Module 1: History of Electrical Vehicle

Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Historical Journey of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Introduction:
What is a hybrid? A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources. Possible
combinations include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery.
Typically, one energy source is storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy.
The combination of two power sources may support two separate propulsion systems.
Thus to be a True hybrid, the vehicle must have at least two modes of propulsion.
For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives several
electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid. But if the truck has electrical energy
storage to provide a second mode, which is electrical assists, then it is a hybrid Vehicle.
These two power sources may be paired in series, meaning that the gas engine charges
the batteries of an electric motor that powers the car, or in parallel, with both mechanisms
driving the car directly.
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
Consistent with the definition of hybrid above, the hybrid electric vehicle combines a
gasoline engine with an electric motor. An alternate arrangement is a diesel engine and an
electric motor (figure 1).
Driveshaft

Pure Electrical Battery M/G

Wheels

Control
System Battery

Hybrid Electrical Power

Gasoline
Engine M/G Trans.

Wheels

Driveshaft

Pure Gasoline Gasoline

Engine Trans.

Wheels

Figure 1: Components of a hybrid Vehicle that combines a pure gasoline with a pure EV. [1]

As shown in Figure 1, a HEV is formed by merging components from a pure electrical

vehicle and a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electric Vehicle (EV) has an M/G which allows
regenerative braking for an EV; the M/G installed in the HEV enables regenerative
braking. For the HEV, the M/G is tucked directly behind the engine. In Honda hybrids,
the M/G is connected directly to the engine. The transmission appears next in line. This
arrangement has two torque producers; the M/G in motor mode, M-mode, and the
gasoline engine. The battery and M/G are connected electrically.
HEVs are a combination of electrical and mechanical components. Three main sources of
electricity for hybrids are batteries, FCs, and capacitors. Each device has a low cell
voltage, and, hence, requires many cells in series to obtain the voltage demanded by an
HEV. Difference in the source of Energy can be explained as:
a. The FC provides high energy but low power.
b. The battery supplies both modest power and energy.
c. The capacitor supplies very large power but low energy.
The components of an electrochemical cell include anode, cathode, and electrolyte
(shown in fig2). The current flow both internal and external to the cell is used to describe
the current loop.

e−
External
circuit

Anode Cathode

Electrolyte

Electrodes
.
Figure 2: An electrode, a circuit for a cell which is converting chemical energy to electrical energy. The motion of negative
charges is clockwise and forms a closed loop through external wires and load and the electrolyte in the cell. [1]

A critical issue for both battery life and safety is the precision control of the
Charge/Discharge cycle. Overcharging can be traced as a cause of fire and failure.
Applications impose two boundaries or limitations on batteries. The first limit, which is
dictated by battery life, is the minimum allowed State of Charge. As a result, not all the
installed battery energy can be used. The battery feeds energy to other electrical
equipment, which is usually the inverter. This equipment can use a broad range of input
voltage, but cannot accept a low voltage. The second limit is the minimum voltage
allowed from the battery.
Historical development (root) of Automobiles
In 1900, steam technology was advanced. The advantages of steam-powered cars
included high performance in terms of power and speed. However, the disadvantages of
steam-powered cars included poor fuel economy and the need to “fire up the boiler”
before driving. Feed water was a necessary input for steam engine, therefore could not
tolerate the loss of fresh water. Later, Steam condensers were applied to the steam car to
solve the feed water problem. However, by that time Gasoline cars had won the
marketing battle.
Gasoline cars of 1900 were noisy, dirty, smelly, cantankerous, and unreliable. In
comparison, electric cars were comfortable, quiet, clean, and fashionable. Ease of control
was also a desirable feature. Lead acid batteries were used in 1900 and are still used in
modern cars. Hence lead acid atteries have a long history (since 1881) of use as a viable
energy storage device. Golden age of Electrical vehicle marked from 1890 to 1924 with
peak production of electric vehicles in 1912. However, the range was limited by energy
storage in the battery. After every trip, the battery required recharging. At the 1924
automobile show, no electric cars were on display. This announced the end of the Golden
Age of electric-powered cars.
The range of a gasoline car was far superior to that of either a steam or an electric car
and dominated the automobile market from 1924 to 1960. The gasoline car had one
dominant feature; it used gasoline as a fuel. The modern period starts with the oil
embargoes and the gasoline shortages during the 1970s which created long lines at gas
stations. Engineers recognized that the good features of the gasoline engine could be
combined with those of the electric motor to produce a superior car. A marriage of the
two yields the hybrid automobile.
 Domination of
Gasoline cars
(1924-1960)
First
Internal First
Gasoline cars
Combustion gasoline dominate Market Limited
powered First
Engines on Producti generation
Fuel Gas car EV disappear on Of EV of EV

1769 1806 1860 1893 1912 1924 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2020

Origin of first Peak Not Concept, Incorporate Hybrids

Steam successful Produ one EV Prototype technology eclipse EV
Engines gas driven ction at Auto and advance into and
engine of EV show serious EV design increasing
design of level as gas
EV supplies
demand
Golden Age of
Electric Vehicle
(1890-1924)

Figure 3: Historical development of automobile and development of interest and activity in the EV from 1890 to present day.
Electric Vehicle merged into hybrid electric vehicle. [1]

1769
The first steam-powered vehicle was designed by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot and constructed
by M. Brezin that could attain speeds of up to 6 km/hour. These early steam-powered
vehicles were so heavy that they were only practical on a perfectly flat surface as strong
as iron.
1807
The next step towards the development of the car was the invention of the internal
combustion engine. Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed the first internal combustion
engine in, using a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen to generate energy.
1825
British inventor Goldsworthy Gurney built a steam car that successfully completed an 85
mile round-trip journey in ten hours time.
1839
Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland built the first electric vehicle.
1860
In, Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, a Frenchman, built the first successful two-stroke gas
driven engine.
1886
Historical records indicate that an electric-powered taxicab, using a battery with 28 cells
and a small electric motor, was introduced in England.
1888
Immisch & Company built a four-passenger carriage, powered by a one-horsepower
motor and 24-cell battery, for the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. In the same year,
Magnus Volk in Brighton, England made a three-wheeled electric car. 1890 – 1910
(Period of significant improvements in battery technology)
Invention Of hybrid vehicle
1890
Jacob Lohner, a coach builder in Vienna, Austria, foresaw the need for an electric vehicle
that would be less noisy than the new gas-powered cars. He commissioned a design for
an electric vehicle from Austro-Hungarian engineer Ferdinand Porsche, who had recently
graduated from the Vienna Technical College. Porsche's first version of the electric car
used a pair of electric motors mounted in the front wheel hubs of a conventional car. The
car could travel up to 38 miles. To extend the vehicle's range, Porsche added a gasoline
engine that could recharge the batteries, thus giving birth to the first hybrid, the Lohner-
Porsche Elektromobil.
Early Hybrid Vehicles
1900
Porsche showed his hybrid car at the Paris Exposition of 1900. A gasoline engine was
used to power a generator which, in turn, drove a small series of motors. The electric
engine was used to give the car a little bit of extra power. This method of series hybrid
engine is still in use today, although obviously with further scope of performance
improvement and greater fuel savings.
1915
Woods Motor Vehicle manufacturers created the Dual Power hybrid vehicle, second
hybrid car in market. Rather than combining the two power sources to give a single
output of power, the Dual Power used an electric battery motor to power the engine at
low speeds (below 25km/h) and used the gasoline engine to carry the vehicle from these
low speeds up to its 55km/h maximum speed. While Porsche had invented the series
hybrid, Woods invented the parallel hybrid.
1918
The Woods Dual Power was the first hybrid to go into mass production. In all, some 600
models were built by. However, the evolution of the internal combustion engine left
electric power a marginal technology
1960
Victor Wouk worked in helping create numerous hybrid designs earned him the
nickname of the “Godfather of the Hybrid”. In 1976 he even converted a Buick Skylark
from gasoline to hybrid.
1978
Modern hybrid cars rely on the regenerative braking system. When a standard
combustion engine car brakes, a lot of power is lost because it dissipates into the
atmosphere as heat. Regenerative braking means that the electric motor is used for
slowing the car and it essentially collects this power and uses it to help recharge the
electric batteries within the car. This development alone is believed to have progressed
hybrid vehicle manufacture significantly. The Regenerative Braking System, was first
designed and developed in 1978 by David Arthurs. Using standard car components he
converted an Opel GT to offer 75 miles to the gallon and many home conversions are
done using the plans for this system that are still widely available on the Internet.
Modern Period of Hybrid History
The history of hybrid cars is much longer and more involved than many first imagine. It
is, however, in the last ten years or so that we, as consumers, have begun to pay more
attention to the hybrid vehicle as a viable alternative to ICE driven cars. Whether looking
for a way to save money on spiraling gas costs or in an attempt to help reduce the
negative effects on the environment we are buying hybrid cars much more frequently.
1990s
Automakers took a renewed interest in the hybrid, seeking a solution to dwindling energy
supplies and environmental concerns and created modern history of hybrid car
1993
In USA, Bill Clinton's administration recognized the urgency for the mass production of
cars powered by means other than gasoline. Numerous government agencies, as well as
Chrysler, Ford, GM, and USCAR combined forces in the PNGV (Partnership for a New
Generation of Vehicles), to create cars using alternative power sources, including the
development and improvement of hybrid electric vehicles.
1997
The Audi Duo was the first European hybrid car put into mass production and hybrid
production and consumer take up has continued to go from strength to strength over the
decades.
2000
Toyota Prius and Honda Insight became the first mass market hybrids to go on sale in the
United States, with dozens of models following in the next decade. The Honda Insight
and Toyota Prius were two of the first mainstream Hybrid Electric Vehicles and both
models remain a popular line.
2005
A hybrid Ford Escape, the SUV, was released in 2005. Toyota and Ford essentially
swapped patents with one another, Ford gaining a number of Toyota patents relating to
hybrid technology and Toyota, in return, gaining access to Diesel engine patents from
Ford.
Present of Hybrid Electric vehicle
Toyota is the most prominent of all manufacturers when it comes to hybrid cars. As well
as the specialist hybrid range they have produced hybrid versions of many of their
existing model lines, including several Lexus (now owned and manufactured by Toyota)
vehicles. They have also stated that it is their intention to release a hybrid version of
every single model they release in the coming decade. As well as cars and SUVs, there
are a select number of hybrid motorcycles, pickups, vans, and other road going vehicles
available to the consumer and the list is continually increasing.
Future of Hybrid electrical vehicle
Since petroleum is limited and will someday run out of supply. In the arbitrary year 2037,
an estimated one billion petroleum-fueled vehicles will be on the world’s roads. gasoline
will become prohibitively expensive. The world need to have solutions for the “400
million otherwise useless cars”. So year 2037 “gasoline runs out year” means, petroleum
will no longer be used for personal mobility. A market may develop for solar-powered
EVs of the size of a scooter or golf cart. Since hybrid technology applies to heavy
vehicles, hybrid buses and hybrid trains will be more significant.
Economic and Environmental Impact of Electric Hybrid

Vehicle
As modern culture and technology continue to develop, the growing presence of global warming
and irreversible climate change draws increasing amounts of concern from the world’s
population. It has only been recently, when modern society has actually taken notice of these
changes and decided that something needs to change if the global warming process is to be
stopped.
Countries around the world are working to drastically reduce CO2 emissions as well as other
harmful environmental pollutants. Amongst the most notable producers of these pollutants are
automobiles, which are almost exclusively powered by internal combustion engines and spew out
unhealthy emissions.
According to various reports, cars and trucks are responsible for almost 25% of CO2 emission and
other major transportation methods account for another 12%. With immense quantities of cars on
the road today, pure combustion engines are quickly becoming a target of global warming blame.
One potential alternative to the world’s dependence on standard combustion engine vehicles are
hybrid cars. Cost-effectiveness is also an important factor contributing to the development of an
environment friendly transportation sector.
Hybrid Vehicle
A hybrid vehicle combines any type of two power (energy) sources. Possible combinations
include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Typically, one energy
source is storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. In the majority of modern
hybrids, cars are powered by a combination of traditional gasoline power and the addition of an
electric motor.
However, hybrid still use the petroleum based engine while driving so they are not completely
clean, just cleaner than petroleum only cars. This enables hybrid cars to have the potential to
segue into new technologies that rely strictly on alternate fuel sources.
The design of such vehicles requires, among other developments, improvements in power train
systems, fuel processing, and power conversion technologies. Opportunities for utilizing various
fuels for vehicle propulsion, with an emphasis on synthetic fuels (e.g., hydrogen, biodiesel,
bioethanol, dimethylether, ammonia, etc.) as well as electricity via electrical batteries, have been
analyzed over the last decade.
In order to analyze environment impact of vehicle propulsion and fueling system; we are
presenting a case study which has been reported in literature (Chapter: Ibrahim Dincer, Marc A.
Rosen and Calin Zamfirescu,” Economic and Environmental Comparison of Conventional and
Alternative Vehicle Options”, Book: Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Power Sources, Models,
Sustainability, Infrastructure and the Market by Gianfranco Pistoia (2010))
A Case study
This case treated the following aspects: economic criteria, environmental criteria, and a combined
impact criterion. The latter is a normalized indicator that takes into account the effects on both
environmental and economic performance of the options considered.
Case compared four kinds of fuel-propulsion vehicle alternatives. Two additional kinds of
vehicles, both of which are zero polluting at fuel utilization stage (during vehicle operation) were
also included in analysis. The vehicles analyzed were as follows:

1. Conventional gasoline vehicle (gasoline fuel and ICE),

2. Hybrid vehicle (gasoline fuel, electrical drive, and large rechargeable battery),
3. Electric vehicle (high-capacity electrical battery and electrical drive/generator),
4. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (high-pressure hydrogen fuel tank, fuel cell, electrical drive),
5. Hydrogen internal combustion vehicle (high-pressure hydrogen fuel tank and ICE),
6. Ammonia-fueled vehicle (liquid ammonia fuel tank, ammonia thermo-catalytic
decomposition and separation unit to generate pure hydrogen, hydrogen-fueled ICE).

For environmental impact analysis, all stages of the life cycle were considered, starting from

a) The extraction of natural resources to produce materials and

b) Ending with conversion of the energy stored onboard the vehicle into mechanical energy
for vehicle displacement and
c) Other purposes (heating, cooling, lighting, etc.).
In addition, vehicle production stages and end-of-life disposal contribute substantially when
quantifying the life cycle environmental impact of fuel-propulsion alternatives.
The analysis were conducted on six vehicles, each was representative of one of the above
discussed categories. The specific vehicles were:

1) Toyota Corolla (conventional vehicle),

2) Toyota Prius (hybrid vehicle),
3) Toyota RAV4EV (electric vehicle),
4) Honda FCX (hydrogen fuel cell vehicle),
5) Ford Focus H2-ICE (hydrogen ICE vehicle),
6) Ford Focus H2-ICE adapted to use ammonia as source of hydrogen (ammonia-fueled ICE
vehicle).

Economical Analysis
A number of key economic parameters that characterize vehicles were:

A. Vehicle price,
B. Fuel cost, and
C. Driving range.

This case neglected maintenance costs; however, for the hybrid and electric vehicles, the cost of
battery replacement during the lifetime was accounted for. The driving range determines the
frequency (number and separation distance) of fueling stations for each vehicle type. The total
fuel cost and the total number of kilometers driven were related to the vehicle life (see Table 1).
Table1: Technical and economical values for selected vehicle types

Vehicle type Fuel Type Initial Specific fuel Driving Price of battery Changes
Price Price Range During Vehicle Life
(USk$) (US$/100 km) (Km) cycle (USk$)
Conventional Gasoline 15.3 2.94 540 1 x 0.1
(Toyota Corolla)
Hybrid Gasoline 20 1.71 930 1 x 1.02
(Toyota Prius)
Electric Electricity 42 0.901 164 2 x 15.4
(Toyota RAV4EV)
Fuel cell Hydrogen 100 1.69 355 1 x 0.1
(Honda FCX)
H2-ICE (Ford Hydrogen 60 8.4 300 1 x 0.1
Focus H2-ICE)
NH3–H2-ICE Ammonia 40 6.4 430 1 x 0.1
(Ford Focus H2-
ICE and ammonia
Adaptive)

For the Honda FCX the listed initial price for a prototype leased in 2002 was USk$2,000, which
is estimated to drop below USk$100 in regular production. Currently, a Honda FCX can be leased
for 3 years with a total price of USk$21.6. In order to render the comparative study reasonable,
the initial price of the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle is assumed here to be USk$100. For electric
vehicle, the specific cost was estimated to be US$569/kWh with nickel metal hydride (NiMeH)
batteries which are typically used in hybrid and electric cars.
Historical prices of typical fuels were used to calculate annual average price.
Environmental Analysis
Analysis for the first five options was based on published data from manufacturers. The results
for the sixth case, i.e. the ammonia-fueled vehicle, were calculated from data published by Ford
on the performance of its hydrogen-fueled Ford Focus vehicle. Two environmental impact
elements were accounted for in the:

a) Air pollution (AP) and

b) Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

The main GHGs were CO2, CH4, N2O, and SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride), which have GHG impact
weighting coefficients relative to CO2 of 1, 21, 310, and 24,900, respectively.
For AP, the airborne pollutants CO, NOx, SOx, and VOCs are assigned the following weighting
coefficients: 0.017, 1, 1.3, and 0.64, respectively.
The vehicle production stage contributes to the total life cycle environmental impact through the
pollution associated with

a) The extraction and processing of material resources,

b) Manufacturing and
c) The vehicle disposal stage.

Additional sources of GHG and AP emissions were associated with the fuel production and
utilization stages. The environmental impacts of these stages have been evaluated in numerous
life cycle assessments of fuel cycles.
Regarding electricity production for the electric car case, three case scenarios were considered
here:

1. when electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and nuclear energy;
2. when 50% of the electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and 50% from
natural gas at an efficiency of 40%;
3. when electricity is produced from natural gas at an efficiency of 40%.

AP emissions were calculated assuming that GHG emissions for plant manufacturing correspond
entirely to natural gas combustion. GHG and AP emissions embedded in manufacturing a natural
gas power generation plant were negligible compared to the direct emissions during its utilization.
Taking those factors into account, GHG and AP emissions for the three scenarios of electricity
generation were presented in Table 2.
Table2: GHG and air pollution emissions per MJ of electricity produced

Electricity- Description of Electricity generation GHG emission (g) AP emission

generation Scenario (g)
scenario
1 Electricity produced = 100% (Renewable 5.11 0.195
Energy + Nuclear Energy)
2 Electricity produced = (50% Renewable 77.5 0.296
Energy + 50% Natural gas)
3 Electricity produced = 100% Natural Gas 149.9 0.573

Hydrogen charging of fuel tanks on vehicles requires compression. Therefore, presented case
considered the energy for hydrogen compression to be provided by electricity.
Table 3: GHG and air pollution emissions per MJ fuel of Hydrogen from natural gas produced
Fuel GHG emissions, g AP emissions, g
Hydrogen from natural gas
Scenario 1 78.5 0.0994
Scenario 2 82.1 0.113
Scenario 3 85.7 0.127

GHG and AP emissions were reported for hydrogen vehicles for the three electricity-generation
scenarios considered (see table 3), accounting for the environmental effects of hydrogen
compression
Table 4. Environmental impact associated with vehicle Overall Life cycle and Fuel Utilization State

Fuel utilization stage Overall life cycle

Vehicle type GHG emissions AP emissions GHG emissions AP emissions
(kg/100 km) (kg/100 km) (kg/100 km) (kg/100 km)
Conventional 19.9 0.0564 21.4 0.06
Hybrid 11.6 0.0328 13.3 0.037
Electric-S1 0.343 0.00131 2.31 0.00756
Electric-S2 5.21 0.0199 7.18 0.0262
Electric-S3 10.1 0.0385 12 0.0448
Fuel Cell -S1 10.2 0.0129 14.2 0.0306
Fuel Cell -S2 10.6 0.0147 14.7 0.0324
Fuel Cell -S3 11.1 0.0165 15.2 0.0342
H2-ICE 10 0.014 11.5 0.018
NH3–H2-ICE 0 0.014 1.4 0.017

The environmental impact of the fuel utilization stage, as well as the overall life cycle is
presented in Table 4. The H2-ICE vehicle results were based on the assumption that the only
GHG emissions during the utilization stage were associated with the compression work, needed
to fill the fuel tank of the vehicle. The GHG effect of water vapor emissions was neglected in this
analysis due its little value,. For the ammonia fuel vehicle, a very small amount of pump work
was needed therefore, ammonia fuel was considered to emit no GHGs during fuel utilization.
 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
25 0.07

0.06
20
GHG Emission(Kg/100Km)

AP Emission -

AP Emission (Kg/100km)
0.05
Overall Lifecycle GHG Emission -
Overall Lifecycle
15
0.04

0.03
10
GHG Emission -Fuel
Utilization Stage 0.02
5
0.01
AP Emission -Fuel
Utilization Stage
0 0
Conventional

Electric-S1

Electric-S2

Electric-S3
Hybrid

Fuel Cell -S1

Fuel Cell -S2

Fuel Cell -S3

NH3–H2-ICE
H2-ICE
Figure1: Environmental indicators for six vehicle types [1]

Results of technical–economical–environmental Analysis:

In present situation this case study provides a general approach for assessing the combined
technical–economical–environmental benefits of transportation options.
This analysis showed that the hybrid and electric cars have advantages over the others. The
economics and environmental impact associated with use of an electric car depends significantly
on the source of the electricity:

a. If electricity is generated from renewable energy sources, the electric car is

advantageous to the hybrid vehicle.
b. If the electricity is generated from fossil fuels, the electric car remains
competitive only if the electricity is generated onboard.
c. If the electricity is generated with an efficiency of 50–60% by a gas turbine
engine connected to a high-capacity battery and electric motor, the electric car is
superior in many respects.
d. For electricity-generation scenarios 2 and 3, using ammonia as a means to store
hydrogen onboard a vehicle is the best option among those analyzed (as shown in
figure 2).
3.5

2.5

2
Normalized general
General indicator
1.5 AP emissions
GHG emissions
Fuel cost
1 Range
Car cost

0.5

Figure2: Normalized economic and environmental indicators for six vehicle types [1]

The electric car with capability for onboard electricity generation represents a beneficial option
and is worthy of further investigation, as part of efforts to develop energy efficient and
ecologically benign vehicles.
The main limitations of this study were as follows:

(i) the use of data which may be of limited accuracy in some instances;
(ii) the subjectivity of the indicators chosen; and
(iii) the simplicity of the procedure used for developing the general indicator without
using unique weighting coefficients.

Despite these limitations, the study reflects relatively accurately and realistically the present
situation and provides a general approach for assessing the combined technical–economical–
environmental benefits of transportation options.
 Dynamics of Electric and Hybrid vehicles

Motion and dynamic equations for vehicles

Introduction
The fundamentals of vehicle design involve the basic principles of physics, specially the
Newton's second law of motion. According to Newton's second law the acceleration of an
object is proportional to the net force exerted on it. Hence, an object accelerates when the net
force acting on it is not zero. In a vehicle several forces act on it and the net or resultant force
governs the motion according to the Newton's second law. The propulsion unit of the vehicle
delivers the force necessary to move the vehicle forward. This force of the propulsion unit
helps the vehicle to overcome the resisting forces due to gravity, air and tire resistance. The
acceleration of the vehicle depends on:
 the power delivered by the propulsion unit
 the road conditions
 the aerodynamics of the vehicle
 the composite mass of the vehicle
In this lecture the mathematical framework required for the analysis of vehicle mechanics
based on Newton’s second law of motion is presented. The following topics are covered in
this lecture:
 General description of vehicle movement
 Vehicle resistance
 Dynamic equation
 Tire Ground Adhesion and maximum tractive effort
General description of vehicle movement
The vehicle motion can be completely determined by analysing the forces acting on it in the
direction of motion. The forces acting on a vehicle, moving up a grade, are shown in Figure
1. The tractive force (Ft) in the contact area between the tires of the driven wheels and the
road surface propels the vehicle forward. The tractive force (Ft) is produced by the power
plant and transferred to the driving wheels via the transmission and the final drive. When the
vehicle moves, it encounters a resistive force that tries to retard its motion. The resistive
forces are
 Rolling resistance
 Aerodynamic drag
 Uphill resistance
V
Fw

hw
Mgsin(a)

Trf
Fa
hg

Trr
Mgcos(a)
Wf
Mg
La
Lb a
Wr
L

Figure 1: Forces acting on a vehicle going uphill [1]

Using the Newton's second law of motion, the vehicle acceleration can be expressed as
dV  Ft   Fresistac

dt M
where
V  vehicle speed
(1)
 F  total tractive effort [ Nm]
t

F  total resistance [ Nm]

resis tan ce

M  total mass of the vehicle [kg ]

  mass factor for converting the rotational inertias of
rotating components into translational mass
Rolling resistance
The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis in the tire material. In
Figure 2 a tire at standstill is shown. On this tyre a force (P), is acting at its centre. The
pressure in the contact area between the tire and the ground is distributed symmetrically to the
centre line and the resulting reaction force (Pz) is aligned along P.

Pz

Figure 2: Pressure distribution in contact area [1]

The deformation, z, versus the load P, in the loading and unloading process is shown in
Figure 3. From this figure it can be seen that, due to the hysteresis, the force (P) for the same
deformation (z) of the tire material at loading is greater than at during unloading. Hence, the
hysteresis causes an asymmetric distribution of the ground reaction forces.

Force, P

P1

P2

Deformation, z

Figure 3: Force acting on a tyre vs. deformation in loading and unloading [1]
The scenario of a rolling tire is shown in Figure 4. When the tire rolls, the leading half of the
contact area is loading and the trailing half is unloading. Thus, the pressure on the leading half
is greater than the pressure on the trailing half (Figure 4a). This phenomenon results in the
ground reaction force shifting forward. The shift in the ground reaction force creates a
moment that opposes rolling of the wheels. On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is mainly
caused by deformation of the ground surface, (Figure 4b). In this case the ground reaction
force almost completely shifts to the leading half.

a
Pz

Figure 4a: Force acting on a tyre vs. deformation in loading and unloading on a hard surface [1]

The moment produced by forward shift of the resultant ground reaction force is called
rolling resistance moment (Figure 4a) and can expressed as
Tr  Pa  Mga
where
Tr  rolling resistance [ Nm]
P  Normal load acting on
the centre of the rolling wheel [ N ]
M  mass of the vehicle [kg ]
(2)
g  acceleration constant [m / s 2 ]
a  deformation of the tyre [m]
 P

Px
z

Pz

Figure 4a: Force acting on a tyre vs. deformation in loading and unloading on a soft surface [1]

To keeps the wheel rolling, a force Fr, acting on the centre of the wheel is required to balance
this rolling resistant moment. This force is expressed as
Tr Pa
Fr    Pf r
rdyn rdyn
where
Tr  rolling resistance [ Nm]
(3)
P  Normal load acting on the centre of the rolling wheel [ N ]
rdyn  dynamic radius of the tyre [m]
f r  rolling resistance coefficient

The rolling resistance moment can be equivalently replaced by horizontal force acting on the
wheel centre in the direction opposite to the movement of the wheel. This equivalent force is
called the rolling resistance and its magnitude is given by
Fr  Pf r
where (4)
P  Normal load acting on the centre of the rolling wheel [ N ]
f r  rolling resistance coefficient

When a vehicle is moving up a gradient, the normal force (P), in equation 4, is replaced by
the component that is perpendicular to the road surface. Hence, equation 4 is rewritten as
Fr  Pf r cos(a )  Mgf r cos(a )
where
(5)
P  Normal load acting on the centre of the rolling wheel [ N ]
f r  rolling resistance coefficient
a  road angle [radians]
The rolling resistance coefficient, fr, is a function of:
 tire material
 tire structure
 tire temperature
 tire inflation pressure
 tread geometry
 road roughness
 road material
 presence of absence of liquids on the road
The typical values of the rolling resistance coefficient (fr) are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Reference values for the rolling resistance coefficient (f r)

Conditions Rolling resistance

coefficient (fr)
Car tire on smooth tarmac 0.01
road
Car tire on concrete road 0.011
Car tire on a rolled gravel 0.02
road
Tar macadam road 0.025
Unpaved road 0.05
Bad earth tracks 0.16
Loose sand 0.15-0.3
Truck tire on concrete or 0.006-0.01
asphalt road
Wheel on iron rail 0.001-0.002

The values given in table 1 do not take into account the variation of fr with speed. Based on
experimental results, many empirical formulas have been proposed for calculating the rolling
resistance on a hard surface. For example, the rolling resistance coefficient of a passenger car
on a concrete road may be calculated as:
2.5
 V 
fr  f0  f s  
 100 
where (6)
V  vehicle speed [km / h]
 In vehicle performance calculation, it is sufficient to consider the rolling resistance coefficient
as a linear function of speed. For most common range of inflation pressure, the following
equation can be used for a passenger car on a concrete road
 V 
f r  0.011  
 160 
where (7)
V  vehicle speed [km / h]

The equation 7 can predict the values of fr with acceptable accuracy for speed up to 128km/h.
Aerodynamic drag
A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting its motion. This
force is known as aerodynamic drag. The main causes of aerodynamic drag are:
 shape drag
 skin effect
The shape drag is due to the shape of the vehicle. The forward motion of the vehicle pushes
the air in front of it. However, the air cannot instantaneously move out of the way and its
pressure is thus increased. This results in high air pressure in the front of the vehicle. The air
behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the space left by the forward motion of the
vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. Hence, the motion of the vehicle creates two
zones of pressure. The high pressure zone in the front of the vehicle opposes its movement by
pushing. On the other hand, the low pressure zone developed at the rear of the vehicle
opposes its motion by pulling it backwards.
The air close to the skin of the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the vehicle while
the air away from the vehicle remains still. Between these two layers (the air layer moving at
the vehicle speed and the static layer) the molecules move at a wide range of speeds. The
difference in speed between two air molecules produces friction. This friction results in the
second component of aerodynamic drag and it is known as skin effect.
The aerodynamic drag is expressed as
1
Fw   Af CDV 2
2
where
(8)
  density of air [kg / m3 ]
Af  vehicle frontal area [m 2 ]
V  vehicle speed [m / s]
CD  drag coefficient
The aerodynamic drag coefficients and the frontal area for different vehicle types are given in
Table 2.
Table 2: Reference values for drag coefficient (CD) and
the frontal area (Af in m2) for some vehicle types

Vehicle CD Af
Motorcycle with 0.5-0.7 0.7-0.9
rider
Open convertible 0.5-0.7 1.7-2.0
Limousine 0.22- 1.7-2.3
0.4
Coach 0.4-0.8 6-10
Truck without 0.45- 6.0-10.0
trailer 0.8
Truck with trailer 0.55- 6.0-10.0
1.0
Articulated 0.5-0.9 6.0-10.0
vehicle

Grading resistance
When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component of force that is
always directed downwards, Figure 5. This force component opposes the forward motion, i.e.
the grade climbing. When the vehicle goes down the grade, this force component aids the
vehicle motion. The grading resistance can be expressed as
Fg  Mg sin(a )
where
M  mass of vehicle [kg ] (9)
g  acceleration constant [ m / s 2 ]
a  road angle [radians]

In order to simplify the calculation, the road angle a, is usually replaced by the grade value,
when the road angle is small. The grade value is defined as (Figure 5)
H
i  tan(a )  sin(a ) (10)
L
In some literature, the tire rolling resistance and the grading resistance taken together and is
called road resistance. The road resistance is expressed as
Frd  Ff  Fg  Mg  f r cos(a )  sin(a ) 
where
(11)
M  mass of vehicle [kg ]
g  acceleration constant[m / s 2 ]
f r  rolling resistance coefficient

Mgsin(a)

hg

a
Mgcos(a)
H
Mg

Figure 5: Vehicle going up a grade [1]

Acceleration resistance
In addition to the driving resistance occurring in steady state motion, inertial forces also occur
during acceleration and braking. The total mass of the vehicle and the inertial mass of those
rotating parts of the drive accelerated or braked are the factors influencing the resistance to
acceleration:
  J  dV
Fa   M  2 rot 
 rdyn  dt

where
(12)
M  mass of vehicle [kg ]
J rot  intertia of rotational components [kg  m 2 ]
V  speed of the vehicle [km / h]
rdyn  dynamic radius of the tyre [m]

The rotational component is a function of the gear ratio. The moment of inertia of the rotating
drive elements of engine, clutch, gearbox, drive shaft, etc., including all the road wheels are
reduced to the driving axle. The acceleration resistance can be expressed as
dV
Fa   M
dt
where
  rotational inertia constant (13)
M  mass of the vehicle [kg ]
V  speed of the vehicle [ m / s]
Total driving resistance
The traction force (Ft) required at the drive wheels is made up of the driving resistance forces
and is defined as
Fresis tan ce  Fr  Fw  Fg  Fa (14)

Substituting the values of all the forces in equation 14, gives

1 dV
Fresis tan ce  Mgf r cos(a )   Af CDV 2  Mg sin(a )   M (15)
2 dt
The equation 15 may be used to calculate the power required (Preq):
Preq  Fresis tan ceV (16)

Dynamic equation
In the longitudinal direction, the major external forces acting on a two axle vehicle (Figure 1)
include:
 the rolling resistance of the front and rear tires (Frf and Frr), which are represented by
rolling resistance moment, Trf and Trr
 the aerodynamic drag (Fw)
 grade climbing resistance (Fg)
 acceleration resistance (Fa)
The dynamic equation of vehicle motion along the longitudinal direction is given by

  Ftf  Ftr    Frf  Frr  Fw  Fg  Fa 

dV
M (17)
dt

The first term on the right side is the total tractive effort and the second term is the total
tractive resistance. To determine the maximum tractive effort, that the tire ground contact can
support, the normal loads on the front and rear axles have to be determined. By summing the
moments of all the forces about point R (centre of the tire-ground area), the normal load on
the front axle Wf can be determined as
 dV 
MgLb cos(a )   Trf  Trr  Fw hw  Mghg sin(a )  Mhg 
Wf   dt  (18)
L
Similarly, the normal load acting on the rear axle can be expressed as
 dV 
MgLa cos(a )   Trf  Trr  Fw hw  Mghg sin(a )  Mhg 
Wr   dt  (19)
L
In case of passenger cars, the height of the centre of application of aerodynamic resistance
(hw) is assumed to be near the height of centre of gravity of the vehicle (hg). The equation18
and 19 can be simplified as
Lb hg  rdyn dV 
Wf  Mg cos(a )   Fw  Fg  Mgf r cos(a )  M  (20)
L L  hg dt 

and
La hg  rdyn dV 
Wr  Mg cos(a )   Fw  Fg  Mgf r cos(a )  M  (21)
L L  hg dt 

Using equation 5, 17, 20 and 21 can be rewritten as

La hg   rdyn  
Wr  Mg cos(a )   Ft  Fr 1   (22)
L L   hg  
 

La hg   rdyn  
Wr  Mg cos(a )   Ft  Fr 1    (23)
L L   h 
  g 
The first term on the right hand side of equation 22 and equation 23 is the static load on the
front and the rear axles when the vehicle is at rest on level ground. The second term is the
dynamic component of the normal load.
The maximum tractive effort (Ftmax) that the tire-ground contact can support is described by
the product of the normal load and the coefficient of road adhesion (m). In Table 3, the values
of coefficient of adhesion are given for different speeds of the vehicle and different road
conditions. For the front wheel drive vehicle, Ftmax is given by
L hg   rdyn  
Ft max  W f    b Mg cos(a )   Ft max  Fr 1     (24)
 L   
L   hg   

 Mg cos(a )  Lb  f r  hg  rdyn   / L
Ft max  (25)
1   hg / L
For the rear wheel drive vehicle, Ftmax is given by
L hg   rdyn  
Ft max  Wr    b Mg cos(a )   Ft max  Fr 1     (26)
 L   
L   hg   

 Mg cos(a )  La  f r  hg  rdyn   / L
Ft max  (27)
1   hg / L
Table 3: Coefficient of road adhesion

Road speed Coefficient of road Coefficient of road

[km/h] adhesion for dry adhesion for wet
roads roads
50 0.85 0.65
90 0.8 0.6
130 0.75 0.55

Adhesion, Dynamic wheel radius and slip

When the tractive effort of a vehicle exceeds the maximum tractive effort limit imposed by
the adhesive capability between the tyre and ground, the driven wheels will spin on the
ground. The adhesive capability between the tyre and the ground is the main limitation of the
vehicle performance especially when the vehicle is driven on wet, icy, snow covered or soft
soil roads.
The maximum tractive effort on the driven wheels, transferred from the power plant
through the transmission should not exceed the maximum values given by equation 25 and
equation 27. Otherwise, the driven wheels will spin on the ground, leading to vehicle
instability. The slip between the tyres and the surface can be described as:
R rdyn  V
drive slip ST 
R rdyn
where (28)
R  angular speed of the tyre [rad / s]
The dynamic wheel radius (rdyn) is calculated from the distance travelled per revolution of the
wheel, rolling without slip. The dynamic wheel radius is calculated from a distance travelled
at 60km/h. The increasing tyre slip at higher speeds roughly offsets the increase in rdyn. The
values of rdyn for different tyre sizes are given in table 4.
Table 4: Dynamic wheel radius of common tyre sizes

Rolling Rolling
Circumference Rdyn Tyre Circumference
Tyre Size [m] [m] Size [m] Rdyn [m]
Passenger cars Passenger cars
205/65
135 R 13 1.67 0.266 R15 1.975 0.314
195/60
145 R 13 1.725 0.275 R15 1.875 0.298
205/60 R
155 R 13 1.765 0.281 15 1.91 0.304
145/70 R
13 1.64 0.261 Light commercial vehicles
155/70
R13 1.68 0.267 185 R 14 1.985 0.316
165/70 R
13 1.73 0.275 215 R 14 2.1 0.334
175/70 R
13 1.77 0.282 205 R 14 2.037 0.324
195/75 R
175 R 14 1.935 0.308 16 2.152 0.343
205/75 R
185 R 14 1.985 0.316 16 2.2 0.35
195/70 R
14 1.94 0.309 Trucks and buses
185/65 R 12 R
14 1.82 0.29 22.5 3.302 0.526
185/60 R 315/80 R
14 1.765 0.281 22.5 3.295 0.524
195/60 R 1.8 0.286 295/80 R 3.215 0.512
14 22.5
195/70 R 215/75 R
15 2 0.318 17.5 2.376 0.378
185/65 275/70 R
R15 1.895 0.302 22.5 2.95 0.47
195/65 305/70 R
R15 1.935 0.308 19.5 2.805 0.446
 Vehicle Power Plant and Transmission Characteristics
Vehicle Power Plant and Transmission Characteristics
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 The drive train configuration
 Various types of vehicle power plants
 The need of gearbox in a vehicle
 The mathematical model of vehicle performance
Drive train Configuration
An automotive drive train is shown in Figure 1. It consists of:
 a power plant
 a clutch in a manual transmission or a torque converter in automatic transmission
 a gear box
 final drive
 differential shaft
 driven wheels
The torque and rotating speed from the output shaft of the power plant are transmitted to the
driven wheels through the clutch or torque converter, gearbox, final drive, differential and
drive shaft.
The clutch is used in manual transmission to couple or decouple the gearbox to the
power plant. The torque converter in an automatic transmission is hydrodynamic device,
functioning as the clutch in manual transmission with a continuously variable gear ratio.
The gearbox supplies a few gear ratios from its input shaft to its output shaft for the
power plant torque-speed profile to match the requirements of the load. The final drive is
usually a pair of gears that supply a further speed reduction and distribute the torque to each
wheel through the differential.
 Clutch
Driven wheel

1 3 5
Vehicle Differential Drive Shaft
Powe r Plant
2 4 R

Driven wheel
Transmission

Figure 1: An automobile power train

Vehicle power plant

There are two limiting factors to the maximum tractive effort of the vehicle:
 Maximum tractive effort that the tire-ground contact can support
 Tractive effort that the maximum torque of the power plant can produce with the given
driveline gear ratios.
The smaller of these factors will determine the performance potential of the vehicle. Usually it
is the second factor that limits the vehicles performance.
The classification of various types of power plants used in a vehicle is shown in Figure 2.

Prime Mover

Inte rnal Combustion Engine

Hybrid Drives Electric Motors
(ICE)

AC Motors
Continuous
Single Ignition Combustion
DC Motors

Spark ignition
Gas turbine
engine

Diesel engine

Figure 2: Classification of vehicle power plat

 In selecting a suitable power plant, the following factors are considered:
 Operating performance
 Economy
 Environment friendliness
For vehicular applications, the ideal performance characteristic of a power plant is constant
power output over the full speed range. Consequently, the torque varies hyperbolically with
respect to speed as shown in Figure 3. This ideal performance characteristic of the power
plant will ensure that the maximum power is available at any vehicle speed, thus resulting in
optimal vehicle performance. In practice however, the torque is constrained to be constant a
low speeds. This is done so as not to be over the maxima limited by the adhesion between the
tyre-ground contact areas. The internal combustion (IC) engines are the most commonly
used power plants for the land vehicles. In hybrid and electric vehicle technology, the electric
motor is used.

Torque

Powe r

Speed

Figure 3: Ideal performance characteristics for a vehicle power plant

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engines used in the vehicles are based on two principles:
 spark ignition (petrol engines) principle
 Diesel principle.
The key features of the ICs based spark ignition principle are:
 high power/weight ratio
 good performance
 low combustion noise.
 The disadvantages of are the ICs based spark ignition principle are:
 quality of fuel required
 higher fuel consumption.
The advantages of the diesel engines are:
 low fuel consumption
 low maintenance requirement due to absence of ignition system
 low fuel quality required
The disadvantages of the diesel engine are
 high level of particulate emission
 greater weight and higher price
 higher levels of noise
The two typical characteristic curves used to describe the engine characteristic are:
 torque vs. engine speed curve at full load (100% acceleration pedal position)
 power vs. engine speed curve at full load (100% acceleration pedal position)
These two characteristic curves are shown in Figure 4. In Figure 4 the following
nomenclature is used:
Pmax  Pn  Maximum engine power = Nominal power
P(Tmax )  Engine power at maximum torque
Tmax  Maximum engine torque
T ( Pmax )  Tn  Engine at maximum power = Nominal Torque
n( Pmax )  nn  Engine speed at maximum power = Nominal speed
n(Tmax )  Engine speed at maximum torque

Various indices are used to facilitate comparison between different types of engine. The two
most important indices are:
 torque increase (torque elasticity) defined as
Tmax

Tn
where (1)
Tmax  max imum engine torque
Tn  engine torque at max imum power , also known as no min al torque
 engine speed ratio defined as
nn
v
n(Tmax )
where (2)
nn  engine speed at max imum power, also known as no min al speed
n(Tmax )  engine speed at max imum torque

Pmax
Powe r
Torque T
Engine

P(Tmax)

Tmax

Engine Powe r P
T(Pmax )
Torque

nmin n(Tmax ) n(Pmax )

Engine Speed

Figure 4: Characteristic curves of an internal combustion engine

The higher value of the product  better engine power at low and medium engine speeds.
This in turn means less frequent gear changing.
Electric Motor
The electric motors have are ideal for vehicle application because of the torque speed
characteristics of the motors (Figure 5). Electric motors are capable of delivering a high
starting torque. It is very important to select proper type of motor with a suitable rating. For
example, it is not accurate to simply refer to a 10 h.p. motor or a 15 h.p. motor, because
horsepower varies with volts and amps, and peak horsepower is much higher than the
continuous rating.

Powe r

Torque

Speed

Figure 5: Torque vs. speed and power vs. speed characteristics of electric motor

It is also confusing to compare electric motors to IC engines, since electric motors are
designed for a continuous rating under load and IC engines are rated at their peak horsepower
under loaded condition. The commonly used motors in EVs are:
 AC motors
 Permanent magnet (PM) motors
 Series wound DC motors
 Shunt wound DC motors
The DC series motors were used in a number of prototype Electric Vehicle (EVs) and prior to
that mainly due to the ease of control. However, the size and maintenance requirements of DC
motors are making their use obsolete. The recent EVs and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
use AC, PM and Switched Reluctance motors. A classification of motors used in EVs is
shown in Figure 6.
Electric Motors

DC Motors AC Motors

Switched
Self excited Separately Induction Synchronous PM
reluctance
excited

Series Wound PM
Field rotor brushless dc
excited
Shunt
Squirrel PM
PM
cage Synchronous
excited
rotor

PM hybrid

Figure 6: Classification of electric motors used in EVs

The AC Induction Motor (IM) technology is very mature and significant research and
development activities have taken place in the area of induction motor drives. The control of
IM is more complex than DC motors, but the availability of fast digital processors,
computational complexity can easily be managed. The competitor to the induction motor is
the permanent magnet (PM) motor. The permanent magnet motors have magnets on the rotor,
while the stator construction is same as that of induction motor. The PM motors can be
surface mounted type or the magnets can be inset within the rotor. The PM motors can also be
classified as sinusoidal type or trapezoidal type depending on the flux density distribution in
the air gap. Permanent magnet motors with sinusoidal air gap flux distribution are called
Permanent Magnet synchronous Motors (PMSM) and the with trapezoidal air gap flux
distribution are called Brushless DC (BLDC) motors.
The need for gearbox
Internal combustion engines today drive most of the automobiles. These internal combustion
engines work either on the principle of spark ignition or diesel principle. In addition to the
many advantages of the internal combustion engine, such as high power to weight ratio and
relatively compact energy storage, it has two fundamental disadvantages:
i. Unlike the electric motors, the internal combustion engine cannot produce
torque at zero speed.
ii. The internal combustion engine produces maximum power at a certain engine
speed.
iii. The efficiency of the engine, i.e. its fuel consumption, is very much dependent
on the operating point in the engine’s performance map.
With a maximum available engine power Pmax and a road speed of v, the ideal traction
hyperbola Fideal and the effective traction hyperbola Feffec can be calculated as follows:
Pmax
Fideal 
v
Pmax
Fideal  tot
v
where
tot  efficiency of the drivetrain
(1)
Hence, if the full load engine power Pmax were available over the whole speed range, the
traction hyperbolas shown in Figure 7 would result. However, the Pmax is not available for the
entire speed range. The actual traction profile of the ICE (Fengine) is shown in Figure 7. From
Figure 7 it is evident that the entire shaded area cannot be used.

Adhesion Limit Without drive train efficiency:Ideal

traction hyperbola Fideal

With drive train efficiency:Ideal

traction hyperbola Feffec
Tractive efort Fz

Inte rnal combustion engine traction

available Fengine

Speed

Figure 7: Traction force vs. speed map of an internal combustion engine without gearbox
In order to utilize the shaded area, shown in Figure 7, additional output converter is required.
The output converter must convert the characteristics of the combustion engine in such a way
that it approximates as closely as possible to the ideal traction hyperbola (Figure 8).

Adhesion Limit

Traction force available

in second gear

Traction required for 0% gradient

Tractive efort Fz

1 st
gear
2 nd
gear
3 rd
gear 4 th
gear

Speed

Figure 8: Traction force vs. speed map of an internal combustion engine with gearbox
The proportion of the shaded area, i.e. the proportion of impossible driving states, is significantly smaller when an output converter
is used. Thus, the power potential of the engine is better utilized. The Figure 8 shows how increasing the number of gears gives a
better approximation of the effective traction hyperbola.

Drive train tractive effort and vehicle speed

After having dealt with the configuration of the drivetrain, this section deals with the tractive
effort. The torque transmitted from the power plant to the driven wheels (Tw) is given by:
Tw  ig iotTp
where
ig  gear ratio of the transmission (1)
io  gear ratio of the fianl drive
t  efficiency of the driveline from the power plant to the driven wheels
Tp  torque output from the power plant [ Nm]

The tractive effort on the driven wheels (Figure 9) is expressed as

Tw
Ft 
rdyn
where (2)
rdyn  dynamic radius of the tyre [m]
Substituting value of Tw from equation 1 into equation 2 gives
Tpig iot
Ft  (3)
rdyn

The total mechanical efficiency of the transmission between the engine output shaft and
driven wheels is the product of the efficiencies of all the components of the drive train.
The rotating speed of the driven wheel is given by
Np
Nw  [rpm]
ig io
where (4)
N p  rottational speed of the transmission [rpm]

The rotatational speed Np of the transmission is equal to the engine speed in the vehicle with a
manual transmission and the turbine speed of a torque converter in the vehicle with an
automatic transmission. The translation speed of the wheel (vehicle speed) is expressed as
 N w rdyn
V [m / s ] (5)
30
By substituting the value of Nw from equation 4 into equation 5, the vehicle speed can be
expressed as
 N p rdyn
V [m / s] (6)
30ig io

Vehicle performance
The performance of a vehicle is determined by the following factors:
 maximum cruising speed
 gradeability
 acceleration
Maximum Cruising Speed
The maximum speed of a vehicle is defined as the constant cruising speed that the vehicle can
achieve with full power plant load on a flat road. The maximum speed of a vehicle is
determined by the equilibrium between the tractive effort of the vehicle and the resistance and
maximum speed of the power plant and gear ratios of the transmission. This equilibrium is:
Tp ig i0t 1
 Mgf r cos(a )   a CD A f V 2
rdyn 2
where
ig  gear ratio of the transmission
(30)
i0  gear ratio of the final drive
t  efficiency of the driveline from the power plant to the driven wheels
Tp  torque output of the power plant [ Nm]

equation 30 shows that the vehicle reaches its maximum speed when the tractive effort,
represented by the left hand side term, equals the resistance, represented by the right hand
side. The intersection of the tractive effort curve and the resistance curve is the maximum
speed of the vehicle, Figure 9.

120
Tractive effort
Resistance on grade
100
Tractive effor [Nm]

80

60

Fr+Fw+Fg
40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Speed [km/h]

Figure 9: Tractive effort of an electric motor powered vehicle with a single speed transmission and its resistance
For some vehicles, no intersection exists between the tractive effort curve and the resistance
curve, because of a large power plant. In such a case the maximum speed of the vehicle is
determined by the maximum speed of the power plant. This maximum speed is given by
 n p max rdyn
Vmax 
30i0ig min
where
ig min  min imum gear ratio of the transmission
(31)
i0  gear ratio of the final drive
n p max  max imum speed of the power plant ( motor or engine)[ rpm]
Tp  torque output of the power plant [ Nm]
rdyn  dynamic radius of the tyre [ m]

Gradeability
Gradeability is defined as the grade angle that the vehicle can negotiate at a certain constant
speed. For heavy commercial vehicles the gradeability is usually defined as the maximum
grade angle that the vehicle can overcome in the whole speed range.
When the vehicle is driving on a road with relatively small grade and constant speed,
the tractive effort and resistance equilibrium can be expressed as
Tpi0igt 1
 Mgf r  aCD Af V 2  Mgi (32)
rdyn 2

Hence,
Tpi0igt / rdyn  Mgf r  1/ 2 aCD Af V 2
i  d  fr (33)
Mg

where
Tpi0igt / rdyn  1/ 2 aCD Af V 2
d (34)
Mg

The factor d is called the performance factor. When the vehicle drives on a road with a large
grade, the gradeability of the vehicle can be calculated as
d  f r 2 1  d 2  f r2
sin(a )  (35)
1  f r2
Acceleration Performance
The acceleration of a vehicle is defined by its acceleration time and distance covered from
zero speed to a certain high speed on a level ground. The acceleration of the vehicle can be
expressed as
dV Ft  Ff  Fw Tpi0igt / rdyn  Mgf r  1/ 2 aCD Af V
2
g
a    (d  f r ) (36)
dt M M 
where  is the rotational inertia factor taking into account the equivalent mass increase due to
the angular moments of the rotating components. This mass factor can be written as
Iw i02ig2 I p
  1 2 
Mrdyn Mr 2
I w  total angular inertial moment of the wheels
(37)
I p  total angular inertial moment of the rotating
components associated with the power plant

To determine the value of  , it is necessary to determine the values of the mass moments of
inertia of all the rotating parts. In case the mass moments of inertia are not available then, the
rotational factor (  ) can be approximated as:
  1  1   2ig2i02
1  0.04 (38)
 2  0.0025

The acceleration rate along with vehicle speed for a petrol engine powered vehicle with a four
gear transmission and an electric motor powered vehicle with a single gear transmission are
shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11 respectively.
5

4 1st gear
Acceleration (m/s2 )

3
2nd gear

2
3rd gear

1 4th gear

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Speed [km/h]

Figure 10: Acceleration rate of a petrol engine powered vehicle with four gears
 5

Acceleration (m/s2 )
3

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Speed [km/h]

Figure 11: Acceleration rate of an electric machine powered vehicle with a single gear

From equation 36, the acceleration time ta and distance Sa from a lower speed V1 to a higher
speed V2 can be expressed as
V2 M
ta   dV (39)
V1 Tpig i0t / rdyn  Mgf r  1/ 2 aCD Af V 2

and
V2 M V
Sa   dV (40)
V1 Tpig i0t / rdyn  Mgf r  1/ 2 aCD Af V 2

The power plant torque Tp in equation 39 and equation 40 is a function of speed of the
power plant. The speed of the power plant is in turn a function of the vehicle speed and gear
ratio of the transmission. Hence, analytical solution of equation 39 and equation 40 is not
possible. Numerical methods are usually used to solve these equations.