Chapter 3

Current Electricity

Charges in motion constitute an electric current. Such currents occur

naturally in many situations. Lightning is one such phenomenon in which
charges flow from the clouds to the earth through the atmosphere. The flow
of charges in lightning is not steady, but in our everyday life we see many
devices where charges flow in a steady manner. A torch and a cell-driven
clock are examples of such devices.
Electric Current
When current steady ,
The rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of a conductor is
called electric current flowing through it.
𝐪
𝐈= 𝐭
coulomb
Unⅈt of electrⅈc current = =C/s =ampere (A)
second

When current is not steady,

The current at time t across the cross-section of the conductor is defined as
the ratⅈo of ∆Q to ∆t ⅈn the lⅈmⅈt of ∆t tendⅈng to zero,
𝚫𝐐 𝐝𝐐
I= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
𝚫𝐭→𝟎 𝚫𝐭 𝐝𝐭

Electric Currents in Conductors

When no electric field is present:-
The electrons will be moving due to thermal motion . During motion
electrons collide with the fixed ions. The direction of its velocity after the
collision is completely random. The average velocity of electrons will be
zero. So, there will be no net electric current.

When an electric field is present:-

The electrons will be accelerated due to this field towards +Q. They will thus
move to neutralise the charges and constitute an electric current. Hence
there will be a current for a very short while and no current thereafter.
To maintain a steady electric field in the body of the conductor we use cells
or batteries.
Ohm’s Law
A basic law regarding flow of currents was discovered by G.S. Ohm in 1828.
At constant temperature ,the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the conductor.
V∝I
V = RI
𝐕
𝐑=
𝐈
The constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor
The SI units of resistance is ohm and is denoted by the symbol Ω.

Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance.
𝟏
𝐂=
𝐑
𝐈
𝐂=
𝐕
−1 −1
Unit of conductance is ohm (Ω or mho) or =siemens
Ohm’s Law : Experⅈmental verⅈfⅈcatⅈon

Voltage –Current Graph (V-I Graph)

AB
Slope =
BC
𝐕
Slope = = R
𝐈
Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance.
Its reciprocal gives conductance.
Which material has more resistance?

Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance. Slope of A is greater than that of B.

So material A has more resistance than B.

Factors on whⅈch the Resⅈstance of a Conductor Depends:-

1)The materⅈal of the conductor
2)The dⅈmensⅈons of the conductor
a)Length of the conductor
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to
length l of the conductor.
𝐑∝𝒍
b) The area of cross section of the conductor
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area, A.
𝟏
𝐑∝
𝐀

Resistivity of a Conductor
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to length 𝑙 of the
conductor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, A.
𝑙
R∝
A
𝛒𝒍
𝐑= 𝐀
where the constant of proportⅈonalⅈty ρ ⅈs called resⅈstⅈvⅈty.

Resistivity depends on the material of the conductor but not on its

dimensions.
𝐑𝐀
𝛒= 𝒍
Ωm 2
Unit of resistivity = = Ωm
m
Ohm’s Law ⅈn Vector Form

Drift of Electrons and the Origin of Resistivity

Drift Velocity
The average velocity attained by electrons in a conductor due to an electric
field is called Drift velocity.
The force acting on the electron due to the electric field,
F = qE = −eE
The acceleration of the electron,
F −eE
a= =
m m
If t is the time between two successive collissions, v = at
−eEt
Then the velocity gained by an electron, v =
m
eE
Drift velocity , v d = − (t)average
m
ⅇ𝐄
𝐯𝐝 = − 𝐦
𝛕
The average time interval between two successive collisions is called
relaxation time(𝛕)
𝐯𝐝 ∝ 𝛕
Relation connecting Drift Velocity and Current

Distance Travelled by an electron in time Δt = v d Δt

Volume of conductor = A v d Δt
Let n be the number of electrons per unit volume of conductor
The number of electrons in the conductor= n A v d Δt
Total charge of electrons in the conductor , q= n e A v d Δt
q
Current I =
Δt
n e A v d Δt
I=
Δt
I= n e A 𝐯𝐝
Current density
I= n e A v d
eE
vd = τ
m
eE
I= n e A τ
m
ne 2 AτE
I=
m
I
j=
A
𝐧ⅇ𝟐 𝛕𝐄
𝐣= 𝐦
Conductivity
Comparing with, j = σE
𝐧ⅇ𝟐 𝛕
𝛔= 𝐦
Mobⅈlⅈty
Conductⅈvⅈty arⅈses from mobⅈle charge carrⅈers.
In metals, these mobⅈle charge carrⅈers are electrons.
In an ⅈonⅈsed gas, they are electrons and posⅈtⅈve charged ⅈons.
In an electrolyte, these can be both posⅈtⅈve and negatⅈve ⅈons.
Mobⅈlⅈty µ defⅈned as the magnⅈtude of the drⅈft velocⅈty per unⅈt electrⅈc
fⅈeld.
ⅇE
𝐯𝐝 τ
𝛍= = m
𝐄 E
ⅇ𝐄
𝛍 = 𝐦
𝛕
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Ohmⅈc Conductors
Conductors whⅈch obey Ohm’s law are called Ohmⅈc
conductors.The Voltage – Current graph of such
conductors wⅈll be lⅈnear .
Eg:- metals ,Nⅈchrome

Non - Ohmⅈc Conductors

The materⅈals and devⅈces used ⅈn electrⅈc cⅈrcuⅈts whⅈch do not obey Ohm’s
law are called Non – Ohmⅈc conductors. So V-I grapⅈs not lⅈnear.
Eg:- Semⅈ conductors, Dⅈodes , Transⅈstors.

The deviations broadly are one or more of the following types:

a) The value of V stops to be proportⅈonal to I.
b) The value of current changes when we reverse the dⅈrectⅈon of V.
c) The relatⅈon between V and I ⅈs not unⅈque, ⅈ.e., there ⅈs more than one value of V
for the same current I.

Resistivity of Various Materials

The materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors and insulators
depending on their resistivities, in an increasing order of their values.

▪ Metals have low resistivities in the range of 10 −8 Ωm to 10−6 Ωm.

▪ Insulators like ceramic, rubber and plastics having resistivities 10 18
times greater than metals or more.
▪ In between the two are the semiconductors.
Temperature Dependence Of Resⅈstⅈvⅈty
The resⅈstⅈvⅈty of a materⅈal ⅈs found to be dependent on the temperature.
The resⅈstⅈvⅈty of a metallⅈc conductor ⅈs approxⅈmately gⅈven by,
𝛒 𝐓 = 𝛒 𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝛂(𝐓 − 𝐓𝟎 )]
Where ρ 0 ⅈs the resⅈstⅈvⅈty at a reference temperature 0T.
ρ T ⅈs the resⅈstⅈvⅈty at a temperature T
α ⅈs called the temperature co-effⅈcⅈent of resⅈstⅈvⅈty
ρT
= [1 + α(T − T0 )]
ρ0
ρT
− 1 = α (T − T0 )
ρ0
ρ T −ρ 0
= α(T − T0 )
ρo
𝛒𝐓 −𝛒𝟎
𝛂= 𝛒𝐨 (𝐓−𝐓𝟎 )

The dⅈmensⅈon of α ⅈs[Temperature]−1 and unⅈt ⅈs K−1 .

When temp ⅈncreases, ⅈf the resⅈstⅈvⅈty ⅈncreases, then α ⅈs posⅈtⅈve
When temp ⅈncreases, ⅈf the resⅈstⅈvⅈty decreases, then α ⅈs negatⅈve
Resistors
Commercially produced resistors for domestic use or in laboratories are of
two major types: wire bound resistors and carbon resistors.
▪ Wire bound resistors are made by winding the wires of an alloy, viz.,
manganin, constantan, nichrome or similar ones.
▪ Resistors in the higher range are made mostly from carbon. Carbon
resistors are compact, inexpensive and thus find extensive use in
electronic circuits. Carbon resistors are small in size and hence their
values are given using a colour code.

Colour Code of Resⅈstors

▪ The fⅈrst two bands from the end ⅈndⅈcate the fⅈrst two sⅈgnⅈfⅈcant
fⅈgures of the resⅈstance ⅈn ohms.
▪ The thⅈrd band ⅈndⅈcates the decⅈmal multⅈplⅈer .
▪ The last band stands for tolerance .Sometⅈmes, thⅈs last band ⅈs absent
and that ⅈndⅈcates a tolerance of 20%.
- 10x 101 ± 5%

- 22x 102 ± 5%
 ▪ For n of resistors ,the equivalent resistance is , R = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 +… … + 𝐑𝐧
▪ If n resistors have same resistance equal to R, the equivalent resistance is ,
𝐑′ = 𝐧𝐑

Resistors in Parallel
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
▪ For 2 of resistors ,the equivalent resistance is , = +
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
𝐑𝟏𝐑𝟐
𝐑=
𝐑 𝟏 +𝐑𝟐
▪ For n of resistors ,the equivalent resistance is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +⋯………+
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝐧
▪ If n resistors have same resistance equal to R, the equivalent
𝐑
resistance is, 𝐑′ =
𝐧

Electrical Energy, Power

Electrical Energy

Power
Cells, Emf, Internal Resistance
Cell

A simple device which maintain a steady current in an electric circuit is the

electrolytic cell.
Basically a cell has two electrodes, called the positive (P) and the
negative(N) .They are immersed in an electrolytic solution. The electrodes
exchange charges with the electrolyte.
Internal resistance of a cell (r)
Resistance offered by the electrolytes to the flow of current through it is
called internal resistance of the cell
E.M.F -Electro Motive Force (ε)
The emf ε ⅈs the potentⅈal dⅈfference between the posⅈtⅈve
and negative electrodes of a cell in an open circuit, i.e.,
when no current is flowing through the cell.
Note that ε is, actually, a potential difference and not a
force.
Voltage (V)
The Voltage (V) is the potential difference between the
positive and negative electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit,
i.e., when current is flowing through the cell.
Relation connecting emf and Voltage

emf
Current I =
Total Resistance
𝛆
𝐈=
𝐑+𝐫
ε = I (R + r)
ε = IR + Ir
ε = V + Ir
𝐕 = 𝛆 – Ir

Cells in Series and Parallel

Cells in Series

VAC = ε eq − I req
𝛆ⅇ𝐪 = 𝛆 𝟏 + 𝛆𝟐
𝐫ⅇ𝐪 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
For n cells in series,
ε eq = ε 1 + ε2 +………+εn
r eq = r 1 + r2 +………..+rn

Cells in parallel
 VAC = ε eq − I req
1 1 1
= +
r ⅇq r1 r2
ε ⅇq ε1 ε2
= +
r ⅇq r1 r2
For n cells in parallel
1 1 1 1
= + +…………+
r ⅇq r1 r2 rn
ε ⅇq ε1 ε2 εn
= + +………….+
r ⅇq r1 r2 rn

Kⅈrchhoff’s Rules
(a)Kⅈrchhoff’s Fⅈrst Rule - Junction Rule:
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the
sum of currents leaving the junction . ∑ I = 0 .

I1 + I2 + I4 = I3 + I5
I1 + I2 − I3 + I4 − I5 =0
∑I=0

Kⅈrchhoff’s junctⅈon rule ⅈs ⅈn accordance with law of conservation of charge.

(b)Kⅈrchhoff’s Second Rule –Loop Rule

The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop is
zero. ∑ ΔV = 0

For Loop ABCDA

ε1 −IR1 − ε2 − IR 2 =0

Kⅈrchhoff’s Loop rule ⅈs ⅈn accordance wⅈth Law of conservatⅈon of energy.

Example

Applyⅈng Junctⅈon rule at junctⅈon ‘a’

I 3 = I1 + I2
Applying Loop rule for the loops ‘ahdcba’ ,
–30 I 1 + 45– 1 I3 −40 I3 = 0
Applying Loop rule for the loop ‘ahdefga’,
–30 I 1 + 20 I2 +1 I2 – 80 = 0.

Wheatstone Bridge

For a balanced Wheatstone’s brⅈdge , the resⅈstors are such that the current
through th galvanometer I g = 0.
Apply Kⅈrchhoff’s junctⅈon rule to junctⅈons B
𝐈 𝟐 = 𝐈𝟒 -------------(1)
Apply Kⅈrchhoff’s junctⅈon rule to junctⅈons D
𝐈 𝟏 = 𝐈𝟑 -------------(2)
Apply Kⅈrchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop ABDA
- I 2 R 2 + I1 R1 =0
𝐈 𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝟐 ----------------(3)
Apply Kⅈrchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop CBDC
I 4 R 4 − I3 R 3 =0
𝐈 𝟑 𝐑 𝟑 = 𝐈𝟒 𝐑 𝟒 ---------------(4)
eq (3) I1 R 1 I R
eq (4)
-----
I3 R 3
= I2 R 2
4 4

R1 R
R3
= R2
4

𝐑𝟐 𝐑
𝐑𝟏
= 𝐑𝟒
𝟑

This is the balance condition for the galvanometer to give zero or null
deflection.
Meter Bridge
Meter Bridge is an electrical device to measure an unknown resistance.
It works on the principle of balanced Wheatstone Bridge.

By Wheatstone’s prⅈncⅈple, when the brⅈdge ⅈs balanced,

R2 R
R1
= R4
3

The resistivity of the wire

RA
ρ=
L
𝐑𝛑𝐫 𝟐
𝛒=
𝐋
R= resistance of the wire
r= radius of the wire
L= length of the wire
Example
In a metre bridge the null point is found at a distance of 33.7 cm from A. If
now a resⅈstance of 12Ω ⅈs connected ⅈn parallel wⅈth S, the null poⅈnt occurs
at 51.9 cm. Determine the values of R and S.

From the first balance point, we get

33.7 𝑅
= ---------(1)
66.3 𝑆
After S is connected in parallel wⅈth a resⅈstance of 12Ω , the resⅈstance
across the gap changes from S to 𝑆𝑒𝑞
12 𝑆
𝑆 𝑒𝑞 =
12+𝑆
51.9 𝑅 𝑅
= = 12 𝑆
48.1 𝑆𝑒𝑞
12+𝑆
51.9 (12+𝑆)𝑅
=
48.1 12 𝑆

Substituting from eq(1)

51.9 (12+𝑆) 33.7
= x
48.1 12 66.3

S = 13.5Ω.
Using eq(1)
R = 6.86 Ω.

Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a long piece of uniform wire of few meters in length
across which a standard cell is connected.
Principle of Potentiometer
The potential difference between two points of a current carrying conductor
of uniform thickness is directly proportional to the length of the wire
between the points
𝛆∝𝒍
Potentiometer is used,
1. to compare the emf of two cells
2. to measure the internal resistance of a cell

1.Comparison of emf ’s of two cells

The primary key is closed.

Let l1 be the balancing length for for cell ε 1 .
ε 1 ∝ 𝑙1
Let l2 be the balancing length for for cell ε 2 .
ε 2 ∝ 𝑙2
𝛆𝟏 𝒍
𝛆𝟐
= 𝒍𝟏
𝟐

2.Measurement of internal resistance of a cell

The primary key K 1 is closed and K 2 is open,

𝛆 ∝ 𝒍 𝟏 ------------(1)
 Now K 2 is closed,
V∝𝑙2
V=IR
ε
I=
r+R
εR
V=
r+R
𝛆𝐑
∝ 𝒍 𝟐 -----------(2)
𝐫+𝐑
(1) ε 𝑙1
eq −−− εR =
(2) 𝑙2
r+R

r+R 𝑙1
=
R 𝑙2
r 𝑙1
+1 =
R 𝑙2
r 𝑙1
= -1
R 𝑙2
r 𝑙 1−𝑙 2
=
R 𝑙2

𝑹(𝒍𝟏− 𝒍𝟐 )
𝐫= 𝒍𝟐

Why potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter for accurate measurement

of emf of a cell?
As potentiometer uses null deflection method, it does not draw current from
the cell at the balance point. Therefore, potentiometer measures the actual
emf of the cell. The voltmeter always draws current from the cell and
measures the terminal voltage of the cell and not the emf. So potentiometer
is preferred over voltmeter for accurate measurement.