (1987) and Tsui (2003) identified, expert teachers within the conception
of PCK are expected to be able to make effective pedagogical decisions for transforming their
content knowledge (CK) into “forms that are pedagogically powerful and yet adaptive to the
variations in ability and background presented by the students” (Shulman, 1987, p. 15), by
channeling their pedagogical reasoning to their knowledge base for teaching (Gudmundsdottir
& Shulman, 1987; Tsui, 2003). As shown in the present study, experience and certificates
make experienced teachers more pragmatic and attentive to the requirements of the
curriculum and the NE. In contrast, the inexperienced teachers’ extent of expertise in the
present study, which was marked by their dynamic transformation process and pedagogical
reasoning within their conceptualization of PCK, presents an empirical insight that beginning
teachers who are not yet entitled to the NTCP are able to gain teacher expertise. This finding,
therefore, supports the finding of research on PCK (e.g. Asl et al., 2014; Atay et al., 2010;
Howey & Grossman, 1989; Komur, 2010; Richards et al., 1995) that experience is not the
only source of teachers’ PCK development and pedagogical reasoning. Teacher education and
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teachers’ professional development must be taken into account as the other contributing
sources.
In regard to the implementation of the 2006 SBC at the micro level, the findings of
this study portray the unclear direction of ELT, particularly in the Yogyakarta EFL context.
This unclear direction was strongly illustrated in the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK, in
this study, in which the delicate mixture of the skill-based instruction, that focuses on the
development of macro and micro skills, and of text-based teaching, which requires them to
teach texts as a meaning-making system, created a tension of focus. This tension of focus
resulted in practices in which the teachers insufficiently explored texts, while developing
particular prespecified micro and macro skills per se, and merely used texts as a means to
develop the students’ skills. As a result, the teachers’ instructional curriculum design and
practice in this study were able neither to maximally develop macro and micro skills of
English nor to properly explore texts as regulated in the principles of text-based instruction.
In short, the findings on the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their instructional

curriculum design and practice resonate with a very complex issue concerning a triangular
relation between teacher competence, the demands of the NE, and the text-based teaching
characterizing the implementation of the 2006 SBC in the Indonesian EFL context. As
presented in Chapter 1, Section 1.2, the complexity of ELT in the Indonesian EFL context is
characterized by a discrepancy between the double demands of the curriculum changes and
that of the NE, and the low level of EFL teachers’ competence, as was presented in the results
of the national test for measuring teacher competence. This complexity results in rather
chaotic instruction in which teachers are obliged to accommodate these double demands,
given teachers’ insufficient knowledge base for teaching, as reflected in the findings of this
study.
7.3 Implications
The findings of the teachers’ patterns of conceptualization of PCK in this study result in
diverse implications, which need to be seriously and systematically addressed in pre- and in-
service teacher training programs in the Indonesian EFL context. This effort needs to be made
for the future improvement of teacher development and instructional curriculum development,
which may further affect teaching quality in Indonesian EFL classrooms.
The findings in the process of analyzing needs raise important concerns that teachers
need to make use of other, varied primary sources to gain immediate perceptions about their
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student needs (Richards, 2001). Teacher training programs need to equip teachers with
knowledge of, and in particular skills in, the variety of small-scale needs analysis by means of
their classroom activities (Richards, 2001), and how they can be an effective catalyst for
accommodating their student needs by taking into account students’ felt needs as well as
students’ perceived needs (Hite & Evans, 2006; Li, 2013; Nunan, 1988; Richards, 2001;
Yoon, 2007). Referring to the sources of needs analysis that the teachers in the present study
used, the teachers were mostly able to perform reflection-on-action or reflection-in-practice
(Schön, 1983). Therefore, it is important for pre- and in-service teachers in Indonesia to be
trained to operate their reflection-on-action, and in particular their reflection-in-action, as
effective ways to gather information about their student needs from their ongoing classroom
activities. By systematically employing formal or informal techniques of needs analysis, and
complementing the adopted techniques with a reflective attitude that involves contextual
constraints, teachers, therefore, enable themselves to turn their needs analysis into more
comprehensive needs analysis, called needs assessment (Graves, 2001).
The findings on the process of formulating learning objectives and competence

achievement indicators yield an implication that teachers need to learn again the difference
between learning objectives and competence achievement indicators applied in the Indonesian
EFL context. As teachers in the Indonesian EFL context have been required to conceptualize
mixed-content categories, teachers need to be trained in the possibility to mix such a variety
of forms of learning objectives as behavioral, skills-based, process-related, proficiency-
related, or text-based objectives (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Richards, 1984, 1990, 2001), which
meet the characteristics of their adopted organizing principle and approach. Another
important issue is to introduce teachers to feasible alternative ways to approach their
instructional curriculum development, which can affect the position of goals and learning
objectives in directing their instruction. It is important for teachers to be aware of the variety
of such approaches to instructional curriculum development, since by nature the
implementation of the 2006 SBC in the Indonesian EFL context was in between the
curriculum fidelity and curriculum adaptation approaches (Snyder et al., 1992). In terms of
the curriculum fidelity approach, the 2006 SBC was nationally outcomes-based, in which
instruction was delivered and directed based on prespecified goals and outcomes (Leung,
2012). The goals and learning outcomes were, in this case, generated from the standard of
competence and the basic competence as stated in the standard of content of the curriculum
(see Appendix I), and the graduate competency standard as determined in the MNEC
Regulation No. 23/2006.
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On the other hand, the curriculum adaptation approach was applied when schools and
teachers, that were usually coordinated by the Regency Panel of English Subject Teachers
(Musyawarah Guru Mata Pelajaran – MGMP) in the regencies, were given authority to
design instruction based on the characteristics and socio-educational contexts attached to the
schools and the regencies. Therefore, the possibility to approach instructional curriculum
development from other feasible ways, in which instruction does not always start from the
specification of content relating to the determined goals and learning objectives, such as
central, and backward design (Richards, 2013), needs to be introduced to teachers. These
feasible ways are to enhance teachers’ perspectives that it is possible for them to design and
implement their instructional curriculum in a more cyclical and iterative processes (Graves,
2000, 2001). Such perspectives are to enrich the Tyler-Taba technical or rational-linear
framework (Richards, 1984; White, 1988), following the curriculum fidelity approach.
In regard to the process of conceptualizing content and organizing the instruction, the
findings of this study in this process have confirmed the complexity and intricacy of
conceptualizing mixed-content categories organized within particular organizing principles.
As Graves states (2000), this process is intricate since teachers have to make choices on what
they have to include for their instruction, to frame what students really want to and have to
learn in the designed instruction, and to properly organize the adopted mixed-content
categories in order to see the focus of the conceptualized content categories and the relation of
each content category. Accordingly, teachers need to be trained to make choices in the
inclusion of varieties of content categories, to rationalize the relevance of the included content
categories to student needs and learning objectives, and to organize the content categories
within appropriate and relevant organizing principles.
As related to organizing the instruction, the main concern emerging from the findings
is the need for teachers to sufficiently understand how a particular organizing principle they
employ is defined. Teacher training programs need to raise teachers’ awareness to pay
attention to the characteristics of any organizing principle they employ, and to match and to
organize the teaching and learning activities within those characteristics.
Within the process of developing instructional materials, it was shown that the
teachers’ instructional material development was not conducted impressionistically. The
teachers in this present study were shown to apply particular techniques of instructional
material adaptation, and to support their instructional material selection, adaptation, and
writing with specific pedagogical concerns. However, in adapting their instructional
materials, despite using particular techniques of material adaptation, the teachers in this study
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were not aware that they had actually applied particular techniques of instructional material
adaptation. Therefore, it is important to integrate a systematic design for continuously
instilling the ideas of activating pedagogical reasoning skills (Gudmundsdottir & Shulman,
1987; Shulman, 1986, 1987), language teaching awareness (Gebhard & Oprandy, 1999), as
well as teacher language awareness (TLA) (Andrews, 2007), into pre- and in-service teacher
training programs. Incorporating such ideas into pre- and in-service teacher training programs
would basically represent an effort to systematically train teachers to strive for the balance of
teaching practices and self-awareness, which calls for reflexive self-observation, self-
monitoring, and self-control (Farrel, 2013).
In terms of selecting learning activities, the findings of the present study indicate that
teachers need to be trained to judge the appropriateness of learning activities by conducting a
micro evaluation at the level of task or learning activity (Ellis, 1997, 1998), in which richer
pedagogical concerns or considerations are involved (Graves, 2000). In so doing, teachers
will be able to provide learning activities that embrace a richer rigour of learning experience
for their students.
Another implication arising from the findings in the process of adapting and writing
instructional materials is the need to train teachers to handle, and to be more aware of, the
issue of authenticity in their instructional material development. As argued by Morrow (1977,
as cited in Mishan, 2005, p. 13), achieving authenticity in language teaching is not possible,
due to teachers’ limitations in sensing “the genuineness of language use” (Widdowson, 1978,
p. 80), resulting in “a distortion of natural language” (McDonough & Shaw, 2003, p. 82); as
found in the teachers’ adapted texts in this study. To cope with this issue of authenticity, it is
therefore crucial to equip teachers with the ability to provide choices in presenting authentic
materials within the continuum of authentic materials (Graves, 2000). When this ability is too
difficult to achieve due to teachers’ insufficient English proficiency, teachers need to be
trained to be able to provide relevant and challenging follow-up activities for the authentic
materials they have selected (Richards, 2006).
The process of assessing student learning revealed that the teachers’

conceptualizations of PCK did not reflect the design of classroom-based assessment, which
focuses on facilitating the learners’ learning process. This finding raises the need for teachers
to learn how classroom-based assessment must be planned and implemented such that the
supporting system for facilitating the learners’ learning processes is well designed and
accommodated (Leung, 2004, 2014; Leung & Lewkowicz, 2006). Thus, despite having to
plan a formal formative assessment in which a pre-planned assessment activity is projected
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for making a summative judgment (Rea-Dickins, 2001), it is essential for Indonesian teachers
to be equipped with knowledge and skills to plan a systematic procedure for conducting
formative assessment in which the formative assessment process can foster students to take
the ownership of their own learning (Black & William, 2009).
In response to the expectation of relating the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in

this study to the picture of the text-based teaching practice in the Indonesian EFL context, as
stated in Chapter 2, Section 2.6, the teachers’ patterns of conceptualization of PCK, as
represented in their instructional curriculum design and practice, reveal one main
misconception about implementing text-based teaching. There is a misconception, as shown
in this study (as discussed in Chapter 5, Section 5.1.3.2, and Chapter 6, Section 6.2.2.2),
concerning the principle that texts are central to the design and practice of instruction. In text-
based teaching, the design and practice of text-based teaching emphasize equipping students
with knowledge and skills for comprehending texts and, finally, composing their own texts
related to the given model texts (Feez & Joyce, 1998; Burns, 2012). For this purpose, the
identification and selection of micro and macro skills of English are done mainly to facilitate
students to comprehend and compose texts. Thus, the skills development in text-based
teaching is not conducted for developing students’ skills per se. Instead, it is managed with
the main purpose of engaging students with the use of extended texts as used in their actual,
real-life social contexts. Meanwhile, in practice, as shown in the teachers’ patterns of
conceptualization in conceptualizing content in their instructional curriculum design and in
their KAT, the teachers’ transformations of the content of skills and texts created a tension.
The tension was triggered by the content focuses in which the teachers had to sufficiently
explore texts for meaning making, as determined in text-based teaching that characterizes the
2006 SBC, and to develop particular prespecified micro and macro skills, as determined in the
standard of content of the 2006 SBC and the national syllabus. As a result, the teachers’
integration of skills in their text-based teaching was, in most cases, done to develop particular
micro skills per se rather than to ease the text exploration. To overcome this misconception, it
is crucial for teachers to be equipped with both the conceptual and practical knowledge of
how to properly and sufficiently implement the methodology of text-based teaching. In so
doing, it is expected that teachers will be able to integrate skills in systematic and principled
ways for helping students in particular to comprehend and produce texts.
Finally, in resonance with the aforementioned misconception, and in regard to the

finding that the teachers in this study were neither able to effectively conduct reading strategy
instruction nor to properly deliver reading instruction as a meaning-making system, teacher
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training programs, both for pre- and in-service teachers, need to provide them with knowledge
and skills in how to focus on reading instruction for exploring texts in a meaning-making
system while developing reading skills and strategies. Teachers need to be introduced to
several classroom innovations for cultivating reading instructional strategies to teach texts
through meaning-making activities (e.g. Aidinlou, 2011; Widodo, 2016), to apply text-based
discussion for exploring students’ understanding on texts (DeFrance & Fahrenbruck, 2016),
or to open up the possibility to design reading instruction from a literacy point of view
(Burns, 2005). Thus, while developing text exploration as the main focus of reading
instruction, teachers may develop students’ reading skills and strategies. To enhance teachers’
reading instruction for developing reading skills, strategies, and comprehension, they need to
learn such other innovations as designing reading comprehension questions for developing
interactive readers (Day & Park, 2005), promoting systematic explicit and implicit lexical
instruction to accelerate lexical development (Hunt & Beglar, 2005), extending the variety of
ways of teaching word recognition to improve beginner-level reading comprehension
(Nassaji, 2014), or integrating metacognitive reading strategies (Iwai, 2011). Such knowledge
and skills for fostering reading skills, strategies, and comprehension can be inserted into text-
based reading instruction. In so doing, teachers are expected to be able to innovatively
experiment in blending the skill- and text-based reading instruction to teach texts for meaning
making while, at the same time, developing reading skills and strategies.
7.4 Limitations
The main limitation of this study is the limited number of observation and interview sessions
with each teacher. Each of the six teacher participants was visited four times in their school.
This limited number of visits was made due to the teachers’ time constraints, the teachers’
busy schedule in addition to teaching, the school academic calendar, and the national timeline
for the NE, as well as because of other unpredictable situations. For this reason, this study
was not able to explore each teacher’s teaching performance over one whole semester.
Notwithstanding this limited data collection opportunity for each teacher, this study
provided rich and detailed elaboration on the data analysis, the presentation of findings, and
the interpretations of the data analysis and findings. This rich and detailed elaboration was to
achieve the truth value of the analysis, findings, and interpretations or conclusions (Miles,
Huberman & Saldana, 2014) and to amend the authentic portrayal of the teachers’
conceptualization of PCK in their bounded system. Hence, it can be said that the limited
observation and interview opportunities were compensated for by providing detailed stories of
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particularity and complexity within the teachers’ own diverse, unique, and bounded setting
(Stake, 2003, 2006).
Regarding the instrumental significance of the present study, the other limitation of
this study relates to the representation of the regencies in the Special Province of Yogyakarta
in the regencies from which the participating teachers were recruited. Of four regencies in the
Special Province of Yogyakarta, one regency, the regency of Sleman, was not represented
since the potential teachers, who were interested in this study, from this regency, did not
qualify the determined attributes for selecting research participants (see Appendix IV, Table
4.1, and as elaborated on in Chapter 3 Section 3.3). Therefore, the researcher was not able to
include these potential teachers to be selected as the teacher participants for the study.
However, considering the profile of the regency of Sleman as an urban region, the
representation of the regency of Sleman in the present study was reflected in the municipality
of Yogyakarta as the characteristics of these two regions are similar (see Appendix III).
7.5 Recommendations of the Study
The previous sections of this chapter have outlined the findings of this study, and the relations
of the findings to a number of crucial challenges encountered by ELT in the Yogyakarta
(Indonesia) EFL context in particular, and in the Indonesian EFL context in general. In the
implications section, further detailed insights to accommodate the findings of the study in pre-
and in-service teacher training programs have also been presented. In response to the findings
and implications of the study, some major recommendations that relate to redesigning teacher
training programs are outlined as follows.
7.5.1 Recommendation 1
Relating the findings of this study to the current challenges that Yogyakarta (Indonesia) EFL
teachers have faced, such as the changing curriculum, and the roles that they have to hold as
curriculum transmitters as well as curriculum developers, it is very crucial for teacher
education and the Ministry of National Education and Culture (MNEC) to revisit the program
design for pre- and in-service teacher training programs. These parties need to make sure that
teacher training programs are directed to assist prospective and in-service teachers by
designing a supporting system for them that enables teachers to acquire adequate knowledge
and skills for adjusting themselves to any change of curriculum and to sufficiently implement
any such change. As Wedell (2003) emphasizes, the key to success of TESOL curriculum
change is in how sufficiently teachers, as the key players in curriculum change, are prepared
233
and supported. Wedell further elaborates that the established supporting system needs to
thoroughly plan what aspects of curriculum change classroom teachers will need to acquire,
when, and how long they are estimated to need to be ready to implement the curriculum
change.
For pre-service teachers, one way to provide such a supporting system is to consistently
connect students’ formal learning experiences, given in their teacher education, to real
teaching practices that they will encounter, by adopting “an integrated approach” (Johnston &
Goettsch, 2000, p. 463) in teaching core teacher education subjects. This approach regulates
the delivery of such subjects in a more integrated way, by involving the cornerstones of the
teacher knowledge base for teaching (PCK) underlying teachers’ pedagogical reasoning.
These cornerstones include content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK),
knowledge of learners, knowledge of curriculum, and knowledge of context. To illustrate,
such core subjects as Language Assessment or Language Teaching Method, for example, are
not presented in isolation; rather, their real application is explicated and explored within “the
modularization of the knowledge base” (Johnston & Goettsch, 2000, p. 463), so as to enable
pre-service teachers to see the relation between theories and practices.
In regard to in-service teacher training programs, it is crucial to redesign current teacher

training programs, which have frequently adopted a top-down approach in which such
programs have transmitted authority-based professional knowledge as being imposed on
teachers. Hence, the top-down approach, rather than a reflective and exploratory-based
approach, has often been utilized as the ultimate approach to achieve the objectives of the in-
service teacher training programs. Although the objectives of these training programs might
have been achieved, this achievement does not necessarily guarantee that teachers are able to
practice what they have learnt in the training programs. One diagnosis is that this prescriptive
teaching approach hampers the designed teacher training programs from developing teachers’
awareness and sensitivity to understand the rationales behind their decisions for their
instructional purposes. Therefore, integrating training strategies to empower teachers is more
effective for developing teachers’ resilience in facing the changing curriculum in the
Indonesian EFL context, than is transferring imposed knowledge. This effort can be done by
incorporating such concepts as reflective practice training (e.g. Farrell, 2011; Gün, 2011),
teacher cognition (Borg, 2003), which includes the concept of pedagogical reasoning skills
234
(Shulman, 1987; Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, 1987), and teacher language awareness
(Andrews, 2007), into the design of teacher training programs. As stated in Section 7.3, such
concepts emphasize the need to balance teaching practices with self-awareness, which
involves reflexive self-observation, self-monitoring, and self-control (Farrel, 2013). By
systematically integrating self-awareness, both pre- and in-service teachers are trained to gain
rewarding teaching experience, as a distinctive characteristic of teacher expertise (Farrel,
2013).
7.5.4 Summary
In short, a systematic and careful design for adequately preparing teachers in the transition
process of curriculum change is the key to assure the large scale of teachers’ proper
engagement in the curriculum implementation (Wedell, 2003). Being complemented with
understanding teachers and their school contexts, such curriculum change is, therefore, not
merely regarded as “externally mandated change forces” that mark “a triumphalist symbolic
action” (Goodson, 2001, pp. 52-53), but as a deliberate, enabling support for teachers, as
frontline enactors and implementers of such change.
7.6 Suggestions for Future Research
To keep enhancing the quality of pre- and in-service teacher training and improving the
quality of teaching and classroom practices, further and continuous research on language
teacher development is crucially needed in the Indonesian EFL context. As Ladwig (2010)
argues, researching teacher change, which includes teacher cognition and denotes the core
feature of language teacher development (Mann, 2005), is conducted within curriculum
development at its best. Therefore, it is crucial for teacher education and the MNEC to
continuously extend this range of research, to formulate bottom-up solutions to help teachers
overcome all the challenges or obstacles they face in the changing curriculum, from their own
perspectives. Thus, conducting this range of research would be particularly effective to help
teachers in empowering their own set of pedagogical reasoning or logical basis underlying
their own instructional practices. In the long run, this empowerment is expected to develop
teachers’ awareness towards their own language teaching.
As indicated in the statement of the research problem and the context of the study,
given the challenges of the EFL curriculum changes, researching how teachers’ cognition
affects their instructional or classroom-level curriculum has not yet become mainstream
research in Indonesia. Therefore, the diverse range of researches on teacher cognition in
235
language teaching, as reviewed by Borg (2003), offers wide opportunities for Indonesian
scholars and educational practitioners to conduct similar research in the Indonesian EFL
context. In terms of teacher knowledge, as Borg (2003) reviewed, hybrid varieties of terms of
teacher knowledge have been researched by several scholars in L2 teaching. This range of
teacher knowledge research can potentially be conducted, and form a new research
mainstream, in the Indonesian EFL context.
The rich findings of this study suggest that future investigations on teachers’
conceptualizations of PCK within a dynamic system of instructional curriculum development
need to focus on a particular process or aspects of practices within instructional curriculum
development. In so doing, more detailed and specific patterns of teachers’ transformations and
pedagogical reasoning can be achieved. Researching this need within the conception of PCK
in designing instructional curriculum, for example, will result in a series of studies exploring
what teachers understand about particular processes, and how teachers’ understanding and
conceptions of these particular processes affect their instructional transformations in these
processes. Thus, the findings of such research will be of benefit for teacher education and
policy makers in the MNEC, to better empower teachers to deal with curriculum changes and
to implement the applied curriculum. The complexity and coverage of the data analysis on the
teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK within a dynamic system of instructional curriculum
development, as established in this study, have, therefore, built a platform for how the scope
of future investigations can be narrowed down to better understand teachers’ transformations
and pedagogical reasoning of their specialized knowledge.
236
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APPENDICES
257
APPENDIX I THE STANDARD OF CONTENT FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
AS STATED IN THE 2006 SCHOOL-BASED CURRICULUM (SAMPLES)
Year 7 Semester 1
Standard of Competence Basic Competence
Reading 5.1 Reading words, phrase, and sentence,

5. Understanding meanings in simple, which is related to the daily life context,
short, and written functional text, which loudly and meaningfully, and with
is related to the daily life context acceptable pronunciation, stress, and
intonation
5.2 Responding to meanings in simple,

short, and written functional text, which
is related to the daily life context,
accurately, fluently, and acceptably
Writing 6.1 Expressing meanings in simple, short,

6. Expressing meanings in simple, short, and written functional text accurately,
and written functional text to interact in fluently, and acceptably to interact in the
the daily life context daily life context
6.2 Expressing the rhetorical steps in

simple, short, and written functional text
accurately, fluently, and acceptably to
interact in the daily life context
258
Year 7 Semester 2
Reading 11.1 Responding to meanings in simple,

11. Understanding meanings in simple, written functional text, which is related to
short, and written functional text, and the daily life context, accurately, fluently,
essay, in the forms of descriptive and and acceptably
procedure, which are related to the daily
life context 11.2 Responding to meanings and
rhetorical steps in simple essay, in the
forms of descriptive and procedure,
which are related to the daily life context,
accurately, fluently, and acceptably
11.3 Reading simple functional text and

essay, in the forms of descriptive and
procedure, loudly and meaningfully and
with acceptable pronunciation, stress, and
intonation
Writing 12.1 Expressing meanings in simple,

12. Expressing meanings in simple, written functional text to interact in the
written functional text and essay, in the daily life context accurately, fluently, and
forms of descriptive and procedure, to acceptably
12.2 Expressing meanings and rhetorical
steps in essay, in the forms of descriptive
and procedure, to interact in the daily life
context accurately, fluently, and
acceptably
259
Year 8 Semester 1
Listening 1.1 Responding to meanings in simple,

1. Understanding meanings in simple, oral transactional (to get things done)
oral transactional and interpersonal and interpersonal (socialization)
discourses to interact in the daily life discourses to interact in the daily life
context context accurately, fluently, and
acceptably by involving the speech
acts of: requesting, giving, declining
service; requesting, giving, declining
things/ goods; admitting, denying
fact, asking for and giving opinions
1.2 Responding to meanings in simple,

oral transactional (to get things done) and
interpersonal (socialization) discourses to
accurately, fluently, and acceptably by
involving the speech acts of: inviting,
accepting and declining invitation,
aggreing or disagreeing, complimenting,
and congratulating
Speaking 3.1 Expressing meanings in simple, oral

3. Expressing meanings in simple, oral transactional (to get things done) and
transactional and interpersonal discourses interpersonal (socialization) discourses to
to interact in the daily life context interact in the daily life context
accurately, fluently, and acceptably by
involving the speech acts of: requesting,
giving, declining service; requesting,
giving, declining things/ goods;
admitting, denying fact, asking for and
giving opinions
260
3.2 Understanding and responding to
meanings in simple, oral transactional (to
get things done) and interpersonal
(socialization) discourses to interact in
the daily life context accurately, fluently,
and acceptably by involving the speech
acts of: inviting, accepting and declining
invitation, aggreing or disagreeing,
complimenting, and congratulating
4. Expressing meanings in simple, oral 4.1 Expressing meanings in simple, oral

functional text, in the forms of functional text accurately, fluently, and
descriptive and recount, to interact in the acceptably to interact in the daily life
daily life context context
4.2 Expressing meanings in simple, oral

monologue, in the forms of descriptive
and recount, accurately, fluently, and
acceptably to interact in the daily life
context
261
APPENDIX II PROFILES OF THE TEACHER PARTICIPANTS AND THEIR
COURSES
A. THE EXPERIENCED TEACHERS
(1) Meri
Meri earned a bachelor in English Education from a state university in the Special Province of
Yogyakarta. Her term of service as an English teacher started on 1 February 1997. At the time
of the study, she had obtained about 16 years of teaching experience. She was certified in
2010 after passing the teacher training for the National Teacher Certification Program
(NTCP). In the last two years before participating in the present study, Meri actively
participated in several workshops and teacher trainings organized by the Regency Panel of
English Subject Teachers (MGMP) and the provincial government.
Meri taught English to 27 students in Grade 9 once a week. As regulated in the

Regulation No. 19/2005 on National Education Standard, one teaching session for an English
class was worth 2 credits; each credit was allotted for 40 minutes. Hence, in each teaching
session, Meri taught for 80 minutes.
Meri taught in a typical classroom in the Indonesian EFL context. The desks and
chairs for students were classically arranged, by facing the teacher’s desk. The classroom was
equipped with a large whiteboard and a projector.
(2) Susan
Similar to Meri, Susan obtained her bachelor qualification in English Education from a
private university in the Special Province of Yogyakarta. She started teaching on 1 January
1997, and therefore, had earned about 16 years of teaching experience at the time the present
study was conducted. She was certified in 2009 after successfully completing the NTCP
teacher training. Susan was actively involved in the local English teachers’ association, called
Jogjakarta English Teachers Association (JETA), as a treasurer. Her record on the initial
identification form also showed that she actively took part in several workshops, trainings,
and conferences regionally and nationally from 2010 to 2013.
Susan taught 34 students in Grade 8. She planned and taught listening and speaking
skills for 240 minutes, and reading and writing skills for 80 minutes.
262
Teaching in a typical classroom with a classical seating arrangement, Susan managed
to change this classical seating arrangement when conducting speaking activities such as role-
plays. In addition to the standard facilities in the classroom such as a whiteboard and a
projector, Susan made efforts to provide speakers when teaching the listening skill.
(3) Sisilia
Sisilia had the same education qualification as Meri and Susan, from a state teaching institute
in the Special Province of Yogyakarta. She had earned the longest teaching experience among
the other experienced teachers, which was about 24 years. Her professional teaching career
began on 1 March 1989. Sisilia passed the NTCP in 2009 through the portfolio mode. Similar
to the other experienced teachers, Sisilia also took part in various regional workshops and
teacher training.
Sisilia taught Grade 8 students. There were 28 students in her class. She taught
reading and listening skills, each of which was allocated 160 minutes.
Similar to Meri and Susan, Sisilia taught a large class with a classical seating
arrangement. The classroom was supported by the standard facilities of a large whiteboard
and a projector. When teaching the listening skill, Sisilia managed to bring in her own
speakers to support her teaching.
263
B. THE INEXPERIENCED TEACHERS
(1) Etta
Etta was a 30-year-old English teacher with almost four years of teaching experience at the
time the present study was conducted. She earned a bachelor in English Education from a
private university in the Special Province of Yogyakarta. Her teaching service started on 1
January 2010. Before participating in the present study, she had not yet had opportunity to
take part in any professional development activity.
Etta taught 30 students in Grade 8. She planned and taught the integration of reading
and listening skills; and each component of the integration was allocated 160 minutes.
Etta taught in a school that was located in a quiet remote village. The school was not
supported by sufficient facilities. Therefore, the classroom in which Etta taught her class was
of a minimum standard.
(2) Nuri
Nuri was 27 years old when the study was carried out. She obtained her bachelor qualification
in English Education from a state university in the Special Province of Yogyakarta. Her
professional teaching career began on 1 January 2011. Therefore, she was in about her third
year of teaching when she participated in the present study.
Nuri taught 27 students in Grade 8. She spent 80 minutes for teaching listening skills,
and 240 minutes for speaking skills.
Teaching in a public school, which was supported by sufficient facilities, Nuri’s class
was supported by such better facilities as light desks and chairs for students, a large
whiteboard, and a permanent projector.
(3) Tria
Tria was 27 years old when taking part in the present study. She obtained the same
qualification in English Education from a state university in the Special Province of
Yogyakarta. She started her teaching career on 25 July 2012, which meant she had earned
almost two years of teaching experience in her school. Before taking part in the study, Tria
participated in a regional teacher training and a JETA conference.
264
Tria taught Grade 7 students. She allocated 160 minutes: each 80 minutes was for
teaching listening and writing skills. The same allocation, of 160 minutes, was made for
teaching reading and writing skills.
The classroom in which Tria was teaching was also a standard room equipped with a
large whiteboard, and wooden desks and chairs for students and the teacher. In addition, the
classroom was large and newly renovated.
265
APPENDIX III PROFILES OF THE SCHOOL CONTEXTS (THE REGENCIES IN
THE SPECIAL PROVINCE OF YOGYAKARTA)
In terms of school settings or contexts, junior high schools in the Special Province of
Yogyakarta have the following characteristics:
1. Schools are distributed in four regencies, (1) Sleman, (2) Bantul, (3) Gunungkidul,
and (4) Kulonprogo; and in one municipality, i.e. Yogyakarta municipality.
2. Measured from the population density of the regions, the locations of schools are
classified into three: (1) city, (2) urban, and (3) rural or regional. As shown in the
statistics of the population density published by the Statistical Bureau Agency of the
Yogyakarta province, in 2011 the average of the population density in the Yogyakarta
province was 1,095 persons per km2, which increased to 1,103 persons per km2 in
2012. Within the average, as depicted in Table 3.1, the most dense region was
Yogyakarta city, followed by Sleman, Bantul, and Kulonprogo, while Gunungkidul
had the least population density. Referring to these statistics, schools located in
Yogyakarta city are classified as city schools, those in Bantul and Sleman belong to
urban schools, and those in Kulonprogo and Gunungkidul are identified as rural or
regional schools.
Table 3.1: Population density of the Special Province of Yogyakarta in 2011-2012
No. Regency/City Area Population Density

(km2) (person/km2)
2011 2012
1. Kuloprogo 586.27 666 670
2. Bantul 506.85 1,818 1,831
3. Gunungkidul 1,485.36 456 461
4. Sleman 574.82 1,926 1,939
5. Yogyakarta (City 32.50 12,017 12,123
or Municipality)
Total 3,185.80 1,095 1,103
Source: www.yogyakarta.bps.go.id/linkTabelStatis/view/id/10
Another dataset by the Statistical Bureau Agency of the Special Province of

Yogyakarta in 2012 shows that 85% (75) of regions in Kulonprogo and 96% (139) of regions
in Gunungkidul were rural villages, while 62% (47) in Bantul and 68% (59) in Sleman were
mapped as urban areas, as presented in Table 3.2 below.
266
Table 3.2: The classification of regions by regency/city in the Special Province of
Yogyakarta
No. Regency/City Regions

Districts City Village Total
(Urban) (Rural)
1. Kuloprogo 12 13 75 88
2. Bantul 17 47 28 75
3. Gunungkidul 18 5 139 144
4. Sleman 17 59 27 86
5. Yogyakarta (City 14 45 - 45
or Municipality)
Total 78 169 269 438
Source: bappeda.jogjaprov.go.id
267
APPENDIX IV PROFILES OF THE POTENTIAL TEACHER
PARTICIPANTS
Table 4.1: The profiles of the potential teacher participants
No. Name PJHS Years of Education Certification

(SMPN) Teaching Qualification Status
Experience
(Counted Up to
December
2013)
1. Sisilia SMPN X 24 years 9 Bachelor in Certified in
Semanu, months (from 1 English Education 2009
Gunungkidu March 1989) (Portfolio)
l
2. Diah SMPN X 32 years 8 Bachelor in Certified in
Depok, months English Education 2008
Sleman (from 1 March (Portfolio)
1981)
3. Kristin SMPN X 5 years 11 Bachelor in Certified in
Wonosari, months English Education 2012 (the
Gunungkidu (1 Jan 2008) NTCP Teacher
l Training)
4. Margi SMPN X 24 years 9 Bachelor in Certified in
Pengasih, months English Education 2011 (the
Kulonprogo (1 March 1989) NTCP Teacher
Training)
5. Meri SMPN X 16 years 10 Bachelor in Certified in
Pajangan, months English Education 2010 (the
Bantul (from 1 Feb NTCP Teacher
1997) Training)
6. Wirya SMPN X 16 years 10 - Bachelor in Certified in
Pengasih, months English Education 2010
Kulonprogo (from 2 Feb (Portfolio)
268
1997) - Master of
Instructional
Technology
7. Sifa SMPN X 5 years 11 Bachelor in Certified in
Yogyakarta months English Education 2012 (the
(from 1 Jan NTCP Teacher
2008) Training)
8. Anto SMPN X 15 years 10 - Bachelor in Certified in
Depok, months English Education 2010
Sleman (from 1 Feb (Portfolio)
1998) - Master of
Instructional
Technology
9. Susan SMPN X 16 years 11 Bachelor in Certified in
Yogyakarta months English Education 2009 (the
(from 1 Jan NTCP Teacher
1997) Training)
10. Dias SMPN X 15 years 10 Bachelor in Certified in
Pengasih, months English Education 2011 (the
Kulonprogo (from 1 Feb NTCP Teacher
1998) Training)
11. Yuni SMPN X 7 years 9 Bachelor in Certified in
Karangmoj months English Education 2010 (the
o, (from 2 March NTCP Teacher
Gunungkidu 2006) Training)
l
12. Tria SMPN X 1 year 5 months Bachelor in Non-certified
Jetis, Bantul (from 25 July English Education teacher
2012)
13. Etta SMPN X 3 years 11 Bachelor in Non-certified
Purwosari, months English Education teacher
Gunungkidu (from 1 Jan
l 2010)
14. Laila SMPN X 3 years 7 - Bachelor in Non-certified
269
Panggang, months English Education teacher
Gunungkidu (from 1 May
l 2010) - Undertaking a
Master’s program
in Applied
Linguistics
15. Nuri SMPN X 2 years 11 Bachelor in Non-certified
Wates, months English Education teacher
Kulonprogo (from 1 Jan
2011)
270
APPENDIX V RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
A. INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN ASSESSMENT SHEET
INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN ASSESSMENT SHEET
Name of Teacher Participant : …………………………………………………………..
School : …………………………………………………………...
Teaching Session : □ 1 □ 2 □ 3 □ 4 (Put a tick)
Teaching Duration : ………………… Time : ……………………………
Grade Level : …………………………………………………………...
Date of Assessment : …………………………………………………………...
Date of Teaching Session : …………………………………………………………...
271
Scale of Teachers’ PCK Development
Level 1 = Unsatisfactory, Level 2 = Basic, Level 3 = Proficient, Level 4 = Distinguished
No. Planning and Preparation Processes Scale of Teachers’ PCK Evidence of Teachers’ PCK Development
Development
Level Level Level Level
1 2 3 4
Process 1: Assessing needs
1. Using knowledge of students to gather
information about the present (e.g. the
students’ sociocultural backgrounds, their
level of language proficiency, their interests,
their learning preferences, and their attitudes
towards English) and about the future (e.g. the
students’ expectations, the target contexts,
types of communicative skills and tasks they
will need to perform, and language modalities
they will use) from variety of sources in the
lesson plan.
Continuum of Teachers’ PCK Development for Process 1

272
Level 1: Unsatisfactory Level 2: Basic Level 3: Proficient Level 4: Distinguished
The teacher displays minimal The teacher displays generally The teacher understands the active The teacher understands the active
understanding of how students accurate knowledge of how nature of student learning and nature of student learning and acquires
learn and little knowledge of their students learn and of their varied attains information about levels of information about levels of
varied approaches to learning, the approaches to learning, the development for groups of development for individual students.
students’ initial knowledge and students’ initial knowledge and students. The teacher also The teacher also systematically
skills to learn, their learning skills to learn, their learning purposefully acquires knowledge acquires knowledge from several
needs, interests, and the influence needs, interests, and the influence from several sources about groups sources about individual students’
of their sociocultural backgrounds of their sociocultural backgrounds of students’ varied approaches to varied approaches to learning,
to learning and does not indicate to learning, yet may apply this learning, knowledge and skills, knowledge and skills, special needs,
that such knowledge is valuable. knowledge not to individual special needs, and interests and and interests and sociocultural values.
students but to the class as a sociocultural values.
whole.
Development
1 2 3 4
Process 2: Formulating learning objectives
and competence achievement indicators
2. Formulating learning objectives that represent
273
significant language learning and reflect the
core competence as stated in the national EFL
curriculum.
3. Formulating indicators that refer to what the

students will learn and that allow viable
methods of learning assessment.
4. Formulating indicators that cover different

spectrums of learning, such as achieving
grammatical mastery, communicative skills,
language awareness, problem solving
(cognitive) skills as well as character building
(affective) aspects.
274
5. Formulating indicators and ways of achieving
them that are appropriate for all the students
in the class.

Indicators are unclear, not Indicators are partially clear, Indicators are clear, reflecting Indicators are clear, reflecting high
rigorous, and/or represent low demonstrating limited rigor and rigorous learning and curriculum expectations, rigorous learning, and
expectations. Activities are reflect moderate expectations. standards. They are suitable for curriculum standards. They represent
planned without referring to Activities are planned with some the students in the class, represent different styles of learning, offer
learning objectives. The national relationship to learning objectives. different styles of learning, and opportunities for connecting learning in
curriculum and/or assessments are The national curriculum and/or are capable of assessment. multiple
275
not implemented properly. assessments are implemented at a Activities align with learning content areas, and take into account
Learning outcomes are not minimal level. Some outcomes are objectives. The national cultural and learning styles of students.
measureable. measureable. curriculum and assessments are Activities align and enhance learning
implemented at an appropriate objectives. The national curriculum and
level. Most outcomes are assessment are implemented at a high
measurable. level. All outcomes are measurable in
diverse ways.
Development
1 2 3 4
Process 3: Developing instructional
materials
6. Selecting and evaluating teaching and
learning materials that align to the students’
learning needs and the determined learning
outcomes.
276
7. Doing proper materials adaptation so that
teaching and learning materials will be highly
challenging to meet the students’ learning
needs and the learning outcomes.
8. Listing possible sources of learning materials

that can be independently accessed by the
students.

The teacher is unaware of The teacher displays some The teacher displays awareness of The teacher displays extensive
resources to assist student awareness of resources beyond resources beyond those provided knowledge and awareness of seeking
277
learning beyond materials those provided by the by the school/district/ministry, resources for classroom use, including
provided by the school/district/ school/district/ministry for including those on the internet, for those available through the
ministry. The teacher does not do classroom use. The teacher does classroom use. The teacher does school/district/ministry, in the
any materials selection, some materials selection, proper materials selection, community, through professional
evaluation, and adaptation to meet evaluation, and adaptation to meet evaluation, and adaptation to meet organizations and on the internet. The
the students’ learning needs and the students’ learning needs and the students’ learning needs and teacher exhibits advanced innovations
the stated learning outcomes. the planned learning outcomes. the learning outcomes. in developing the teaching and learning
materials to meet the students’ learning
needs and the learning outcomes.
Development
1 2 3 4
Process 4: Conceptualizing content and
organizing the instruction
9. Carefully selecting the content representations
(e.g. the content representations focusing on
language, such as linguistic skills,
topics/themes, competencies, situations,
communicative functions, tasks, and the four
278
skills of English; the representations focusing
on learning and learners; and the
representations focusing on social context) to
meet the students’ learning needs and the
learning outcomes.
10. Changing the selected content representations
into teaching and learning activities that
engage the students and ease them through the
content.
11. Organizing and sequencing teaching and
learning activities into a systematic lesson or
a unit design to advance student learning.
Learning activities are poorly Some of the learning activities Most of the learning activities are The sequence of learning activities
aligned with the instructional and materials are aligned with the aligned with the instructional follows a coherent sequence, is aligned
outcomes, do not follow an instructional outcomes and outcomes and follow an organized to instructional goals, and is designed to
organized progression, are not represent moderate cognitive progression suitable to groups of engage students in high-level cognitive
designed to engage students in challenge, but with no students. The learning activities activity. These are appropriately
active intellectual activity, and differentiation for different have reasonable time allocations; differentiated for individual learners.
279
have unrealistic time allocations. students. Instructional groups they represent significant Instructional groups are varied
Instructional groups are not partially support the activities, cognitive challenge, with some appropriately, with some opportunity
suitable to the activities and offer with some variety. The lesson or differentiation for different groups for student choice.
no variety. unit has a recognizable structure; of students and varied use of
but the progression of activities is instructional groups.
uneven, with only some
reasonable time allocations.
Development
1 2 3 4
Process 5: Assessing student learning
12. Designing assessments for learning that align
the planned instructional outcomes.
13. Developing assessment criteria by which the
students’ performances will be assessed.
14. Designing assessment types that offer variety
of performance opportunities for the students,
including modified assessments for individual
students when needed.
280
Assessment procedures are not Assessment procedures are All the instructional outcomes All the instructional outcomes may be
congruent with instructional partially congruent with may be assessed by the proposed assessed by the proposed assessment
outcomes and lack criteria by instructional outcomes. assessment plan; assessment plan, with clear criteria for assessing
which student performance will Assessment criteria and standards methodologies may have been student work. The plan contains
be assessed. The teacher has no have been developed, but they are adapted for groups of students. evidence of student contribution to its
plan to incorporate formative not clear. The teacher’s approach Assessment criteria and standards development. Assessment
assessment in the lesson or unit. to using formative assessment is are clear. The teacher has a well- methodologies have been adapted for
rudimentary, including only some developed strategy for using individual students as the need has
of the instructional outcomes. formative assessment and has arisen. The approach to using formative
designed particular approaches to assessment is well designed and
be used. includes student as well as teacher use
of the assessment information.
Notes:
- The continuum of teachers’ PCK development is mostly taken and adapted from Charlotte Danielson’s (2013) Framework for Teaching.
- However, the continuum of teachers’ PCK development for process 2 is taken from Pitssburg Standards for Effective Teaching (2009).
281
B. PRE-LESSON INTERVIEW GUIDELINE
Thank you very much for agreeing to talk with me. This interview is part of my
research that must be conducted to complete the doctoral program I have been taking at this
moment at Macquarie University, Australia. The interview will last for about 60 minutes and
is audio-recorded. During the interview you may speak in English or Bahasa Indonesia and
are required to share the processes you usually do in planning and preparing your daily
lesson.
1. How do you usually plan your daily lesson?

Reformulated into: How did you plan your today’s lesson?
2. In your experience, what information do you rely on to plan your lesson?
3. To what extent is your planning organized around the representations of the content of
the Indonesian EFL curriculum (e.g. skills-based instruction, text-based teaching,
character-based instruction)?
Preceded by: How did you organize the representations of the content of the
Indonesian EFL curriculum (e.g. skills, texts, and characters) in your today’s lesson
plan?
4. What aspects do you consider to be included in formulating the goal and learning
objectives of your lesson?
Reformulated into: What aspects of language and language learning do you consider
to be included in formulating the goal and learning objectives of your lesson?
5. Can you tell me the stages or the processes you usually go through in developing your
teaching and learning materials?
Reformulated into: Can you tell me the stages or the processes you went through in
developing your today’s teaching and learning materials?
6. What challenges did you face in doing so? and how did you solve them?
7. How did you conceptualize the content of your instruction?
8. What particular principles did you apply for selecting or designing your teaching and
learning activities?
9. In what ways did you organize your learning materials? Did you apply any particular
organizing (sequencing) principle?
10. In your opinion, how important do you think formative assessment is?
11. How did you assess your student learning?
12. In regard to the influences of cultural, social, educational and political domains in
which decisions made may affect your classroom practices, to what extent do these
contexts influence your instructional plan? And to what extent do you view the
impacts as positive or negative?
13. What context has influenced your instructional plan most?
282
C. CLASSROOM OBSERVATION GUIDELINE
CLASSROOM OBSERVATION GUIDELINE
Name of Teacher Participant : …………………………………………………………..
School : …………………………………………………………...
Teaching Session : □ 1 □ 2 □ 3 □ 4 (Put a tick)
Teaching Duration : ………………… Time : ……………………………
Text/Theme/ Skill : …………………………………………………………...
Grade Level : …………………………………………………………...
Date of Teaching Session : …………………………………………………………...
283
LESSON STRUCTURE
No. Opening Activities Evidence of PCK Development

Forms of PCK Development Strategies of PCK Development
1.
2.
3.
284
4.
5.
285
No. Main Activities Evidence of PCK Development
1.
2.
286
3.
4.
287
5.
6.
7.
288
No. Closing Activities Evidence of PCK Development
1.
2.
289
3.
4.
290
Overall comments on the teacher’s transformation of his/ her content knowledge for instructional purposes:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………
291
D. STIMULATED-RECALL INTERVIEW GUIDELINE
1. In as much as you can relive your teaching, why did you (draw a situation of …/ show
a picture of … etc.) at the beginning of your lesson?
2. What was your purpose of …?
3. What were you thinking of when assigning … at this stage?
4. Were you able to recall your reasoning for … at this stage?
5. I noticed that you made some changes on this activity. Why did you do so?
6. At this stage, it seems that …, why did you respond it that way?
7. Could you please further clarify why this activity did not seem to work well?
8. What were your reasons for asking your students to …?
Note:
- These questions will be elaborated at the time the researcher and the teacher
participant are together watching the video of the teacher’s teaching performance. The
content of the questions will be adjusted on the basis of the teaching scenes recorded
on the video.
292
APPENDIX VI DATA COLLECTION TIMETABLE
Table 6.1: Data collection preparation activities
No. Activities Dates (in January 2014)

1. Contacting the selected teacher participants 9th - 11th
2. Contacting and coordinating the video 13th - 15th
shooting team
3. Visiting the selected teacher participants at 13th - 24th
schools, meeting with the school principals,
giving some orientation concerning the
project (including the sessions for signing the
information and consent form), and collecting
the teachers’ teaching schedule
4. Piloting the interview questions 17th
5. Clarifying the schedule for the data collection 27th - 30th
Table 6.2: Data collection timetable
Meeting Data Collection Time PJHS (SMPN) Teaching Teaching Grade

Duration Time Taught
Case 1: Meri
1 Friday, 7 February 2014 SMPN X 80 09.50 - IX
Pajangan, minutes 11.10
Bantul
2 Monday, 10 February SMPN X 80 10.55 - IX
2014 Pajangan, minutes 12.15
Bantul
3 Friday, 21 February SMPN X 80 09.50 - IX
Bantul
4 Friday, 28 February SMPN X 80 09.50 - IX
Bantul
293
Case 2: Susan
1 Thursday, 6 February SMPN X 80 09.00 - VIII
2014 Yogyakarta minutes 10.20
2 Thursday, 13 February SMPN X 80 09.00 - VIII
3 Monday, 24 February SMPN X 80 08.00 - VIII
4 Tuesday, 4 March 2014 SMPN X 80 07.15 - VIII
Yogyakarta minutes 08.35
Case 3: Sisilia
1 Thursday, 20 February SMPN X 80 11.00- VIII
2014 Semanu, minutes 12.20
Gunung Kidul
2 Thursday, 27 February SMPN X 80 11.00- VIII
Gunung Kidul
3 Thursday, 6 March 2014 SMPN X 80 10.00- VIII
Semanu, minutes 11.20
Gunung Kidul
4 Thursday, 13 March SMPN X 80 10.00- VIII
Gunung Kidul
Case 4: Etta
1 Tuesday, 4 February SMPN X 80 10.15 - VIII
2014 Purwosari, minutes 11.35
Gunung Kidul
2 Tuesday, 11 February SMPN X 80 10.15 - VIII
Gunung Kidul
3 Tuesday, 7 March 2014 SMPN X 80 09.00 - VIII
Purwosari, minutes 10.20
Gunung Kidul
4 Saturday, 22 March SMPN X 80 08.30 - VIII
Gunung Kidul
Case 5: Nuri
1 Wednesday, 12 March SMPN X Wates, 80 10.10 - VIII
294
2014 Kulonprogo minutes 11.45
2 Thursday, 20 March SMPN X Wates, 80 10.10 - VIII
3 Wednesday, 16 April SMPN X Wates, 80 10.10 - VIII
4 Wednesday, 23 April SMPN X Wates, 80 10.10 - VIII
Case 6: Tria
1 Monday, 14 April 2014 SMPN X Jetis, 80 11.00 - VII
Bantul minutes 12.20
2 Monday, 21 April 2014 SMPN X Jetis, 80 11.30 - VII
3 Monday, 28 April 2014 SMPN X Jetis, 80 11.00- VII
4 Wednesday, 30 April SMPN X Jetis, 80 11.00- VII
2014 Bantul minutes 12.20
295
APPENDIX VII THE SNAPSHOT OF THE TEACHERS’ INSTRUCTIONAL
CURRICULUM DESIGN
These sub-appendices set forth the overview of how the three experienced teachers planned
their lesson plans. The overview is to provide an overall view of the teachers’ instructional
curriculum designs (lesson plans) for all their observed meetings. On top of this, these sub-
appendices aim to support the analyses of the teachers’ conceptualization of PCK in their
instructional curriculum designs as presented in Chapters 4 and 5 of the thesis.
(1) Meri’s Instructional Curriculum Design (Case 1)
Meri’s lessons in the four observed meetings departed from the standard of competence (SC)
and the basic competence (BC) of the national EFL curriculum. The SC and the BC of the
first meeting focused on comprehending caution and notice (short functional text), and
practicing reading skill. The instructional goal she intended to achieve was for the students to
be able to respond correctly to the meaning of short functional text in the forms of caution and
notice. To achieve this goal, Meri formulated three competence achievement indicators: (1)
figuring out the implied meaning of the written text (caution and notice), (2) identifying the
communicative purpose of the text, and (3) finding out the linguistic features of the text.
Accordingly, Meri prepared three learning activities to transform the target skill and text.
These three activities were: (1) learning vocabulary related to caution and notice by matching
the provided words with their meanings in Indonesian language, (2) arranging jumbled words
into good notices or cautions in groups, (3) applying the given cautions or notices to the
places they are usually found (a game). Meri provided some models of caution and notice in
her lesson plan, such as ‘Do not throw trash in toilet’, ‘Hot surface! Do not touch’,
‘Flammable: Keep substances away from fire’, and ‘Articles are considered sold if you broke
them’. She had also planned a set of ten multiple choice questions for assessing her student
learning.
In the second meeting, Meri planned her lesson around the teaching of short and
simple monologue in the form of narratives to improve her students’ listening skill. To
achieve this goal, Meri had formulated three competence achievement indicators: (1)
identifying the meaning of words in narrative talks, (2) identifying the implied meaning of the
296
oral text, and (3) identifying the missing words in the text. Based on these indicators, Meri
had planned three learning activities: (1) matching words with their synonyms, (2) listening to
the video of the story of ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’ and filling the missing words in the story,
and (3) stating True (T) or False (F) on eight statements about the detailed or specific
information of the story. The videos on the story of ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’ and on that of
‘Cinderella’ were part of the instructional materials. The third activity, marking T/F on eight
statements about the story of ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’, was also used for assessing student
listening comprehension and learning.
Meri’s third meeting departed from the SC and the BC which focused on the teaching
of simple report text and reading skill. Meri conceived the instructional goal for the students
to be able to comprehend report essays correctly. Meri’s three competence achievement
indicators for this lesson included: (1) correct words pronunciation, (2) correct order of
jumbled paragraphs of a report text, (3) and several reading skills as reflected in the
developed comprehension questions. The three learning activities, Meri had planned, were:
(1) underlining the correct vocabulary pronounced by the teacher (2) arranging jumbled
paragraphs into a coherent report text, (3) and answering some questions shown on the slide
(working in groups, the students were given a set of cards containing the answers to the
questions shown on the slide). Model report texts such as ‘Whales’ and ‘Elephants’ were
attached in the lesson plan. The third learning activity was also planned to be used for
assessing student learning.
The lesson discussed in Meri’s fourth meeting was projected for exploring the
meaning and rhetorical steps of simple and short descriptive essay and developing student
writing skills. The instructional goal, as explained by Meri, was that the students were
expected to be able to understand and write the descriptive essay and its characteristics. Three
competence achievement indicators and three learning activities were put forth by Meri: (1)
correct word pronunciation was transformed in the learning activity of underlining the correct
words pronounced by the teacher, (2) completing the missing information in the descriptive
essay was realized into the activity of filling in the missing words in a short paragraph entitled
‘Anwar is a student’, (3) writing a descriptive text was represented in the activity of writing a
short descriptive text as the model text given in Activity 2. A descriptive paragraph entitled
‘Safari Park’ was provided as the model text. The third activity was also utilized for assessing
the student learning of how to write a descriptive essay.
297
(2) Susan’s Instructional Curriculum Design (Case 2)
Susan (case 2) selected the SC and the BC that supported her plans to integrate the teaching of
listening and speaking skills and reading and writing skills. She focused on teaching
transactional and interpersonal texts and the related listening and speaking skills in her three
meetings. Susan considered the instructional goal for the students to be able to respond to and
express the meaning of spoken, short, and simple transactional and interpersonal
conversations that involve daily target expressions of asking for, giving, and declining
services/ things, and offering, accepting, and declining services/ things. Susan considered two
competence achievement indicators: (1) asking and responding to by using the above
expressions, and (2) identifying the meanings of the expressions. Susan transformed these
indicators into several different activities as she discussed in three meetings. Two similar
listening activities were planned for the first meeting. These activities were listening to a
dialogue and identifying the menu ordered by a customer (Chris), and (2) listening to another
dialogue and identifying the menu ordered by two customers in a restaurant. The activities
discussed in the second meeting were extended in order to finally prepare the students to
practice an authentic conversation in a restaurant setting using appropriate target expressions.
The four activities discussed in the second meeting were: (1) listening and repeating the target
expressions, (2) practicing the expressions in a game called ‘The Best Waiter’, (3) listening to
another model of conversation, and (4) practicing a conversation in any situation of the
students’ interest. A similar conversation practice with a restaurant setting was planned once
again for the third meeting followed by a peer observation and correction. The target
expressions were listed and several videos containing conversations in a restaurant setting
were provided to the students to support the instructional materials. The last speaking practice
(role play) discussed in the third meeting was planned as the assessment activity. Susan made
a speaking rubric including four criteria and their descriptors to assess the students’ speaking
practice.
Susan’s fourth meeting followed the SC and the BC focusing on the teaching of short
functional text in the form of advertisement and the skills of reading and writing. Susan
considered the instructional goals for the students to be able to respond to and express (write)
the meaning of advertisement. The goals were transformed into the learning activities of: (1)
identifying typical sentences usually used in advertisement and discussing their meanings, (2)
reading a restaurant advertisement entitled ‘Jejamuran’ and identifying specific information
(e.g., food category, location, price, atmosphere, special offer, in what way the restaurant is
interesting, why the restaurant is a good choice), (3) reading a restaurant advertisement
298
entitled ‘House of Raminten’ and identifying the same specific information as done in
Activity 2, (4) writing typical sentences used in restaurant advertisements in groups (the class
was divided into five groups and each group was assigned to write one information category,
e.g., food category, location, price, atmosphere, and special offer), (5) writing an
advertisement on any restaurant of the students’ interest, and (6) presenting the writing work
to class. Two models of a restaurant advertisement titled ‘House of Raminten’ and
‘Jejamuran Restaurant’ were provided to the students. The fifth activity was planned to be
used as the assessment task.
(3) Sisilia’s Instructional Curriculum Design (Case 3)
Sisilia managed to plan her first two lessons for teaching reading skill and recount, and
listening skill and narrative in the remaining two sessions. Based on the SC and the BC in the
national curriculum, in the first meeting she formulated nine competence achievement
indicators which were transformed into five learning activities. These competence
achievement indicators were: (1) identifying the main idea, (2) determining the meaning of
words, (3) identifying verbs, (4) identifying the word references, (5) identifying the general
idea of the text, (6) determining the implied meaning of the text, (7) determining the stated
information, (8) identifying the linguistic features of the text, and (9) identifying the
communicative purpose of the text. The five learning activities were: (1) arranging words into
correct sentences, (2) filling the missing words of the given text, (3) answering five pre-
reading questions, (4) reading and matching the words with their synonyms, and (5)
answering ten reading comprehension questions. Two recount texts titled ‘Detective Alibi’
and ‘Study Tour to Bali’ were given to the students as the examples. The last activity,
answering ten items of reading comprehension questions, was planned for assessing her
student learning.
In the second meeting, within the same SC and BC Sisilia identified three competence
achievement indicators that were inherent in the main three learning activities: (1) arranging
words into sentences (in simple past tense), (2) answering ten reading comprehension
questions, and (3) filling some missing words of a paragraph. A model recount paragraph
titled ‘David Beckham’ was provided to the students. It was not stated explicitly on her lesson
plan what or which activity was going to be used for her students’ learning.
In the third and fourth meetings, Sisilia focused on the teaching of listening skill and
narrative texts. In the third meeting, four main learning activities were developed: (1)
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classifying adjectives into positive and negative, (2) arranging words into sentences, (3)
answering ten reading questions based on the given text, and (4) filling the missing words of
the story of ‘Cinderella’. In the fourth meeting, five learning activities were discussed: (1)
finding related words to the story of ‘Snow White’, (2) identifying Disney stories, (3)
arranging words into sentences, (4) answering questions based on the given text, and (5)
filling some missing words of a story. No particular activity was planned for assessing the
student learning for both of the meetings.
(1) Etta’s Instructional Curriculum Design (Case 4)
Etta’s instructional curriculum designs for her four observed instructions were centered
around taking the standard of competence (SC) and the basic competence (BC) for teaching
the skills of reading and writing, and recount text. In the first meeting, she planned to teach
recount along with the skill of reading. The competence achievement indicators were
projected to practice the micro skills of reading, which were determining: 1) main idea, 2)
word meanings, 3) verbs, 4) word reference, 5) general information of the text, 6) implied
information, and 7) stated information. Two reading texts were provided, each of which was
followed by a number of reading questions. The first reading passage was a recount letter, and
the second one titled ‘Barbecue in the Park’. Of the reading activities provided, the teacher
did not plan specifically which activity she intended to use as an assessment activity.
The plan for teaching recount was continued in the second meeting and the text was
used for practicing the writing skill. Two competence achievement indicators for developing
the intended writing skills were formulated as follows: 1) arranging jumbled sentences into a
good recount, and 2) writing a simple recount. Three practices for developing the writing skill
were made available in the teacher’s lesson plan: 1) arranging jumbled paragraphs into a good
recount, 2) finding the meanings of words in dictionary, and 3) writing a recount based on the
given series of pictures. Similar to the first meeting, the assessment activity was also not
specifically planned for this second meeting.
The third meeting was allocated for teaching recount and the skill of reading again.
Five competence achievement indicators that primarily focused on practicing the micro skill
of reading skills were developed. Five indicators were formulated: 1) finding a general idea,
2) determining the main idea of each paragraph in the given recount, 3) identifying detailed
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information, 4) finding word reference, and 5) determining the meanings of words/ phrases/
sentences. Three reading texts each of which was followed by a number of reading
comprehension questions were prepared. Each of them titled ‘A Beautiful Day at Jogja’, ‘My
Holiday in Bali’, and ‘My Adolescence’. The reading passage titled ‘My Holiday in Bali’ was
projected to be used as the assessment activity.
The teaching of reading was followed by the teaching of writing in the fourth meeting.
In this last meeting, three competence achievement indicators to prepare the students to be
able to write a simple recount were formulated: 1) changing simple present tense into simple
past tense, 2) completing some missing words of the text, and 3) constructing sentences in
simple past tense. Three activities were prepared to realize these indicators. These activities
were: 1) a grammar practice for changing simple present tense sentences into simple past
tense ones, 2) choosing the right verbs of a recount text, and 3) arranging a series of pictures
and write a simple recount based on the arranged series of pictures. The last activity was
allocated as the assessment activity in which assessment focused on the students’ ability in
constructing sentences in simple past tense.
(2) Nuri’s Instructional Curriculum Design (Case 5)
Focusing on exploring the same text type as Etta, Nuri’s instructional curriculum designs
departed from the SC and the BC for teaching spoken recount text and the skills of listening
and speaking. For her first meeting, Nuri planned to teach monologue recount text and
listening skill. To achieve the corresponding SC and BC, she determined two competence
achievement indicators, which included identifying: 1) varied information in the monologue
recount text, and 2) the communicative purpose of short and simple recount text. These
indicators were realized in the main listening activity in which she planned to ask the students
to complete the missing words, to notice the verbs and conjunctions used in the text, and
identify the communicative purpose of the text. The given text for the listening practice titled
‘Thomas Alva Edison’. To assess student learning, Nuri provided a short text in which
students were required to listen and fill in the missing words.
In the second meeting, the lesson was planned to explore the same text type for
practicing the speaking skill. Three competence achievement indicators were formulated,
which encompassed being able to: 1) use simple past tense, 2) ask each other’s holidays by
using the target expressions, and 3) perform short and simple monologue recount. A series of
listening and speaking activities were prepared. A model spoken recount text in the form of a
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dialogue titled ‘Last Holiday’ was given. This listening practice was followed by some
questions related to the dialogue by the teacher, a practice to say the related expressions used
in the dialogue, and an intonation practice. The second activity prepared was a speaking
activity in which students were required to ask each other’s last holiday using the given
questions, and finally they had to report the question and answer activity to the class in the
form of monologue recount. This reporting activity was planned to be used by the teacher for
assessing student learning. A simple speaking rubric was made to assess the students’
speaking performance.
The third and fourth meetings were dedicated to once again teach spoken monologue
recount and the skills of listening and speaking skills. The same competence achievement
indicators as the ones in the second meeting were adopted. In the third meeting, a series of
activities to prepare students to finally produce their spoken monologue recount text were
prepared. The activities started with a listening activity in which the students listened to a
spoken monologue recount and complete the missing words. This listening practice was then
followed by the following activities: 1) discussing the vocabulary related to the text, 2)
identifying the generic structure of the text, 3) arranging jumbled paragraphs into a good
monologue recount text in groups, and 4) presenting the result of the group discussion to the
class. The provided text for the listening practice was about ‘Tina’s Father’s Birthday
Dinner’. In the fourth meeting, the teaching focus on spoken monologue recount was
continued. The focus of the learning activities in this meeting was practicing the speaking
skill to realize the indicator of performing a short and simple monologue recount. The
following activities were prepared to achieve this indicator: 1) preparing a monologue recount
based on the given pictures in groups (a series of pictures on ‘Camping’), 2) practicing a
chain story, i.e. taking turns performing a short and simple monologue recount based on the
students’ own experience individually in groups, and 3) presenting the students’ monologue
recount individually to the class. Of these activities, Nuri planned to use the activity of
presenting the students’ individual monologue recount to the class for assessing her student
learning. A more elaborated speaking rubric was prepared in which the teacher determined the
aspects of speaking she intended to assess and their descriptors.
(3) Tria’s Instructional Curriculum Design (Case 6)
Tria managed to plan her four observed meetings based on the SC and the BC that focused on
the teaching of procedure text and short functional text in the form of birthday invitation. The
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teaching of the former text was accompanied by the teaching of listening and writing skills for
the first and second meetings, while the latter one went along with the teaching of reading and
writing skills for the third and fourth meetings. In the first meeting, she formulated three
competence achievement indicators for teaching spoken procedure text and listening skill: 1)
determining general information of the text, 2) identifying implied information of the text,
and 3) finding specific information of the text. These indicators were conceptualized into five
learning activities as follows: 1) listening to a video about ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’ and
answering four general questions related to the video, 2) listening to the words spoken by the
teacher and arranging scrambled letters into correct words, 3) listening to the video given in
the first activity and answering five multiple choice questions related to the video, and 4)
listening to the teacher reading a procedure text on ‘How to Boil an Egg’ and filling in the
blanks by giving the correct number of the procedural sequence. To accommodate these
learning activities, Tria prepared a unit design in which these activities were put in a
sequential order. To assess student learning, the teacher prepared an activity in which the
students were required to write their own procedure text about making their favorite drink by
using such related verbs as ‘open’, ‘pour’, and ‘stir’. A simple writing rubric in which the
aspects of writing were described in modest descriptors was provided.
In the second meeting, the content representations of procedure text and the writing
skill were conceptualized into two competence achievement indicators: 1) arranging jumbled
phrases/ sentences into a good recount text, and 2) writing a simple and short procedure text
by following correct rhetorical steps. These two indicators were transformed into five learning
activities as follows: 1) observing scrambled pictures on ‘Washing Hands’, arranging them in
a good order, and answering five general questions related to the pictures, 2) matching the
series of pictures on ‘Washing Hands’ with the correct phrases/ sentences, 3) answering five
multiple choice questions related to the procedure text about ‘Washing Hands’, 4) matching a
series of pictures on ‘Brushing Teeth’ with their correct phrases/ sentences, and 5) writing the
students’ own procedure text as exemplified by the previous texts on ‘Washing Hands’ and
‘Brushing Teeth’. All these learning activities were systematically sequenced in a particular
unit design. The last activity, which was writing the students’ own procedure text, was
allocated for assessing student learning in this second meeting.
Tria’s third meeting, that was projected for teaching the reading skill and exploring
short functional text in the form birthday invitation, was directed to practice six micro skills
of reading. These micro skills included identifying/ determining: 1) the social function of a
birthday invitation, 2) main idea of a birthday invitation, 3) detailed information of a birthday
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invitation, 4) implied information of a birthday invitation, 5) word meanings of a birthday
invitation, and 6) word reference in a birthday invitation. To realize these indicators, Tria
prepared a unit design of instructional materials and enriched the unit design with varied
samples of birthday invitations. The unit design contained the following learning activities: 1)
observing the given samples of birthday invitations and answering five general questions, 2)
matching the parts of a birthday invitation, 3) matching the words related to a birthday
invitation with their synonyms, 4) in pairs, reading and stating whether the given statements
related to the given text T or F and 5) individually answering ten multiple choice questions
related to the given birthday invitation. The last activity of answering ten multiple choice
questions was planned for checking whether the students mastered the target reading micro
skills.
For the fourth meeting, Tria continued to explore birthday invitation together with the
writing skill. Three competence achievement indicators were formulated: 1) filling in missing
words in a birthday invitation, 2) completing the parts of a birthday invitation, and 3) writing
a birthday invitation. A systematic unit design enriched with some samples of birthday
invitations were provided. The unit design contained five learning activities that aimed at
helping the students to finally be able to write their own birthday invitation. Those five
activities were as follows: 1) answering four questions related to the birthday invitation read
by the teacher, 2) completing the missing words of a birthday invitation and telling friends the
parts of the birthday invitation, 3) in pairs completing the missing parts of a birthday
invitation with the students’ own words based on the given information, 4) in pairs writing a
birthday invitation based on the given information, and 5) individually writing a birthday
invitation based on the students’ own information. Of the five activities, the last activity was
planned to be used as the assessment activity for assessing the development of the students’
writing skill. No writing rubric was provided to help the teacher assess her students’ writing
work.
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APPENDIX VIII THE INEXPERIENCED TEACHERS’ SHARED PATTERNS OF PCK CONCEPTUALIZATION IN FORMULATING
COMPETENCE ACHIEVEMENT INDICATORS
Table 8.1: Formulating competence achievement indicators for skills integration
Grade/ Skill & Text Competence Achievement Learning Activities

Meeting Focus Indicators
Etta
VIII/3 Reading & Finding: 1) general idea of Three reading comprehension practices
Recount recount, 2) main idea of
paragraph, 3) stated/ specific
information, 4) word
reference, 5) word meaning
VIII/4 Writing & 1) Changing simple present 1) Grammar exercise (Changing sentences in simple present tense into the ones in simple past tense)
Recount tense into simple past tense 2) Grammar in context exercise (Completing missing words (verbs) of a recount text)
2) Completing some missing 3) Guided writing practice (Sequencing pictures and constructing a simple past tense sentence for each
words of a recount text picture)
3) Constructing sentences in
simple past tense
Nuri
VIII/1 Listening & 1) Identifying stated/ specific Listening to an audio record and completing the missing words in the monologue recount text
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Monologue information (biography) titled ‘Thomas Alva Edison’
Recount 2) Identifying the
communicative purpose of a
recount text
VIII/2 Speaking & 1) Using simple past 1) Practicing the dialogue (containing dialogue lines in simple past tense) in pairs
Monologue 2) Asking each other’s 2) Doing a guided interview by using the provided worksheet
Recount holidays by using the target 3) Reporting the interview results (in the form of monologue recount) individually
expressions
3) Performing a short and
simple monologue recount
text
Tria
VII/3 Reading & Identifying: 1) Observing the given samples of birthday invitations and answering five general questions (Activity 1:
Short 1) the social purpose of a The teacher asks the students the following questions.)
Functional birthday invitation text, 2) 2) Discussing the parts of a birthday invitation
Text main idea, 3) stated/ specific (Activity 2: See the invitation on the board. What are the parts of an invitation? Choose the correct parts
(Birthday information, 4) implied from the box.)
Invitation) information, 5) word 3) Finding the word synonyms related to the given text in pairs
meanings, 6) word reference (Activity 3: Match the words in column A with their synonyms in column B.)
4) Reading and stating whether the given statements T or F in pairs
(Activity 4: In pairs, read the text and put a tick (v) whether the statements are T or F according to the
text.)
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5) Individually answering ten multiple questions related to the given invitation
(Activity 5: Read the following texts, then answer the questions by choosing A, B, C, or D.)
VII/4 Writing & 1) Completing missing words 1) Completing missing words in an invitation (Activity 2: See the invitation on the board. Fill in the
Short of a birthday invitation blanks with suitable words/phrases. Tell your friends what the parts of the text are.)
Functional 2) Completing the parts of a 2) Completing the missing parts of the given text with the students’ own words (Activity 3: In pairs, read
Text birthday invitation the given information carefully. Complete the text by writing the missing parts in your own words.)
(Birthday 3) Writing a birthday 3) In pairs writing an invitation based on the given information (Activity 4: In pairs, read the given
Invitation) invitation information carefully. Write the invitation card based on the information.)
4) Individually writing an invitation based on the students’ own information (Activity 5: Think about
your dream of a birthday party. Now, pretend that you will soon celebrate your birthday. Individually,
write your own birthday invitation card.)
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APPENDIX IX THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
(1) The Selection of Texts and Activities
Table 9.1: The selection of texts and activities
Teachers Contents Texts Main Activities

& Meeting Skill Focus Text Focus
Meri
Meeting 1 Reading Short functional text Four examples of (1) Matching words related to caution and notice to their meanings in Indonesian
(Caution & Notice) short functional text, language
each two of them (2) Arranging jumbled words into good notices or cautions
represented Notice (3) Doing a game (matching the given cautions or notices to the places they can
and Caution usually be found)
Meeting 2 Listening Narrative The videos of the (1) Matching words with their synonyms
story entitled (2) Listening to the video of the story of ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’ and completing the
‘Cinderella’ and missing words in the story.
‘Jack and the (3) Stating T/F on eight statements about the story
Beanstalk’
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Meeting 3 Reading Report Reading passages (1) Underlining the correct words related to the report text entitled ‘Elephants’
entitled ‘Whales’ and pronounced by the teacher
‘Elephants’ (2) Arranging jumbled paragraphs into a report text
(3) Doing a game
(Given a set of cards containing some statements, the students working in groups were
required to answer some questions presented on the slide.)
Meeting 4 Writing Descriptive A short passage 1) Underlining the correct words pronounced by the teacher
entitled ‘Safari Park’ (2) Completing some missing words in the text entitled ‘Anwar is a student’
(3) Making a descriptive text
(Writing a descriptive text as the model text given in Activity 2)
Susan
Meeting 1 Listening- Transactional & Two videos (1) Listening to a dialogue and identifying the menu ordered by the customers
Speaking Interpersonal containing dialogues (2) Listening to a dialogue and identifying what the customers ordered
dialogues involving in restaurants
the speech acts of
offering, accepting,
and declining things;
and asking for, giving,
and declining things
Meeting 2 ditto ditto Videos containing (1) Listening to and repeating the expressions of asking for/giving/declining things and
the expressions used the ones of offering/accepting/declining things in mechanical and meaningful drills (by
in restaurant means of videos)
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(2) Practicing these expressions in a game entitled ‘The Best Waiter’
(3) Listening to another model of conversation
(4) Preparing a conversation in a restaurant setting to practice the expressions
Meeting 3 ditto ditto - (1) Preparing a dialogue
(2) Practicing the dialogue
(3) Peer observing
Meeting 4 Reading- Short functional text Three examples of (1) Identifying typical sentences usually used in advertisement and discussing their
Writing (Advertisement advertisements on meanings
restaurant entitled (2) Reading an advertisement on ‘Jejamuran Restaurant’ and identifying specific
‘Jejamuran’, ‘House information (food category, location, price, atmosphere, special offer, reasons why the
of Raminten’, and restaurant is considered interesting, reasons for choosing the restaurant)
‘Bella Pizza’ (3) Reading an advertisement on ‘House of Raminten’ and identifying specific
information (food category, location, price, atmosphere, special offer, reasons why the
restaurant is considered interesting, reasons for choosing the restaurant)
(4) Writing typical sentences used in advertisement on restaurant (in groups)
(5) Writing an advertisement on any restaurant of the students’ interest (individual
work)
(6) Presenting the students’ writing work
Sisilia
Meeting 1 Reading Recount Reading passages (1) Arranging words into good sentences
entitled ‘Detective (2) Completing missing words of a text
Alibi’ and ‘Study (3) Answering five questions based on the students’ experience
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Tour to Bali’ (4) Reading and matching the words with their synonyms
(5) Answering ten reading comprehension questions
Meeting 2 Reading Recount A reading passage (1) Arranging words into sentences (in simple past tense)
entitled ‘David (2) Answering ten reading questions
Beckham’ (3) Completing some missing words of a paragraph
Meeting 3 Listening Narrative A video of the story (1) Classifying adjectives into positive and negative
of ‘Cinderella’ (2) Arranging words into sentences
(3) Answering ten reading questions based on the story of Cinderella
(4) Completing the missing words of the story of ‘Cinderella’
Meeting 4 Listening Narrative A video of the story (1) Finding the related words to the story of Snow White
of ‘Snow White’ (2) Identifying Disney stories
(3) Arranging words into sentences
(4) Answering questions based on the story of ‘Snow White’
(5) Completing some missing words of the story of ‘Snow White’
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(2) Samples of the Experienced Teachers’ Selection of Model Texts
2.1. Taken from Meri’s Lessons
2.1.1. Short Functional Text (Caution and Notice)
Notice Flammable
Do not throw trash in toilet Keep Substances Away from Fire
Caution Articles are Considered Sold if You Broke Them
Hot Surface Do Not Touch
2.1.2 Report
WHALES
Whales are sea-living mammals. They therefore breathe air but can not survive on
land. Some species are very large indeed and the blue whale, which can exceed 30 m in
lengths, is the largest animal to have lived on earth. Superficially, the whale looks rather like
a fish, but there are important differences in its external structure: its tail consist of a pair of
broad, flat horizontal paddles (the tail of a fish is vertical) and it has a single nostril on top of
its large, broad head. The skin is smooth and shiny and beneath it lies a layer of flat (blubber).
This is up 30 cm in thickness.
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2.2. Taken from Susan’s Lessons
2.2.1. Transactional and Interpersonal Text
Offering, Accepting, Declining Things
Offering things:
Juice?
Have some sweets with you, please.
Would you like some juice?
Would you care for some salad?
How about a glass of tea?
Accepting things
• I’ll have ...

• It sounds like a good idea.
• That would be very good.
• Sure/certainly.
• I’d like to.
• It’s a pleasure.
• Sounds nice!
• Please give me …
• Yes, please.
Declining things
• Sorry, I’m full.

• Perhaps later.
• No thanks. I don’t drink coffee.
• I’d like to but maybe not now.
• Sorry, can I have the other?
Asking for something

• Can I have some chips please.
• Could I have the vegetable salad, please?
• I’d like the strawberry pie, please.
Giving something
• Here you are, sir.

• This is your coke, Miss.
• Here’s the salad.
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2.2.2. Short Functional Text (Advertisement)
HOUSE OF RAMINTEN
Address: Jl. FM Noto 7, Kotabaru, Yogyakarta 55224, Indonesia
Phone: (0274) 547 315
“Fast service but cool food”
Huge selection of sweet drinks and food

somewhat natural taste too
The only good part is the price – cheap ....
Be here for the ambience (old place, cozy, light bulbs, candles, ...)
Overall good place, good value, good food... Go visit it!
Have fun in Yogya
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2.3. Taken from Sisilia’s Lessons
2.3.1. Recount
I was in senior high school when I went to Bali Island for the first time. I went there
with my teachers and my friends. Actually it was a study tour to spend our holiday. My
teacher, my friends, and I were in the same bus. We left our school at 8 am.
The journey from Pati to Bali took a day. I was so exhausted because I had to sit along
the journey. Actually, it was a funny journey because I spent all of my time with my friends,
like playing games, laughing, and kidding. But, I felt that all of my tiredness gone all of
sudden when we arrived at the Sanur Beach. It was still morning, I saw sunrise which was so
beautiful. Then, we were drove to the hotel to take a rest and had meals. After that, we went
to the Kuta Beach. There were so many activities to do there. We could play parasailing,
banana boat, and so on. But I chose to go to a little island which had a lot of reptile there.
There were snake, turtles, etc. The scenery was so beautiful because I was in the middle of the
sea! Next, we went to Garuda Wisnu Kencana (GWK). There were two statues which were so
big. They were Wisnu and his bird, called Garuda. I was interested in its relief on the rock
but, actually, I did not know the story on it. At last, we went to the Sosro Company. We
learned a lot of things there from the first step till the end of making tea. After that, we went
back to Yogya.
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(3) Instructional Materials Adaptation
3.1 The Original Source of the Adapted Restaurant Advertisement ‘Jejamuran’
Ranked #6 of 237 restaurants in Yogyakarta
125 Reviews
Certificate of Excellence 2013
Cuisines: Indonesian
Dining options: Breakfast/Brunch, Reservations, Delivery
Description: Many Variations of Mushroom Cook
There are newer reviews for Jejamuran
See the most recent reviews
Riexyu
Jakarta, Indonesia
Contributor
“Unique mushroom restaurant”
Reviewed July 6, 2012
Jejamuran is my parent’s favorite restaurant. I always come here when I visit Jogja. All foods
made of mushroom, which is healthy. My parents are happy as they could enjoy the taste of ‘sate’ and
‘tongseng’ without worrying about health problem. Surprisingly, it tastes very similar with real ‘sate’
and ‘tongseng’ made of meat. If someone never told me, I won’t believe that it was a mushroom.
Usually we also order crispy mushroom and mushroom soup (which taste is average). The price is
proper, but I must admit that the food had little portion. If you come with group, you better order kinds
of food and share it.
Its location is bit far from Jogjakarta city. The ambience is nice, dedicated to family.
Sometimes they have live music. There is also another mushroom restaurant in the same road, built to
compete with Jejamuran. But, my parents who had tried it said Jejamuran was better.
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3.2 The Adaptation Process of ‘Jejamuran’ Restaurant Advertisement
Original Source Simplified Sentences or Phrases

Jejamuran is my parent’s favorite Family’s favorite restaurant of all foods
restaurant. I always come here when I made of mushroom
visit Jogja. All foods made of mushroom,
which is healthy.
My parents are happy as they could enjoy Enjoy the taste of ‘sate’ and ‘tongseng’
the taste of ‘sate’ and ‘tongseng’ without without worrying about health problem
worrying about health problem.
Usually we also order crispy mushroom Crispy mushroom and mushroom soup
and mushroom soup (which taste is are available
average).
The price is proper, but I must admit that Proper price to us

the food had little portion.
The ambience is nice, dedicated to The ambience is nice, with live music
family. Sometimes they have live music.
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3.3 The Adapted Restaurant Advertisement of ‘Jejamuran’
JEJAMURAN RESTAURANT
“Unique mushroom restaurant”
Niron, Pandowoharjo, Sleman, Yogyakarta, 55512, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
0274 868170
Certificate of Excellence 2013
Cuisines: Indonesian
Dining options: Breakfast/Brunch, Reservations, Delivery
“Family’s favorite restaurant of all foods made of mushroom

enjoy the taste of ‘sate’ and ‘tongseng’ without worrying about health
problem.
Crispy mushroom and mushroom soup are available
Proper Price to us
The ambience is nice, with live music.
Spacious Parking Area
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3.4 The Adaptation Process of ‘David Beckham’ Recount Text
Sources Original Sentences Adapted Sentences

http://www.imdb.com/name/ David Beckham is one of David Beckham is a leading
nm0065743/bio Britain’s most iconic athletes English footballer whose
whose name is also an elite popularity extends beyond the
global advertising brand. field and into international
celebrity. (Extension)
http://www.imdb.com/name/ He began his footballing As a player, Beckham

nm0065743/bio career at the age of 17. He typically plays midfield and
has been dubbed a master of particularly known as for his
set pieces specialising in free kick expertise and
free-kicks and has developed spectacular long-range shots,
one which is known around including a famous goal from
the world as the ‘Beckham’, midfield against Wimbledon
which involves lifting the in 1996. (Reduction)
ball over the ‘wall’, sending
it towards the far post, but
sending it back to the near
post confusing the keeper
and having the ball just dip
under the bar for the goal.
http://www.imdb.com/name/ He was captain of the He was captain of the English

nm0065743/bio national team from 1998 to national team from 2000 until
2009. 2006.
(Extension-Updating some
details)
http://www.infoplease.com/ David Beckham was Beckham was disqualified

biography/var/davidbeckham disqualified from the 1998 from the 1998 World Cup for
.html World Cup for a rough foul a rough foul in England’s loss
in England ‘s loss to to Argentina, but returned to
Argentina, but returned to play in the 2002 and 2006
play in the 2002 and 2006 World Cups.
World Cups; … (No adaptation)
319
http://www.infoplease.com/ On the professional side, In June of 2003 Manchester
biography/var/davidbeckham Manchester United sold United sold Beckham to the
.html Beckham to the Spanish team Spanish team Real Madrid for
Real Madrid in 2003 for a transfer fee of 35 million
transfer fee of 35 million Euros, about 25 million
euros (about 25 million British pounds.
British pounds). (Reorganization particular
details of the sentence)
http://www.infoplease.com/ In 2007 he signed a multi- In 2007 he signed a multi-

biography/var/davidbeckham million dollar contract to million dollar contract to
.html leave Real Madrid and move leave Real Madrid and move
to the United States and play to the United States and play
for the L.A. Galaxy of Major for the L.A. Galaxy, he first
League Soccer; he first suited suited up for his new team in
up for his new team in a a “friendly” match against
‘friendly’ match against Chelsea on 21st July, 2007.
Chelsea on 21 July 2007. (No adaptation)
http://www.infoplease.com/ David Beckham wore Beckham wore uniform

biography/var/davidbeckham uniform number 7 with number 7 with Manchester
.html Manchester United; upon United, upon joining Real
joining Real Madrid he Madrid he switched to
switched to number 23, with number 23, with 7 already
7 already taken by his taken by his teammate Raul;
teammate Raul; he kept the he kept the jersey number
jersey number with the with the Galaxy.
Galaxy, … (No adaptation)
320
3.5 The Adapted Recount Text of ‘David Beckham’
DAVID BECKHAM
David Beckham is a leading English footballer whose popularity extends beyond the
field and into international celebrity. As a player, Beckham typically plays midfield and
particularly known as for his free kick expertise and spectacular long-range shots, including a
famous goal from midfield against Wimbledon in 1996. He was captain of the English
national team from 2000 until 2006. Beckham was disqualified from the 1998 World Cup for
a rough foul in England’s loss to Argentina, but returned to play in the 2002 and 2006 World
Cups.
In June of 2003 Manchester United sold Beckham to the Spanish team Real Madrid
for transfer fee of 35 million Euros, about 25 million British pounds. In 2007 he signed a
multi-million dollar contract to leave Real Madrid and move to the United States and play for
the L.A. Galaxy, he first suited up for his new team in a “friendly” match against Chelsea on
21st July, 2007. Beckham wore uniform number 7 with Manchester United, upon joining Real
Madrid he switched to number 23, with 7 already taken by his teammate Raul; he kept the
jersey number with the Galaxy.
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(1) The Selection of Texts and Activities
Table 9.2: The selection of texts and activities
Teachers Contents Texts Main Activities

& Skill Text Focus
Meeting Focus
Etta
Meeting Reading Recount - A postcard Two reading comprehension practices
1 - Barbecue in the
Park
Meeting Writing Recount National Park 1) Vocabulary practice
2 2) Arranging jumbled paragraphs into a good recount
3) Writing sentences in simple past tense based on a series of pictures about ‘Going to the Zoo’
Meeting Reading Recount - A Beautiful Day Three reading comprehension practices

3 at Jogja
- My Holiday in
Bali
322
- My Adolescence
Meeting Writing Recount Going Camping 1) Grammar exercise (Changing sentences in simple present tense into the ones in simple past tense)
4 2) Grammar in context (Completing missing words (verbs) of a recount text)
3) Guided writing practice (Sequencing pictures and writing a simple past tense sentence for each
picture)
Nuri
Meeting Listening Monologue Thomas Alva 1) Giving several questions related to the topic
1 Recount Edison 2) Listening to the audio record and completing the missing words in the text entitled ‘Thomas Alva
Edison’
3) Determining the communicative purpose of the text
4) Noticing and underlining the verbs and conjunctions found in the text
Meeting Speaking Monologue Dialogue about 1) Listening to a dialog on ‘Last Holiday’ and answering several questions
2 Recount Last Holiday 2) Repeating after the teacher the expressions and intonation used in the model dialogue
3) Practicing the dialogue (containing dialogue lines in simple past tense) in pairs
4) Doing a guided interview by using the provided worksheet
5) Reporting the interview results individually (in the form of monologue recount)
Meeting Speaking Monologue - My Dad’s 1) Listening to monologue recount text while completing the missing words of the text
3 Recount Birthday 2) Answering eight questions related to the text
- Going on 3) Identifying the generic structure of the text
Vacation to 4) Arranging jumbled paragraphs into a good monologue recount text
323
Glagah Beach 5) Discussing monologue recount in groups
6) Presenting the result of discussion to the class
Meeting Speaking Monologue Still referring to 1) Constructing a monologue recount based on a series of pictures in groups
4 Recount the texts given in 2) Doing a chain story
the 3rd meeting 3) Constructing a short monologue recount based on the students’ own experience
4) Presenting the student’s own monologue recount individually
Tria
Meeting Listening Procedure How to Make 1) Answering five general questions related to the given video (Activity 1: Observe the video, then
1 Fruit Salad answer the question orally.)
(Video)
2) Arranging scrambled letters into correct words (Activity 2: Listen to your teacher. Arrange the
letters into correct words.)
3) Answering five multiple-choice questions related to the given video (Activity 3: Once again, observe
the video. In pairs, answer the following questions.)
4) Arranging jumbled steps of ‘How to Boil an Egg’
(Activity 4: Listen to your teacher. Fill in the blanks by giving the correct number.)
Meeting Writing Procedure How to Wash 1) Observing scrambled pictures, arranging them in a good order, and answering five general questions
2 Your Hands related to the pictures (Activity 1: Observe the pictures, then answer the question orally.)
324
2) Matching the given pictures with the correct sentences/phrases (Activity 2: Match the pictures with
the correct phrases/sentences.)
3) Giving the examples of paragraphs in procedure text
4) Answering five multiple-choice questions related to a particular text (Activity 3: In pairs, answer the
following questions.)
5) Matching the pictures with the correct phrases/sentences (Activity 4: Match the pictures with the
correct phrases/ sentences.)
6) Writing a short procedure (Activity 5: Make your own procedure text based on the previous task.)
Meeting Reading Birthday Some samples of 1) Observing the given samples of birthday invitations and giving five general questions to answer
3 Invitation birthday (Activity 1: The teacher asks the students five general questions.)
invitations, e.g.
Tyler Anderson’s 2) Discussing the parts of birthday invitation (Activity 2: See the invitation on the board. What are the
7th Birthday Party, parts of an invitation? Choose the correct parts from the box.)
th
Christa’s 14
Birthday, Maya’s 3) Finding the word synonyms related to the given text in pairs (Activity 3: Match the words in column
14th Birthday A with their synonyms in column B.)
325
4) Reading and stating whether the given statements T or F in pairs (Activity 4: In pairs, read the text
and put a tick (v) whether the statements are T or F according to the text.)
5) Individually answering ten multiple questions related to the given invitation (Activity 5: Read the
following texts, then answer the questions by choosing A, B, C, or D.)
Meeting Writing Birthday Still referring to 1) Completing missing words in an invitation (Activity 2: See the invitation on the board. Fill in the
4 Invitation the same birthday blanks with suitable words/phrases. Tell your friends what the parts of the text are.)
invitations and to
some other 2) Completing the missing parts of the given text with the students’ own words (Activity 3: In pairs,
samples read the given information carefully. Complete the text by writing the missing parts in your own
words.)
3) In pairs writing an invitation based on the given information (Activity 4: In pairs, read the given
information carefully. Write the invitation card based on the information.)
4) Individually writing an invitation based on the students’ own information (Activity 5: Think about
your dream of a birthday party. Now, pretend that you will soon celebrate your birthday. Individually,
write your own birthday invitation card.)
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(2) Samples of the Inexperienced Teachers’ Selection of Model Texts
2.1 Taken from Etta’s Lessons
2.1.1 Recount
Barbecue in the Park
Last Sunday, my friend and I went to the park because David’s family invited us to a
barbecue party in the park. We lived nearby so we just walked there. When we got to the
park, there were not many people. David’s family was already there. They arrived there early
to get the best picnic spot with an electronic barbecue grill nearby. When we arrived, they
were cleaning the barbecue. After making sure the barbecue on by pushing the button. The
electric stove turned on and the metal plate became hot. David’s mother put some cooking oil
on the metal plate, and after that she put some sausages, beef steaks, and some onions on the
barbecue. Meanwhile, David’s father was preparing the bread, butter, and the drinks. While
waiting for the meat to cook, David and I joined other boys playing football. When we got
tired, we stopped and enjoyed the sausages, steaks, and some cold soft drinks. The food was
delicious. I think David’s mother is one of the best cooks in the world.
327
2.1.2 Recount
National Park
Last month, my family went to a National Park. It is just outside our town. That’s why
it was not a very long trip. When we got there, we park our car. We walked toward the
entrance gate and paid the entrance fee. Since it was so crowded, we had to stand in a long
queue. After that, we walked around the park. We could see many animals, such as snakes
and lions. Those animals are one of the interesting attractions of the park. Then, we continued
our walk toward the playground. It was another attraction of this park. There were many
children playing on the slide, see-saw, and swing. We walked to the swimming pool and
swam there. Finally, we had a rest under a big tree. It is on the edge of the river. We had our
meals on the mat and had a small talk. We could feel the fresh air. That day was rather
tiresome but we were really happy.
328
2.1.3 Recount
A Beautiful Day at Jogja
Last week, my friends and I went to Jogja. We went there by motorcycles. We visited
many places.
First, we visited Parangtritis beach. The sun shone brightly and the scenery was very
beautiful there. We felt the wind blew across to us. We also saw a lot of people in that beach.
There were many birds flew in the sky. Also, there were many sellers who sold many kinds of
souvenirs.
Second, we visited Gembira Loka Zoo. We saw many kinds of animals there such as
monkeys, tigers, crocodiles, snakes, etc. We looked around in that zoo, and also took pictures
of those animals. Then, we felt hungry, so we went to a restaurant. As soon as we finished our
lunch, we decided to go home.
For me, that was a beautiful day. We really enjoyed it, and I hope I could visit Jogja
again.
329
2.1.4 Recount
My Holiday in Bali
When I was 2nd grade of senior high school, my friends and I went to Bali. We were
there for three days. I had many impressive experiences during the vacation.
First day, we visited Sanur Beach in the morning. We saw the beautiful sunrise
together. It was great scenery. Then, we checked in to the hotel. After prepared ourselves, we
went to Tanah Lot. We met so many other tourists here. They were not only domestic but also
foreign tourists.
Second day, we enjoyed the day on Tanjung Benoa beach. We played so many water
sports such as banana boat, jet sky, speedboat etc. We also went to Penyu Island to see many
unique animals. They were turtles, snakes, and sea birds. We were very happy. In the
afternoon, we went to Kuta Beach to see the amazing sunset and enjoyed the beautiful wave.
The last day, we spent our time in Sangeh. We could enjoy the green and shady forest.
There were so many monkeys. They were so tame but sometimes they could be naughty. We
could make a close interaction with them. After that, we went to Sukowati market for
shopping. That was my lovely time. I bought some Bali T-Shirt and souvenirs.
In the evening, we had to check out from the hotel. We went back home bringing so
many amazing memories of Bali.
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2.1.5 Recount
My Adolescence
I had my adolescence when I was thirteen. It started with acne that showed up on my
face. It was very annoying. It lowered my self-esteem and I was embarrassed to come out of
my house and play with friends. Fortunately, my Mum gave me a good medicine. In three
weeks, the acnes started to vanish although those showed some black spots in my face. That
was my bad experience with adolescence, though there were still lots of good experience too.
331
2.2 Taken from Nuri’s Lessons
2.2.1 Monologue Recount (Biography)
Thomas Edison, 1847-1931: America’s Great Inventor
Welcome to the VOA Special English program, PEOPLE IN AMERICA. Today,

Sarah Long and Bob Doughty tell about the inventor Thomas Alva Edison. He had a major
effect on the lives of people around the world. Thomas Edison is remembered most for the
electric light, his phonograph and his work with motion pictures.
It is extremely difficult to find anyone living today who has not been affected in some
way by Thomas Edison. Most people on Earth have seen some kind of motion picture or
heard some kind of sound recording. And almost everyone has at least seen an electric light.
These are only three of the many devices Thomas Edison invented or helped to
improve. People living in this century have had easier and more enjoyable lives because of his
inventions.
Thomas Alva Edison was born on February eleventh, eighteen forty-seven in the small
town of Milan, Ohio. He was the youngest of seven children. Thomas Edison was self-taught.
He went to school for only three months. His teacher thought he could not learn because he
had a mental problem. But, young Tom Edison could learn. He learned from books and he
experimented.
At the age of ten, he built his own chemical laboratory. He experimented with
chemicals and electricity. He built a telegraph machine and quickly to send and receive
telegraph messages. At the time, sending electric signals over wires was the fastest method of
sending information long distances. At the age of sixteen, he went to work as a telegraph
operator.
332
2.2.2 Dialogue ‘Last Holiday’
Tom Cruise and Julia Roberts are talking about holidays
Tom: So, Julia, where did you go on your last holiday?
Julia: I went to Bali.
Tom: Really? How was it?
Julia: Wonderful! The beaches were clean, the weather was great!
Tom: How long did you stay?
Julia: I stayed for about 10 days.
Tom: What did you do there?
Julia: Well, I went sunbathing and tried lots of local food.
333
2.2.3 Monologue Recount ‘Tina’s Father’s Birthday’
Tina’s father had his birthday last night. Tina told her friends about what she
did with the family.
Hi, everybody. Let me tell you something. Last night we went to a restaurant
with my family. You know, it was my dad’s birthday. Well, we ate a pizza and salad,
and them we ate, you know what, some ice cream with chocolate topping. After dinner
at the restaurant we went home. We arrived home rather late. It was really fun.
334
2.3 Taken from Tria’s Lessons
2.3.1 Procedure
HOW TO MAKE FRUIT SALAD
Materials:
- Grated cheese
- Condensed milk
- Lime juice
- Mayonnaise
- Jelly
- Fruits (Honeydew, dragon fruit, watermelon, apple)
Utensils:
- Bowl
- Knife
Steps:
- First, cut the fruits into small square
- After that, arrange the fruits in the bowl
- Then, add some mayonnaise and milk
- Next, put some jelly
- Now, sprinkle the grated cheese
- Do not forget to spread a little lime juice on top to make it yummy
- Finally, the fruit salad is ready to serve.
2.3.2 Procedure
HOW TO WASH YOUR HANDS

What you need: water, soap, and towel
Steps:
- First, turn the water tap on
- After that, wet your hands
- Then, rub your hands with soap
- Next, rinse your hands thoroughly
- Do not forget to turn off the water tap
- Finally, dry your hands
335
2.3.3 Short Functional Text (Birthday Invitation)
1.
Dear: Ian
You are invited to
Tyler Anderson’s 7th Birthday Party
August 12th at 12:30 PM

Lunch and Cake
9612 Tackaberry Road, Lafayette
Jean and Pat Anderson

RSVP 555-6838
2.
It’s hard to believe
In a blink of an eye
Already 14 years have gone by
Join us as we celebrate Christa’s 14th Birthday

Saturday, May 22, 2011
1– 4 PM
Christa’s House
Jalan Parangtritis Km. 13 Bantul
Dress Code: Prince/Princess
RSVP: 0274-5550000
336
(3) Instructional Materials Adaptation
3.1 The Original Source of the Adapted Monologue Recount ‘Thomas Alva Edison’
Source: http://www.manythings.org/voa/people/Thomas_Edison.html
Thomas Edison, 1847-1931: America's Great Inventor
Download MP3 (Right-click or option-click the link.)
Welcome to the VOA Special English program, PEOPLE IN AMERICA. Today, Sarah Long and Bob Doughty tell about the inventor Thomas Alva Edison. He had a major effect on the
lives of people around the world. Thomas Edison is remembered most for the electric light, his phonograph and his work with motion pictures.
Thomas Edison's major inventions were designed and built in the last years of the eighteen hundreds. However, most of them had their greatest effect in the twentieth century. His
inventions made possible the progress of technology.
It is extremely difficult to find anyone living today who has not been affected in some way by Thomas Edison. Most people on Earth have seen some kind of motion picture or heard some
kind of sound recording. And almost everyone has at least seen an electric light.
These are only three of the many devices Thomas Edison invented or helped to improve. People living in this century have had easier and more enjoyable lives because of his inventions.
Thomas Alva Edison was born on February eleventh, eighteen forty-seven in the small town of Milan, Ohio. He was the youngest of seven children.
Thomas Edison was self-taught. He went to school for only three months. His teacher thought he could not learn because he had a mental problem. But young Tom Edison could
learn. He learned from books and he experimented.
At the age of ten, he built his own chemical laboratory. He experimented with chemicals and electricity. He built a telegraph machine and quickly learned to send and receive telegraph
messages. At the time, sending electric signals over wires was the fastest method of sending information long distances. At the age of sixteen, he went to work as a telegraph operator.
(Reduction)
337
He later worked in many different places. He continued to experiment with electricity. When he was twenty-one, he sent the United States government the documents needed to request the
legal protection for his first invention. The government gave him his first patent on an electric device he called an Electrographic Vote Recorder. It used electricity to count votes in an
election.
In the summer months of eighteen sixty-nine, the Western Union Telegraph Company asked Thomas Edison to improve a device that was used to send financial information. It was called a
stock printer. Mr. Edison very quickly made great improvements in the device. The company paid him forty thousand dollars for his effort. That was a lot of money for the time.
This large amount of money permitted Mr. Edison to start his own company. He announced that the company would improve existing telegraph devices and work on new inventions.
Mr. Edison told friends that his new company would invent a minor device every ten days and produce what he called a "big trick" about every six months. He also proposed that his
company would make inventions to order. He said that if someone needed a device to do some kind of work, just ask and it would be invented.
Within a few weeks Thomas Edison and his employees were working on more than forty different projects. They were either new inventions or would lead to improvements in other
devices. Very quickly he was asking the United States government for patents to protect more than one hundred devices or inventions each year. He was an extremely busy man. But then
Thomas Edison was always very busy.
He almost never slept more than four or five hours a night. He usually worked eighteen hours each day because he enjoyed what he was doing. He believed no one really needed much
sleep. He once said that anyone could learn to go without sleep.
Thomas Edison did not enjoy taking to reporters. He thought it was a waste of time. However, he did talk to a reporter in nineteen seventeen. He was seventy years old at the time and still
working on new devices and inventions.
The reporter asked Mr. Edison which of his many inventions he enjoyed the most. He answered quickly, the phonograph. He said the phonograph was really the most interesting. He also
said it took longer to develop a machine to reproduce sound than any other of his inventions.
Thomas Edison told the reporter that he had listened to many thousands of recordings. He especially liked music by Brahms, Verdi and Beethoven. He also liked popular music.
Many of the recordings that Thomas Edison listened to in nineteen seventeen can still be enjoyed today. His invention makes it possible for people around the world to enjoy the same
recorded sound.
The reporter also asked Thomas Edison what was the hardest invention to develop. He answered quickly again -- the electric light. He said that it was the most difficult and the most
important.
Before the electric light was invented, light was provided in most homes and buildings by oil or natural gas. Both caused many fires each year. Neither one produced much light.
Mr. Edison had seen a huge and powerful electric light. He believed that a smaller electric light would be extremely useful. He and his employees began work on the electric light.
338
An electric light passes electricity through material called a filament or wire. The electricity makes the filament burn and produce light. Thomas Edison and his employees worked for
many months to find the right material to act as the filament.
Time after time a new filament would produce light for a few moments and then burn up. At last Mr. Edison found that a carbon fiber produced light and lasted a long time without burning
up. The electric light worked.
At first, people thought the electric light was extremely interesting but had no value. Homes and businesses did not have electricity. There was no need for it.
Mr. Edison started a company that provided electricity for electric lights for a small price each month. The small company grew slowly at first. Then it expanded rapidly. His company
was the beginning of the electric power industry.
Thomas Edison also was responsible for the very beginnings of the movie industry. While he did not invent the idea of the motion picture, he greatly improved the process. He also
invented the modern motion picture film.
When motion pictures first were shown in the late eighteen hundreds, people came to see movies of almost anything -- a ship, people walking on the street, new automobiles. But in time,
these moving pictures were no longer interesting.
In nineteen-oh-three, an employee of Thomas Edison's motion picture company produced a movie with a story. It was called "The Great Train Robbery." It told a simple story of a group
of western criminals who steal money from a train. Later they are killed by a group of police in a gun fight. The movie was extremely popular. "The Great Train Robbery" started the huge
motion picture industry.
Thomas Alva Edison is remembered most for the electric light, his phonograph and his work with motion pictures. However, he also invented several devices that greatly improved the
telephone. He improved several kinds of machines called generators that produced electricity. He improved batteries that hold electricity. He worked on many different kinds of electric
motors including those for electric trains.
339
Mr. Edison also is remembered for making changes in the invention process. He moved from the Nineteenth Century method of an individual doing the inventing to the Twentieth Century
method using a team of researchers.
In nineteen thirteen, a popular magazine at the time called Thomas Edison the most useful man in America. In nineteen twenty-eight, he received a special medal of honor from the
Congress of the United States.
Thomas Edison died on January sixth, nineteen thirty-one. In the months before his death he was still working very hard. He had asked the government for legal protection for his last
invention. It was patent number one thousand ninety-three.
This Special English program was written and produced by Paul Thompson. The announcers were Sarah Long and Bob Doughty.
I'm Mary Tillotson. Join us again next week for another PEOPLE IN AMERICA program on the Voice of America.
340
3.2 The Adapted Monologue Recount (Biography) on ‘Thomas Alva Edison’
Thomas Edison, 1847-1931: America’s Great Inventor
Welcome to the VOA Special English program, PEOPLE IN AMERICA. Today,

Sarah Long and Bob Doughty tell about the inventor Thomas Alva Edison. He had a major
effect on the lives of people around the world. Thomas Edison is remembered most for the
electric light, his phonograph and his work with motion pictures.
It is extremely difficult to find anyone living today who has not been affected in some
way by Thomas Edison. Most people on Earth have seen some kind of motion picture or
heard some kind of sound recording. And almost everyone has at least seen an electric light.
These are only three of the many devices Thomas Edison invented or helped to
improve. People living in this century have had easier and more enjoyable lives because of his
inventions.
Thomas Alva Edison was born on February eleventh, eighteen forty-seven in the small
town of Milan, Ohio. He was the youngest of seven children. Thomas Edison was self-taught.
He went to school for only three months. His teacher thought he could not learn because he
had a mental problem. But, young Tom Edison could learn. He learned from books and he
experimented.
At the age of ten, he built his own chemical laboratory. He experimented with
chemicals and electricity. He built a telegraph machine and quickly to send and receive
telegraph messages. At the time, sending electric signals over wires was the fastest method of
sending information long distances. At the age of sixteen, he went to work as a telegraph
operator.
341
3.3 The Original Extract of Procedure on ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’
Source of Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2TWBhiIY3S8
Text Extract
In here, we will tell you about how to make fruit salad.

First, we need grated cheese, condensed milk, lime, mayonnaise, bowl,
honeydew, dragon fruit, and apple. Oh this is jelly, knife.
Step 1, cut the fruits into little square like this. Arrange all cut fruits into the
bowl, as much as you need.
And step 2, sprinkle the mayonnaise into the bowl.
Step 3, sprinkle the milk, like this.
Step 4, sprinkle the jelly.
And, last, sprinkle the cheese.

Don’t forget to give a lime to make it more yummy.
It’s done. Delicious salad ala Nawa and Nabila ready to serve.
342
3.4 The Modification Process of Procedure on ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’
The Modification Process

Omit some words that are potentially confusing for the students
(In here, we will tell you about) how to make fruit salad.
(First, we need) grated cheese ....
(Step 1), cut the fruits into little square (like this)
(And step 2), sprinkle the mayonnaise (into the bowl).
(It’s done.) Delicious salad (a la Nawa and Nabila) ready to serve.
Add some words/conjunctions to make the students experience what they have
learned about the materials: the linguistic features of procedure
We need grated cheese, condensed milk, lime (...) → adding a word juice
Don’t forget to give a (...) lime to make it more yummy → adding a word a
little
Step 1, (...) cut the fruits into little square → adding a conjunction first
(...) Arrange all cut fruits into the bowl → adding a conjunction after that
And step 2, sprinkle the mayonnaise → adding a conjunction then
Step 4, (...) sprinkle the jelly → adding a conjunction next
Change the words into more familiar words to help students understand the
video better
Cut the fruits into little square → little changed into small
And step 2, sprinkle the mayonnaise → sprinkle changed into add
Step 4, sprinkle the jelly → sprinkle changed into put
Don’t forget to give a lime to make it more yummy → give changed into
spread
343
3.5 The Adapted Procedure on ‘How to Make Fruit Salad’
HOW TO MAKE FRUIT SALAD
Materials:
- Grated cheese
- Condensed milk
- Lime juice
- Mayonnaise
- Jelly
- Fruits (Honeydew, dragon fruit, watermelon, apple)
Utensils:
- Bowl
- Knife
Steps:
- First, cut the fruits into small square
- After that, arrange the fruits in the bowl
- Then, add some mayonnaise and milk
- Next, put some jelly
- Now, sprinkle the grated cheese
- Do not forget to spread a little lime juice on top to make it yummy
- Finally, the fruit salad is ready to serve.
344
3.6 The Original Sources of Birthday Invitations
Source of Pictures: http://www.announcingit.com
345
3.7 The Modification Process of Birthday Invitations
The Modification Process The Adapted Texts

Modifying an invitation card with the
Dear: Ian
features of an invitation: name of the
invitee, body of the invitation (name of You are invited to
the event, day and date, time,
Tyler Anderson’s 7th
place/venue), additional information, Birthday Party
and name of the inviter.
August 12th at 12:30 PM
Lunch and Cake
9612 Tackaberry Road,
Lafayette
Jean and Pat Anderson

RSVP 555-6838
Adding some more contextual

information to the adapted birthday It’s hard to
believe
invitation.
In a blink of an eye
Already 14 years have gone by
Join us as we celebrate
Christa’s 14th Birthday
Saturday, May 22, 2011
1– 4 PM
Christa’s House
Jalan Parangtritis Km. 13 Bantul
Dress Code: Prince/Princess
RSVP: 0274-5550000
346
3.8 The Original Series of Pictures and Phrases for Procedure on ‘How to Wash Your
Hands’
Source of Pictures:
http://www.setbc.org/pictureset/resources/hand_washing_routine/hand_washing_routine.pdf
347
3.9 The Modification Process of Procedure on ‘How to Wash Your Hands’
The Modification Process The Modified Parts

Adding the parts of the text skeleton HOW TO WASH YOUR HANDS
comprising the title, the materials, and the What you need:
steps.
Steps:
Adding the temporal conjunctions as part First, turn the water tap on
of the linguistic feature of procedure. After that, wet your hands
Then, rub your hands with soap
Next, rinse your hands thoroughly
Finally, dry your hands
Adding the imperative verbs as part of First, turn the water tap on
the linguistic feature of procedure. After that, wet your hands
Then, rub your hands with soap
Next, rinse your hands thoroughly
Do not forget to turn off the
water tap
Finally, dry your hands
348
3.10 The Adapted Procedure on ‘How to Wash Your Hands’
HOW TO WASH YOUR HANDS

What you need: water, soap, and towel
Steps:
- First, turn the water tap on
- After that, wet your hands
- Then, rub your hands with soap
- Next, rinse your hands thoroughly
- Do not forget to turn off the water tap
- Finally, dry your hands
349
(4) Instructional Materials Writing
Taken from Nuri’s Third Observed Teaching Session
4.1 Monologue Recount ‘Going on Vacation to Glagah Beach’
Hi, everybody. Let me tell you something. Yesterday, Bunga, Made, Seto and I went
to Glagah beach. We prepared many tools to play with the sand. So, really early in the
morning we went to the beach. Well, we arrived there at 6 a.m. However, we were really
shocked. You know what? Rubbish was everywhere. It was really not comfortable, you
know? Then we decided to clean the rubbish first. We took a big dustbin. Then we put all the
rubbish there. Finally, after an hour the beach was clean. It was more comfortable. I was
really happy.
350
Taken from Tria’s Fourth Observed Teaching Session
4.2 Activity 2
Activity 2
See the invitation on the board. Fill in the blanks with suitable words/phrases. Tell
your friends what are the parts of the text.
You’re invited
Please ... us at a party to ... that our daughter

join
Karen Lucy Hale see
is turning 15
celebrate
September 16th, 2014 from ...
123 Rosewood Street, CA

RSVP
Mark and Rose Hale
... at 345.333 to Gerry 1 – 4 PM
Hope to ... you there
351
4.3 Activity 3
Activity 3
In pairs, read the given information carefully. Complete the text by writing the missing parts
in your own words.
Mr. and Mrs. Tedjakusuma will celebrate their son’s, Ardhi Tedjakusuma’s birthday.
The boy was born on May 11, 2002. He wants to invite all his classmates, students of grade 7
SMP Negeri 5 Jetis. The family will hold the party in Lombok Abang Restaurant, Jalan
Parangtritis Km. 5 Bantul. It will start at 3 in the afternoon and lasts for 2 hours. Students who
will come or will not come to the party should make a call to Ardhi on (0274) 5556666. Ardhi
wants his friends to wear casual clothes.
To: …………………
Come join us as we celebrate
………………………………
on May 11, 2014 from ….. at …………..
Mr. and Mrs. Tedjakusuma
RSVP. ………………..
Dress Code: …………………..
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4.4 Activity 4
Activity 4
In pairs, read the given information carefully. Write the invitation card based on the
information.
Alexa Sanders is going to have a birthday party. Alexa is 14 years old this Saturday,
June 5, 2014. She wants to invite all of her classmates. The party will be held at her house at
888 Lakewood Road, started at 2 PM. There will be pizza and syrup at 3 PM. She hopes to
see all her classmates with their favorite cartoon character’s costume.
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APPENDIX X THE PROCESS OF CONCEPTUALIZING CONTENT AND ORGANIZING THE INSTRUCTION
A. THE EXPERIENCED TEACHERS’ CONTENT CONCEPTUALIZATION AND ORGANIZATION OF ACTIVITIES
Table 10.1: The experienced teachers’ content conceptualization and organization of activities
Patterns of Content Categories of Skills and Texts Learning Activities Organizing Principles
Integration/ Skills Intended to Achieve
& Texts Focus
Reading Instructions & Particular Text Types (Caution-Notice, Report, & Recount)
Meri
Meeting 1 The linguistic feature of the text Matching words related to caution and Text-based Teaching and Learning
Short Functional (vocabulary & verbs used in Caution & notice to their meanings in Indonesian Cycle
Text (Caution & Notice) language
Notice) Joint Construction of the Text
The linguistic feature of the text (sentence Arranging jumbled words into good notices Joint Construction of the Text
pattern/ imperative sentences used in notice or cautions in groups
or caution)
Reading skill (identifying implied meaning A game: Joint Construction of the Text
of short functional text in the forms of Matching the given cautions or notices to
caution and notice) the places they can be found (class work)
354
Meeting 3 The linguistic feature of the text Underlining the correct words related to the Text-based Teaching and Learning
Report Text (vocabulary related to the report text titled report text titled ‘Elephants’ pronounced by Cycle
‘Elephants’) the teacher
Pronunciation Independent Construction of the
Text
A particular writing skill (the text structure Arranging jumbled paragraphs into a report Joint Construction of the Text
of the report text titled ‘Elephants’) text.
Reading skill (finding information in the A game: Joint Construction of the Text
text) Given a set of cards containing some
statements, the students working in groups
were required to answer some questions
presented on the slide.
Sisilia
Meeting 1 The linguistic feature of the text Discussing the meaning of key words in Exploration, Elaboration, &
Recount Text (with (vocabulary related to the theme ‘holiday’) groups Confirmation (EEC)
the theme ‘Holiday’) Elaboration
The linguistic feature of the text (simple Arranging words into correct sentences Elaboration
past tense: sentence construction in simple
past tense)
The linguistic feature of the text (simple Completing missing words of a recount text Elaboration
past tense: verbs used in simple past tense) entitled ‘Detective Alibi’
Reading skill (determining general ideas of Answering five pre-reading questions based Elaboration
355
the text) on the given text about ‘A Study Tour to
Bali’
Reading skill (determining the meanings of Reading and matching the words with their Elaboration
word synonyms) synonyms based on the text about ‘A Study
Tour to Bali’
Various reading skills (determining: (a) Answering ten reading comprehension Elaboration
main idea, (b) the linguistic features of the questions based on the text about ‘A Study
text, i.e. the meanings of words & verbs, (c) Tour to Bali’
word references, (d) general idea of the
text, (e) implied information, (f) stated
information, and (g) the communicative
purpose of the text
Meeting 2 The linguistic feature of the text Vocabulary practices: Exploration, Elaboration, &
Recount Text (with (vocabulary related to the theme ‘football’) - Discussing the meaning of the key Confirmation (EEC)
the theme ‘Football) vocabulary given by the teacher in groups Exploration
- Finding words related to football
- Figuring out names of EPL players and
their clubs
The linguistic feature of the text (simple Arranging words into sentences (in simple Elaboration
past tense: sentence construction in simple past tense)
past tense)
Various reading skills (determining: (a) Answering ten reading questions based on Elaboration
356
main idea, (b) word references, (c) word the text entitled ‘David Beckham’
synonym, (d) implied information, and (e)
stated information (These micro skills were
neither explicitly stated in the lesson plan
nor in the pre-lesson interview.)
The linguistic feature of the text (verbs in Completing some missing words of a Elaboration
simple past tense) paragraph (listening)
Listening skill (identifying words)
Listening and Narrative
Meri
Meeting 2 Listening skill (identifying the meaning of Matching the words with their synonyms Text-based teaching and learning
Narrative (The Story words presented by the teacher) cycle
of Jack and the The linguistic feature of the text
Beanstalk) (vocabulary/word synonyms)
- The linguistic feature of the text (random Listening to the video of the story of Jack
vocabulary related to the story) and the Beanstalk and completing the
- Listening skill (identifying missing words missing words in the story
in the text)
Listening skills (identifying implied Stating T/F on eight statements about the
information of the text and pronunciation) story of Jack and the Beanstalk
Sisilia
Meeting 3 The linguistic feature of the text Classifying adjectives into positive and Exploration, Elaboration, &
357
Narrative (The Story (vocabulary related to the moral value of negative Confirmation (EEC)
of Cinderella) the story)
The linguistic feature of the text (simple Arranging words into sentences
past tense: sentence pattern)
Listening skills (identifying specific/stated Answering ten listening questions based on
information) (This micro skill was not the story of Cinderella
stated in the lesson plan)
- The linguistic feature of the text (verbs in Completing the missing words of the story
narrative text) of ‘Cinderella’
- Listening skill (No specific micro
listening skill was stated.)
Meeting 4 The linguistic feature of the text Finding related words to the story of Snow Exploration, Elaboration, &
Narrative (The Story (vocabulary related to the given story) White Confirmation (EEC)
of Snow White) The linguistic feature of the text (simple Arranging words into sentences
past tense: sentence pattern)
Listening skills (No specific micro listening Answering listening questions based on the
skill was stated in the lesson plan.) story of ‘Snow White’
- The linguistic feature of the text (verbs in Completing some missing words of the
narrative text) story of ‘Snow White’
- Listening skill (No specific micro
listening skill was stated.)
Susan
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Integration of Listening-Speaking Skills
Meeting 1 Listening skill (identifying the information Listening to a dialogue and identifying the Exploration, Elaboration, &
Listening-Speaking in the dialogue and the expressions used in information and the expressions used in the Confirmation (EEC)
(Transactional & the dialogue) dialogue
Interpersonal Text) Listening skills (identifying the meaning of Listening to dialogues containing the
the expressions of asking for/ giving/ expressions of asking for/ giving/ declining
declining things and offering/ accepting/ things and offering/ accepting/ declining
declining things and identifying specific things:
information) a) Listening to a dialogue and identifying
the menu ordered by the customer
(Practice 1)
b) Listening to a dialogue and identifying
the menu ordered by two customers
(Practice 2)
Meeting 2 Listening skill (identifying the meaning of Listening to and repeating the expressions Exploration, Elaboration, &
Listening-Speaking the target expressions) of asking for/giving/declining things and Confirmation (EEC)
(Transactional & Speaking skill (saying the target the ones of offering/accepting/declining
Interpersonal Text) expressions) things in drills (by means of videos)
Speaking skill (practicing the target Practicing these expressions in a game
expressions in a game) entitled ‘The Best Waiter’
Listening skill (identifying the meaning of Listening to another model of conversation
the target expressions)
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Speaking skill (practicing the target Preparing a role play (a conversation in a
expressions in a role play) restaurant setting) to practice the
expressions
Meeting 3 Speaking skill (practicing the target Preparing a dialogue Exploration, Elaboration, &
Listening-Speaking expressions in a role play) Confirmation (EEC)
(Transactional & Speaking skill (practicing the target Practicing the dialogue
Interpersonal Text) expressions in a role play)
Integration of Reading-Writing Skills
Meeting 4 The linguistic feature of the text (typical Identifying typical sentences usually used The Stages of Opening, Main, &
Reading-Writing sentences used in ads) in advertisement and discussing their Closing Activities
(Short Functional meanings
Text/ Advertisement) Main Activities
- The linguistic feature of the text Reading an advertisement on ‘Jejamuran Main Activities
(vocabulary) Restaurant’ and identifying specific
- The generic structure of the text information (food category, location, price,
- Reading skill (identifying specific/detailed atmosphere, special offer, reasons why the
information) restaurant is considered interesting, reasons
for choosing the restaurant)
- The linguistic feature of the text Reading an advertisement on ‘House of Main Activities
(vocabulary) Raminten’ and identifying specific
- The generic structure of the text information (food category, location, price,
- Reading skill (identifying specific/detailed atmosphere, special offer, reasons why the
360
information) restaurant is considered interesting, reasons
for choosing the restaurant)
Writing skill (writing typical sentences used Writing typical sentences used in Main Activities
in advertisements on restaurant) advertisement on restaurant (in groups)
Writing skill (writing a short restaurant Writing an advertisement on any restaurant Main Activities
advertisement) of the students’ interest (individual work)
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B. THE INEXPERIENCED TEACHERS’ CONTENT CONCEPTUALIZATION AND ORGANIZATION OF ACTIVITIES
Table 10.2: The inexperienced teachers’ content conceptualization and organization of activities
Patterns of Content Categories of Skills and Texts Learning Activities Organizing Principles
Integration/ Skills Intended to Achieve
& Texts Focus
Etta
Integration of Reading-Writing Skills and Recount
Meeting 1 Various reading skills (Identifying: 1) main Completing two reading activities in the Exploration, Elaboration, &
Reading & Recount idea, 2) word meanings, 3) verbs, 4) form of multiple choice questions Confirmation (EEC)
reference, 5) general information of the text,
6) implied information, 7) stated/ specific
Elaboration
information)
Meeting 2 The text structure (the generic structure of Arranging jumbled paragraphs into a good Exploration, Elaboration, &
Writing & Recount recount) recount in groups Confirmation (EEC)
The linguistic feature of the text (vocabulary) Finding the meanings of some related
vocabulary in dictionary
- The linguistic feature of the text (grammar/ Constructing sentences in simple past
simple past tense) tense based on a series of pictures about
- Writing skill (writing simple sentences in ‘Going to the Zoo’
simple past tense)
362
Meeting 3 Various reading skills (Identifying: 1) Answering three reading comprehension Exploration, Elaboration, &
Reading & Recount general idea of recount, 2) main idea of practices Confirmation (EEC)
paragraph in recount, 3) stated/ specific
information, 4) word reference, 5) word
Elaboration
meaning
Meeting 4 The linguistic feature of recount (simple past Changing sentences in simple present Exploration, Elaboration, &
Writing & Recount tense) tense into the ones in simple past tense Confirmation (EEC)
The linguistic feature of recount (verbs in Completing missing words by choosing
simple past tense) correct verbs either in simple present
tense or simple past tense
- The linguistic feature of recount (simple Sequencing a series of pictures about

past tense) ‘Going Camping’ and writing a simple
- Writing skill (constructing sentences in past tense sentence for each picture
simple past tense to form a recount)
Nuri
Integration of Listening- Speaking Skills and Monologue Recount
Meeting 1 - Answering several general questions The Pre-Listening Stage
Listening & related to ‘Thomas Alva Edison’
Monologue - Discussing the meaning of the provided
Recount vocabulary related to the text in pairs
- Listening skill (identifying various specific Listening to the audio record and The Whilst-Listening Stage
363
information in the monologue recount) completing the missing words in the text
- Monologue recount (biography) titled ‘Thomas Alva Edison’
- Listening skill (identifying the social Determining the social purpose of the text
purpose of the text)
- The social purpose of the text
- Listening skill (noticing the verbs and Noticing and underlining the verbs and
conjunctions found in the text) conjunctions found in the text
- The linguistic features of the text
(grammar/ simple past tense and
conjunctions)
Reflecting and concluding the lesson with The Post-Listening Stage
the teacher
Meeting 2 Reviewing the previous lesson The Pre-Speaking Stage
Speaking &
- Listening skill (identifying stated/ specific Listening to a dialog on ‘Last Holiday’ The Whilst-Speaking Stage
Monologue
information) and answering several questions
Recount
- Speaking skill (answering the questions)
- Monologue recount (dialogue)
- Speaking skill (practicing to say the Repeating after the teacher the
expressions) expressions and intonation used in the
- The expressions used in monologue recount model dialogue
(dialogue)
- Speaking skill (practicing the language Practicing the dialogue (containing
364
expressions used in monologue recount) dialogue lines in simple past tense) in
- The expressions used in monologue recount pairs
(dialogue)
- Speaking skill (performing an interview by Doing a guided interview by using the
using the given language expressions) provided worksheet
- The expressions used in monologue recount
(dialogue)
- Speaking skill (presenting the interview Reporting the interview results
results in the form of monologue recount) individually (in the form of monologue
- Monologue recount (dialogue) recount)
Reflecting and concluding the lesson with The Post-Speaking Stage
the teacher
Speaking &
- Listening skill (identifying the language Listening to monologue recount while The Whilst-Speaking Stage
Monologue
used in monologue recount) completing the missing words of the text
Recount
- The language expressions used in
monologue recount (dialogue)
Listening skill (identifying specific Answering eight questions related to the
information of the text) text
- The text structure Identifying the generic structure of the
text
- The linguistic feature and the text structure Arranging jumbled spoken lines of
365
monologue recount in a sequential order
- Speaking skill (presenting the constructed Presenting the result of the group
lines of monologue recount) discussion to the class
- Monologue recount
the teacher
Speaking &
- Speaking skill (practicing monologue Constructing a monologue recount based The Whilst-Speaking Stage
Monologue
recount in groups) on a series of pictures orally in groups
Recount
- The linguistic feature and the text structure
- Speaking skill (practicing monologue Doing a chain story
recount in groups
- The linguistic feature and the text structure
- Speaking skill (practicing and performing Constructing a short monologue recount
monologue recount individually) based on the students’ own experience
- Monologue recount and presenting the student’s own
monologue recount individually
the teacher
Tria
Integration of Listening- Writing Skills with Procedure
Meeting 1 Listening skill (identifying general Answering five general questions related Building Knowledge of the Field
366
Listening & information related to the text) to the given video (Activity 1: Observe
Procedure the video, then answer the question
orally.)
- Listening skill (identifying vocabulary Arranging scrambled letters into correct Modeling of the Text
related to the given procedure as presented in words (Activity 2: Listen to your teacher.
the video) Arrange the letters into correct words)
- The linguistic feature of the text
(vocabulary)
- Various listening skills (identifying: 1) Answering five multiple choice questions Joint Construction of the Text
general information of the text, 2) implied related to the given video (Activity 3:
information, 3) stated/ specific information) Once again, observe the video. In pairs,
- Procedure text answer the following questions.)
- Listening skill (listening to sequence the Arranging jumbled steps of ‘How to Boil Independent Construction of the Text
order of the procedural steps) an Egg’ (Activity 5: Listen to your
- The text structure (the generic structure of teacher. Fill in the blanks by giving the
the text) correct number.)
Meeting 2 Procedural steps (the text structure) Observing scrambled pictures, arranging Building Knowledge of the Field
Writing & them in a good order, and answering five
Procedure general questions related to the pictures
(Activity 1: Observe the pictures, then
answer the question orally.)
The linguistic feature of procedure (phrases Matching the given pictures with the Modeling of the Text
367
or sentences describing the procedural steps correct sentences/phrases (Activity 2:
of ‘How to Wash Your Hands’) Match the pictures with the correct
phrases/sentences.)
Reading skill (identifying specific Answering five multiple choice questions Joint Construction of the Text
information in the given procedure on ‘How related to a particular text (Activity 3: In
to Wash Your Hands) pairs, answer the following questions.)
The linguistic feature of procedure (phrases Matching the pictures with the correct Independent Construction of the Text
or sentences describing particular procedural phrases/sentences (Activity 4: Match the
steps on ‘How to Brush Your Teeth’) pictures with the correct phrases/
sentences.)
Writing skill (writing a short and simple Writing a short procedure (Activity 5: Independent Construction of the Text
procedure by following the provided text Make your own procedure text based on
skeleton) the previous task.)
Integration of Reading-Writing Skills and Short Functional Text (Birthday Invitation)
Meeting 3 Observing the given samples of birthday Building Knowledge of the Field
Reading & invitations and giving five general
Birthday Invitation questions to answer (Activity 1/ The
teacher asks the students some questions.)
- The text structure Matching the parts of birthday invitation Modeling of the Text
(Activity 2: See the invitation on the
board. What are the parts of an invitation?
Choose the correct parts from the box.)
368
- The linguistic feature of the text (related Finding the word synonyms related to the Joint Construction of the Text
vocabulary) given text in pairs (Activity 3: Match the
words in column A with their synonyms
in column B.)
- Reading skill (identifying stated/ specific Reading and stating whether the given
information of the text) statements T or F in pairs (Activity 4: In
- The text structure (parts of birthday pairs, read the text and put a tick (v)
invitation) whether the statements are T or F
according to the text.)
- Various reading skills (identifying: 1) the Individually answering ten multiple Independent Construction of the Text
social purpose of the text, 2) the general questions related to the given invitation
information of the text, 3) stated/ specific (Activity 5: Read the following texts, then
information, 4) implied information, 5) word answer the questions by choosing A, B, C,
meanings, 6) word reference) or D.)
- The social purpose of the text
- The text structure (parts of birthday
invitation)
369
Meeting 4 Answering four questions related to the Presentation
Writing & Birthday Invitation invitation read by the teacher (Activity 1/ The
teacher reads an invitation. She then asks the
students the following questions.)
- Reading skill (identifying specific Completing missing words in an invitation Practice
information) (Activity 2: See the invitation on the board. Fill
- The text structure (the generic structure of in the blanks with suitable words/phrases. Tell
the text) your friends what the parts of the text are.)
- The text structure (the generic structure of Completing the missing parts of the given text
the text) with the students’ own words (Activity 3: In
pairs, read the given information carefully.
Complete the text by writing the missing parts
in your own words.)
Writing skill (writing a short birthday In pairs writing an invitation based on the given
invitation based on the given information) information (Activity 4: In pairs, read the given
information carefully. Write the invitation card
based on the information.)
Writing skill (writing a short birthday Individually writing an invitation based on the Production
invitation based on the students’ own students’ own information (Activity 5: Think
information) about your dream of a birthday party. Now,
pretend that you will soon celebrate your
birthday. Individually, write your own birthday
invitation card.)
370
371
APPENDIX XI THE PROCESS OF ASSESSING STUDENT LEARNING
(1) The Experienced Teachers’ Selection of Classroom-based Assessment Activities
Table 11.1: The experienced teachers’ selection of classroom-based assessment activities
Grade/ The Standard of Assessment Competences Competences

Meeting Competence and the Activities Planned to Attached in
Basic Competence Achieve as Stated the Activities
in the Lesson
Plans
Meri
IX/ 1 Standard of Answering ten Reading micro Reading micro
Competence: multiple choice skills: skills:
Reading questions about
Understanding caution and Identifying: Identifying:
meanings in simple, notice (a) the implied (a) the general
short functional text meaning of the idea of the text,
and essay in the forms text, (b) the (b) a word
of narrative and report communicative meaning, (c)
to interact in the daily purpose/meanings, the implied
life context and (c) the meaning of the
linguistic features text, (d)
Basic Competence: of the text detailed
Responding to information
meanings in short
functional text
accurately, fluently,
and acceptably to
interact in the daily life
context
IX/ 2 Standard of Stating T/F on Listening micro Listening
Competence: eight statements skill: micro skills:
Listening about the story
Understanding of Jack and the Identifying the Identifying:
372
meanings in spoken, Beanstalk implied meaning (a) the implied
short functional text of the text meaning of the
and monologue in the text, (b) stated
forms of narrative and information
report to interact in the
daily life context
Basic Competence:
Responding to short
and simple monologue
in the forms of
narrative and report
texts accurately,
fluently, and
acceptably to interact
in the daily life context
IX/ 3 Standard of A game: Reading micro The same
Competence: Given a set of skill: reading micro
Reading cards containing skill
Understanding some statements, Finding
meanings in simple the students information in the
and short functional working in text
text and essay in the groups were
forms of narrative and required to
report to interact in the answer some
daily life context questions
presented on the
Basic Competence: slide.
Responding to
meanings and
rhetorical steps in
simple and short essay
in the forms of
narrative and report
and acceptably to
context
373
IX/ 4 Standard of Writing a short Writing a short The same
Competence: descriptive text descriptive text writing macro
Writing skill
Expressing meanings
in simple and short (Unclear writing
functional text and micro skills that
essay in the forms of were intended to
descriptive and achieve)
procedure to interact in
Basic Competence:
Expressing meanings
and rhetorical steps in
simple, short, written
essay in the forms of
descriptive and
procedure accurately,
fluently, and
acceptably to interact
Susan
VIII/1 (1) - Listening to a Listening micro The same
VIII/2 Standard of dialogue and skills: micro skills
Competence: identifying the
Listening menu ordered by Identifying the
Understanding the customer meaning of the
meanings in simple (Practice 1) expressions of
transactional and asking for/ giving/
interpersonal - Listening to a declining things
conversation to interact dialogue and and offering/
in the daily life context identifying what accepting/
the two men declining things
Basic Competence: ordered and identifying
Responding to (Practice 2) specific
meanings in simple information/ the
transactional (to get menu ordered by
things done) and customers)
374
VIII/3 interpersonal (to Role play Speaking skill: The same
socialize) conversation Speaking: speaking skill
accurately, fluently, Compose a Practicing the
and acceptably to dialogue at a target expressions
interact in the daily life restaurant where in a role play
context by involving you and your
the expressions of: friends visited.
asking for, giving, and
declining services/
things; asking for and
denying information;
asking for and giving
opinions; offering/
accepting/ declining
things.
(2)
Standard of
Competence:
Speaking
Expressing meanings
in short, simple, and
spoken transactional
and interpersonal
conversation to interact
Basic Competence:
Responding to
meanings in simple
transactional (to get
things done) and
interpersonal (to
socialize) conversation
and acceptably to
context by involving
375
the expressions of:
asking for, giving, and
declining services/
things; asking for and
denying information;
asking for and giving
opinions; offering/
accepting/ declining
things.
VIII/4 (1) (1) (1) The same
Standard of Reading an Reading micro reading micro
Competence: advertisement on skill: skills
Reading ‘Jejamuran
Understanding Restaurant’ and Identifying
meanings in simple, identifying specific
short, and written specific information
functional text and information
essay in the form of (food category, Reading micro
advertisement to location, price, skill for exploring
interact in the daily life atmosphere, the given text:
context special offer,
reasons why the Identifying the
Basic Competence: restaurant is linguistic feature
Reading considered of the text
Responding to interesting, (vocabulary) and
meanings in short and reasons for the generic
written functional text choosing the structure of the
accurately, fluently, restaurant) text
and acceptably to
context
(2) (2) (2)

Standard of Writing an Writing skill: The same
Competence: advertisement on writing skill
Writing any restaurant of Writing a short
Expressing meanings the students’ restaurant
376
in simple and short interest advertisement
functional text and (individual
essay in the form of work)
advertisement to
context
Basic Competence:
Expressing meanings
in simple, short, and
written functional text
and acceptably to
context
Sisilia
VIII/1 Standard of Answering ten Reading micro The same
Competence: reading skills: reading micro
Reading comprehension skills, except
Understanding questions based Determining: (a) that the
meanings in simple, on the text about the main idea of following
short, and spoken ‘A Study Tour to the text, (b) the micro skills
functional text in the Bali’ linguistic features were not
forms of recount and of the text, i.e. the accommodated:
narrative to interact in meanings of
the daily life context words & verbs, (c) Determining:
word references, (b) the
Basic Competence: (d) the general linguistic
Responding to idea of the text, features of the
meanings and (e) the implied text in terms of
rhetorical steps in meaning of the verbs & (f) the
simple and short essay text, (f) the stated stated
in the forms of information, and information
recount and narrative (g) the
accurately, fluently, communicative
and acceptably to purpose of the text
context
377
VIII/2 The same as above Did not specify a
selected for the first particular
meeting activity to be
used as an
assessment
activity
VIII/3 Standard of Did not specify a
Competence: particular
Listening activity to be
Understanding used as an
meanings in simple assessment
and short transactional activity
and interpersonal
conversation to interact
Basic Competence:
Responding to
meanings in simple
and short monologue
in the forms of
narrative and recount
and acceptably to
context
VIII/4 The same as above Did not specify a

selected for the third particular
meeting activity to be
used as an
assessment
activity
378
(2) The Examples of the Correspondence of the Assessment Activity with the
Intended Micro Reading Skills
Table 11.2: The correspondence of the multiple choice question items in the first
assessment activity with the intended micro skills
No. The Question Items The Micro Reading Skills
Intended to Achieve
1. Identifying the general idea

CAUTION of the text
WET FLOOR
What does the text above mean? The floor is …
A. wet so that people should make it dry.

B. wet so that people should not make it
dry.
C. slippery so that people have to be very
careful.
D. slippery so that people may not care of
it.
2. Identifying a word meaning

NO SURFING
ALLOWED
The word ‘allowed’ is similar in meaning with
A. banned
B. forbidden
C. prohibited
D. permitted
3. What does the word ‘surfing’ mean? Identifying a word meaning
A. Swimming in the seashore

B. Fishing in the seashore
C. The sport of riding on a wave on special
board
D. The sport of water polo done at the
beach
4. Where do you possibly find the notice? Identifying the implied

meaning of the text
A. At the beach
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B. At the meadows
C. At the mountain
D. At the river
5. Identifying the general idea

CAUTION of the text
HOT SURFACE
DO NOT TOUCH
What does the caution mean? People …
A. are allowed to touch the substance.

B. are forbidden to touch the substance.
C. are instructed to touch the substance.
D. are not banned to touch the substance.
6. The caution is usually found in … Identifying the implied

meaning of the text
A. a restaurant
B. an office
C. a factory
D. a hall
7. Identifying the implied

CAUTION! meaning of the text
SWITCH OFF THE ENGINE WHILE
FILLING UP A GAS TANK
Where do you usually find the sign above?
A. at a railway station
B. at a station wagon
C. at a bus station
D. at a petrol station
8. Why should we switch off the engine? Because Identifying detailed

information
…
A. the engine will be on.

B. the tank will be full.
C. the gas will run out.
D. the fuel can burn the engine.
9. Identifying the implied

ARTICLES ARE meaning of the text
CONSIDERED SOLD
IF YOU BROKE
THEM
The caution means that if you break the articles
380
you must …
A. sell the broken articles.

B. pay for the articles.
C. find the other articles.
D. break the other articles.
10. What is the other word of ‘articles’? Identifying a word meaning
A. pieces of writing in a magazine

B. goods on the display to sell
C. goods made from glasses
D. everything in the supermarket
381
Table 11.3: The correspondence of the reading comprehension questions in Sisilia’s 1st
assessment activity with the intended micro skills
No. The Question Items The Micro Skills Intended

to Achieve
1. What is the main idea of paragraph 1? Identifying the main idea of
the text
2. “I was so exhausted because I had to sit along Identifying the linguistic

the journey.” The underlined word means … feature of the text
(vocabulary)
3. “There were so many activities to do there.” Identifying word reference

The underlined word refers to …
4. What did they do along the journey? Identifying stated information
5. What does the text tell us about? Identifying the general idea of
the text
6. What did the writer do in Kuta beach? Identifying stated information

7. What was Garuda Wisnu Kencana? Identifying implied
information
8. How is the generic structure of recount text? No stated micro skill is

matched.
9. What is the purpose of the text? Determining the

communicative purpose of the
text
10. How was the study tour to Bali for the writer? Identifying implied
information
382
(1) The Inexperienced Teachers’ Selection of Classroom-based Assessment Activities
Table 11.4: The inexperienced teachers’ selection of classroom-based assessment activities
Grade/ The Standard of Competence and the Assessment Activities Competences Planned to Competences
Meeting Basic Competence Achieve as Stated in the Attached in the
Lesson Plans Activities
Etta
VIII/ 1 Standard of Competence: Answering reading Reading micro skills: Reading micro skills:
Reading comprehension questions on the Identifying: Identifying:
Understanding meanings in short and text titled ‘Barbecue in the Park’ (1) main idea, (2) word (1) main idea of a
simple essay in the forms of recount and meanings, (3) verbs, (4) particular paragraph in
narrative to interact in the daily life reference, (5) general the text, (2)
context information of the text, (6) stated/specific
implied information, and information
Basic Competence: (7) stated/specific
Responding to meanings and rhetorical information
steps in short and simple essay in the
383
forms of recount and narrative accurately,
fluently, acceptably to interact in the daily
life context
VIII/ 2 Standard of Competence: No specific activity was - -
Writing allocated for an assessment
Expressing meanings of short, simple, and activity
written functional text and essay in the
forms of recount and narrative to interact
Basic Competence:
Expressing meanings and the rhetorical
steps in short, simple, and written essay in
the forms of recount and narrative to
VIII/ 3 Standard of Competence: Answering ten reading Reading micro skills: The same reading
Reading comprehension questions on the Identifying: micro skills
Understanding meanings of short and text titled ‘My Holiday in Bali’ (1) general idea of the text,
simple essay in the forms of recount and (2) main idea of particular
narrative to interact in the daily life paragraphs in the text, (3)
context stated/ specific information,
(4) word reference, (5)
384
Basic Competence: word meaning
Responding to meanings and rhetorical
steps in short and simple essay in the
forms of recount and narrative accurately,
fluently, acceptably to interact in the daily
life context
VIII/ 4 Standard of Competence: Sequencing a series of pictures Writing micro skills: Writing micro skills:
Writing about ‘Going Camping’ and Constructing sentences in - Identifying the
Expressing meanings in short, simple, and writing a simple past tense simple past tense to form a organization of the text
written functional text and essay in the sentence for each picture recount text by sequencing the
forms of recount and narrative to interact pictures
- Constructing
Basic Competence: sentences in simple
Expressing meanings and rhetorical steps past tense to form a
in short, simple, and written essay in the recount text
forms of recount and narrative to interact
Nuri
VIII/ 1 Standard of Competence: Listening to a certain chunk of a Listening micro skills: Listening micro skill:
Listening particular text and filling in the Identifying: Identifying the missing
Understanding meanings in short and missing words of the text (1) stated/ specific verbs (in simple past
385
simple spoken functional text and information, (2) the tense) in the text
monologue in the form of recount to communicative purpose of
interact in the daily life context monologue recount text
Basic Competence:
Responding to meanings in short and
simple monologue in the form of recount
VIII/ 2 Standard of Competence: Reporting the interview results Speaking skill: The same speaking
Speaking in the form of monologue Performing a short and skill
Expressing meanings in short and simple recount to the class simple monologue recount
spoken functional text and monologue in
the forms of recount and narrative to
Basic Competence:
Expressing meanings in short, simple, and
spoken monologue in the forms of recount
and narrative accurately, fluently,
context
386
VIII/ 3 Standard of Competence: The assessment activity was - -
As in Meeting 2 allocated in the 4th observed
teaching session
Basic Competence:
As in Meeting 2
VIII/ 4 Standard of Competence: Individually presenting the Speaking skill: The same speaking
As in Meeting 2 students’ own monologue Performing a short and skill
recount to the class simple monologue recount
Basic Competence:
As in Meeting 2
Tria
VII/ 1 Standard of Competence: Listening to the teacher and Listening micro skills: Listening micro skill:
Listening arranging jumbled steps of Identifying: Listening to sequence
Understanding meanings in very simple, ‘How to Boil an Egg’ (Activity (1) general information of the order of the
short, and spoken functional and 5: Listen to your teacher. Fill in the text, (2) implied procedural steps
monologue text in the forms of descriptive the blanks by giving the correct information, (3) stated/
and procedure to interact in the daily life number.) specific information
context
Basic Competence:
Responding to meanings in very simple
monologue in the forms of descriptive and
387
procedure accurately, fluently, and
context
VII/ 2 Standard of Competence: Writing a short procedure Writing skill: The same writing skill
Writing (Activity 5: Make your own Writing a simple and short
Expressing meanings in very simple, procedure text based on the procedure text with correct
short, and written functional text and essay previous task.) rhetorical steps (by
in the forms of descriptive and procedure following the provided text
to interact in the daily life context skeleton)
Basic Competence:
Expressing meanings and rhetorical steps
in very simple, short, and written essay in
the forms of descriptive and procedure
accurately, fluently and acceptably to
VII/ 3 Standard of Competence: Individually answering ten Reading micro skills: The same reading
Reading multiple questions related to the Identifying: micro skills
Understanding meanings in very simple, given invitation (Activity 5: (1) the social purpose of the
short, and written functional text, and Read the following texts, then text
essay in the forms of descriptive and answer the questions by (2) the general idea of the
procedure, that relate to the daily life choosing A, B, C, or D.) text
388
context (3) stated/ specific
information
(4) implied information
Basic Competence: (5) word meanings
Responding to meanings and rhetorical (6) word reference
steps in very simple essay, in the forms of
descriptive and procedure, that relate to
the daily life context accurately, fluently,
and acceptably
VII/ 4 Standard of Competence: Individually writing an Writing skill: The same writing skill
Writing invitation based on the students’ Writing a short birthday
Expressing meanings in very simple and own information (Activity 5: invitation based on the
short functional text and essay in the Think about your dream of a students’ own information
forms of descriptive and procedure to birthday party. Now, pretend
interact in the daily life context that you will soon celebrate your
Basic Competence: birthday. Individually, write
Expressing meanings and rhetorical steps your own birthday invitation
in very simple, short, and written essay in card.)
the forms of descriptive and procedure
389
390
APPENDIX XII SAMPLES OF THE CODING SCHEME FOR THE PRE-
LESSON INTERVIEW DATA
Theme: Analyzing Needs
Teacher/ Unit of Meaning Code Category

Meeting
Sisilia
M1 It is based on my students’ 1a: (perceived Forms of
characteristics, most of them may be student needs) for Student
still confused about recount text. So, I learning text type Needs
emphasize them about the past tense. and the linguistic
Most of may be them still confused feature of the text
about V1 and V2. So, I emphasize my
students, “this is about recount text”,
“recount text must be past tense”.
Itu saya tayangkan tentang past tense 1b: (perceived

… saya jelaskan tentang past tense. student needs) for
Inilah past tense seperti ini dan saya learning the
berikan beberapa contoh-contoh linguistic feature
kalimat tentang past tense. of the text
M2 I made my lesson plan based on the 2a: (perceived Forms of
syllabus first, and the material that I student needs) for Student
must give to the students and then learning text types Needs
consider the students’ interest … ya and skills as
that’s all. stated in the
syllabus derived
from the 2006
School-based
Curriculum
Because I know that some of my 2b-c: (perceived
students like football (2b). So, I take student needs) for
the material (s) (2c) which are essential learning with
for their interest. We know that last materials that
year I teach (taught) this material also match the
for my students. They said to me that students’ topic of
391
“Wah kalau pelajaran bahasa Inggris interest
seperti ini mudah sekali” (“Wow, if
the English lesson is like this, it’s so
easy”) (laughing) … they said like that
… “enak” (“easy”), mereka senang ya
(they were happy yeah).
M3 Of course I decide the SK (standard 3a: (perceived

kompetensi/ standard of competence) student needs) for
and KD (kompetensi dasar/ basic learning text types
competence) based on the syllabus, and skills as
and then create the material for my stated in the
students … syllabus derived
from the 2006
School-based
Curriculum
M4 Yeah, I hope my students will 4a: (perceived
accustom to hear English words. I am student needs) for
sure they almost never hear English at having more
home. They never speak with their exposures on
parents in English because they never spoken language
hear English at home. due to their life
circumstance
(socioeconomic
background)
392
APPENDIX XIII ETHICS APPROVAL
RE: HS Ethics Application - Approved (5201300763)(Con/Met)
10:17 AM (19
Fhs Ethics <fhs.ethics@mq.edu.au> hours ago)
to A/Prof, Dr, me
Dear A/Prof Riazi,
Re: "Yogyakarta (Indonesia) EFL Teachers' Conceptualisation of Pedagogical
Content Knowledge as Represented in Their Instructional Curriculum Design
and Practices"(5201300763)
Thank you for your recent correspondence. Your response has addressed the
issues raised by the Faculty of Human Sciences Human Research Ethics
Sub-Committee and approval has been granted, effective 7th November 2013.
This email constitutes ethical approval only.
This research meets the requirements of the National Statement on Ethical
Conduct in Human Research (2007). The National Statement is available at
the following web site:
http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/e72.pdf.
The following personnel are authorised to conduct this research:
A/Prof Mehdi Riazi
Anita Triastuti
Dr Philip Chappell
393
Please note the following standard requirements of approval:
1. The approval of this project is conditional upon your continuing
compliance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research
(2007).
2. Approval will be for a period of five (5) years subject to the provision
of annual reports.
Progress Report 1 Due: 7th November 2014
Final Report Due: 7th November 2018
NB. If you complete the work earlier than you had planned you must submit a
Final Report as soon as the work is completed. If the project has been
discontinued or not commenced for any reason, you are also required to
submit a Final Report for the project.
Progress reports and Final Reports are available at the following website:
http://www.research.mq.edu.au/for/researchers/how_to_obtain_ethics_approval/
human_research_ethics/forms
3. If the project has run for more than five (5) years you cannot renew
approval for the project. You will need to complete and submit a Final
394
Report and submit a new application for the project. (The five year limit
on renewal of approvals allows the Sub-Committee to fully re-review
research in an environment where legislation, guidelines and requirements
are continually changing, for example, new child protection and privacy
laws).
4. All amendments to the project must be reviewed and approved by the
Sub-Committee before implementation. Please complete and submit a Request
for Amendment Form available at the following website:
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5. Please notify the Sub-Committee immediately in the event of any adverse
effects on participants or of any unforeseen events that affect the
continued ethical acceptability of the project.
6. At all times you are responsible for the ethical conduct of your
research in accordance with the guidelines established by the University.
This information is available at the following websites:
http://www.mq.edu.au/policy
human_research_ethics/policy
If you will be applying for or have applied for internal or external
funding for the above project it is your responsibility to provide the
Macquarie University's Research Grants Management Assistant with a copy of
this email as soon as possible. Internal and External funding agencies will
395
not be informed that you have approval for your project and funds will not
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If you need to provide a hard copy letter of approval to an external organisation as evidence
that you have approval, please do not hesitate to contact the Ethics Secretariat at the address
below.
Please retain a copy of this email as this is your official notification of ethics approval.
Yours sincerely,
Dr Peter Roger
Chair
Faculty of Human Sciences Ethics Review Sub-Committee
Human Research Ethics Committee
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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YOGYAKARTA (INDONESIA) EFL TEACHERS’

CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK)

AS REPRESENTED IN THEIR INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN AND

Bachelor of English Language Education, Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of

Macquarie Park, January 2017

I would like to take this opportunity to sincerely express my deepest gratitude to my

Particular thanks go to kind and supportive officers at HDR Management, Revenue

I am also greatly indebted to our family GP and cardiologist at Macquarie Hospital,

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION .............................................................................................. II

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ......................................... 16

PART TWO INSTRUCTIONAL CURRICULUM DESIGN AND PRACTICE:

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION OF CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PEDAGOGICAL

CHAPTER 6 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT

PART THREE CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 217

Table 2.1: The range and scope of teacher knowledge ........................................................19

Figure 1.1: The changes of EFL school curriculum in Indonesia ........................................ 7

ALM Audio-lingual Method

The first part of this multiple-case study, on teachers’ conceptualizations of pedagogical

1.1 Statement of the Research Problem

Research on L2 PCK, as reviewed in Chapter 2, has addressed several themes

1.2.1 A Snapshot of EFL School Curriculum Changes in Indonesia

The communicative-based curriculum, which received so much critical attention from

(1) current global challenges,

Figure 1.1: The changes of EFL school curriculum in Indonesia

1.2.2 Challenges of EFL Curriculum Changes

Several reviews by Indonesian scholars, either individually, or collectively (as in a

1.2.3 The Current Teacher Development Programs

To minimize the discrepancy between curriculum changes and curriculum implementation,

Drawing on the relevant literature on PCK, as reviewed in Chapter 2, the term

(1) analyzing needs,

The second line of inquiry emphasizes exploring the teachers’ conceptualizations of

Along with the examination of the teachers’ conceptualizations of PCK in their

Enacting (e.g. KARI & KAT)

Knowledge of Context Knowledge of

Figure 1.2: Conceptual

1.4 Purpose of the Study

their instructional or classroom-level

1.4.1 Research Questions

1) How do teachers transform their understanding of content into effective instructional

1.5 Significance of the Study

In addition, as previously stated, the changes of school curriculum in the Indonesian

1.6 Definition of the Key Terms

1) Teachers’ conceptualizations of pedagogical content knowledge

1.7 Organization of the Thesis

2.1 The Origin and Dimensions of Teacher Thinking (Cognition)

The well-established body of research on teacher cognition emerged from research on

There has been, however, doubt whether it is necessary to differentiate between

2.2 The Range and Scope of Teacher Knowledge

Schön’s (1983) professional knowledge manifests in tacit professional knowledge that

Table 2.1: The range and scope of teacher knowledge

Range of Scope of Teacher Knowledge

2.3 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

Grounded in a general education research tradition, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

In order to be able to transform the understanding of content into effective instruction,

2.3.1 Empirical Studies on PCK in English Language Teaching Context

In resonance with research on teacher knowledge in general education, studies on PCK in

In regard to the interconnection between PCK and English instructional curriculum