1 s2.0 S0927796X20300541 Main

Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100596
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Materials Science & Engineering R

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mser
Additive manufacturing of structural materials

Guo Liu a, b, 1, Xiaofeng Zhang a, 1, Xuliang Chen a, 1, Yunhu He a, 1, Lizi Cheng a, Mengke Huo a,
Jianan Yin a, Fengqian Hao a, Siyao Chen a, Peiyu Wang a, Shenghui Yi b, Lei Wan a,
Zhengyi Mao a, Zhou Chen a, Xu Wang a, Zhaowenbo Cao a, Jian Lu a, b, c, d, *
a
Laboratory of Nanomaterials & Nanomechanics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
b
Centre for Advanced Structural Materials, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Greater Bay Joint Division, Shenyang National Laboratory for
Materials Science, Shenzhen, China
c
Hong Kong Branch of National Precious Metals Material Engineering Research Center (NPMM), City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
d
CityU-Shenzhen Futian Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, has boomed over the last 30 years,
Additive manufacturing and its use has accelerated during the last 5 years. AM is a materials-oriented manufacturing technology, and
Structural materials printing resolution versus printing scalability/speed trade-off exists among various types of materials, including
3D printing
polymers, metals, ceramics, glasses, and composite materials. Four-dimensional (4D) printing, together with
4D printing
versatile transformation systems, drives researchers to achieve and utilize high dimensional AM. Multiple per
spectives of the AM of structural materials have been raised and illustrated in this review, including multi-
material AM (MMa-AM), multi-modulus AM (MMo-AM), multi-scale AM (MSc-AM), multi-system AM (MSy-
AM), multi-dimensional AM (MD-AM), and multi-function AM (MF-AM). The rapid and tremendous development
of AM materials and methods offers great potential for structural applications, such as in the aerospace field, the
biomedical field, electronic devices, nuclear industry, flexible and wearable devices, soft sensors, actuators, and
robotics, jewelry and art decorations, land transportation, underwater devices, and porous structures.
Abbreviations: 2D, Two-dimensional; 3C, Computer, communication, and consumer electronics; 3D, Three-dimensional; 4D, Four-dimensional; ABS, Acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene; AM, Additive manufacturing; APS, Air plasma spray; BJ, Binder jetting; BMG, Bulk metallic glass; CAD, Computer aided design; CNT, Carbon
nanotube; CT, Computed tomography; DED, Direct energy deposition; DFT, Density functional theory; DIW, Direct ink writing; DLD, Direct laser deposition; DLP,
Digital light processing; DMLS, Direct metal laser sintering; EBM, Electron beam melting; ECG, Electrocardiogram; EDA, Electrodermal activity; EDC, Elastomer-
derived ceramic; EEG, Electroencephalogram; EMG, Electromyography; FDM, Fused deposition modeling; FEM, Finite element method; FLDW, Femtosecond laser
direct writing; HA, Hydroxyapatite; HARP, High-area rapid printing; HAZ, Heat affected zone; HEA, High entropy alloy; ICs, Integrated circuits; IP, Inkjet printing;
LCE, Liquid crystal elastomer; LCST, Lower critical solution temperature; LED, Light emitting diode; LOM, Laminated object manufacturing; LPBF, Laser powder bed
fusion; MD-AM, Multi-dimensional additive manufacturing; MEMS, Microelectromechanical system; MF-AM, Multi-function additive manufacturing; MG, Metallica
glass; MMa-AM, Multi-material additive manufacturing; MMo-AM, Multi-modulus additive manufacturing; MOF, Metal-organic framework; MPL, Multiphoton
lithography; MRI, Magnetic resonance imaging; MSc-AM, Multi-scale additive manufacturing; MSy-AM, Multi-system additive manufacturing; NIR, Near-infrared
light; PμSL, Projection micro-stereolithography; PBP, Powder bed printing; PCB, Printed circuit board; PDC, Polymer-derived ceramic; PDMS, Polydimethylsiloxane;
PE, Polyethylene; PEGDA, Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate; PET, Polyethylene terephthalate; PETG, Poly(ethylene terephthalateco-1,4-cylclohexylenedimethylene
terephthalate; PGS, Poly glycerol sebacate; PLA, Polylactic acid; PMMA, Polymethylmethacrylate; PNIPAM, Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide); PPGDMA, Poly(propyl
ene glycol) dimethacrylate; PPNM, Boracic PE/polyethylene wax blends-open-cell nickel foam composites; PU, Polyurethane; PUV, Printed utility vehicle; PVD,
Physical vapor deposition; RFID, Radio frequency identification; SEBM, Selective electron beam melting; SEM, Scanning electron microscopy; SLA, Stereo
lithography; SLM, Selective laser melting; SLS, Selective laser sintering; SMA, Shape memory alloy; SMP, Shape memory polymer; SPPW, Self-propagating photo
polymer wave-guide technology; SPS, Suspension plasma spraying; SS, Stainless steel; TBC, Thermal barrier coating; TENG, Triboelectric nanogenerator; TPL, Two-
photon lithography; UAV, Unmanned aerial vehicle; UHS, Ultrafast high-temperature sintering; UV, Ultraviolet.
* Corresponding author at: Laboratory of Nanomaterials & Nanomechanics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong,
China.
E-mail address: jianlu@cityu.edu.hk (J. Lu).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2020.100596
Received 31 July 2020; Received in revised form 30 October 2020; Accepted 23 November 2020
Available online 1 April 2021
0927-796X/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
G. Liu et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100596
1. Introduction layer by layer with the guidance of a computer-aided design (CAD)

model. Various types of promising materials, including polymers,
Use of additive manufacturing (AM) is considered to be a new in metals, ceramics, glasses, biomaterials, and composite materials, have
dustrial revolution [1,2], after steam engines, computers, and the emerged in various types of AM methods, including stereolithography
internet. Unlike subtractive manufacturing, such as conventional (SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM),
machining, casting, and forging processes, AM constructs a laminated object manufacturing (LOM), binder jetting (BJ), selective
three-dimensional (3D) structure by continuously adding the material laser melting (SLM). Fig. 1 illustrated the technological roadmap of AM.
Fig. 1. Technological roadmap of additive manufacturing (AM).
2
Fig. 2. Statistical data of articles on the topic of “additive manufacturing” published from 1987 to 2019. The data were compiled from the database of Web of Science
Core Collection on July 23, 2020.
Four-dimensional (4D) printing has emerged with the involvement of 2. Structural materials for additive manufacturing
versatile shape-morphing systems. Origami and kirigami, for example,
are typical shape-morphing assemblies. Origami is the art of folding thin Material candidates for AM have been summarized in Table 1, and
sheets into 3D objects, with rich geometric algorithms [3]. Kirigami is a analyzed in Fig. 3. In Table 1, the scalability of each AM systems is
variation of origami, in which the material is cut during the folding of exhibited by the maximum dimension of resultant structures as reported
the structure. During 4D printing, a 3D-printed material will autono in the studies, while the corresponding printing speed is exhibited by the
mously and programmably change its configuration or function in reported maximum rate. Printing resolution versus printing scalability/
response to environmental stimuli, such as exposure to heat, magnetic speed trade-off has been observed, and the gray area in Fig. 3 covers the
fields, liquids, electricity, light, gas, prestress, or a combination of the desired region for future studies aiming at overcoming this trade-off.
aforementioned stimuli. After the first demonstration of 4D printing
with a multi-material strand folded into the letters “MIT” in 2014 [4],
various smart materials have been developed for 3D printing and 2.1. Additive manufacturing of polymeric materials
self-shaping assembly.
In recent years, more and more research studies on AM of structural 3D printing technology is based on digital model files, and printing
materials have been published in a wide range of journals, as shown in materials are used to produce objects through layered printing, which is
Fig. 2. In the year 2020, a feature article in Nature suggested that re also referred to as AM [53]. At present, there are many preparation
searchers are developing techniques for faster, bigger, and more inno methods of polymer composites, such as deposition molding, selective
vative printing [5]. In the year 2019, Science published several inspiring laser sintering, ink-jet 3D printing, stereolithography, and 3D drawing
articles on AM, including three studies on the ultrafast 3D printing of [54]. Other methods are still in the research and development stage or
multiscale structures [6–8], and two studies on 3D bioprinting of tissues are only used by a small number of scientists. In the production process
or organs [9,10]. A broad range of materials developed for AM tech of polymer composite products, every technology has its own advan
niques has been developed, including polymers [11], metals [12], ce tages and disadvantages. The raw material requirements, processing
ramics [12,13], glasses [14], biomaterials [15,16], and multi-material rate and accuracy, cost and final performance requirements of products
systems [17,18]. Hybrid or multi-process 3D printing also holds poten can affect the manufacturing process. The current polymer 3D printing
tial for improving the functionality of material structures [19]. Inter technologies are shown in Fig. 4.
estingly, the printing of soft matter is driving innovation in 4D printing
[20]. Meanwhile, the accelerated industrialization of AM techniques, 2.1.1. Thermoplastic polymers
such as Adidas shoes printed by Carbon Inc. and Boeing airplane com Because the mechanical properties of pure thermoplastic materials
ponents printed by GE Aviation, also implies that a broad review on this are not suitable for some applications, it is necessary to alter the me
topic is appropriate to provide sufficient technical suggestions for the chanical properties of pure thermoplastic parts prepared by FDM. Ning
ongoing practical applications and technological revolution analysis et al. [22] used the plastic particles (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
[21]. (ABS)) and carbon fiber for the FDM process. They found that specimens
In this review article, we present recent progress and advances in with 5 wt% carbon fiber had higher bending stresses, bending moduli
3D/4D AM of various materials, and their potential applications. Critical and bending toughness values than those of pure plastic, with increases
issues for the AM of structural materials, including the printability, of 11.82 %, 16.82 %, and 21.86 %, respectively. The porosities of the
printing resolution/scalability/speed, geometric complexity, mechani samples with 10 % carbon fiber contents were the largest (Fig. 5).
cal robustness, and cost-efficiency, are discussed, and the current limi Tekinalp et al. [55] studied the processability, microstructure, and
tations and future directions for designing 3D/4D printable materials, mechanical properties of short carbon fibers (0.2–0.4 mm) added to ABS
metamaterials, devices, and systems are explained. Furthermore, we as a 3D printing raw material using FDM technology. The tensile
believe that the development of AM for structural materials will tran strength and modulus of elasticity of the 3D printed samples increased
sition to strategies for multi-material AM (MMa-AM), multi-modulus AM by about 115 % and 700 %, respectively, compared with the tradition
(MMo-AM), multi-scale AM (MSc-AM), multi-system AM (MSy-AM), ally molded composite. Although the porosities of 3D printed compos
multi-dimensional AM (MD-AM), and multi-function AM (MF-AM). ites is relatively high, they all show large tensile strengths and moduli.
Tian et al. [56] added long carbon fibers as a reinforcement to a
3
Table 1
Summary of structural materials for additive manufacturing (AM).
Materials AM technology Printing Printing Printing Others (e.g., mechanical properties, and References
resolution scalability speed (mm cost-efficiency)
(μm) (mm) s− 1)
ABS+ Low cost, high strength, multi-material

FDM 50 400 33 [22]
carbon fiber powders capability, nozzle clogging
Polylaurylamide and Good strength, easy removal of support
SLS 80 300 1500 [23]
polyether ketone ketone powder, high cost, powdery surface
Polymers
High printing resolution, material
Denture base PMMA SLA 100 600 [24]
limitations, cytotoxicity, high cost
High printing resolution, soft material
Epoxy/clay nanocomposites DIW 200 800 20 [25]
capabilities, low mechanical strength
Stress–strain behavior is comparable to
Laser assisted direct
316 L SS 40 10 1.33 that of commercial stainless steel [26]
metal deposition
produced by rolling and forming
Direct metal
H13 tool steel 40 60 4.17 [27]
deposition
Laser metal
Ti–Cu alloys 120 13.3 No post heat treatment [12]
deposition
Al7075, Al6061 SLM 20 80 7900 Post heat treatment is required [28]
Shaped metal Tungsten inert gas welding-based AM
Ti–6Al–4V 275 6.67 [29]
deposition using metal wire as original materials
Ti-6Al-4V EBM 200 Preheating is required [30]
Ti-6Al-4V EBM 50 47.1 1000 [31]
Al–Fe alloys E-beam deposition 100 Vacuum is required [32]
Arc additive layer
Mild steel 500 8.33 [33]
manufacturing
Metals Ti–6Al–4 V, aluminum, steel, Deposition rates of 1 kg/h for titanium
invar, brass, Wire + arc AM 500 2500 and aluminum, and 3 kg/h for steel are [34]
copper and nickel recommended for cost saving
Vacuum is required.
Ni-based superalloys EBM 4.5 [35]
Post heat treatment is required
Ni-based superalloys Laser AM 25 [36]
AlCoCrFeNi HEAs SLM 10 2000 [37]
FeCoCrNi HEAs SLM 60 300 [38]
Post heat treatment is required.
CoCrFeNiTi-based HEAs SEBM 85 [39]
Vacuum is required
CoCrFeNi HEAs DIW 10 Reduction sintering is required [40]
Fused filament
Zr44Ti11Cu10Ni10Be25 MG 5 [41]
fabrication
Zr52.5Ti5Al10Ni14.6Cu17.9 MG Laser foil printing 150 [42]
Zr55Cu30Ni5Al10 MG SLM 7.2 1200 [43]
Ni TPL 0.1 0.05 6 [44]
Specific compressive strength 339 MPa
SiOC matrix nanocomposites DIW 200 100 10–20 [45]
cm3 g− 1
Specific compressive strength 204 MPa
SiOC SLA/SPPW 50 100 [46]
cm3 g− 1
Ceramics
Specific compressive strength 4.7 MPa
SiOC SLA 25 10 [47]
cm3 g− 1
TPL and atomic Specific compressive strength 144 MPa
Al2O3 0.9 0.05 0.05 [48]
layer deposition cm3 g− 1
Direct heating Optical transmission: almost identical
Silica glass 4500 300 6.3 [49]
method with commercial fused silica
Optical transmission: almost identical
Amorphous silica SLA 50 [14]
with commercial fused silica
Locally tunable optical properties can
Amorphous silica DIW 500 10 [50]
be realized
Glasses
Optical transmission: almost identical
Phase-separating resins DLP 10 [51]
with commercial fused silica
Optical transmission: higher than soda
lime glass and
Tetraethyl orthosilicate DLP 200 10 [52]
quartz glass after full densification at
1100 ◦ C and polishing
polylactic acid (PLA) matrix to make raw silk material for printing, and on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fabrics, the properties of the fab
they used the FDM process to realize sample preparation and molding. rics, and the printing platform temperature. A theoretical and statistical
By optimizing the process parameters, the maximum bending tensile optimization model was presented. They found that the non-conductive
strengths and elastic moduli of the 3D printed samples with 27 % long PLA printing guide had better durability after washing or adding
carbon fiber contents reached 335 MPa and 30 GPa, respectively. conductive filler, but the washing process affected the fracture stress of
Therefore, due to their superior mechanical properties, the printed the woven fabric (after printing).
samples have potential applications in aerospace. Using FDM,
Eutionnat-Diffo et al. [57] studied the relationship between the tensile 2.1.2. Thermosetting polymers
deformation of non-conductive and conductive PLA filaments deposited Thermosetting plastics can be melted during the first hot processing.
4
Fig. 3. Printing resolution versus printing scalability/speed trade-off (All the data are from Table 1).
Fig. 4. Polymer 3D printing technologies.
During the formation process, thermosetting plastics will undergo better bone regeneration abilities. Shim et al. [24] studied the effect of
chemical reactions to form cross-linked structures, which will harden printing samples with PMMA in different printing directions (0◦ , 45◦ ,
after curing and will not melt when reheated. This change is irreversible, and 90◦ ) on the print resolution, bending strength, surface morphology,
and when heated again, the thermosetting plastics can no longer soften. and microbial reaction of 3D printed denture base resin. They found that
Thermosetting plastics mainly include phenolic plastics, amino plastics, the printing direction had a significant effect on the print resolution,
epoxy plastics, unsaturated polyester plastics, organosilicon plastics, bending strength, surface morphology, and reaction of microorganisms.
and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) [58]. They suggested that the print direction must be carefully selected to
Through 3D printing and ceramic conversion, Fu et al. [59] suc produce samples with better performances. Lin et al. [60] prepared ten
cessfully prepared porous carbon-free embedded (larnite/C) scaffolds different photopolymerization resins by using ethoxylated bisphenol
based on silicon resin loaded with calcium carbonate filler under an A-dimethacrylate, urethane dimethacrylate, and triethylene glycol
inert atmosphere and high temperature treatment. The scaffolds had a dimethacrylate. An ultraviolet (UV) 3D printer was used to print the
good effect on killing bone tumor cells. In addition, compared with the samples. The bending strengths of the printed samples were between 60
pure scaffold, the scaffolds could promote cell differentiation and had and 90 MPa, the bending moduli were between 1.7 and 2.1 GPa, and the
5
Fig. 5. Classification and some examples of reinforcement methods of polymer composites: (a) iron/ acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) [75], (b) BaTiO3/ABS
[79], (c) glass bead/Nylon-11 [80], (d) continuous carbon fiber/polylactic acid (PLA) [56], (e) short carbon fiber/ABS [78], (f) continuous carbon fiber/nylon [81],
(g) graphene oxide/photopolymer [82], (h) graphene/ABS [83], and (i) silver/ Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) [84].
surface hardness values were between 14.5 and 24.6 HV. These prop direct ink writing 3D printer and patterned ordered porous structures
erties were similar to those of current clinical resin materials. They with various geometric parameters to make special wetted surfaces. By
suggested that these materials were ideal for 3D printing and have po optimizing the parameters, a sample film with a water contact angle of
tential clinical application value. Hmeidat et al. [25] studied the effect about 155◦ was prepared. The superhydrophobic properties of the
of adding functional nano-clay on the rheological and printing proper porous PDMS films printed in this manner also showed excellent thermal
ties of fiber-free reinforced epoxy resin using direct 3D printing tech aging durabilities. Holländer et al. [64] used a semi-solid extrusion
nology. The strength range of these samples was 80–143 MPa, which printer and UV-assisted crosslinking technology to prepare a PDMS drug
was much higher than any previously reported values of 3D printed delivery device with a prednisolone structure using UV-light emitting
thermosetting composites, including short fiber-reinforced materials. diode (LED) light. They found that using room temperature semi-solid
Therefore, adding nanomaterials to epoxy resin is promising for direct extrusion 3D printing technology combined with UV-LED cross-linking
writing 3D printing. technology was a feasible method to produce PDMS devices containing
prednisolone. Because the whole process was performed at room tem
2.1.3. Elastomers perature, this production method could be used to produce devices for
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is the dominant polymer in silicone temperature-sensitive drugs.
systems [61] because of its mechanical flexibility and stretchability, Xiang et al. [65] studied the thiol-ene photopolymerization between
chemical inertness, biocompatibility, and high thermal stability vinyl and mercapto-functionalized polysiloxane, developed a UV
compared with those of other elastomers. Furthermore, PDMS exhibits curable silicone elastomer based on the thiol-ene photoreaction, and
high chemical stability at high temperatures and pressures [62]. studied the photo-crosslinking kinetics, biocompatibility, and 3D
He et al. [63] printed polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) ink using a printing performance. The silicone rubber sample had good cell and
6
Fig. 6. Outline of metal AM.
tissue compatibility, and it was good for skin wound healing as a wound samples, the tensile and compressive strengths of the samples heated at
dressing. In addition, due to the good spatiotemporal controllability of 140 ◦ C for 120 s increased by 25.4 % and 52.2 %, respectively. Compton
the thiol olefin photoreaction, various soft structures could be prepared et al. [78] obtained a 3D printed honeycomb composite composed of
by photolithography, as well as three-dimensional elastic structures oriented-fiber-filled epoxy resin with excellent mechanical properties by
with smooth surfaces and good performances. Stieghorst et al. [66] direct writing technology. A structure with a good strength and tough
developed a mathematical optimization method to calculate the optimal ness was obtained by adjusting the arrangement of the fibers and
printing parameters of the minimum droplet spread. They used the whisker reinforcements.
double Arrhenius equation to link the temperature–time curve of the High-performance functional composites can be made by adding
vulcanization process with the rise and fall of the viscosity due to the nanomaterials to polymer materials. Lin et al. [82] showed that the
vulcanization of liquid silicone rubber. Two kinds of silicone rubber graphene oxide/photopolymer composite prepared by SLA had good
were characterized by a rheometer under different isothermal and ani strength and ductility. When only 0.2 % graphene oxide was added, the
sothermal curing conditions. They found that the actual measured value tensile strength and elongation increased by 62.2 % and 12.8 %,
was close to the calculated value, which made it possible to optimize the respectively. They speculated that the increase in toughness was due to
rheological properties of the silicone rubber using the curing process the increase in the crystallinity of graphene oxide in the polymer com
parameters. posites. Wei et al. [83] found that a graphene-reinforced ABS composite
could be used in the FDM process to produce workpieces, and the con
2.1.4. Polymer composites ductivities of the samples were enhanced. When the content of graphene
Today, 3D printing polymer technology can produce complex in the composite was 5.6 wt%, the conductivity of the composite
workpieces, but the strengths and functions of the workpieces limit their increased by four orders of magnitude.
development. The development of composite materials to obtain the
required mechanical and functional properties can largely solve this 2.1.5. Perspectives
problem. Thus, the use of composite materials has been greatly devel Due to the variety of available materials, polymer AM can be applied
oped [67–74]. The polymer composites developed today mainly include to create light and complex structures in the aerospace industry, struc
particle-reinforced polymer composites, fiber-reinforced polymer com tural models for the construction industry, artificial reproductions of
posites, and nanocomposites (Fig. 5) [54]. artwork, and tissue and organs in the medical field. However, due to the
Because of the low material costs and the ease of mixing particles lack of strength and necessary functions of pure polymer products pro
with a polymer, particle-reinforced materials are widely used in the duced by AM, most AM polymer products are still used as concept
polymer matrix to change its properties. Nikzad et al. [75] prepared samples rather than functional components. These disadvantages limit
iron/ABS and copper/ABS composite samples with metal contents up to the wide industrial application of polymer AM. To overcome these
40 % by controlled centrifugal mixing, single screw extruder thermal shortcomings, polymer matrix composites have been prepared by add
compounding, and compression molding for FDM technology. They ing particles, fibers, or nanomaterial reinforcements to the polymer. Due
found that due to the addition of metal fillers, the thermal and me to the different reinforcement materials, polymer composites have bet
chanical properties of ABS were largely improved, and the stiffness and ter mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties.
tensile properties were improved. The thermal conductivity of 30 However, there are some problems in the AM of polymer composites.
%-Cu-filled ABS and 40 %-Cu-filled ABS increased to 3.3 and First, the materials are limited. At present, only thermoplastic polymers,
1.4 W/m⋅◦ C. Isakov et al. [76] mixed perovskite oxide particles with a powder forming materials, and a small number of photopolymers with
polymer matrix to prepare the required filaments for printing, which low glass-transition temperatures and appropriate melt viscosities can
could be used for three-dimensional printing of various media materials be used for 3D printing. Consequently, these limited polymer composites
with high dielectric anisotropy and spatial variations of the dielectric cannot meet the diverse industrial requirements. Thus, it is a key
constant. The structure of the designed sample exhibited metamaterial problem to develop more suitable polymer composites as printing ma
electromagnetic characteristics and a tunable working frequency, and terials. Second, the performances of these materials are limited. The
thus, it has great potential for the manufacture of new electromagnetic mechanical strengths of polymer composites made of most additives are
devices by fused deposition 3D printing. still lower than those of polymer composites made using traditional
Adding fibers to a polymer matrix can significantly improve the molding methods, and thus, these composites cannot meet the func
properties of a polymer material. FDM and direct writing are two tional requirements. Therefore, the key improvements are to find a
frequently used techniques for manufacturing fiber-reinforced polymer suitable enhancement material, better printing parameters, and better
composites. Wang et al. [77] proposed a new method in which thermal printing structures. Finally, the printers for these materials are limited.
expansion microspheres were added to the matrix, and the FDM process The key to solving this problem is to shorten the printing time, increase
was combined with heat treatment. Compared with the untreated the maximum volume, and improve the printing accuracy. Nonetheless,
7
Fig. 7. Development of 3D printed metal designs: (a–c) novel material systems that can overcome the negative effects [12] and (d) the introduction of nano
particles [28].
the AM of polymer composites has good prospects. 2.2.1. Development of materials, processes, printing structures, and
structural–functional properties
2.2. Additive manufacturing of metallic materials
2.2.1.1. Novel design of materials for printing. The properties of printing
Metals are traditional materials in structural applications and have materials are highly related to the microstructures and final properties
been widely developed by common manufacturing methods (e.g., cast of printed parts. Many novel metallic materials have been designed to
ing, forging, and welding). AM can expand the applications of metals by form materials with good microstructures and advanced properties, as
forming complex structures, reducing the number of required structural shown in Fig. 7. Currently, many of these novel metallic materials have
components and the production costs, and shortening the processing been designed to be applicable for AM or improve the structural prop
timescale. Thus, AM can change the current lifecycles of metal parts. To erties, e.g., high strengths and toughness values.
fully access the advantages of 3D printing in practical applications, we One limitation of AM is the range of printing alloys, as typical alloys
must explore novel materials, processes, and structures [85]. An outline used in industry are not adaptable for AM. It is difficult to obtain parts
of metal AM is shown in Fig. 6. with desired structures or properties using typical alloys. Therefore,
developing novel metallic materials for AM has been a popular topic of
recent research, with researchers taking inspiration from other fields,
such as casting. Uniform dispersions of nanoparticles in the
Fig. 8. Novel process for additively manufactured metals: (a, b) novel process for specialized materials [41], (c) novel manufacturing process that is applicable for
more materials [91], and (d) novel process to improve the properties of the manufactured component [35].
8
solidification process during casting can efficiently achieve higher spe glass composites with amorphous and crystal phases with high strengths
cific yield strengths and specific moduli [86]. Martin et al. [28] devel and fracture toughness values were prepared [100].
oped an approach to expand the metallic material selection to a wide Other novel technologies have appeared for AM fabrication, such as
range for application in many AM machines. Like casting, AM involves combinatorial alloy design for multi-material manufacturing [101],
the process of solidification, which can be similarly controlled by electrochemical-machining-assisted 3D printing [102], and additive
introducing nanoparticles as nucleants. Crack-free, equiaxed, and remanufacturing [103]. Laser-based deposition, arc melting, and other
fine-grained microstructures can be obtained by AM processes with techniques have been used to repair damaged components, known as
properties comparable to those of wrought material. Similarly, many additive remanufacturing [29,103]. Industrial components, such as
researchers have utilized nanoparticles to fabricate components with gears, molds, and landing gear, are frequently damaged by daily usage
fine microstructures and advanced mechanical properties, for example, under high-impact, wear, and high-load conditions. These additive
Al [87], AlSi10Mg [88], and ferritic stainless steel [89]. remanufacturing methods can clad hard protection coatings with
Different AM methods have their own characteristics. Most laser- and metallurgical bonds to improve the hardness, wear resistance, or other
electron-beam-based AM methods involve high heating and cooling properties, thereby extending the life cycle [104].
rates, generating high temperature gradients in the printed component. Apart from novel experimental methods to improve the properties of
This likely results in columnar grains, and thus, undesired anisotropic additively manufactured components, some researchers have simulated
mechanical properties [90]. Therefore, some researchers have devel the processes to investigate the formation of defects and optimize the
oped novel materials to overcome the negative effects of the AM processes. Khairalla et al. [105] revealed spatter-induced defect for
method. Zhang et al. [12] reported novel Ti-Cu alloys with high mation mechanisms using high-fidelity simulations, which could
constitutional supercooling capacities, which can obtain ultrafine describe the fast multi-transient dynamics even to the nanosecond scale,
eutectoid microstructures rather than columnar grains. The ultrafine and then verified the simulations by synchrotron experiments. Other
eutectoid microstructures result from the high cooling rate in the high simulations using methods such as the finite element method (FEM),
temperature gradient of a laser process. Novel materials exploit the molecular dynamics (MD), and density functional theory (DFT) can
characteristics of AM process. simulate processes at different scales, from macroscopic and micro
cosmic scales to the atomic scale. These methods are effective, but they
2.2.1.2. Novel processes. Despite the development of novel materials for require further multiscale combinations to relate each scale.
AM, some researchers have made significant efforts to develop novel AM Hence, developing novel printing processes combining the features
processes for different purposes, as shown in Fig. 8. The term “hard- of the materials and AM processes has widened the range of printable
printing alloy” refers to an alloy that is relatively difficult to fabricate by materials.
normal AM processes, for example, amorphous alloys and high-entropy
alloys (HEAs). These novel AM processes are modifications of current 2.2.1.3. Novel structures. Printing structures generally depend on the
processes or were developed based on the characteristics of hard- end applications [106]. Open-cell materials can not only provide
printing alloys. For example, amorphous alloys fabricated by AM, such structural properties but can also support potential applications related
as SLM, will be partially crystalized due to reheating in the heat affected to the internal surfaces, such as catalysis. The structures are easily
zone (HAZ). Gibson et al. [41] developed a novel 3D printing system manufactured by AM methods. However, closed-cell materials are
(fused filament fabrication) to fabricate amorphous alloys with complex mainly used in structural applications, such as lightweight supporting
structures (further details about the 3D printing of amorphous alloys are parts or energy absorbing parts. The outside shape of a component with
provided in Section 2.2.2). Kenel et al. [40] and Jakus et al. [91] re a closed-cell structure can be formed by AM, but the internal porosity is
ported a combined strategy using ink writing printing of metal oxide generally controlled by other factors, such as a foaming agent [106].
mixtures following by reduction sintering. This strategy can be used to Structures with open cells can be used in applications involving
fabricate complex metallic structures, including Fe, Ni, FeNi, and direct contact, such as catalysts, where achieving load-bearing capa
FeCoNiCr HEAs. Crack and segregation control are necessary in AM bilities is not the primary goal [107]. Structures with closed pores are
processes with high thermal gradients. These researchers utilized ink more likely to be utilized in applications involving indirect contact, such
writing printing to print complex structures and reduction sintering to as energy absorption [108] and electromagnetic shielding [109].
form alloys from oxides. This novel strategy can expand the range of The structure is highly related to the final mechanical properties, as
printable alloys. the deformation path is easily influenced by the structure. The designed
Meanwhile, many researchers have focused on improving the me structure should take the microstructure into consideration. For
chanical properties of printed alloys. Chen et al. [35] designed a example, additively manufactured parts sometimes have anisotropic
post-3D-printing recovery protocol that utilized a feature of the printing properties. If a part is well designed, the deformation occurs along the
process—the unrelieved residual stress—to prevent single crystals from anisotropic direction with a higher strength. Thus, a higher strength and
recrystallizing. This technology modified the whole manufacturing lower weight can be achieved.
process and showed potential use for additive remanufacturing, The printing structures can influence the deformation path and
including repairing, restoring, and reshaping of superalloy single-crystal further improve the structural properties. Many efforts have been made
products. However, if there are some significant gaps that are hard to to compare the structural properties of different structures using
overcome, developing completely new AM methods may also be a good experimental and numerical simulation methods. The compared pa
choice. Yu et al. [92] proposed a new AM method—additive friction stir rameters are mainly related to the density, structural orientation, and
deposition—and discussed its benefits and limitations compared to lattice structure [108,110–112]. Further breakthroughs are possible by
current AM technologies. Wang and co-authors utilized laser-based AM taking inspiration from other fields. Pham et al. [113] designed a lattice
technology to fabricate various materials, including crack-free steel, structure that was similar to the crystal structure. The results indicated
Ti-based alloys, and superalloys, with relatively large sizes and good that crystal-like structures could efficiently improve the mechanical
mechanical properties [29,36,93–95]. A hybrid deposition and properties. Bio-inspired materials have been shown to exhibit improved
micro-rolling process that combined micro-casting, forging, and milling mechanical properties [114,115]. Though few studies have been per
was proposed to improve the deposition accuracy and microstructure formed on metal 3D printing, bio-inspiration can contribute to both
performances [96,97]. Since Wu et al. [98] revealed that dual-phase structural and functional applications. Some typical strengthening
nanostructures have excellent mechanical properties, achieving such mechanisms for the additively manufactured components, including
structures in 3D printed alloys has been appealing [99]. Some metallic fine microstructures, secondary phases, special microstructural
9
Table 2 similar requirements, such as oil–water separations.

Typical statistics of strengthening mechanisms, material types, and AM Unlike normal alloys that must be accompanied by functional films,
technology. hard-printing alloys have special functional properties even without
Strengthening Material types AM technology further treatment. Metallic glasses (or amorphous alloys) with disor
mechanism dered atomic packing structures have become a research focus in cata
Fine microstructures Al-based alloy [28], SLM [12,28], additive friction lyst applications and exhibited advanced catalytic efficiencies [120].
Ti-based alloy [12], stir deposition [92] Liang et al. [116] fabricated Fe-based metallic glass (MG) composites
Inconel 625 [92], with porous structures, which could be reused 45 times in sulfate
Secondary phases Al composites [87], SS SLM [87], laser metal
radical-based reactions. Although the MGs were partially crystalized,
[89] deposition [89]
Special Zr-based BMG [41], Fused filament fabrication [41], MG composites are a suitable material choice if advanced properties can
microstructural Fe-based BMG [116], ink writing printing + reduction be achieved. There is likely no need to fabricate fully amorphous alloys,
deformation CoFeNiCr HEA [40], sintering [40], SLM [108,110, and fabricating such alloys is still a problem for AM because crystalli
mechanisms 316 L SS [108,110], 116], EBM [35] zation will occur well below the melting point.
Ni-based superalloy
[35]
Structural factors Ti–6Al-4 V [111], 316 L EBM [111], SLM [113] 2.2.2. Metallic glass and high entropy alloys
SS [113] MGs (also known as amorphous alloys) and HEAs both show promise
for applications in industry due to their unique physical and chemical
properties. Crack-free MGs and HEAs are hard-printing materials with
deformation mechanisms, and structural factors, are summarized in
typical microstructures, because there are difficulties manufacturing
Table 2.
MGs and HEAs using normal fabrication technologies. AM provides new
opportunities to expand the applications of MGs and HEAs, which en
2.2.1.4. Printed metals with functional properties. Metals not only have ables them to be fabricated with complicated structures and tailored
many structural applications but also show potential in functional ap microstructures.
plications due to their unique physical (e.g., conductive, thermal, and
superhydrophobic) and chemical properties (e.g., chemical activity)
2.2.2.1. Metallic glasses. MGs have many intrinsic properties due to the
(Fig. 9). Some functional properties have been developed in addition to
randomly packed atoms, including catalytic properties [120,122–127],
structural properties, and the materials exhibit the advantages of metal
soft magnetic properties [128,129], corrosion resistances [130], and
3D printing, such as withstanding extreme conditions [35,40], electro
good mechanical properties [43]. Most AM technologies involve heating
chemical properties [117], and superhydrophobic properties [118].
and cooling during the fabrication process. However, once the metallic
Further functional applications remain to be fully developed.
glass is heated to the crystallization temperature, it will begin to crys
In addition, functional properties are generally achieved with
talize. It is not clear whether MGs and MG composites have better
intrinsic metal properties and further treatment. Ambrosi et al. [117,
properties [131]. Thus, both MGs and MG composites can be additively
119] demonstrated an electrochemical application using stainless steel
manufactured with different properties for various applications.
as electrodes and Pt, IrO2, and Ni films as functionalized coatings. The
There are several challenges in the AM of MGs (Fig. 10):
functional applications included electrochemical capacitors, an oxygen
evolution catalyst, a PH sensor, and a water electrolyzer. Other func
1) Materials of MGs for AM.
tional properties, such as superhydrophobicity/superhydrophilicity and
Many MGs have been successfully used in AM, including Fe-based
electromagnetic properties, have rarely been studied, but these prop
[132], Zr-based [42], and Al-based [133] MGs. However, only
erties have prospects for applications with structural demands. For
limited compositions of MGs can be used in AM because AM of MGs
example, in some cases, electromagnetic shielding, should also provide
can have issues such as cracks [132], non-uniform element concen
support. The 3D printed parts should take both the electromagnetic and
trations [134], and poor geometries [43].
structural properties into consideration. Other functional fields have
Fig. 9. Development of structural–functional properties: (a, b) behavior in extreme conditions [35,40], (c–e) catalytic materials [116,119], and (f, g) super
hydrophobic materials [121].
10
Fig. 10. Challenges of AM of metallic glasses (MGs). (a) materials type, (b) residual stress [133], (c–d) microstructure control during crystallization [43], (e)
chemical composition [134], and (f) tailoring of microstructure and properties.
2) Residual stress. gradients, heating/cooling rates, the melt flow, and the crystallization
Due to the intrinsic brittleness of metallic glasses, MGs are sensi process [39,139,140].
tive to thermally induced residual stresses. The residual stresses Current 3D printed metal powders mainly have the same composi
induced by phase changes are not discussed for MGs because of their tions as normal processed HEAs. Not all types of HEAs are suitable for
amorphous states. The thermal history from the heat source and metal AM technology, severely limiting the practical applications and
thermal gradient cycle will result in thermal stress. Crack-free Zr- quality of fabricated HEA components [141]. It has been speculated that
based bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) were obtained using current AM once the elemental segregation results in a proper elemental ratio, a
technologies [135,136]. However, crack-free Fe-based BMGs have second-phase-strengthened microstructure can be formed with good
not been fabricated and require further development to override the properties.
negative effect of residual stress. The material properties should be well combined with the process
3) Microstructure control during crystallization. characteristics to develop AM-suitable materials with advanced prop
The thermal gradient and thermal cycle will change the heating erties. HEA powders used specifically for AM should be developed to fit
and cooling rate in the HAZ. Crystallization can be induced, as the the characteristics of AM methods, for example, a material composition
critical cooling rates of MGs are generally 103–106 K/s. that can resist the formation of cracks. Moreover, metal powders of
4) Chemical composition. HEAs for AM are generally pre-alloyed or mixed elemental powders. Pre-
Most AM technologies involve rapid melting and solidification alloyed powders have been widely investigated in recent studies.
processes. The flow in the molten pool will possibly result in het However, the mixed elemental powders have a risk of elemental segre
erogeneity of the chemical elements [134]. This will further change gation [138]. Kenel et al. [40] utilized oxides as raw materials in
the local composition and the glass-forming abilities of MGs, ink-based 3D printing followed with reduction sintering, and the fabri
resulting in crystallization in the MGs. cated HEAs exhibited a typical HEA microstructure without evident
5) Tailoring microstructures and properties. segregation. This may provide a new avenue for the AM of HEAs.
Currently, Zr-based MGs are used to achieve desired mechanical The mechanical properties of additively manufactured HEAs can
properties, while soft magnetic and catalytic properties are achieved reach the same values but cannot exceed those of materials fabricated by
using Fe-based MGs. However, few studies have investigated the conventional methods. Joseph et al. [142] reported that DLD-produced
relationships between the microstructures and various properties. AlxCoCrFeNi HEAs had similar yield strengths and ductilities to
Methods for tailoring the properties and achieving effective fabri arc-melted components with similar grain sizes, compositions, and
cation still must be developed. textures. However, the ductilities of these HEAs were much lower than
those of the dendritically structured arc-melted samples [142]. Further
2.2.2.2. High-entropy alloys. The ability to tune the final properties by progress in terms of the mechanical properties should be made to reach
selecting the elements from the huge number of combinations of HEA or even exceed the properties of materials fabricated by conventional
elements is appealing [38]. Two AM technologies, direct laser deposi technologies. Additionally, the applications of additively manufactured
tion (DLD) and electron beam melting (EBM), are widely used in the HEAs should be developed, combining the flexible design capabilities of
fabrication of HEAs. Unlike BMGs, few studies have focused on the SLM AM and interesting properties of HEAs.
of HEAs [38]. The process parameters are highly related to the quality of
the fabricated components. For example, the residual stress can result in 2.2.3. Precious metals
cracks [137], but likely increases the tensile and yield strengths [38]. Au- and Ag-based alloys have almost total reflectivity in the infrared
The residual stress, elemental segregation [37], oxygen content [138], wavelength, unlike the 60 %–70 % of that of Fe-, Al-, Pd-, Pt-based alloys
and post-treatment [39] are critical for the microstructure and process [143]. Fabricating these materials with AM technologies using laser
control. Elemental segregation is induced by chemical heterogeneity, energy is difficult, as the laser will be reflected, even though Au- and
where the element distribution is greatly influenced by thermal Ag-based precious metals have a low melting temperatures [144]. With
11
Fig. 11. Examples of some typical ceramic 3D printing techniques. (a and b) 3D printing of small-scale ceramics through coating-film-based ceramic printing
feedstocks: (a) hollow-tube Al2O3 nanolattice [48]. (b) hollow-tube Al2O3 micro-lattice [154]. (c and d) 3D printing of large-scale ceramics: (c) selective laser
sintering [151] and (d) stereolithography (SLA)/self-propagating photopolymer wave-guide technology for polymer-derived ceramics [46].
the high reflectivity and the thermal conductivity of Au- and Ag-based precious metals should have sufficient structural properties to resist
alloys, the process window is limited due to the small temperature complicated environmental conditions.
gradient [144] [145].
Currently, the applications of precious metals are mainly in con 2.2.4. Perspectives
sumer products, medical applications, and catalysts. There is significant
demand for unique or personally designed, commercially produced, 1) Other processes (e.g., casting) and other fields (e.g., machine
high-value-added jewelry and watches composed of Au and Ag. The learning or bionics engineering) can be combined with AM to
precious metals can be printed to create jewelry with lower levels of improve the materials, processes, structures, and properties.
accuracy and control precision compared with those required in the 2) Multi-functional (but not limited to structural) properties can be
aerospace, automotive, and medical industries [143]. Compared with developed, and different functional properties can be tailored with
methods such as casting, which is estimated to be used for 80 % of all advanced structural properties.
jewelry production, AM can produce precious metal components with 3) The materials–process–microstructure–property relationship must
less material loss and highly complicated structures during fabrication. be understood. High-throughput experimental approaches and
Fabrication through AM can fulfill the low-volume and rapid response to multi-scale simulations are important to understand the mechanisms
consumer demand for custom-made, individually designed products in depth. Machine learning and simulations should be developed in
[146]. Hence, AM is promising for the jewelry market. the future, for example, combining the phase-field method for
Several methods have been utilized to improve the porosities and microstructure simulations, FEM for simulating the structural prop
strengths of additively manufactured precious metal components, erties, and MD/DFT for simulating the functional properties.
including powder pre-treatment to control the reflectivity [147] and 4) Further breakthroughs in materials, product size, production effi
optimizing of the process parameters [145]. Although the mechanical ciency, the full supply chain, and the lifecycle are necessary.
properties of some additively manufactured precious metals are good, 5) Applications of MGs, HEAs, and precious metals are promising but
gold alloys deposited by laser based powder bed fusion are harder and require further development in terms of scale and depth, such as
more brittle than the cast alloys, but the ductility can be increased by 34 basic principles of atom structures, deformation mechanism and in
% after heat treatment [148]. However, under composition limitations, dustrial applications.
for example, the Au content should be no less than 75 % to remain
attractive to the customer, the porosity and mechanical properties (e.g.,
2.3. Additive manufacturing of ceramic materials
strength and wear resistance) of precious metals are relatively low, and
this issue remains to be efficiently addressed.
2.3.1. Powder/slurry-based ceramic printing feedstocks
Apart from consumer jewelry products, precious metals are also used
Relative to polymers and metals, AM of ceramics is not easy, mainly
in dental restoration. Precious metals have been used for dental resto
due to the extremely high melting points of ceramic materials [46] and
ration for many years because they are easy to manipulate and they
the challenging preparation of feedstocks [150]. Fig. 11 shows some
exhibit excellent biocompatibilities. The research and application of
examples of typical ceramic 3D printing techniques. Ceramic structures
additively manufactured precious metals have been rarely reported, but
are typically made from feedstocks in the form of powders or slurries via
the development of this technology for the production of dental copings
various AM methods, including SLS [151], selective laser burn-out
in porcelain-fused-to-metal crowns is attractive [149].
[152], SLA [153], projection micro-stereolithography (PμSL) [154],
Precious metals are also used in catalysts, electronics, and electrical
LOM [155], Direct ink writing (DIW) [156], IP [157], FDM [158], and
contacts due to their special. The studies of precious metals are mainly
digital light processing (DLP) [159]. Many of these ceramic printing
focused on their catalytic and electrical properties [107]. However, the
techniques suffer from unavoidable residual porosities and undesirable
structural properties of these materials should not be ignored, as these
cracks due to the large thermal gradients, resulting in poor mechanical
are important for the practical applications of these materials. The
behaviors of the fabricated ceramic structures. Direct extrusion of
12
Fig. 12. Polymer-to-ceramic transformation, and effects of fillers in polymer-to-ceramic transformation [169].
melted glass is achieved by processing at over 1000 ◦ C [49], but the huge involving polymer-derived composites in the 3D printing of macroscopic
costs associated with temperature control hinder its applications. ceramics. Recently, 3D SiOC macroscopic components were obtained via
SLA [46,47], self-propagating photo-polymerization technology [46],
2.3.2. Coating film-based ceramic printing feedstocks DIW [166,167], or DLP [168] of siloxane resin systems, with subsequent
The development of atomic layer deposition enabled the construc pyrolysis in an inert atmosphere. AM of ceramic precursors is a novel
tions of hollow ceramic nanolattices [48,154,160] or ceramic composite technology to build complex-shaped ceramic structures.
microarchitecture [161] by coating TiN or Al2O3 on 3D printed polymer Polymer-derived ceramics (PDCs), prepared via in-situ thermolysis
templates. The polymer template can be removed after the coating of of preceramic polymers, have enabled tremendous technological
ceramic films, resulting in delicate nano-/microstructures. However, breakthroughs in ceramic science for the last five decades [169,170].
this method is severely limited by slow fabrication rates and microscale PDCs have proven to be promising material candidates for various
dimensions of the fabricated structures. structural and functional applications [171,172]. Silicon-containing
polymers are among the most promising preceramic precursors [173],
2.3.3. Polymeric precursor-based ceramic printing feedstocks and these typically include ternary ceramics, such as SiOC [174] and
AM of preceramic polymers enables tremendous breakthroughs in SiCN [175], or multinary ceramics, such as SiCNO [176]. Nanofillers of
ceramic processing. Printed polymers can be in-situ converted to ce various types, including ceramics [177,178], metals [179], or polymers,
ramics with minor and uniform shrinkage, resulting in complex and can be added to preceramic polymers before machining, resulting in
precise ceramic architectures. Furthermore, this processing requires PDC nanocomposites. These nanofillers can serve as barriers to mass and
considerably less energy than conventional powder or slurry sintering heat transfer, eliminating the shrinkage upon ceramization [169], and
methods because pyrolysis temperatures are relatively lower than sin can form jammed network structures in the preceramic polymer matrix
tering temperatures. Some attempts, such as building inverse ceramic to improve the mechanical integrity of the resultant ceramics [180], as
structures through infiltration of preceramic precursors into polymer shown in Fig. 12. Furthermore, some active fillers can cause reactions
templates [162] or applying a two-photon absorption polymerization during pyrolysis and broadly widen the compositional and functional
process [163] with a preceramic precursor [164,165], pave way for ranges of PDCs [181]. PDC-nanocomposites exhibit the remarkable
13
Fig. 13. (a) Schematic diagram of direct ink writing [185]. (b) Classifications of fluids with shear stress as a function of shear rate [188].
properties of conventional ceramics, including high thermal stabilities, can weaken the volume and shape shrinkage that occur during subse
chemical resistances to oxidation and corrosion, and mechanical re quent curing [189].
sistances to tribological effects. Moreover, their microstructures and Liu et al. [45] developed the first ceramic 4D printing system, in
properties are influenced by the chemistries and molecular architectures which elastic ceramic precursors were printed, deformed, and trans
of the preceramic polymers [175], and the processing methods, and formed into rigid ceramic structures, as shown in Fig. 14. A
thus, they can be adjusted through tailored polymer systems and heat shape-morphing process could be achieved by releasing the elastic en
treatment processes [171]. ergy stored in the pre-strained ceramic precursors, which could be
The effects of NPs on the thermal behaviors of polymers vary with stretched to over a 200 % strain [45]. The above-described work on 4D
the type and content of reinforcing fillers. These effects are typically printing of elastomer-derived ceramics (EDCs) could provide novel
referred to as “shielding effects” or “barrier effects.” When inorganic methods for soft/rigid hybrid structural materials, which could drive
particles are introduced into the polymeric matrix, the particles or innovation for the application of ceramic precursor/ceramic hybrid
clusters can serve as barriers to mass and heat transfer during polymer systems in versatile fields, including bioimplants and bio-inspired
decomposition [182,183], resulting in enhanced thermal stability of the structures [190].
composites [169]. The polymer-to-ceramic transformation is accompa
nied by mass loss, linear shrinkage, and the formation of pores/cracks. 2.3.4. Perspectives
The introduction of fillers can often lead to better structural retention In future studies, PDCs and EDCs will play an increasingly important
and mechanical behaviors of the resultant ceramics. Fillers with various role in AM of ceramic structures. Ceramic 3D printing will get larger and
types, shapes, and dimensions can be introduced into the polymer ma faster, with the development of novel printing material systems, printing
trix. Some fillers are active and react with the products generated during strategies, and post-processing techniques, as demonstrated by two
the polymer-to-ceramic transformation. However, some results showed representative recent studies in Fig. 15. Ceramic 4D printing will
that there was no effect or even an accelerating effect of the NPs on the embrace new material systems, such as shape-memory materials, to get
polymer degradation [184]. Hence the mechanism, which is compli more tunable, precise, and practical. Moreover, the combination of ad
cated, remains to be discovered. ditive, subtractive, and equal material manufacturing, will offer
DIW is a suitable method for the AM of ceramic precursors that tremendous research and industrial opportunities for the study on
provides freedom to tailor polymer/particle ink systems. The fabrication ceramic printing technologies.
process of DIW is shown in Fig. 13a, and the most important factor is the
printability of the ink. The ink is stored in a temperature-controlled
barrel and connected to a nozzle that is fixed on a three-axis platform. 2.4. Additive manufacturing of glasses
The material is extruded from the nozzle and deposited on the substrate
through a screw extrusion or pneumatic pressure control system [185]. The history of glass manufacturing dates back to the ancient Egyp
The printer can build a structure layer by layer by analyzing the model tian period [192]. As glass has excellent optical transparency, me
slices and G-code [186]. The printing parameters (pressure and speed) chanical properties, thermal resistance, chemical resistance, chemical
and the printing environment (temperature and ink media) affect the tunability, and electrical insulating properties [192–195], it is one of the
DIW process significantly [187]. Only if the ink is equipped with proper most important materials, and it exhibits high performance in daily life
printing parameters and environments can a stable structure be suc and industrial manufacturing. The oldest glass fabricating method is kiln
cessfully built. The best feature of the DIW technology is that it has a glass making [194]. Glass powders or raw materials are shaped in a mold
variety of optional materials. Not only can it be used for metals, ce and heated at moderate temperatures. The glass grains then stick
ramics, polymers, and hydrogels, it can also print composite materials, together and keep their intrinsic sandy characteristics. Later, the grains
biological cells, and food. The ink must be carefully designed for melt together, yielding a smooth structure that depends on the heating
deposition and stable extrusion from the nozzle without clogging. In temperature and duration [193]. The first industrial revolution intro
particular, three aspects must be considered. First, the ink must exhibit a duced automation and resulted in an increase in the production effi
significant shear thinning effect, as shown in Fig. 13b [188]. The ciency, which changed the blowing and casting processes, improving the
pseudoplasticity of the ink can allow the ink to be squeezed out quality of glass products [192]. Although mechanization and automa
smoothly. Second, the ink should have good viscoelasticity to ensure tion have improved the performance, quality, and production efficiency
that the printed structure can maintain a stable shape after extrusion and of glass products compared with traditional manual glass manufacturing
not collapse layer by layer. Finally, the higher solid content of the ink process, the geometries of the glass produced by these methods are
mainly symmetric and flat. The manufacture of complex-shaped glasses
14
Fig. 14. Origami and 4D printing of elastomer-derived ceramics (EDCs). (a) ceramic origami. (b and c) two representative ceramic 4D printing methods (scalebars:
1 cm) [45].
15
Fig. 15. Trends for 3D printing of polymer-derived ceramics (PDCs). (a and b) Ceramic 3D printing gets larger [6]: (a) schematic of the high-area rapid printing
(HARP) process. (b) large-scale polymer-derived SiC structures using HARP method. (c and d) Ceramic 3D printing gets faster [191]: (c) schematic of the ultrafast
high-temperature sintering (UHS) synthesis process. (d) SiOC samples derived from polymer precursors and complex-shaped ceramic structures using UHS syn
thesis process.
is still severely limited. product with a microstructure and mechanical properties that meet the
The advent of 3D printing technologies has opened a new door for requirements [197]. These drawbacks greatly restrict the development
the fabrication of complex-shaped products in a fully digital of glass manufacturing processes. Thus, researchers are working to solve
manufacturing process, as shown in Fig. 16. Technically, for glass the above problems to try to manufacture transparent glass by 3D
products, 3D printing can combine the modern industrial automation printing methods. Typically, three methods are used, described below.
processes with even higher geometric complexity than those manufac
tured by manual products. However, glass products, especially high- 2.4.1. High-temperature depositing approach
purity glasses, are usually difficult to fabricate, requiring high temper This is a simple and useful method that upgrades the traditional glass
atures and long melting times and casting processes to obtain a final manufacturing process to a 3D printing process, usually in two ways.
16
Fig. 16. Approaches of 3D printing glass: (a) direct heating method [49], (b) stereolithography [14] and direct ink writing [50], and (c) fused deposition modeling
method [196].
First, heating the glass materials to above its softening point to a flow 2.4.2. Relatively low temperature printing approach
able state and depositing at the same temperature [49,198]. Second, Another solution for glass 3D printing is printing silica glass at low
feeding glass powder into a laser beam equipment or a specific heating temperatures (below glass transition temperature) by dispersing silica
equipment for heating and forming [198–202]. For the first route, the powders in organic monomer or polymer solvents and then sintering at
key point is to control the viscosity and thermal expansion coefficients of high temperatures (above glass transition temperature) [14,50–52,203].
the glass flow, both of which are closely correlated to the heating tem At first, methods such as inkjet printing (IP) or direct writing could only
perature. Selecting the appropriate heating temperature according to be used to manufacture opaque or low-transparency glass products [198,
the glass composition can ensure the glass fluid flow stably and avoid 204]. Later, Rapp and his team first tried printing glass at low temper
bubble formation inside final products. For commercial glass, such as atures by SLA [14]. They designed a kind of nanocomposite with silica
soda-lime glass and silica glass, the softening temperatures are typically nanoparticles and a monomeric matrix. The slurry was then mixed, and
within the range of 500− 1600 ◦ C, if the heating temperature is relatively free radical polymerization occurred, resulting in the precursor. Trans
high (exceeding 1000 ◦ C), annealing process is also needed to release parent silica glass products were obtained after sintering and de-binding
residual stress and enhance mechanical performance. Furthermore, re of the precursor at 1300 ◦ C. The resulting glass was dense and fully
searchers found that applying BJ approaches could overcome the re amorphous. Meanwhile, glass printing by SLA also has the advantages of
quirements of the high melting temperatures and high viscosities of the high precision and the ability to form smooth surfaces. These
fused glasses [198,200]. For the second route, the heat treatment pro outstanding performances made the products very suitable for optical
cess is usually more complicated, since the powder feed is heated and microelectromechanical system (MEMS) applications. Furthermore,
instantaneously by the high-power laser and then rapidly cooled. Extra researchers have developed some solution-based compositions, for
binder should be added into the original materials to strengthen and example, a kind of hybrid ceramic precursor [52] or a type of alkoxide
stabilize the printed structure. Since internal defects might be intro inorganic resin [50]. This could avoid the mixing process for silica
duced by the binder during heat treatment, a series of segmented particles and organic polymers, making them easier to print by com
heating processes are used to eliminate internal defects and ensure the mercial DLP printers. This process was conducted within an aqueous
strength of the printed glass products. After printing, at least one low medium to avoid the use of some hazardous solvents, and it achieved
temperature stage for the de-binding (depending on the type of binder, control of the transparent glass density, allowing the refractive index of
usually below 500 ◦ C) is needed, and one high temperature stage for the resulting glass to be controlled. Another advantage of DLP is that the
formation and homogenization [201]. But for SLM, glass powder can be exposure can be controlled on the voxel scale by adjusting the greyscale
spread on the powder bed and directly heated by the laser to bond in the target layer, which can only be achieved by the residence time of
together without adding additional binder. However, glass produced by the laser. The resulting products can be translucent or transparent.
high-temperature printing approach has significant drawbacks, such as Furthermore, this method provides a solution for fabricating complex
incomplete densification, relatively low transparency, and fragility. glass composites from a variety of materials, such as Si-O-Al and Si-O-P
Research has shown that the introduction of heated build chambers and [50,52], or functional glass products [205] from simple solutions.
nozzle kilns can alleviate these problems [49]. Furthermore, studies The DIW method is another glass 3D printing fabrication process
have also shown that using a CO2 laser to melt the glass wire feed with a higher printing speed and resolution compared with the fabri
through the SLM process [199,202] can produce transparent glass cation methods for fused silica. A suspension of hydrophilic fumed silica
products with higher strength and density. For this kind of 3D printing nanoparticles is prepared, in which the fumed silica is used as the silica
glass, how to increase printing resolution and its density, and reduce source for glass formation and also the thixotropic agent for the ink [50].
internal defects and surface roughness should be the main focus in the The key point of successful glass DIW printing is to precisely control the
future. yield stress of the ink to be suitable for glass printing. Preparing a series
of germania–silica inks by a sol-gel based method and printing through
DIW technology can yield optical glass with a gradient index [203].
17
Fig. 17. Overview of metallic nano/microparticles used in various additive manufacturing techniques: (a) polymer–metal filaments in fused deposition modeling, (b)
water-based metal inks in direct ink writing and inkjet printing, (c) UV-curable metal resin in stereolithography and 3D powder printing, (d) representative metallic
architectures for the catalyst. Right: octet truss of nickel nanolattice after pyrolysis [44,208].
However, for the DIW method, the problem of shrinkage is present. printing, novel optical devices with new/more functions have emerged
Determining how to prevent the shrinkage of the final DIW glass and without sacrificing transparency and strength, such as gradient-index
further improve the printing accuracy is the main work of future studies. optics and microfluidic devices [50,52]. In conclusion, due to the pre
cise control of 3D printing, glass products with novel and creative
2.4.3. Glass composite materials structures can be produced without compromising the quality compared
Unlike the methods described above, some scientists have attempted with traditional glass, its advantages on structural design and precise
to print glass composites instead of pure silica glass. Related research control can provide more creativity, and researchers may pay more
showed that glass-fiber-reinforced polymers printed by the FDM process attention to optical components at the microscopic scale in future.
[196] and UV-assisted three-dimensional printing process [206] have
tensile strengths and elastic moduli, especially glass-fiber-reinforced 2.4.5. Perspectives
nylon composites. The printing temperature of FDM is usually under The development trends and study emphasis for glass AM mainly
300 ◦ C, based on the melting point of the main phase material. It should focus on the following aspects. (1) The printing speed and accuracy must
be noted that glass and glass fibers in the process of printing composite be improved, which is also the bottleneck of 3D printing technology
materials usually act as reinforcement for the polymers [207]. This itself. (2) The smoothness degrees of the surfaces and structures must be
provides a concept for the production of new materials that have similar improved. Because the application of glass largely depends on its light
properties to those of glass. transmittance, fabricating glass products with more complex shapes and
more uniform structures is very important for practical applications,
2.4.4. Applications especially in communications and telecommunications, in the future. (3)
Compared with traditional craft, 3D printing provides more possi The manufacturing difficulties and costs must be improved. As described
bilities in structural design of glass products, especially for ornaments above, glass 3D printing is still in the early stages of investigation. How
and jewelry. High-quality transparent glass components can be fabri to use simpler equipment and processes to make glass or glass com
cated by 3D printing with precise control over shape, size and structure posites is a key element to greatly increase the value of 3D printed glass
at low cost [14,204]. 3D printing even allows higher degree of freedom technology, not only for artwork displays.
customization, such as gradient density in specific area, determined
inner porosity and different colors [49,51,203,205]. In another aspect,
3D printing optical components also evolved. Traditional optical devices
are usually manufactured in a fixed mold, which greatly limits the ac
curacy and complexity of the device. Due to the development of 3D
Fig. 18. Comparison of the minimum feature sizes in metal printing via various AM technologies [44,208,213–219].
18
Fig. 19. Schematic of the fabrication process for hierarchical polymer–metal composites: (a–c) surface coating of metals on 3D printed polymers and (d–e) hollow-
beam metallic architected material.
2.5. Materials for hybrid printing to the manufacturing process [209]. The stiffness contrast between the
soft and hard phases can be tailored to increase the fracture toughness in
2.5.1. Polymer–metal composites the architected materials. The base material for polymers is typically
epoxy because of its excellent strength and simple processing. Bapari
2.5.1.1. 3D printing of polymer–metal composite feedstocks. Polymer et al. [210] revealed that the soft phase played an important role in
–metal feedstocks are metal particles mixed with a liquid polymer resin enhancing the rigidity in metal–particulate polymer composites. Li et al.
(an unsaturated polyester) in the form of water-based substances with [211] revealed the mechanisms of the interpenetrating phase compos
increased viscosities. Fig. 17 shows different strategies for forming ites (IPC) in SLM-fabricated metallic micro-lattices. Experiments and
robust architectures of polymer–metal hybrid materials via various 3D simulation models revealed that the uniform deformation of reinforced
printing techniques [208]. Metal filaments and water-based metallic ink struts required higher energy than the buckling of freestanding struts.
can be extruded through the nozzle in specific environments, such as Printed objects that take advantage of polymers and metals always
high-temperature environments, and quickly solidified upon cooling or result in interesting mechanical and functional properties. Though
further sintering in a furnace (Fig. 17a and b). The photo-hardening metal–polymer blends cannot be used to rapidly manufacture objects
polymers usually contain liquid polymer resin, a crosslinking agent, an that require high mechanical strengths, considerable work has been
initiator, and a photosensitizer so that they can be cured by UV light. The performed to explore new classes of materials. Fafenrot and co-workers
binding liquid can therefore glue the metallic particles together in a found polymer–metal feedstocks mostly containing bronze had signi
powder (Fig. 17c). Such 3D printed objects containing metallic nano/ ficantly reduced mechanical properties [212]. Zhu et al. [107] reported
microparticles have been widely used in the production of catalytic and hierarchical nanoporous gold with engineered nonrandom
mechanically robust architected materials (Fig. 17d). macro-architectures via DIW and dealloying techniques. The printed
In addition to polymer–metal feedstocks, metal–polymer composites nanoporous metals exhibited markedly improved mass transport prop
can also be obtained using 3D printed metal as a skeleton and then filled erties and reaction rates for liquids and gases. Vyatskikh et al. [44]
with polymers. This will lead to two significant improvements: increased developed a lithography-based process to achieve complex 3D
conductivity in functional applications and enhanced mechanical nano-architected metals with approximately 100-nm resolution,
properties. The synergistic effect of the composite material can effec breaking the limitation of approximately 20- to 50-μm resolution of most
tively disperse energy and lead to a great increase in fracture toughness, existing methods for 3D printed metals. Fig. 18 summarizes the most
especially when traditional 3D printed parts contain imperfections due recent minimum feature range in different 3D printing techniques for
Fig. 20. Hierarchical polymer–metal composites from mesoscale to microscale: (a, b) core–shell Cu meso-lattices, fabricated via two-photon lithography and sub
sequent electroplating, (c) cross-sectional Cu film milling by focused ion beam, (d) stress–strain curve of core–shell Cu lattice, indicating that the compressive yield
strengths of the meso-lattice with octet geometry exceeded its monolithic bulk counterparts [220], and (e) hierarchical metamaterial of Ni micro-lattices that
comprised periodic hollow tubes, with the critical feature length scales spanning seven orders of magnitude [223].
19
metals. The metal objects built from the primary polymer–metal feed
stocks usually require sintering to achieve full stability, and they are
widely used in medical and aerospace applications.
2.5.1.2. Surface coating of metals on 3D-printed polymers. Nature is

particularly adept at developing strong and ductile materials by creating
gradient or multi-scale hierarchical materials. Hence, a class of biolog
ical layered lattice materials containing several levels of hierarchical
structures from the microscale to the nanoscale has been developed.
These lightweight mechanical metamaterials exhibit high mechanical
strengths by virtue of the “smaller is stronger” size effects from nano
scale components and optimized geometries. Moreover, the special ar
chitectures enable unusual mechanical behaviors, for example, twisting
or expanding in all directions under uniaxial compression, which cannot
be achieved with traditional materials. Many works on architected
materials mimic the features of natural structural material to create
core–shell composites with plastic but soft polymer cores and a layer of
ultra-strong but brittle metallic or MG coatings (Fig. 19a–c). There are
many examples of 3D printed trusses, with the feature sizes spanning
multiple orders of magnitude, from tens of millimeters to hundreds of
nanometers (Fig. 20). Cu octet lattices have achieved a specific strengths
of around 400 MPa, and the yield strengths surpassed the bulk coun
terparts by 80 % (Fig. 20a–d) [220]. We attributed such a high strength
of the core–shell metallic lattice to a size effect of the material, which
was a single crystalline metal with a submicron size. These results pro
vide insights and an understanding of the mechanical properties by
exploiting the hierarchical structure and material design.
The main goal of current studies is to enable the hierarchical poly
mer–metal composites to achieve astonishing stiffnesses, strengths, and
toughness values at very low densities. The challenge is to strike a bal
ance between structure-dominated buckling failure and metal-
dominated brittle failure. For example, polymeric octet lattices with Fig. 21. Mimicking structures of nacre [245], bone osteon [246], dactyl club
strut diameters of 1 μm that were coated with 10-nm NiB metallic film [247], and conch shell from top to bottom. The left column mimicking struc
showed delayed buckling. tures consist of hard ceramics skeletons (the white) and soft polymer phases
The elastic buckling allowed for pronounced rotation of the nodes (the yellow). The right is the corresponding skeletons of the left.
and led to a ductile-like deformation. In contrast, thicker coatings, for
example, 100 nm, resulted in brittle failure [221]. The brittle failure also mainly included ceramics [224], resins [225], and their combinations
depends on the type of metal and architecture. When substituting HEAs, [226]. Based on the material form, these materials are divided into two
the film thickness can reach up to 50 nm and overcome the types: inks or pastes and fine ceramic particles. Inks/pastes are in a
strength − recoverability trade-off ; ; at the same time [222]. Though liquid or semi-liquid form. The feedstocks consist of a liquid/paste resin
thicker coatings can better confine the polymer core, the optimal coating and dispersed fine ceramic particles. Depending on the viscosities of the
thickness was identified to be 14–50 nm to evade catastrophic failure. To inks or pastes, the slurry can be 3D printed by methods of photo
harness the “smaller/thinner is more ductile” size effect, it is critical to polymerization, inkjet printing, and extrusion [13]. Fine ceramic par
design novel architectures and explore strong but ductile metallic films. ticles are bonded by either a powder fusion and melting process by a
One of the most common methods for architecture design is to etch away heat source, such as a laser, or by viscous liquid binders, such as
the plastic core to obtain a pure, ultra-lightweight metal (Fig. 19d–e). un-hydroxyl resin and liquid paraffin. This kind of feedstock can be 3D
The hollow-beam nickel lattice with a near-constant specific strength printed by either BJ, SLS, or SLM techniques [13].
exhibited a high tensile elasticity (> 20 %), which could not be achieved
for the metallic constituents [223] (Fig. 20e). Future research directions 2.5.2.2. Multi-material printing of polymer–ceramic composite structures.
should address both scientific and technological challenges, such as the High strength and toughness values are two basic requirements for
strength and ductility trade-off [48] and the speed and resolution almost all engineering materials, but they are typically mutually
trade-off [8]. Besides seeking high strengths with very low densities and exclusive [227]. For instance, the strength of steel can be improved by
setting new boundaries in the material-property space, novel designs for cold machining, but this strengthening always results in a loss in
innovative materials, such as chiral mechanical metamaterials and toughness. Similarly, engineering ceramics are much harder and stron
materials with tunable mechanical properties and programmable stim ger than metals. However, their application is limited by their low
ulus responses, are just beginning to emerge. To deploy this new class of toughness values [228]. Recently, researchers have reported that natu
materials in multi-functional engineering applications, physical models ral bio-ceramics, such as bones [229] or shells [230], have unusual
or theories are needed to capture the architectural complexity, and combinations of strength and toughness. Inspired by the natural ce
proliferate the superb properties from the nano/microscale to the ramics, many fabrication techniques have emerged to mimic
macroscale. bio-ceramics, such as the ice templating [231], layer-by-layer deposition
[232–234], self-assembly [235], and rapid prototyping [236]. These
2.5.2. Polymer–ceramic composites studies demonstrate the toughness–strength tradeoff achieved by pre
paring architected composites with well-organized microstructures. For
2.5.2.1. 3D printing of polymer–ceramic composite feedstocks. The feed example, mimicking the nacre-like structures of shells, ceramic lami
stock materials for the 3D printing of polymer–ceramic composites nations are pressed into interdigitated configurations to improve the
20
Fig. 22. Application and development prospects of polymer–metal–ceramic composites.
toughness hundreds of times compared with monolithic ceramics [231, 2.5.3. Metal–ceramic composites
237]. These ceramics fabricated by traditional manufacturing processes, The materials of metal–ceramic composites have high moduli, high
such as pressing and sintering [237] and layer-by-layer deposition [234, strengths, good resistances to high-temperature conditions, and other
238], generally do not possess the same toughness values observed in excellent properties. They have become increasingly important in
natural materials. In fact, natural bio-ceramics have arbitrary geome modern high-tech applications, and they are applied in emerging and
tries and hierarchical structures from the nanoscale to the macroscale traditional industrial fields as a kind of base materials. They are also an
[239,240]. Traditional manufacturing processes use top-down ap indispensable part of the development of modern national defense. Due
proaches, where the desired material is formed from the reduction of the to the difficulties of the metal–ceramic interface bonding, there are few
bulk material or by bulk solidification, making it difficult to generate mature technologies for metal–ceramic 3D printing, and this subject still
hierarchies across many length scales [241]. needs far more research. The most common way is to prepare metal/
Recently, 3D printing has made the fabrication of microstructures ceramic ink for 3D printing. This printed ink must be vaporized, plas
with hierarchical or arbitrary geometries possible, and these methods ticized, debonded, and sintered to obtain the desired material. The
utilize a bottom-up approach analogous to processes that occur in na Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies and Systems [250] has
ture. Therefore, the study of bio-ceramics has been largely promoted developed ceramic and metal powder mixed suspensions for metal
[28,242–244]. For instance, using a multi-material 3D printer, staggered –ceramic composite printing. Ceramic/metal powders are mixed in a
microstructures mimicking bones [244] were printed. The fracture en low-melting thermoplastic binder that melts into a liquid at 80 ◦ C.
ergy of this material increased more than ten times. In addition, 3D During the printing process, the melted binder mixed with ceram
printing methods have been used to mimic the structure of nacre [245], ic/metallic powder material is deposited as droplets. After deposition,
bone osteon [246], dactyl club [247], and conch shell [248], as shown in the droplets rapidly cool and harden, allowing 3D objects to be printed.
Fig. 21, to uncover the precise designs in bio-ceramics. A structure
mimicking the dactyl club produced a J-shaped R-curve (crack growth 2.5.4. Polymer–metal–ceramic composites
resistance curve), while others produced Γ-shaped R-curves. The Printing materials are gradually becoming key factors in expanding
J-shaped R-curve showed a larger critical energy release rate, which was the application field of 3D printing technology. In recent years, it has
beneficial for crack arresting. Conversely, the Γ-shaped R-curve become a trend to increase the proportion of composite materials to
exhibited a higher critical failure stress and hindered crack initiation meet the complex working conditions of the printed products. The
[249]. Furthermore, with the assistance of magnetic fields, the magnetic composite materials commonly used in 3D printing technology are
platelet directions could be guided to form designed shapes [249], such metal/ceramic, polymer/ceramic, and polymer/metal. However, with
as concentric, layered patterns. Thus, 3D printing methods provide the the continuous development of “intelligent manufacturing” based on 3D
capabilities to prepare intricate designs to investigate the geometric printing, the materials of printing pieces often require the combination
effects on the mechanical performance, especially the toughness, in of metals, ceramics, and polymers to meet their various performance
bio-ceramics. requirements [251].
Based on the development trends of polymer–ceramic composites, At present, although the research on composite 3D printing of
the following are important future research directions. (1) Multi-nozzle metals, ceramics, and polymers is still in its infancy, there are some
printing. Multi-nozzle printing enables the simultaneous printing of reports about its application in biomedical, electronics, surface engi
polymers and ceramics, which overcomes the compounding of materials neering, and other fields. There are two kinds of methods for printing
with huge differences in melting points. (2) New polymers research and composite materials: layered powder printing and mixed powder
development. New polymers can effectively improve the performances printing.
of polymer–ceramic composites. High-temperature-resistant polymers In layered printing, the material is gradually printed into samples.
can achieve polymer–ceramic co-sintering. For the repair of bone tissue with a load-bearing function, porous scaf
folds are usually printed with metal materials, and the bio-ceram
ic–polymer coating is constructed on the surface (Fig. 22a) [252]. This
21
Fig. 23. Relationships between various stimuli.
kind of bone tissue made of metal, ceramic and polymer has the ad 3.1. Heat-driven 4D printing
vantages of mechanical matching with natural bone, good corrosion
resistance and good biocompatibility. Electronic devices can also be 3.1.1. Shape-memory-polymer-based material systems
directly manufactured by 3D printing technology and usually must have Heat-actuated polymers can be divided into two main types: soft
suitable conductive, insulating, heat dissipating, and other properties [256,257,261] and rigid [263,264], depending on their mechanical
[253]. For example, printed circuit boards (PCBs) usually require metal, properties at room temperature. Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) (PNI
ceramic, and polymer materials for manufacturing. The PCB is printed PAM) is a typical soft hydrogel with a lower critical solution tempera
with metal material first, and then the capacitor and other parts are ture (LCST) of about 37 ◦ C, which has been extensively studied as a 3D
printed with ceramics and polymer materials directly on the PCB printing thermal responsive material [258–260]. Gladman et al. [293]
(Fig. 22b). reported composite a PNIPAM hydrogel structure that was programmed
In mixed powder printing, most often, metal/ceramic/polymer with anisotropic swelling deformation regulated by the alignment of
powders are prepared by mechanical mixing, and then a polymer ma nano-fibrillated cellulose along the designed printing direction. The
terial is removed during the SLS process to produce a porous material printed flower morphologies enabled the transfer from a complex 3D
(Fig. 22c). In addition, the initial porous embryos formed by SLS are shape to a flat state (Fig. 24a) when the temperature changes. Naficy
infiltrated by another material to form a composite material to improve et al. [294] designed and printed a multi-material actuator with bilayer
the density and mechanical properties (Fig. 22d). For repairing non- structures by DIW. The printed 2D structure swelled to a controllable 3D
bearing bone tissue, bone tissue is usually printed with calcium phos structure and back to a flat state at high temperatures (Fig. 24b). Liquid
phate and hydroxyapatite (HA) composite biocompatible polymers crystal elastomers (LCEs) have attracted considerable interest in recent
[254]. Furthermore, magnesium is evenly compounded into artificial years due to its thermal response properties. Ren et al. [295] reported
bone during the printing process, which can further enhance the heat-trigged shape-morphing LCE structures fabricated by a DIW tech
osteoinductive activity and osteoacusis performance [255]. nique. Programmable deformation, such as popping-up, self-assembly,
In electronics, medicine, and other industries, other key parts or oscillations, and snake-like curling, was achieved by regulating the
products require the combination of the properties of metals, ceramics, printing speed and path (Fig. 24c).
and polymers. The traditional process of preparing such parts is usually In addition, some researchers have assembled rigid and soft mate
cumbersome and expensive. However, through 3D printing technology, rials into one structure. Ding et al. [296] created a direct 4D printing
complex parts can be formed once without multiple processes. This technique using the commercial materials TangoBlack + or Tango + as
rapid manufacturing method will have an important role due to the the elastomer and VeroClear as the shape memory polymer (SMP). The
lower cost and efficiency. However, the 3D printing technology at this compressive strain was introduced during photopolymerization. Upon
stage cannot support its widespread application in the manufacturing of heating, the residual strain was released, leading to a new permanent
such multi-material components, and printable materials are also rela shape, which could be reprogrammed into multiple subsequent shapes,
tively lacking. Thus, this subject requires further research. as shown in Fig. 24d. Fig. 24e shows the rapid bending and unbending
behaviors of a DIW printed thermally responsive epoxy. The epoxy
3. 4D printing material showed excellent mechanical properties and great printability
[263].
Although various responsive materials and external stimuli mecha Combining heat sensitive polymers with 3D printing, various
nisms exist [291,292], relationships and connections between them can impressive structures have been developed and show diverse deforma
be summarized (Fig. 23). This scheme can provide new inspiration for tion under external stimuli [297–299]. Furthermore, many 3D printable
the design and fabrication of multi-responsive actuators. These thermal responsive polymers have been created and show fast responses
advanced smart structures are anticipated to optimize the next genera and robust deformation abilities. In the future, heat-stimuli-responsive
tion of soft robotics, and more responsive materials fabricated by AM micro/nanoscale structures with good mechanical properties and
technology will be exploited in all kinds of applications (Table 3). response performances will be further explored and will reveal the
flexibility and versatility of heat-driven 4D printing.
22
Table 3
Comparison of 4D printing techniques driven with various stimuli.
Stimuli Materials AM Response Advantages Disadvantages Applications References
technology speed
Biosensors, actuators, soft

Biocompatibility,
DIW, DLP, Poor mechanical robotics, bioelectrodes, [256,257,258,
PNIPAM Ms–h high water content, low
SLA properties responsive electronic 259,260]
response temperature
devices, bio-fabrication
Agarose/poly Biocompatibility, High-temperature
DIW [261]
(acrylamide) high modulus printing
Tunable mechanical
Polyacrylic acid DLP/PμSL properties, high Metamaterial [262]
precision
Di-glycidyl ether of High mechanical
DIW Actuator [263]
Heat bisphenol-A performances
Subject to compressive
PLA FDM ~1 min Actuator [264]
loading
High elastic energy
LCE IP, DIW ~3 min Slow response Soft actuator [265]
density
Slow response,
SMP SLA ~30 s Low cost sensitive to thermal Soft actuator [266]
noise
DIW, IP,
SMP, SMA, Readily available, low Aerospace, biomedical
DED, SLM, Ms–min Slow response speed [267,268]
Hydrogel cost implants, soft actuators
SEBM
Reactive nature
Untethered and wireless [269,270,271,
Polymer magnetic DIW, DLP, concern, frequency Soft robotics, minimally
Magnet Ms control, excellent 272,273,274,
composite FDM control, visualization invasive surgery
biocompatibility 275,276]
problem
Robust and fast
Chitin DIW < 1 min 2D film structures [277]
deformation
PEGDA DLP < 1 min Rapid response 2D film structures [278]
Poor mechanical
Polyacrylic acid FLDW < 500 ms Small scale Drug delivery [279]
property
Liquid
Polyacrylic acid/poly
DIW < 1 min High output force 2D film structures Actuator [280]
(acrylamide)
Hydroxyethyl acrylate/
hydroxyethyl DLP Fast fabrication 2D film structures [281]
methacrylate
High controllability, high
Tunable phononic crystals,
Silicon–lithium alloy TPL stability, high [282,283,284]
bio-implantable devices
reversibility
Electricity High elastic energy
density, High operating voltage,
Dielectric elastomers DIW ~1 s Soft actuator [285]
high longevity, fast low power density
response
Wavelength
Fast response, wireless
Graphene, CNTs, LCE, DIW, FDM, limitations, biological Soft actuators and robotics,
Light Ms control, accurate [286]
SMP MPL toxicity, penetration biomedical applications
focusing, sustainable
depth
Shore 73A addition cure Lightweight, rapidly Constrained to only a
Gas Bio-robotic devices,
silicone, thermoplastic FDM ~2 min deployable and cost few key soft mechanic [287,288,289]
pressure furniture
polyurethane efficient structures components
PDMS/ceramic
Low cost, high 3D ceramic structure
Prestress nanoparticle DIW [45]
Mechanical performance fabrication
composites
Multi- SMA, various stimuli DIW, SLA, Adaptability to various Complex control Soft actuators, medical
Ms–min [290]
drive materials FDM environments mechanisms devices
3.1.2. Shape-memory-alloy-based material systems capabilities and heat resistance [267]. SLM was used to manufacture
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are another major category of heat- components from NiTiHf powder, and the transformation temperature
responsive materials. As shown in Fig. 25, when an SMA is heated, it of this material was above 200 ◦ C [267]. In the biomedical field, SMAs
begins to transform from the martensite phase to the austenite phase are also applied widely, such as for shape memory stent implants and
[300]. The shape transformation temperature range for SMA materials is artificial muscles, due to the excellent biocompatibilities and mechani
very large, ranging from − 40 to 900 ◦ C. The biomedical, aerospace, and cal properties of Ti and Ni. In addition to NiTi alloys, the AM of
automotive fields are the three main application fields of SMA materials Cu-Al-Ni-Mn SMAs by SLM was also studied [268].
[300]. Nitinol (nickel-titanium or Ni-Ti) is the most commonly used
SMA due to its good superelasticity, low stiffness, excellent shape
3.2. Magnet-driven 4D printing
memory effect, biocompatibility, and corrosion resistance [301,302].
Various AM technologies have been applied in the manufacturing pro
AM technologies and various stimuli provide tremendous possibil
cess of Ni-Ti SMAs, including direct energy deposition (DED), SLM [302,
ities for the design and fabrication of smart structural materials, such as
303], selective electron beam melting (SEBM), and laser powder bed
soft robots [305,306], controlled grippers, and programmable shape
fusion (LPBF) [304]. The high-temperature NiTi SMA shows tremendous change patterns. However, complex mechanisms and control principles
potential in the automotive and aerospace industries due to its morphing
hinder the development and application of smart structures, especially
23
Fig. 24. Shape memory polymer driven by heating: (a) shear-induced alignment of cellulose fibrils during printing can be used to achieve different deformations
upon actuation [293], (b) multi-material printed 2D structure deformed into 3D structure at high temperature [294], (c) 4D printed LCE structures [295], (d) lattice
structures printed by direct 4D printing technique [296], and (e) 4D printed commercial epoxy [263].
under harsh environmental conditions. Compared with the other stimuli [270], which could promote the development of soft robots on the water
mentioned in this work, magnetic-field-driven smart materials can surface and active tissue scaffolds. A magnetically responsive material
achieve untethered remote and wireless movement control [307–310], with tunable mechanical properties [311] and a multi-material mag
which broadens the applications of these structures in enclosed and netic gripper [312] were printed by the DLP method. Zhang et al. [313]
narrow environments. Furthermore, delicate control and excellent printed PLA and PLA/Fe3O4 composite filaments by the FDM method,
biocompatibility for living organisms are preconditions for biomedical which exhibited a shape memory effect and great potential in the
and therapeutic use. An alternating magnetic field can also be used to biomedical applications.
induce temperature changes, which can achieve the shape morphing of
heat-sensitive materials [310]. 3.2.2. Bio-inspired magnetically driven smart structures
Recently, bio-inspired structures and soft robotics have attracted
3.2.1. Printed magnetically driven smart structures by polymer-derived considerable interest not only due to their improved motion and excel
materials lent environmental adaptabilities but also because they have better
Various AM technologies and materials have been reported for human-interaction capacities and could be safer compared to traditional
magnetic-driven smart structures. DIW [269–274], DLP [311,312] and rigid robotics. Magnetic fields and AM technology allow the design of
FDM [313] are widely used for the printing of complicated shapes and actuators and soft robotics with biomimetic structures, such as the
microstructures. 4D magnetic butterfly structures [269,314] (Fig. 26a) structures of spirulina cells [308], butterflies [269,314], caterpillars
and a 4D flower-like magnetic actuator [271] were printed by doping [309,317], starfish (Fig. 26c) [315], and jellyfish [318], and various
magnetic particles inside silicon rubber with the DIW method, and motions and functionalities have been achieved. Erina et al. [309] re
simple motions could be achieved and controlled under an external ported an inchworm-inspired soft robot that was directly printed by a
magnetic field. A 3D printed soft filament mesh, as shown in Fig. 26b, projection stereolithography technique. Linear locomotion and crawling
could be programmed to achieve isotropic/anisotropic contraction at a speed of 1.67 mm/s could be achieved under magnetic actuation.
24
Fig. 25. Shape memory alloy phases and crystal structures [300].
Fig. 26. Magnetically driven smart structures using polymer-derived materials and bio-inspired magnetic designs: (a) 4D magnetic butterfly structure [269], (b) 3D
printed soft filament meshes [270], (c) starfish-like hydrogel actuator [315], and (d) magnetic gripper with shape memory effect [316].
Another starfish-like actuator was fabricated by aligning the iron oxide 3.2.3. Oriented magnetically driven smart structures
particles inside a gelatin methacryloyl hybrid matrix. Combined with In addition to the homogeneous magnetic structures mentioned
bioprinting technology, magnetic-responsive heterogeneous structures above, magnetic assisted printing can align the magnetic polarities of
with complex shapes were obtained. Further experiments on aligning particles inside a matrix to reinforce mechanical architectures [319],
the structures showed anisotropic cell guidance effect and the induction Orientated magnetic polarity patterns have also been studied, which
of cell differentiation. Thus, this material shows potential applications in show much more complex and programmable shape transformations.
novel hydrogel devices [315]. Zhao et al. [273] reported programmed polarity patterns based on the
DIW printing of polymer composites containing NdFeB particles. The
25
Fig. 27. Oriented magnetically driven smart structures: (a) oriented magnetic polarity patterns based on DIW method [273], (b) oriented continuum soft robot with
hydrogel coating [272], (c) symmetry-breaking magnetic actuation mechanism for soft robotics [274], and (d) micrometer-scale magnetic elastic robots [321].
polarities of the particles inside the printing alignment were reoriented printing. Because of the huge volume changes of materials induced by
by an applied magnetic field around the printing nozzle, as shown in Li-ion insertion/extraction, silicon electrodes suffer from severe me
Fig. 27a. A set of predesigned shape transformations and diverse func chanical loads during service. To protected Si materials from failure,
tionalities, such as soft electronics and mechanical materials with honeycombs have been adopted as an optimum structure to improve the
negative Poisson’s ratios, were achieved. Furthermore, the same group storage capacities of electrodes, as shown as Fig. 28a [282]. Bhandakkar
reported an oriented continuum soft robot with a hydrogel coating, as et al. [283] investigated the severe morphological changes in
shown in Fig. 27b [272]. The navigation and active steering abilities of honeycomb-like silicon electrodes, as shown in Fig. 28b. They indicated
this robot may have applications in minimally invasive surgery. Other that the buckling of silicon electrodes in honeycomb structures effec
than these soft patterns with large sizes, small-size, magnetically ori tively reduces mechanical stresses. Based on buckling analysis of silicon
ented patterns from the micrometer to the millimeter scale were also honeycomb electrodes, Greer et al. [284] extended the electrochemical
developed. A millimeter-scale soft robot that could perform multiple lithiation to the field of 4D printing via two-photon lithography (TPL)
motions was fabricated by an oriented magnetization process [320], and technology. As indicated in Fig. 28c, 3D, silicon-coated, tetragonal
micrometer-scale magnetic–elastic robots (Fig. 27d) prepared based on micro-lattices were developed that converted to sinusoidal patterns via
a UV lithography method [321] were also reported. At even smaller cooperative beam buckling in response to electrochemical lithiation.
scales, robots controlled by nanomagnets [275,276] and reconfigured
ferromagnetic liquid droplets [322] promote applications of oriented 3.3.2. Electromechanically driven 4D printing
magnetic materials in micro-systems. Dielectric elastomers are soft electromechanical materials that
Despite these merits of magnetic responsive materials, some draw exhibit high efficiencies and fast actuation rates. Many reported
backs still exist. Their reactive nature remains a concern, and the fre dielectric elastomer actuators were fabricated by planar methods. This
quency of the external magnetic field should be controlled in a safe fabrication method limits the structure-changing modes. Chortos et al.
range to avoid possible harm to living tissue. In addition, the visuali [285] obtained a contractile actuation mode by DIW dielectric elastomer
zation of magnetically responsive actuators in vivo should also be actuators. The printed interdigitated vertical electrodes were printed in
studied. More efforts will be focused on these issues in the near future. a dielectric matrix to form a sandwich structure, as shown as Fig. 29a
Increasing the use of actuators and soft robotics in various fields can and b. A representative dielectric elastomer actuator with 16 segments
yield a higher efficiency and better safety. showed an actuation strain up to 9 % and breakdown fields of 25 V
μm− 1.
3.3. Electrically driven 4D printing
3.3.3. Electrothermally driven 4D printing
3.3.1. Electrochemically driven 4D printing Heat-sensitive SMPs are polymers that can switch shapes between a
The fourth dimension of addictive manufacture indicates that the 3D temporary state and an initial state in the presence of heat. The heat
structures can respond to environmental stimuli, resulting in changes in generated via electrical energy was introduced to 4D printing shape-
the structure or material properties. The 4D printing structures that have morphing structures [323]. Zarek et al. [266] fabricated complex
been reported are responsive to external stimuli, such as thermal stimuli shape-memory structures and a custom-made heating resin bath using a
and magnetic fields. Smart structures printed using electromechanical SLA printer, as shown as Fig. 30a. The thermally driven switch was
materials can be driven by electric fields directly. proposed by printing a circuit on the shape memory structures. As a
Electrochemical lithiation, an unfavorable phenomenon that occurs demonstration of electrothermally driven 4D printed structures, a shape
in lithium-ion batteries, has unique applications in electrically driven 4D memory connector closed an electrical circuit when a voltage was
26
Fig. 28. Electrochemically driven 4D printed structures: (a) as-prepared and morphological changes of silicon honeycombs electrode [282], (b) buckling-like
deformation in the electrode unit cell [283], (c) fabrication process and scanning electron microscopy images of electrochemically driven micro-lattices and
micro-architectures [284] (scalebars of micro-architectures are 15 μm).
applied. one-dimensional/2D folding (Fig. 31a).

LCEs activated by heat are regarded as potential materials for elec More recently, Mao et al. [277] demonstrated a hydro
trothermally driven 4D printing. Yuan et al. [265] achieved soft actua philic/hydrophobic bilayer actuator with rapid and programmable
tors by IP and DIW printing technology. 3D printed single-sided LCE multi-motion. After being immersed in water, the chitin film started to
composite structures were activated by Joule heating produced by swell, while the PDMS kept its original size, resulting in bending and
embedded conductive wires, as shown in Fig. 30b. The thermally driven twisting behaviors. Fig. 31b shows the reversible transition of a printed
shape morphing ability originates from the anisotropic–isotropic phase goldfish structure from a 2D film to a 3D state when switched from a
transition behavior. The uniaxial deformation of the LCE ribbon water environment to an ethanol environment. DLP has also been
equipped the printed composite with a bending driving force. The employed to fabricate shape morphing structures, which significantly
composite structure broadened its application in laminated hinges and accelerated the printing speed. Zhao and co-workers used the DLP
soft crawlers. method to fabricate hydrophilic/hydrophobic composite shape-shifting
structures using photopolymers. Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate
3.4. Liquid-driven 4D printing (PEGDA) was used as the active responsive layer to generate the driving
force, while poly(propylene glycol) dimethacrylate (PPGDMA) was used
Many 4D printed samples are triggered in liquid environments by as a passive material (Fig. 31c). Various complex patterns were created
various stimuli, such as humidity, ethanol, ions, and PH [4,280,324, via this method, demonstrating its feasibility and designability [278].
325]. Tibbits et al. [326] created a series of 4D printed structures Hu et al. [279] reported microscale pH-responsive hydrogel actuators
composed of rigid plastic bases and expanding materials. By adjusting based on the femtosecond laser direct writing (FLDW) 4D printing
the ratio and positions of the rigid and expanding materials, precise technique. The printed structure was at the microscale, within 100 μm.
control of the deformation was realized, including linear expansion and The torsion, wrinkling, and curling deformation were realized by
27
Fig. 29. Electromechanically driven 4D printed structures [285]: (a) schematic diagram of printed dielectric elastomer actuator devices and (b) 3D dielectric
elastomer actuator device example with actuation up to 9 % (scalebar is 2 mm).
tailoring the pH of the liquid environment. Fig. 31d shows a fabricated 4D printed structures, and they have exhibited broad application po
microcage that expanded in an alkaline environment to capture a tential in biomedical applications, commercial products, and soft ro
microparticle and shrank by adjusting the pH to trap and deliver the botics. However, several challenges must still be overcome, such as low
microparticle. This demonstration of the selective microparticle cap control precision, limited work environments, and poor mechanical
turing–delivering–releasing has potential for cell-manipulation, drug performances.
delivery, and soft robotics. Different swelling ratios were achieved by
spatially variable degrees of monomer conversion and cross-linking
density. In the presence of ion stimuli, the cured film was able to 3.5. Light-driven 4D printing
transform to the designed 3D shape (Fig. 31e) [281].
Liquids are very common stimuli for triggering the deformation of Light-driven actuators or soft robots have attracted considerable
attention due to their various merits, such as fast responses, wireless
28
Fig. 30. Electrothermally driven 4D printed structures: (a) SLA printed shape memory structure for electrothermally driven actuator [266] and (b) 3D printed
laminated actuator using liquid crystal elastomer [265].
controllability, accurate focusing, and sustainability [327–329]. Various thermally responsive SMP, as shown in Fig. 32a [286]. The graphene
reported materials show light-sensitive properties, for example, gra could absorb photons, and the temperature rose above the glass transi
phene- and carbon nanotube (CNT)-based composites [330–332], tion temperature of the SMP, which allowed remote and precise shape
LCE-based composites [333–335], SMPs [336], hydrogels [337], and transformation control. In this work, dynamic biological structures, and
other polymers. Among the numerous efforts to fabricate light-triggered cell behaviors were studied, which is a promising strategy for various
smart structures by AM methods, Cui et al. reported a novel biomedical applications. Another approach for printing light-sensitive
near-infrared-light (NIR)-sensitive composite based on graphene and a materials is FDM. A PLA and multi-walled CNT bilayer actuator was
29
Fig. 31. Liquid-driven 4D printing: (a) 4D printed linear stretching primitive, folding primitive, and grid [326], (b) humidity-actuated shape-morphing structure
[277], (c) 4D printing of hydrophilic/hydrophobic composite [278], (d) pH-triggered expanding and shrinking structure [279], (e) DLP fabricated ion-responsive
planar patterns [281].
reported by Hua et al. [338], as shown in Fig. 32b. This actuator could nanorods was printed by the multiphoton lithography (MPL) [340]
change shape under NIR light and recover to the initial shape once the method. The internal micro/nanostructures were well defined due to the
light is turned off. The polyurethane (PU) and carbon black composites high printing resolution.
shown in Fig. 32c and d were also printed by FDM [339]. External The use of light as a stimulus opens a new avenue for smart structure
illumination or sunlight can trigger recovery from a temporary shape to fabrication. However, more in-depth studies are needed to overcome the
the original shape. These light-sensitive printing materials offer current drawbacks, such as wavelength limitations, the biological
tremendous opportunities for the fabrication of smart devices. A toxicity, and the penetration depth of the light for internal applications.
light-sensitive micro-swimmer (Fig. 32e) consisting of PNIPAM and gold
30
Fig. 32. Light-driven 4D printing: (a) dynamically controlled transformation of 4D printed constructs [286], (b) photo-triggered blooming process of printed flowers
[338], (c) recovery from temporary configuration to original configuration under external illumination or sunlight [339], (d) different blooming processes of 3D
printed flowers with various illumination time [339], and (e) images of the bilayer and monolayer helices after 300 and 500 ms of laser exposure [340].
Fig. 33. Pneumatically driven 4D printing principle [289].
3.6. Gas-pressure-driven 4D printing be used to squeeze or deposit materials in a plane, and cannot adapt to
the shape printing on the curved surface. Inspired by early architects and
3.6.1. 3D printing substrate pneumatic deformation engineers, quoting the basic principles of air pressure for lightweight,
Traditional 4D printing technology is based on the combination of fast deployment, and low-cost structures [287], a new driven printing
3D printed and original materials. Under the stimulation of an external technology was developed for this purpose: gas-pressure-driven 4D
environment (e.g., heat [296], light [293,341], and pH [342]), the printing. In recent years, people have combined the developed pneu
material deforms over time to achieve the designed structure. However, matic driving technology with 3D printing to realize passive 4D printing
the traditional 4D printing technology cannot be used in applications with fast responses and reversible driving forces. Coulter et al. [288,
with fast rate responses and reversible driving forces [343], and con 289] used this technology to produce a tubular dielectric elastomer. A
ventional AM technology (either 3D or 4D printing technology) can only four-axis silicone printing system was used to spray a multilayer tubular
31
Fig. 34. Inflatable 3D printing process [287].
silicone film onto a ventilating mandrel, which was inflated to cause 3.6.2. 3D printed object pneumatic deformation
mechanical strain on the film. Finally, a scanning and hyperbolic The aforementioned automated manufacturing of gas-pressure-
extrusion method could be used to print on stretched and inflated driven 4D printing still has limitations. In particular, only a few
balloon-shaped film substrates, using the offset surface function in important soft mechanical components can be printed. On the basis of
Grasshopper (parameter design plugin). This could successfully achieve pressure-driven printing, Salen et al. shifted their focus to aerodynamic
the superimposition of multiple printed layers after the extruded silicone structures that require higher strengths and lower flexibilities and
structure was fully cured and the aerodynamic strain release caused the developed a pressure-driven printing technology, which was different
structure to collapse uniformly, resulting in the structure with the from that studied by Kurt et al., to transform a 2D plane shape into a 3D
smallest energy. The principle of gas-pressure-driven 4D printing is structure. First, a new model was generated or an existing solid model
shown in Fig. 33. was imported in Rhino3D (CAD software), and the imported 3D model
was analyzed using Grasshopper to generate a 2D geometry. Finally, the
2D geometry was used to build another 3D model to simulate whether
32
Fig. 35. Mechanically driven 4D printing structures: (a) prestress-driven ceramic structure (scalebars are 1 mm) [45], (b) mechanically driven assembly 3D surfaces
[347], and (c) printing of silver microelectrodes, and the buckling arches of spanning silver printed on a spring [348].
the input and output match. Finally, the 2D geometry was processed by a electronics field. Pressure-driven 4D printing technology will likely be
gantry computer numerical control machine tool, and 2D model was widely used in aviation, manufacturing, construction, smart homes, and
expanded to form the expected 3D model [287]. The specific printing other areas.
flowchart is shown in Fig. 34.
3.7. Prestress-driven 4D printing
3.6.3. Application of gas-pressure-driven 4D printing
At present, people are committed to manufacturing dielectric elas Prestress-driven 3D assembly structures are attracting considerable
tomer actuators by pneumatically driven 4D printing technology for soft attention due to their potential applications in flexible electronics, from
robotic equipment in new fields [285,344]. Due to the high elasticity of the buckling of single-crystal silicon ribbons to the 3D assembly of
dielectric elastomers, flexible pneumatic actuators can maintain high complicated silicon patterns. 3D structures for mechanically driven as
elongation under high air pressures. They can bend and twist, breaking semblies require good flexibility of the material. As an efficient driving
the restrictions of the freedom and movement capacity of traditional method, mechanically driven assemblies have also found corresponding
rigid robots [345]. As a result, soft robots can safely interact with applications in the field of 4D printing. Liu et al. [45] developed DIW
humans and work in environments that are inaccessible to humans. In printable elastomeric poly(dimethylsiloxane) matrix nanocomposites,
addition, the gas-pressure-driven 4D printing technology is also widely as shown in Fig. 35a. The elastomeric composite was stretchable and
used in the medical field, such as for wearable devices printed using this deformable, driven by pre-strain and then transformed into silicon
technology to assist rehabilitation treatment. However, the use of these oxycarbide matrix nanocomposites, making mechanically driven com
medical treatments has fallen far short of expectations. Researchers are plex ceramic structures and 4D-printed ceramic structures possible.
trying to print artificial hearts through 3D and 4D printing technologies. Mechanically driven 3D assembly methods published by Yihui
The current problem is that 3D bioprinting has limitations for fabri Zhang, Yonggang Huang, and John Rogers have been applied for 3D
cating stents and materials [346]. Gas pressure may soon be an option to surfaces [347], as shown in Fig. 35b. Ahn et al. [348] proposed an
drive 4D printing technology. The myocardium can be printed subject to omnidirectional printing method via concentrated nanoparticle inks.
the limitations of printing materials, and the structure formed by They printed spanning silver lines on a stretchable substrate using a DIW
printing is similar to the minimum energy structure described above to printer, as shown as Fig. 35c, which indicated that concentrated nano
eliminate the constraints of the stent to solve the problem of the insuf particle inks and omnidirectional printing methods may find applica
ficient supply of organs for transplants. tions in prestress-driven flexible circuits directly.
With current progress and development, 4D printing technology will
gradually improve. Traditional 4D printing technology with low effi
3.8. Multi-drive 4D printing
ciency and irreversible driving forces may be eliminated, and it will be
replaced by air-pressure-driven 4D printing technology. Although there
Untethered actuators and soft robotics have progressed considerably
is not much research on this technology at present, based on previous
recently. However, most existing smart structures are only responsive to
studies, we can clearly see the superiority of pressure-driven 4D printing
one stimuli, which limits the interaction capacity with the surroundings
technology. This technology can significantly improve the printing
and the adaptability under multiple stimuli [349]. Various
speed, with the advantages of conformal printing capabilities on
multi-responsive materials have been studied, including light–thermal
inflatable ultra-thin films (which dramatically increases the printing
dual responsive hydrogels, electrothermal and electrochemical actua
area), fast responses, and reversible driving forces. At present, this
tion materials [350], magnetic–photo/thermal dual stimuli actuators
emerging 4D printing technology is being commonly used in the
[310,351–354], a temperature–PH sensitive fluorescence bilayer
33
Fig. 36. Multi-drive 4D printing: (a) photo–thermal self-folding origami structure [290], (b) blooming and color-shifting flower printed by a multi-material printer
[357], and (c) artificial octopus tentacles [357].
actuator [355], and a humidity–temperature–light triple responsive and exhibited good functionality [359]. EOS introduced a simplified
hydrogel [349]. propulsion module build by different types of direct metal laser sintering
Application of AM technology in multi-responsive actuators can machines. The all-in-one baseplate and injector head using the con
achieve the efficient fabrication of actuators with complex shapes and ventional injector design contained 248 components. The new design
delicate structures. A photo–thermal, self-folding origami structure was and manufacturing process lead to a 50 % lower cost and a shorter
manufactured using a 3D bio-plotter, as shown in Fig. 36a [290]. The production time [379] (Fig. 37a and b).
bending angle was related to the external light intensity. NASA also optimized a rocket engine by AM. A 65 % cost reduction in
Multi-responsive hydrogels are promising materials for this area due to the production of rocket engine parts was achieved using SLM compared
their shear-thinning properties and good printabilities. Karis et al. [356] with the cost of conventional methods, because the number of welds and
synthesized and printed a triblock copolymer hydrogel that responded amount of potential rework was reduced. This design also improved the
to temperature, pressure, and UV light. In another study, a biomimetic stability and user experience because it reduced the vibrations [380]. A
shape–color double-responsive composite based on a shape-memory rocket propulsion system involved in AM was tested successfully in
polymer (PLA) and thermochromic pigments was printed by FDM 2018. The nickel-alloy jacket in the test was manufactured using an
[357], as shown in Fig. 36b and c. A color-changing flower and a electron beam free form fabrication method, which is shown in Fig. 37c
camouflaging octopus were demonstrated. In the medical field, a ster and d.
eolithography (SLA)-printed hydrogel scaffold showed double respon
siveness of its water absorption properties to temperature and PH stimuli 4.1.1.2. Spacecraft components. 3D printing also has broad prospects for
[358], showing significant potential for medical device applications. the manufacturing of outer-space antennas and spacecraft components.
Initially, official organizations used AM technology to build parts for
4. Applications of additive manufactured structural materials large military spacecraft, such as fighters and navigational satellites, and
gradually expanded to other fields, such as the manufacture of un
4.1. Aerospace field manned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and civil near-earth satellites. Before the
advent of 3D printing technology, traditional fabrication methods could
The current and potential applications of AM in aerospace field are not further optimize and reduce the weights of spacecraft component
summarized in Table 4, and explained as follows. materials. AM made it possible, which historically would have been
difficult or expensive. AM also can guarantee that the properties will not
4.1.1. Astronautics be diminished with the optimized inner structure. Furthermore, the
stress distribution of the components could be more uniform, which
4.1.1.1. Spacecraft engine. The aerospace industry has applied AM to could reduce the wear and increase the service life.
produce parts, because of its benefits for design logistics, high func NASA has expanded its fabrication strategies to include several states
tionality, high production efficiency, and lightweight products. A and deposition styles. NASA began research and experiments several
monolithic thrust chamber was built by SLM® Solutions and CellCore decades ago and has advantages over other countries. Its main interests
with a design that reduced the number of components, was lightweight, have been on metal materials. Scientists tried to fabricate a turbo pump
34
Table 4
Current and potential applications of AM in the aerospace field.
Astronautics
Parts References Parts References
Engines [359] Baffles [360]

Cooling structures [359] Combustion chambers [361]
Baseplates [359]
Aeronautics
Engines [362,363,364,365,366,367,368,369] Ductwork [370]

Brackets [371,372,373] Tools [374,375]
Spacer panels [376] Injectors [377]
Valve blocks [378] Chambers [377]
35
Fig. 37. (a) Baseplate using all-in-one design made by EOS [379], (b) injector head as all-in-one design made by EOS [379], (c) NASA’s Pogo Z-baffle for RS-25
engine, which was made by SLM [360], and (d) NASA test on a 3D printed copper combustion chamber liner with an electron beam free form fabrication manu
factured nickel-alloy jacket [361].
exhaust port cover of the J-2X rocket engine using the SLM method 4.1.2. Aeronautics
[381]. The cost of the new part was only 25 % of that of the part
fabricated using conventional methods. Another typical case is the flex 4.1.2.1. Aircraft engine. The development of AM technology is a tech
joint on the RS-25 space shuttle engine [382]. The part successfully nological revolution in the manufacturing industry. AM technology,
passed the hot-fire testing, and using the existing design with robo with manufacturing flexibility and the ability to reduce the quantity of
casting technology significantly decreased its complexity from 127 to 4 raw materials, has directly caused a revolutionary trend in the pro
welds. The key components of Super Draco spacecraft’s engine were cessing and manufacturing industry [387]. Therefore, this technology is
manufactured by 3D printing. With the help of integrated manufacturing very suitable for applications in complex, multi-variety, expensive raw
advantages of AM, the dozens of different parts required previously were material manufacturing industries, especially in the aviation field, and it
reduced to three. SpaceX’s SuperDraco combustion chamber was made will inevitably be widely used and promoted. There are four main ad
from Inconel using the direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) process, vantages. (1) It increases productivity. The production cycle of one en
which greatly shortened the entire engine design and manufacturing gine currently is 2–3 weeks, while the huge market demand requires the
cycle [383]. Furthermore, the two astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug production capacity of seven engines per week. AM technology can be
Hurley who traveled by SpaceX’s manned dragon spacecraft wore 3D applied to manufacture complicated engine parts simultaneously [387,
printed helmets for the space mission (Fig. 38). This is another 3D 388], avoiding the complicated steps of connecting components, heat
printing application of SpaceX, in addition to the fabrication processes treatment, processing, and assembly in the traditional manufacturing
for the Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon V2. Most of the white helmets’ parts process, which can significantly improve the production efficiency and
worn by the two astronauts were manufactured by 3D printing tech shorten the delivery time. (2) Diverse designs are accessible. Engineer
nology [384]. China’s “Chang Zheng 5B” carrier rocket was equipped ing designers are no longer constrained by traditional manufacturing
with a 3D printer. This was the first international 3D printing experi processes and can use AM to produce engine parts that closely resemble
ment of continuous fiber-reinforced composite materials in space [385]. products in nature [389]. The AM method also can achieve complex
Fig. 39 shows two samples of continuous fiber-reinforced 3D printing in shapes that cannot be completed by conventional manufacturing pro
orbit. cesses, which is helping to manufacture the most suitable parts for in
3D printing also has potential applications in antenna dividual projects. (3) Waste and costs are reduced. AM technology
manufacturing. For spacecraft and space satellites, E-communication is allows us to modify almost any point in the design and manufacturing
important part, so the role of antennas is particularly vital. The antenna process, reducing the manufacturing time and processing costs. The
must meet high surface accuracy requirements and operate normally materials are manufactured where they are needed, and there is no need
and stably under the non-gravity conditions of outer space. In addition, to process each expensive and technically sophisticated component,
there are greater amounts of radiation and cosmic rays in outer space reducing the material waste while improving the performance of the
than in the upper earth atmosphere. 3D printing technology is an product simultaneously [387]. (4) AM is part of the digital industry.
excellent antenna manufacturing method, especially for the manufac While using the AM method, engineers can simply upload the files to a
ture of frameworks and deployment structures. Researchers from Yasar 3D printer and print them immediately. This method significantly re
University developed a product using a conical corrugated horn antenna duces the component inventory period and unnecessary shipping time,
to feed reflector antennas in satellite communication [386], as shown in shortening the delivery cycle [377].
Fig. 39. It was designed with the CST Microwave Studio program and 3D printing methods have also been applied to propulsion compo
could operate normally in the 10.5–18.5 GHz band. In terms of cost and nents in aircraft engines, and there are mainly two kinds of AM methods
manufacturing time, this antenna was superior to similar antennas made (EBM and SLM) applied in this field. The method of SLM is actually a
from high conductivity metals. layer-by-layer powder-bed approach. During the manufacturing process,
the component is sintered and then solidified by a laser. This approach is
36
Fig. 38. (a) Flex joint of RS-25 [382], (b) SpaceX’s SuperDraco engine [384], (c) astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley in SpaceX spacesuits [384], and (d) two
samples of continuous fiber-reinforced 3D printed components put into orbit by China: honeycomb structure and China Aerospace Science and Technology Group
Co., Ltd. Logo [385].
Fig. 39. (a) View of the designed corrugated conical horn antenna and (b) cross-sectional views of the antenna prototype [386].
37
Fig. 40. Civil and military engines involve AM technology: (a) GE CT7-2 engine [365], (b) GE’s Catalyst™ advanced turboprop engine [366], (c) GE T901 turboshaft
engine [367], (d) GE9X commercial aircraft engine [368], (e) CFM LEAP commercial aircraft engine [369], (f) P&W GTF commercial engine [364], (g) RR Advance3
[362], (h) RR UltraFan® [362], and (i) RR Trent XRB-97 [363].
widely applied in combustion devices, and products with excellent addition, the excessive surface roughness remains a challenge to be
features and high resolution can be manufactured. Furthermore, it also addressed.
allows internal complex designs for manufacturing. Therefore, the limit The development of propulsion systems plays a crucial role in the
of SLM is the scale [377], and thus, it cannot be applied for all compo comprehensive performances of aerospace products. With the break
nents. There is little difference between EBM and SLM. The method of through of simulation technology, powder preparation technology,
EBM uses an electron beam instead of a laser, and it is performed under a shrinkage deformation control, and other key issues, the databases and
vacuum. Furthermore, it is not commonly applied for combustion de standard systems of 3D printing manufacturing processes will be better
vices. The vacuum process allows for reactive materials (Ti, Mg) to be established, promoting their use in aircraft engines.
used [377]. AM is widely used in the aviation and aerospace industries, which
Due to the wide application of AM technology in aircraft engines, has accelerated the design and manufacturing of parts. AM has made the
bimetallic combustion chambers have been developed by NASA [377]. production of lighter, more durable, and more efficient designs possible.
Combustion chambers with copper-alloy liners were fabricated using According to the GE company, AM has benefitted the industry in the
SLM technology. The SLM method fabricated the liner and directed following aspects. AM has led to lower costs and simplified supply
energy deposition produced structural support parts. A similar chains, which allows parts to be consolidated and reduces the supply
manufacturing procedure was also applied by Spark Ignition Systems to costs. AM has helped to improve product performances due to the ma
form bimetallic systems using wrought material and directed energy terial and geometric flexibilities. AM has reduced the product cycle time
deposition. NASA also developed a series of exclusive injectors using the and changed the production to distributed manufacturing and on-
AM method using various materials and element types. The element demand product solutions.
diameters ranged from 1.125 to 7.5 in. and the injectors were manu On an aircraft, AM can be used to produce engine components,
factured with a powder-bed process. The use of AM to fabricate the in aerostructures, airframe parts, aircraft parts and systems, interior parts,
jectors effectively reduced the cost and shortened the schedule. secondary structures, and avionics parts. As one of the most important
Furthermore, this method is also allowed for individual design [377]. applications, AM is used to produce military and civil engines. The
Therefore, the main obstacle of injectors manufactured by AM is the world’s largest engine manufacturers, including GE, Pratt & Whitney,
relatively low size resolution, especially in the radial direction. In and Rolls-Royce, have all utilized this technology to improve their
Fig. 41. Parts made by additive manufacturing:

(a) 3D printed bracket installed on the Airbus
A350 XWB [371], (b) 3D printed titanium
bracket installed on the Airbus A350 XWB
pylon [372], (c) 3D printed spacer panels
installed on the A320 aircraft, which are 15 %
lighter than conventional panels [376], (d) 3D
printed valve block installed on the A380,
which was 35 % lighter and made with ten
fewer parts than a conventional valve block
[392], (e) 3D printed vertical tail bracket
installed on an Airbus A350 XWB, which was 30
% lighter than the conventional tail bracket
[373], and (f) 3D printed ductwork installed on
helicopters, which required less time and fewer
tools to manufacture [370].
38
Fig. 42. Applications of AM in morphing wings. (a) 3D printed composite compliant structure (in green color)[399], (b) 3D printed honeycomb chevrons and main
ribs [394], (c) adaptive wing segment built by 3D printed components [396], (d) and (e) morphing wing lattice structures built by 3D printed components [401,402],
and (f) flight tested UAVs with 3D printed morphing wings [404].
engines (Fig. 40). selected techniques to further advance current aircraft with fixed wings,
whose adaptive configurations are usually generated by mechanical
4.1.2.2. Aircraft components. The most common AM methods in the rotations. Benefitting from the high efficiencies and economic cost of 3D
aviation and aerospace industries are rapid plasma deposition, direct printing, AM is popularly used in conceptual research on morphing
metal laser melting, SLM, EBM, BJ, and powder bed fusion. The metal wings [393–406], as shown in Fig. 42. Gripper pin structures fabricated
materials used in these industries include titanium, titanium alloys, using AM were used as the adaptive camber structures [393], which
stainless steel, aluminum, aluminum alloys, nickel-based alloys, and were also built in a compliant structure form using AM of continuous
cobalt chrome alloys. Aircraft parts made by 3D printing are being more fibre composite materials [399], as shown in Fig. 42a. In Fig. 42b,
commonly selected in the aviation industry, as these parts are 30 %–55 delicately designed honeycomb chevrons and main ribs made by AM
% lighter and use 90 % less raw material [390]. The Boeing company were successfully used for seamless, continuous, and uniform
indicated that 3D printing technology has great potential in reducing the span-morphing wings [394,395], which were stimulated by mechanical
costs and weights of aircraft structures. In a news report by CNN Busi actuation and smart materials. The specifically designed mounts, as
ness, Grazia Vittadini, the chief technology officer of Airbus, stated that shown in Fig. 42c, were also made by AM [396]. It is difficult to machine
up to a 55 % weight reduction can be achieved [391]. According the the hollow curved shapes of wings using traditional methods, such as
Boeing company, in 2019, over 70,000 parts made by AM were used in milling or laser cutting, which can be efficiently completed using AM,
commercial and defense-related flights [375]. Fig. 41 shows some other accelerating research. A morphing wing model for UAVs, which con
parts made by AM. sisted of 40 parts [397], was made from ABS plastic using AM for wind
Furthermore, AM can also reduce the time and money required to tunnel experiments. Trailing edges, as the most effective part to adjust
fabricate casts, molds, and tools. In 2018, Boeing fabricated over 7,500 aerodynamic response, were also built with AM [398]. Some
tools by AM and over 14,000 in 2019 [375]. Not only the manufacturers new-concept advanced morphing wing structures [400], such as
but also the airline have begun to involve AM technology. The KLM lattice-based cellular structures [401,402], as shown in Fig. 42d and e,
Royal Dutch Airline became the first airline to 3D print aircraft repairing were also constructed using AM to complete the complex element parts.
and maintenance tools from recycled PET bottles [374]. 3D printing is valuable for the preliminary design of morphing wings,
In addition to industrial applications of AM in engines and frame whose structures are complex and have multiple degrees of freedoms.
connection components using metallic and plastic materials, this fast- AM can also be used to efficiently and economically manufacture com
developing technique has also contributed significantly to the new ponents for load bearing frame structures, which can be assembled
aircraft design, especially morphing wings. Aircraft wings are key together with existing parts made by conventional machining. Using
components that provide lift forces for aircraft and the most important AM, the whole frame structure can be fabricated in an entire part
components used to adjust aircraft flight states. With the increasing without a joint, and the structure is stiffer and exhibits better vibration
demand for high mobility and fuel efficiency of modern aircraft, resistance. Morphing wings and aircraft made via AM are usually tested
morphing wings and adaptive structures are the most commonly in wind tunnels to examine their aerodynamic behaviors [395–397,
39
Table 5
Current applications of AM in the biomedical field.
Biomedical field
Dental implant and orthopedic prosthesis

Hip [407,408,409,410] Ankle [411]
Spine [411,412] Skull [413,414,415,416]
Knee [411,460] Tooth [415,417]
Tissue engineering and artificial organs
Skeleton muscle [425] Cardiac patches and hearts [420]
Vascularization [10,421]
Medical diagnosis and treatment
CT & MRI [422,423] Medical Robotics [272,424]
401]. Some manufactured UAVs were also flight tested [399,403,404], conduction and tissue growth, especially for individualized prosthesis
as shown in Fig. 42f. With the rapid development of 4D AM, this new design [427,428].
technique is believed to have wide aerodynamic applications [262,405],
especially for morphing wings [406]. 4.2.1.1. Materials. Comparable mechanical properties and good
As AM technology spreads and matures, custom-made parts and biocompatibility are requirements for the selected material. Three kinds
structures will further improve the studies on morphing wings and of materials are primarily employed in bone and teeth treatment: metals,
realize the industrial manufacturing of engineered morphing wings, ceramics, and polymers. Although traditional Ti-based materials have
especially multi-material AM and 4D printing. The achieved morphing good bio-compatibilities and corrosion resistance [429] and have been
structures will not only benefit the civil and military aviation industries widely used in many studies [430], stress shielding leads to abnormal
but also other aerodynamic application areas, such as morphing cars and bone growth around the implant [431]. Alloys, which have good bio
wind power generators. compatibilities and biodegradation behaviors, are becoming popular in
implant manufacturing. Control of the degradation rate was studied in
4.2. Biomedical field dicalcium phosphate dehydrate-coated Mg-Nd-Zn-Zr screws, showing
good bio-safety and bio-efficacy [432]. Ceramic materials, due to their
The current applications of AM in the biomedical field are summa similar mechanical properties and compositions to those of bone and
rized in Table 5, and explained as follows. teeth, are more suitable in the biomedical industry. Zirconia ceramic
implants made using 3D printing, such as teeth and crowns, have com
4.2.1. Dental implant and orthopedic prosthesis parable mechanical properties to those made using traditional methods
The use of AM for bio-implants has attracted increasing attention. [433,434]. In addition to mechanical factors, osteoconductivity is an
Compared with applications in other fields, medical implants have important indicator when evaluating implants. Dienel et al. [413] pre
unique needs, including high complexities, good customization, and sented a mixed material combination of trimethylene carbonate and
small production quantities, and thus, AM is well suited to this field β-tricalcium phosphate for implant printing, which improved the tensile
[390]. Orthopedic prosthesis and dental implants are designed to be properties and bio-compatibility. Apart from metals and ceramics,
inserted into a patient body to repair fractured bones or teeth, polymers are also popular in prosthetic and dental applications because
demanding higher biocompatibility, suitable mechanical properties, and of their good manufacturability. A polycaprolactone coating was
good customization. Fine osteointegration is the key for implant surgery, deployed on tricalcium phosphate scaffolds to regulate the release of
influenced by three elements of implant design: material selection, proteins, leading to a higher compressive strength [435].
surface processing, and structure design. An improper material leads to a
mismatch in the mechanics and an uneven stress distribution, followed 4.2.1.2. Surface processing. As mentioned before, modified surfaces
by osteolysis, which may trigger implant failures, such as loosening of lead to better osseointegration between foreign implants and the host
the implant or periprosthetic fracture [425]. Furthermore, the surface bone. Many studies have verified the effect of chemical factors on bone
between the implant and host tissue also determines the long-term sta osseointegration. Polycaprolactone scaffolds with embedded bubbles of
bility. The anchorage points of orthopedic implants depend on the connective tissue growth factor yielded thicker and denser mineralized
interface between the implant and the host bone [426]. Finally, the tissue on dentin surfaces [436]. Li et al. [437] modified the surface of an
optimized structure would also play an important role in the mechanical SLM printed scaffold with polydopamine, resulting in better
40
Fig. 43. Structure design is important in dental and prosthetic applications: (a) designed temporomandibular prosthesis provided improved therapy compared with
stock [428], (b) more bone formation around the bioactive material compared with the commercial one [434], and (c) reduced stress shielding due to
topology-optimization-based design [407].
osseointegration in rabbits. In addition to the chemical factor, the such as random pore sizes, more efficient methods are required to guide
micro-structures of a Ti6-Al4-V implant surface regulated bone cell the structure design. Topology optimization methods share similar
differentiation [438,439]. For dental implants, Tu et al. [434] proposed principles with bone adaptation behaviors, which is promising for
a bioactive dental implant and designed a porous-structured Ti6-Al4-V implant design [444]. The optimization of bone tissue has inspired the
alloy dental implant using a laser AM technique, leading to better bone design of implants in this way. Based on topology optimization, Wu
osseointegration due to its porous surface and individualized structure. proposed a local density constraint method to generate a porous
Nano-modified 3D printed ceramics with antibacterial properties can be microstructure similar to that of trabecular bone that was lightweight
custom designed [440]. and robust and fabricated models through FDM printing to verify its
manufacturability [445]. A high-strength, fully porous prosthesis
4.2.1.3. Structure design. Orthopedic prostheses are medical devices designed through topology optimization was applied in hip replace
that are used to substitute or form a fixation of a bone or joint. In the ment, showing that the SLM prosthesis alleviated the stress concentra
past, bone implants or prostheses were confined to fixed models or tion and bone resorption in a mimicked femur bone [414]. Furthermore,
versions, while the physiologies of orthopedic surgery patients differ in various targets for optimization methods can be used to solve different
thousands of ways. Implants with the proper structure prompt post problems. A cage was designed using topology optimization to maximize
operative recovery. Many studies have sought to determine the opti its permeability while maintaining connectivity. It was then manufac
mized structure (Fig. 43). Different pore sizes result in different stress tured using 3D printing and implanted in a dog, which showed no
distributions and permeabilities, leading to variations in bone osseoin lameness or other complications due to the individualized design [446].
tegration [441–443]. In addition to research, AM has been employed in some commercial
These studies provided suggestions for the design of implants. Aside products. Zimmer Biomet developed the OsseoTi porous metal tech
from attempts to generate random structures and structural parameters, nology, which combines human computed tomography data with 3D
Table 6
Common materials for bone and dental implants.
Material Method Mechanical properties Reference
Commercial pure Ti SLM Ultimate compressive strength: 1136 ± 15 MPa [450]

Ultimate tensile strength: 757 ± 12.5 MPa
Ti-6Al-4V SLM Ultimate tensile strength: 1288.70 ± 6.44 MPa [430]
Yield strength: 1063.99 ± 5.32 MPa
ZrO2 3D ink printing Hardness: 14.4 ± 0.1 GPa [433,440]
Transverse rupture strength: 520 ± 20 MPa
Compressive strength: 300 MPa
Poly(lactic acid)/ hydroxyapatite FDM Compressive strength: 70–90 MPa [451]
Elastic modulus: 1.4–1.8 GPa
Trimethylene carbonate + β-tricalcium phosphate SLA Tensile modulus: 5–353 MPa [413]
Yield stress: 0.8–4.0 MPa
Tricalcium phosphate + polycaprolactone Sacrificial scaffold Compressive strength: 0.5–2.5 MPa [435]
41
Fig. 44. AM applications in the medical field: (a–c) multi-vascular and intravascular networks printed by hydrogel networks for ventilation process and oxygenation
[10] and (d–f) fabrication process and morphology of the burr-like magnetic micro-robot with cell delivery abilities [421].
printing technology. This technology is used to fabricate porous struc individualized medical treatments will usher in a golden age of the
tures that directly mimic human cancellous bone, and it is widely medical field.
applied for acetabular cups and wedges. The bone-like structure showed
a material strength between those cortical and trabecular bone and a 4.2.2. Tissue engineering and artificial organs
proper structure for osseointegration [447]. Stryker used the AM Tissue engineering aims to promote cell proliferation and tissue
Technology to fabricate cervical cages and knee implants, of which regeneration by functional construction or scaffolds, and the layer-by-
porous structures are designed to mimic cancellous bone [418]. Table 6 layer principle of AM technologies achieves delicate structural control
shows some examples of marketed 3D printed orthopedic implants. from the micro-scale to the macro-scale [452]. The ideal scaffolds should
Clinical case studies have also been reported, including hemi-pelvic provide a biomimetic environment for cell migration, proliferation, and
prosthesis [410], personalized porous implants [460], designed verte differentiation into various tissues and even organs. A smart 4D printed
bral body [412], resorbable scaffold for cleft lip, and palate treatment polymer was reported [453] with a good shape memory ability, adhe
[416]. With the help of customized 3D printed technology, a hemi-pelvic sion, proliferation, and differentiation of human-bone-marrow-derived
prosthesis was compatible with the patient. Within 12 months of mesenchymal stem cells. This work significantly improved the design
follow-up, no loosening or other problems were detected, and the of bioactive scaffolds with advanced 4D printing technology. Various
evaluation index increased [410]. In another case, a personalized porous tissues have been studied using AM technology, including a 3D printed
implant was designed and fabricated by 3D printing to support the graft multiscale scaffold that was printed with gelatin methacryloyl (Gel
and subchondral area, which could avoid degeneration and mechanical MA)/chitosan microspheres. This scaffold could promote nerve cell
failure. Limb function was satisfactory, and no further damage was proliferation and differentiation [454]. For the skeletal system, an
observed [460]. Considering the specific anatomy of a patient with in-situ printed bio-ink was reported [455] for the treatment of volu
Ewing sarcoma, an individualized 3D printing vertebral body was metric muscle loss.
designed for reconstruction and showed good osseointegration [412]. A During the regeneration process of tissue, vascularization is a vital
bioresorbable scaffold with marrow cells was applied for cleft lip and factor for nutrient transport and gas exchange, and it is still difficult to
palate treatment, which took the advantage of patient-specific 3D produce and study the multi-vascular bio-scaffolds. Printed vascular
printing technology [416]. Chimene et al. [448] developed a nano grafts with cells have been reported. These grafts were implanted for
engineered ionic covalent entanglement bio-ink for 3D printing of bone. three weeks and showed great potential for the treatment of cardio
A 60-day cell-induced remodeling experiment resulted in the deposition vascular diseases [456].
of extracellular matrix proteins, and thus, this shows promise for ap Recently, a biocompatible photopolymerizable hydrogel based on
plications in bone regeneration. Mimicking the complex Haversian PEGDA was fabricated into multi-vascular and intravascular networks
structure, a 3D printing scaffold for bone regeneration was fabricated, by an SLA process [10]. The oxygenation process and flow of red blood
showing great results in the acceleration of blood vessel growth and the cells were studied (Fig. 44a–c). In addition, biodegradable carriers based
formation of new bone [449]. on this material in a chronic liver injury model highlighted the potential
The application of AM in medical implants is promising as the translational utility. Many 3D printed cardiac patches and hearts also
available materials, intelligent structure designs, and surface modifica have been developed [426]. A heart with a natural architecture was
tion techniques continue to expand. AM is a bridge connecting patient- printed with a fully personalized bio-ink, which demonstrated the po
specific situations and personalized surgical plans. With the help of tential of printing patient-specific tissues and organs.
scientific optimization and strong manufacturing abilities,
42
Table 7
Current applications of additive manufacturing in electronic devices.
Electronic devices
Parts Materials AM technology References
Antennas Polymer resins, alumina, alumina alloys, metal particles, dielectric SLA, DMLS, EBM, SLM, IP [423,460,461,462,463,464,465,466,467,
materials 468,469]
Resonators and Polymer resins, ceramics (zirconia, Ba3ZnTa2O9), alloy powders SLA, SLM [424,470,471,472,473,474,475,476]
filters
Waveguides Polymer resins, alloy powders SLA, SLM, PolyJet technology, FDM [472,477,478,479]
Lenses Polymer resins, ceramics (alumina) SLA, polymer jetting [480,481,482,483,484]
PCBs/ICs Dielectric materials, flexible silicone materials IP/laser printing/FDM [485,486,487]
MEMS Silicone-based resins, photoresists, polymers Electrospray printing/ [488,489,490,491]
photolithography/IP
Micro-batteries Polymer electrolytes, graphite powders, lithium titanate DIW [492]
4.2.3. Medical diagnosis and treatment in advance. AM technology shows great potential for the study and
AM is a strong tool for assisting disease diagnosis and surgery in the manufacture of novel face masks and other medical tools, such as
medical field. Specific 3D printed models of patients based on private approved respirators and virus test devices.
computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can Various materials are used to print masks and protective glasses,
assist the planning and simulation of surgery, especially the achieve such as poly(ethylene terephthalateco-1,4-cylclohexylenedimethylene
ment of minimally invasive surgery [419,457]. Novel smart materials or terephthalate (PETG), polyurethane (PU), and ABS. 3D printing tech
structures that could be used in medical diagnosis and treatment were nology can be used for the production of masks and protective glasses
reported recently. The previously mentioned submillimeter-scale mag with complex structures and multiple functionalities. Meanwhile, the
netic continuum soft robot with controllable navigation [272] could material waste can be reduced greatly with higher efficiency and lower
access narrow areas, such as distal blood vessels, by further optimizing cost. Protective glasses are vital for anti-epidemic workers, as traditional
visualization and magnetic control systems. This robot could open new glasses have many problems. Researchers at the Zhejiang University
avenues for minimally invasive surgery and overcome existing chal invented a platform to design custom-made glasses, which solved the
lenges. Li et al. [421] designed and fabricated a burr-like porous functionality and conformity problem of standard protective glasses.
microrobot using laser lithography, and the robot was coated with Ni
and Ti for magnetic actuation and biocompatibility (Fig. 44d and e).
Experiments showed that the loading cells on the microrobot could be 4.3. Electronic devices
delivered and released to a desired site. This robot shows great potential
in regenerative medicine and cell therapy (Fig. 44f). In addition, a The current applications of AM in electronic devices are summarized
custom-made head support was printed by Jonathan et al. [458], and its in Table 7, and explained as follows.
advantages included a lower weight, lower cost, and safer properties.
AM technology is a powerful tool for the production of delicate and 4.3.1. Microwave devices
complex components due to its high resolution and high efficiency. Miniaturized, lightweight, high-precision, and low-cost devices
Custom-made artificial tissues and organs with specific characteristics operating in the microwave and terahertz bands are increasingly
will be possible in the near future. demanded in modern communication systems and electromagnetic
application realms. Antennas, filters, and power dividers are essential
4.2.4. 3D printing and COVID-19 devices and components of modern microwave communication systems.
Recently, the severe spread of the novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID- Conventional manufacturing techniques machine different components
19) throughout the world has had a tremendous impact on the economy and then assemble them into functional devices, which leads to assembly
and society. Lu design a new and simple projection model for the COVID- errors and redundant waste. Furthermore, traditional metallic wave
19 pandemic [459], which can reliably predict the outbreak and trends guides, antennas, filters, and most other devices are hindering the
development of miniaturized and lightweight communication systems.
43
Fig. 45. AM of antennas: (a) corrugated horn antenna (W-band) constructed using stereolithography and plated with copper [460], (b) diagonal horn antenna
(WR-3.4) manufactured with stereolithography [423], (c) two-horn antennas (Ku-band) printed using electron beam melting with different surface roughnesses (left:
25.9 μm, right: 39.7 μm) [461], (d) corrugated conical horn antenna (Ku-band) printed using SLA and ABS and coated with conductive aerosol paints [462], (e) SLM
Cu-15Sn conical horn antennas (E-, D-, and H-band horns) [463], (f) assembled dielectrically filled horn antenna array fabricated using stereolithography (SLA)
[464], (g) waveguide-fed antenna array fabricated with direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) 3D printing technique [465], (h) dielectric resonator antenna array
fabricated using ceramic SLA [466], and (i) 3D printed origami packaging with inkjet-printed antennas [467].
Fig. 46. AM of resonators and filters: (a) a front-end filter module, cavity resonators, and two-pole cavity filter fabricated via layer-by-layer stereolithography (SLA)
[470], (b) cavity resonant structures made of zirconia and Ba3ZnTa2O9 using ceramic SLA [471], (c) W-band sixth-order inductive iris bandpass filter fabricated using
SLA [472], (d) E-band iris bandpass filters fabricated using selective laser melting (SLM) of a CuSn15 alloy powder [473], (e) Butler matrix with filtering produced by
AM [474], (f) fifth-order X-band waveguide bandpass filter based on spherical resonators fabricated with SLA [475], (g) fourth-order cavity bandpass filter using two
spherical dual-mode cavity resonators fabricated with SLA [424], and (h) superconducting aluminum microwave cavity fabricated with Al-12Si alloy using
SLM [476].
44
Fig. 47. AM of waveguides: (a) Ka-band groove gap waveguide fabricated using stereolithography (SLA) [477], (b) rectangular waveguides (E-, D-, and H-band)
fabricated with Cu-15Sn powder using selective laser melting [478], (c) WR-3.4 band waveguides manufactured using SLA [461], and (d) WR-90 thru-line waveguide
manufactured using SLA [472].
Fig. 48. AM of lenses: (a) alumina lens fabricated by ceramic stereolithography [480], (b) luneburg lens fabricated by polymer jetting rapid prototyping [481], (c)
3D printed beam-scanning lenses in millimeter-wave and terahertz range [482], (d) 3D printed terahertz, high-gain, circularly polarized lens [483], and (e) 3D
printed terahertz lens for non-diffraction Bessel beam generation [484].
In recent years, AM techniques have provided an alternative for light 2) Research and development of new materials for multi-function de
weight and rapid integrated manufacturing. mands.
Several AM methods using different processes, such as metal 3D Rapid prototyping materials, which have their own limitations, are
printing, dielectric 3D printing, and dielectric 3D printing with surface still in the development stage. Much attention has been paid to the
metallization, have been developed and applied to the manufacture of mechanical properties, while few studies have focused on the elec
antennas (Fig. 45), resonators and filters (Fig. 46), waveguides (Fig. 47), trical properties. To fabricate microwave devices that satisfy both the
lenses (Fig. 48), and many other microwave devices. mechanical and electromagnetic requirements, there should be more
Despite the rapid development of various AM techniques, several investigations of new printable materials.
issues must be addressed to further apply them for microwave devices. 3) Trends toward higher frequency devices and greater miniaturization.
Fabricating microwave devices in higher frequency bands is
1) Improve the process quality of AM techniques. challenging due to corresponding requirements for smaller sizes and
Molding techniques for metals and ceramics remain to be higher electrical performances. Once the printing precision and
improved further. Requirements for the accuracy, strength, stiffness, surface toughness are improved to meet the high frequency needs,
and roughness are much more stringent in microwave devices. Even miniaturization and integration will be realized in the AM of mi
a tiny deviation may lead to a great variation in the frequency, band, crowave devices and systems.
or loss. Therefore, the molding quality of AM must be further 4) Much higher additive manufacturing speed.
improved to meet the development requirement of microwave For rapid prototyping of large complex structures, it remains a
devices. long term goal to improve the additive manufacturing speed to a
higher level.
45
Fig. 49. Advantages of ceramic materials as cellphone back plates over other material candidates.
4.3.2. PCBs, MEMS, micro-batteries, and RFID tags successfully fabricated a sand-sized micro-battery (<1 mm3) by 3D
Silicon-based microelectronics technology has been developed based printing technology with good electrochemical performance [492].
on largescale integrated circuits, which mainly refers to the fabrication Micro-batteries can provide enough power for micro-devices in the
of electronic circuits by the micro-machining of semiconductor mate medical and communications fields, including many devices that are still
rials, and PCBs are the carriers of integrated circuits (ICs). Printed at the laboratory scale and lack small batteries, which is conducive to
electronics are a new electronic AM technology based on printing further tapping into the potential of microelectronic systems.
principles. The core idea is to use inkjets, aerosol sprays, material Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a kind of wireless commu
extrusion, and other technologies to print conductive, dielectric, or nication technology that can identify specific targets and read/write
semiconductor materials onto a substrate to manufacture electronic related data through radio signals without the need to establish me
devices and systems. Compared with traditional electronic processing chanical or optical contact between the identification system and a
methods, printed electronics have several significant advantages: (1) specific target. RFID technology is widely used, such as in libraries,
they can realize mass production and reduce manufacturing costs, (2) access control systems, and food safety. When the chip and antenna can
the printing process can be simpler than traditional process, energy be prepared together, the cost of RFID will be greatly reduced, and RFID
consumption is low, and no etching is required, and thus, these processes 3D printing is beginning to move in this direction. Researchers from CAS
are environmentally friendly, and (3) electronic devices can be fabri first proposed the concept and method of “liquid metal suspension-3D
cated on a variety of substrate materials, including flexible substrates. printing” [497], which can be used to rapidly manufacture
Researchers are now focused on 3D printed PCBs and ICs by inject three-dimensional flexible metal deformable bodies with arbitrary
printing or laser printing [485,486], which show great potential for complex shapes and structures at room temperature, and they success
achieving high transistor densities, high yields, high uniformity, and fully manufactured RFID tags on paper through this technology. If this
long-term stability, which are critical for the realization of organic technology can be widely commercialized in the future, then manufac
digital ICs and other intelligent devices. turers can use this technology to easily print their own customized RFID
A MEMS is a system that integrates miniature sensors, actuators, tags for their products.
signal processing, control circuits, interface circuits, communication,
and power. With the development of communication technology and 4.3.3. 3C back plates
related fields, the importance of MEMS products is growing. However, Computer, communication, and consumer electronics (3C)
the production threshold of MEMS products is very high, and advanced manufacturing is one of the most important industries in the digital age.
semiconductor manufacturing equipment is needed, which often costs Highly customized and personalized demands from users continuously
tens of millions of dollars. Such a huge investment requirement has stimulate and promote the rapid development of the 3C industry, which
become a major obstacle to the further development of MEMS products. has triggered the introduction of 3D printing into the 3C industry. The
3D printing technology is expected to change this. Researchers from MIT personalized one-off design of 3D printing caters to the do-it-yourself
have developed a method for producing high-quality MEMS devices enthusiasts, and the small-scale production of 3D printing provides
using a desktop 3D printer [488]. Traditional MEMS manufacturing such possibilities. 3D printed components or devices are now available
processes must be performed in high-temperature vacuum environ in the 3C industry, such as motherboard embellishments, cable covers,
ments, while MIT’s solutions enabled MEMS production in fan mounts, cable combs, and finger rests [498].
low-temperature non-vacuum environments. These MEMS can greatly Compared with many other material candidates (such as plastics,
reduce production costs without losing product quality. Thus, 3D prin metals, and glasses) in 3C back plates, ceramics have some advantages.
ted MEMS systems show great development potential. However, this For example, ceramic cellphone back plates are of significantly higher
technology must be further improved to be suitable for commercial quality than plastic ones, as shown in Fig. 49. Currently, most cellphone
applications. back plates are made of metals. However, ceramic cellphone back plates
Some achievements have been made in the research of 3D printed deserve further attention, since ceramic materials as cellphone back
batteries [493–496]. As micro-batteries are a kind of battery with low plates have some advantages over metals.
volumes, high specific energies, stable working voltages, good sealing
performances, small self-discharge, and high reliability, they are being 1) The excellent behaviors of ceramics in the transmission of electro
developed with the miniaturization of electronic components. Re magnetic signals can meet the requirements of the 5 G age and
searchers from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign wireless charging technology.
46
Fig. 50. Demonstration of ceramic cellphone back plates using ceramic 4D printing system: (a) flat (left) and curved (right) cellphone back plate, (b) top view of 3D
printed flat cellphone back plate, and (c) curved ceramic honeycomb (scalebars = 1 cm) [45].
Table 8
Current applications of additive manufacturing in the nuclear industry.
Nuclear industry
Oxide dispersion strengthened Fe-14Cr steel [499] 316 L stainless steel [500]
AM-EUROFER [501] 9Cr martensitic heat-resistant steel [502]
IN718/TiC nanocomposite [503] Hierarchical zeolite monolith [504]
2) Ceramics usually provide a better visual and tactile experience due to potential in fabricating curved cellphone back plates. The present AM
their glossy appearances and delicate textures. techniques have unique advantages in fabricating ceramic back plates,
3) Ceramics usually exhibit better resistances to deformation and including programmable and customizable designs, geometrical com
corrosion, due to their better mechanical, chemical, and thermal plexities, cost efficiencies, color versatilities, and excellent mechanical
properties, such as higher hardness values, strengths, chemical sta robustness. Liu et al. [45] demonstrated 3D printed flat ceramic cell
bilities, and thermal stabilities. phone back plates and curved back plates generated by origami of EDCs
4) Ceramics usually have lower densities than metals. Although glass (Fig. 50).
materials also play an important role in 3C industries of the 5 G age,
ceramic cellphone back plates exhibit better resistances to falling and 4.4. Nuclear industry
wear, and also provide better visual and tactile experience than glass
ones. The current applications of AM in the nuclear industry are summa
rized in Table 8, and explained as follows.
Ceramics are typically difficult to cast or machine due to their
extremely high melting temperatures, hindering the development of 4.4.1. Radiation shielding
ceramic cellphone back plates, especially for curved cellphone back Neutron beams are mainly used in nuclear power plants, imaging
plates. Origami and 4D printing involve conventional 3D printing fol technology, neutron capture therapy, and activation analysis, providing
lowed by a shape-morphing step, and these processes have shown huge benefits [505]. However, neutron radiation has destructive effects
47
on cells. Since the energy of fast neutrons after a nuclear reaction can
reach 0–14 MeV and the speed is about 14,000 km/s, they have
extremely high penetrating power and can cause great damage to in
struments or humans. Prolonged exposure to neutron radiation may
cause severe radiobiological effects in living bodies, such as carcino
genesis and DNA damage [506]. The purpose of neutron shielding ma
terial is to slow down fast neutrons into thermal neutrons and absorb
them. Therefore, the research of neutron shielding materials has been
favored by academia and industry.
In fact, composite materials are required to be lightweight in the AM
of shielding materials. By reducing the mass and volume of the material,
the shielding and thermomechanical performances of the material are
improved. In addition, the design of the composite material is targeted,
providing convenience for the shielding materials. Because of their
excellent thermal stabilities and lightweight structures, carbon-based
ceramic composites are widely used in the aerospace industry. Delfini
et al. [507] reported the use of a carbon nanocomposite multilayer
board (outer layer) combined with a carbon-based ceramic (inner layer)
structure to prepare radar absorbing materials space elements. Studies
have shown that an outer multilayer board ensures the required mi
crowave absorption, while the inner C/C sheet can protect the interior of
the spacecraft by providing appropriate thermal protection. Because of
Fig. 51. Application of 3D printing technology in nuclear industry.
its high boron content and large neutron capture cross section, boron
carbide exhibits good shielding performances and is also an important
material for preparing shielding materials. DiJulio et al. [508] devel containing B4C was reduced by about 84 %–89 %. The neutron shielding
oped a new type of concrete by adding polyethylene (PE) particles and ability of PPNM increased with the increase in the B4C mass fraction.
B4C into the concrete, which could enhance the neutron capture per Thus, the metal foam structure and B4C could effectively improve the
formance of the concrete. The results showed that the density of the new comprehensive radiation shielding ability of composite materials.
concrete was lower, and thus, it was lighter and required less material. Nabipour et al. [512] discussed the feasibility of preparing PE composite
With the addition of PE particles and B4C, the neutron shielding per parts with an FDM 3D printer. In this experiment, they successfully
formance was significantly improved to under several MeV. After prepared PE/Cu filament composites by FDM technology. This inquiry
testing, the number of neutrons entering the PE-B4C-concrete detector provided a source of inspiration for the manufacture of new metal/
decreased by about 40 % compared with that of the reference concrete. polymer composites through 3D printed FDM technology. Therefore, it
Changing the structures of the materials can also improve their ab is possible to try to prepare PE/boron carbide composite shielding ma
sorption shielding performance. Absorptive honeycombs are common terials by 3D printing FDM technology to prepare components with
absorbent structures that imitate the regular hexagonal structure of complicated geometric shapes and structures. Fig. 51 shows the struc
natural beehives [509]. Radiation rays, neutrons, and electromagnetic tures prepared in the abovementioned research.
waves are reflected multiple times on the wall surfaces of honeycombs
and then absorbed by the honeycomb, and thus, the honeycomb exhibits 4.4.2. Materials selection
better absorption and shielding performances. Stone et al. [510] used 3D printing technology continues to develop and is widely used in
SLA technology to directly prepare a boron carbide (B4C) collimator the nuclear field. It can not only be used to print components for radi
with a honeycomb structure by infiltrating B4C with cyanoacrylate ad ation shielding but also for other applications. The following are some of
hesive. The results showed that the transmittance of neutron absorption the studies on preparing parts for other application through 3D printing
by the boron carbide material was less than 2 %, and the wavelength was technology, as summarized in Table 8. To assess the potential use of AM
about 0.21 Å (neutron energy is about 2 eV). For neutrons with an en in the nuclear industry, Vasquez et al. [499] used LPBF to prepare oxide
ergy of less than 60 MeV, the collimator reduced the intensity of the dispersion strengthened Fe-14Cr steel and used it to manufacture nu
beam, causing it to diverge in the scattering direction. Thus, the boron clear reactor cladding tubes. He et al. [500] selected 316 L powder to
carbide collimator exhibited good absorption of high-energy neutrons. manufacture small Modular Reactor spent fuel storage rack model by
Zhao et al. [509] designed a new graded honeycomb composite SLM technology and subsequently used it for actual nuclear applications
absorbing material. Carbonyl iron particles/PETG composites with through non-destructive inspection and standard formulations. Neu
gradient honeycomb structures were prepared by a 3D printing process. berger et al. [501] reported the preparation of EUROFER parts with SLS
The gradient honeycomb structure was optimized, and the absorption technology, which were connected with EUROFE-97 parts by electron
and shielding performances before and after optimization were beam welding to form the stiffening plate related to the Helium Cooled
compared. After optimization, an absorption band with a shielding Pebble Bed Test Blanket Module. Gao et al. [502] manufactured 9Cr
effectiveness of greater than 20 dB was obtained, an absorption band martensitic heat-resistant steel by WAAM technology, which could be
with a reflection loss of less than − 10 dB was 8–12 GHz, and the applied for pressure vessel steam pipes in nuclear reactors. Yao et al.
unoptimized absorption band was only 10–12 GHz. In summary, the [503] prepared IN718/TiC nanocomposites by SLM, which have many
material of the honeycomb structure plays the role of absorption and applications in the nuclear industry, for example, for steam turbines
shielding. used in pebble layer reactors. Halevi et al. [504] used DLP 3D printing
Moreover, open-cell foam metals are a new type of structural and technology to prepare monoliths with porous hierarchical zeolite com
functional material. They have porous structures that can connect three- plex structures with ion exchange performances and placed them in an
dimensional metal skeletons to each other. Zhang et al. [511] prepared a ion exchange column for nuclear wastewater purification.
new type of the boracic PE/polyethylene wax blends-open-cell nickel However, various single components can only achieve a single
foam composites (PPNM) by an infiltration method. Compared with function. Therefore, achieving multifunctionality in a single component
PE/polyethylene wax, the energy absorption efficiency of the PPNM is a complex issue. The following should be topics of further study: (1)
increased by 30 %, and the secondary radiation dose rate of PPNM use of CAD and other modeling software to conduct structural design,
48
Table 9
Current applications of additive manufacturing in flexible and wearable devices.
Flexible and wearable devices

Sensor [513,514,515,516,517,518] Li-ion batteries [492,519,520,521, 532]
Nanogenerator [522,523,524,525,526] Soft electrodes [527,528,529]
Capacitor [530,531]
morphology control, and modification of shielding materials for the supporting component, as shown in Fig. 52a. The multilayer sensor was
preparation of complex and diverse geometric shapes and structures; (2) demonstrated to be capable of detecting and differentiating human
the addition of additives (such as additives with high neutron cross movements, including pulse monitoring and finger motions. Scanning
sections, flame retardants, getters, and adsorbents) to shielding mate electron microscopy (SEM) results showed that multiscale structures
rials to achieve multi-functionalization; (3) adjustment of the prepara were introduced into the tactile sensor to improve the sensitivity. Wang
tion parameters and printing process so that the raw materials used for et al. [514] created hierarchically porous sensing elements by incorpo
printing can meet the printing requirements. Finally, it is possible to rating sodium chloride, shown as Fig. 52b. The salt particles were
prepare a single component with multiple functions. To sum up, this removed after printing and curing. The sensor developed by this method
kind of multifunctional composite material has broad application pros consisted of micropores (20 − 100 μm) and nanopores (100 − 500 nm).
pects in nuclear energy applications. As a result, the sensor was highly sensitive (5.54 kPa− 1) with large
measurement ranges (from 10 Pa to 800 kPa). The robustness of AM
4.5. Flexible and wearable devices technology provides methods to fabricate a full set of wearable elec
tronics. Valentine et al. [515] developed a hybrid 3D printing method to
Flexible electronics are attracting growing attention in recent de produce soft electronics. Using this approach, an electronic substrate
cades. Many published works reported diverse flexible and wearable was directly printed with an insulating and soft matrix, and conductive
devices, such as strain sensors, nanogenerators, capacitors, batteries, paths were directly written on the insulating matrix in specific layouts.
and flexible electrodes, as shown in Table 9. Due to the high efficiency, For functional devices, components were located on target positions
material-saving characteristics of AM, 3D printing makes it possible for using vacuum nozzles, and interconnections were directly written with
various functional materials to be applied in the field of flexible elec conductive ink, as shown in Fig. 52c.
tronics. For structural materials, 3D printing can not only ensure the
functionality of the material but also improve the robustness of printed 4.5.2. Nano-generators
materials. Various new printable functional materials pave the way for AM, with a high material usage efficiency, can be used to fabricate
flexible devices to find applications in wearable electronics. Besides, nano-generators in a short period. Chen et al. [522] firstly reported a 3D
many efforts on 3D printing structures had been made to broaden the ultra-flexible triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) for wearable elec
applications in wearable electronics. This section highlights the latest tronics. They reported a novel strategy to fabricate ultra-flexible
results of 3D printing materials in wearable electronics. 3D-TENG hybrids, as shown in Fig. 53a. Unlike previous TENG fabri
Recently, many published works have focused on the wearable cation methods, the ultra-flexible 3D-TENG was composed of a com
electronics fabricated through AM, including wearable electrodes for posite resin component and ionic hydrogel. The nano-generator could
electroencephalogram (EEG) signal measurements [528], prosthetic harvest biomechanical energy, such as the energy of human motions.
skin integrated with multimodal strain sensors [515], flexible electrodes Chen et al. [523] fabricated a single integrated TENG nano-generator. As
for electrocardiogram (ECG) signal measurements [529], 3D printed indicated in Fig. 53b, the electrification component of TENG was made
all-fiber Li-ion batteries for wearable electronics [532], wearable elec of poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) and CNTs as the two electrification
trodes for electromyography (EMG) signal measurements [528], wear components. The conductive CNTs acted as electrodes and a flexible
able electrodes for electrodermal activity (EDA) signal measurements matrix. The hierarchical porous structure contributed to the higher ef
[528], ultra-flexible 3D-triboelectric nanogenerators (3D-TENGs) that ficiency than that of a traditional TENG fabricated by molding.
harvest energy from human motions [524], and 3D printed soft elec
trodes with conducting polymer [527]. 4.5.3. Flexible electrodes
Electrodes are used to measure the physiological indicators widely.
4.5.1. Strain sensors The flexible ones can constantly monitor these indicators in a nonin
Among 3D printing strategies, DIW has provided possibilities for the vasive way. 3D printing technology provides a new method to fabricate
fabrication of stretchable devices. Guo et al. [513] prepared a stretch flexible electrodes by introducing unique multilevel structures. Ho et al.
able device using silver nanoparticle conductive inks. A multi-material, [528] reported a new fabrication process for 3D microlevel inter
multiscale, and multifunctional 3D printing approach was adopted to connected network-like conductive materials. This method was used to
print tactile sensors. The tactile sensors were assembled using a base prepare a porous sugar scaffold through 3D powder bed printing (PBP),
layer, a spiral sensor part, two electrodes, an isolating layer, and a as shown in Fig. 54a. This scaffold was filled with conductive silicone
49
Fig. 52. 3D printing strain sensors: (a) schematic illustration of the fabrication procedure of tactile sensors and SEM images of a tactile sensor (scalebars: 200 μm)
[513], (b) design principle and printing procedure of stretchable piezo-resistive sensor and SEM images of multiscale porous structure introduced to 3D printed
sensing layer [514], (c) hybrid 3D printing method for soft electronics: sensor and functional device [515].
50
Fig. 53. 3D printed nano-generator: (a) fabrication process of ultra-flexible 3D-TENG and ultra-flexible self-powered light emitting diode (LED) devices that could
flash “SOS” (sizes of 3.5 cm × 3.5 cm × 3.5 cm) [522], (b) fabrication and properties of the 3D printed TENGs and a ring-shaped 3D printed TENG lighting an
LED [523].
51
Fig. 54. 3D printed flexible electrodes [528]: (a) fabrication process of 3D flexible and conductive porous structure via 3D powder bed printing (PBP), (b) multilevel
structure of 3D printed porous and conductive single-wall CNTs, (c) applications of conductive porous structure in flexible electrodes for EMG, EEG, and EDA signal
measurements.
Table 10
Current applications of additive manufacturing in soft sensors, actuators, and robotics.
Soft sensors, actuators, and robotics
Parts Materials AM technology Others References
Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate DIW [527,533,534,535,536]

Sensors
Carbon conductive grease DIW [517]
Ecoflex DIW Grasper [537]
Actuators
PLA/Fe3O4 DIW Intravascular stent [68,316,536]
PDMS/NdFeB DIW Magnetic response [272,273]
Soft robotics LCEs DIW Heating response [538]
PDMS DIW/soft lithography technique Autonomously operated [539]
52
Fig. 55. (a) 3D printing of neural probe [527], (b) demonstration of potential application of the 4D printed scaffold as an intravascular stent [68], (c) fully soft,
autonomous robot assembly [539], (d) printed self-propelling structure [538].
elastomers, and the removal of the scaffold yielded a porous flexible and respond to environmental stimuli [535,536]. 3D printed sensors can
electrode. The high-resolution 3D scanned data of the body outlines be divided into two main types: (i) 3D printed sensors that detect and
applied in the 3D printing process made the flexible electrode sensitive, respond to external stimuli directly, which are fabricated from materials
precise, and close-fitting. These fabricated electrodes measure the that generate signals in response to stimuli, and (ii) 3D printed sensors as
body’s physiological signals successfully, for example, EMG, EDA, and the matrix to support the responsive substances (e.g. nanoparticles,
EEG signals, as shown in Fig. 54c. biomolecules, and living cells) [536]. Recently, Zhao’s group created a
Compared to conventional fabrication technology, 3D printing soft neural probe by 3D printing to record the in-vivo bioelectronic
structures have significant advantages, including precise control, ma signal. A conductive polymer was used as the electronic circuit, and
terial saving, and multilevel fabrication capabilities. Recently reported PDMS was employed as the insulation and substrate to fabricate a neural
works show the robustness of 3D printed structure materials in wearable probe (Fig. 55a) [68,527]. However, actuators can convert other forms
electronics. Printable elastomers with special structures are more sen of energy into mechanical energy. Various 3D printed actuators have
sitive to faint deformation, which is good for many kinds of sensors. The been created and applied in the biomedical field. Wei and co-workers
porous-structure materials with reversible deformation properties designed remotely actuated shape-changing structures by 4D printing.
contribute to the high-efficiencies of nanogenerators. The precise con The fabricated scaffold shows great potential as an intravascular stent.
trol of the 3D structure via state-of-art technology, a 3D scanning Upon exposure to a stimulus, the scaffold will deform by a large amount
technique, plays an important role in improving the sensitivity and and expand a blood vessel narrowed by a thrombus to keep blood
precision of flexible electrodes. Attributable to the electrical properties flowing normally (Fig. 55b) [68]. Ze et al. [316] created novel SMP
of printing ink, the performances of 3D printed materials applied in composites that exhibited adjustable mechanical properties under the
wearable electronics are not as good as those of conventional devices. actuation of magnetic fields. The fabricated grippers were demonstrated
Therefore, further efforts should aim at not only improving the electrical to be effective actuators, showing great potential for widespread appli
performances but also at optimizing the printable properties. cations. In addition, 3D/4D printed soft robotics have attracted
Considerable research and progress have moved 3D printing wear increasing attention, due to their flexibility and diversity [272,273,540].
able electronics to the forefront, despite the current challenges. With the Wehner et al. [539] designed an entirely soft autonomous robot using an
recent material innovations and technological progress, the soft and integrated design and fabrication strategy. 3D printing and soft lithog
functional structures will be designed and introduced to the field of raphy were employed to fabricate different parts of the robot. Fig. 55c
wearable electronics. shows the fabricated autonomous octobots, demonstrating its integrated
capability. Kotikian and co-workers printed a liquid crystal elastomer
soft robot, which exhibited the ability to repeatedly shape-morph and
4.6. Soft sensors, actuators, and robotics self-propel in response to external stimuli. The printed self-propelling
“rollbot” completed a full roll on a hot surface without manual inter
AM also shows great potential for sensors, actuators, and robotics vention (Fig. 55d) [538].
[533,534]. The current applications of AM in soft sensors, actuators, and 4D printing has great potential applications in sensors, actuators, and
robotics are summarized in Table 10. By definition, a sensor can detect
53
Table 11 by light-cured 3D printing technology have exquisite detail and high

Current applications of additive manufacturing in jewelry and art decorations. surface finishes. However, printed resin products are usually considered
Jewelry and art decorations to be low-end products of the jewelry industry or used as investment
molds to make expensive metal jewelry due to the cheapness and low
melting points of the raw materials [551,552]. In contrast, resin prod
ucts are fashionable in the decoration industry. They are made into small
decorations, such as tabletop ornaments and lighting, and they are
widely sold on e-commerce platforms. In addition, plastic is similar to
resin as a non-metallic 3D printing material, but it has better mechanical
properties. It can not only make pure decorative ornaments but can also
be processed into load-bearing members, such as art furniture parts. Seat
backs and bases with complex grid structures are the representatives of
3D plastic art furniture parts at present. Moreover, FDM is the main
production technology of plastic ornaments because its equipment is
simple and inexpensive.
As one of the earliest art forms, ceramics have important artistic and
cultural value and are popular for 3D printed jewelry and decorations at
present. The 3D printing of ceramics is mainly through sintering to form,
in which a BJ and SLS are the main ceramic printing technologies. BJ can
not only perform fast automatic printing but can also further achieve
color ceramic printing through three primary color binders, and they are
Parts References Parts References usually used to print large-scale ceramic art decorations [553]. In
addition, ceramic materials can also be made into rings, pendants, and
Ceramic pendant [541] Indirect fabrication of metal [542]
ring
other ceramic jewelry, usually processed by SLS technology, and the raw
Resin bracelet and [543,544] Metal necklace [146] material is usually ceramic powder with a polymer as the sintering
earring binder [541]. However, 3D printed ceramic jewelry is still a new product
Metal ring [545,546] in the jewelry market, which requires further testing and development
to become popularized.
soft robotics (Table 10). In recent years, an increasing number of ap Metal jewelry occupies a large proportion of the jewelry market, but
plications have been developed by researchers and used to solve the because of the high price of raw materials and the characteristics of
challenges that cannot be settled by conventional fabrication methods. traditional processing technology, a large number of precious metals are
However, there is still a long way to go before realizing the practical wasted every year. In recent years, metal 3D printing technology not
application of 4D printing in industry. only has flexible design capabilities but also can be used for direct in
tegrated forming, which has been widely of interest to jewelers. Among
the many 3D printing technologies, lasers have gradually become the
4.7. Jewelry and art decorations main heat source of metal 3D printing because of their easy operation.
3D printing methods with a laser as heat source are mainly divided into
3D printing is an emerging powerful tool for the production of laser sintering forming and laser melting forming. The representative 3D
jewelry and art decorations because it has the characteristics of rapid printing technologies are SLS and SLM [545]. In the jewelry industry,
manufacturing, personalized customization, flexible design, and zero SLS technology usually directly sinters a multi-component metal powder
waste generation [547,548]. The traditional jewelry and decoration as the raw material to make jewelry and decorations [146]. However,
manufacturing process must go through various processes, including due to the low quality of the surface of the sintered forming jewelry, the
manual carving, investment casting, polishing, and other fine surface further application of SLS technology in the jewelry industry is limited.
processing, which is time-consuming and requires considerable effort, In addition, in precious metal jewelry, such as gold and silver, the
especially the manual carving process [549]. As 3D technology is used to addition of low melting point metal components has a negative impact
manufacture jewelry and art decorations, many cumbersome and on the purity of the jewelry. Conversely, SLM does not require an
time-consuming manual processes are avoided. As a result, a growing additional sintering binder and has a high printing quality. Thus, it has
amount of 3D printed jewelry and decorations are being sold by jew become the main preparation method of directly formed metal jewelry
elers. The main current applications of 3D printed jewelry and art dec [146,545,554]. However, gold and silver powders are difficult to melt
orations are shown in the Table 11, and the 3D printed versions can using a laser due to their high reflectivities and thermal conductivities
basically replace traditional jewelry. [546]. Therefore, the heating process of gold and silver powder must be
The most direct and significant impact of 3D printing on the jewelry optimized in SLM 3D printing. The surface treatment and micro-alloying
and art decoration industry is to shorten the production cycle of prod of the raw material powder are currently the main optimization mea
ucts, because CAD software facilitates the design and automatic rapid sures to reduce the reflectivity and thermal conductivity of the alloy to
printing [550]. At present, the production of 3D printed jewelry and art improve the printing quality [145]. The powder surface treatment can
decorations are mainly divided into two categories based on the raw increase the surface oxidation degree of gold and silver alloys to reduce
materials: non-metal products and metal products (Fig. 56). Resin is one the reflection of the laser. As for micro-alloying, trace elements such as
of the most commonly used non-metallic materials for 3D printing, iron and germanium are usually added to reduce the thermal conduc
because it is easily processed, inexpensive, and decorative. Thus, resin is tivity, improve the surface oxidation performance, and depress the
widely made into jewelry and art decorations, and it is generally pro melting point of the gold and silver alloy powders.
cessed by light-cured 3D printing technology, such as SLA and DLP [543, Although, SLM technology can build metal jewelry and decorations
544]. The working principle is to produce free radicals by irradiating a with complex structure, the whole forming surface must be covered with
photo-initiator to initiate the polymerization and crosslinking of the metal powder. When printing precious metals, the cost will be very high.
monomers and pre-polymer or to produce strong protonic acids by Therefore, SLM manufacturing is less commonly used for the fabrication
irradiating a cationic photo-initiator to catalyze and accelerate poly of precious metal jewelry. Indirect manufacturing of metal jewelry and
merization and solidify the resin. The jewelry and art decorations made decorations by 3D printing is still a popular concept. Generally, wax or
54
Fig. 56. Common printing materials and corresponding 3D printing technologies for jewelry and art decorations.
resin intermediates are manufactured by FDM and light curing 3D mainly low-end and cheap products, while the printing of precious metal
printing technology for investment casting of precious metal jewelry jewelry and high-quality ceramics still requires further exploration.
[542]. This method of 3D printing technology in jewelry manufacturing With the development of 3D printing technology and printing materials,
greatly shortens the jewelry production cycle and reduces the produc 3D printing will become an indispensable and powerful tool in the
tion cost. jewelry and art decoration industry due to its automatic, rapid pro
In general, because 3D printing technology has flexible design ca duction, personalized customization, and zero waste. The 3D printed
pabilities, zero waste, automated manufacturing capabilities, and other products will also play an important role in luxury high-end jewelry and
characteristics, a growing amount of 3D printing jewelry and decora fine decoration.
tions with novel appearances are being designed, and these designs have
become popular to the public. In addition, because of the convenience of
CAD modeling, jewelry and art decoration consumers can propose their 4.8. Land transportation
own designs and create print models. In recent years, with the increase
in the proportion of online sales of jewelry and decorations, this Recent progress in AM, such as 3D printing, has rapidly accelerated
personalized customized sales model is becoming more and more pop its application in the manufacturing industry. Among the many
ular [555]. At present, Orori, American Pearl, and other jewelry com manufacturing applications, there is tremendous potential for the use of
panies have successively launched online customized jewelry services. AM for road vehicles, for example, automobiles, bicycles, and rolling
Personalized art decorations have also become common on e-commerce stocks, due to the ever-growing needs for newer, lighter, stronger, safer,
platforms. time-saving, and energy-saving designs [556]. As automobiles represent
At present, 3D printing technology is being actively used to manu the largest market share of all types of road vehicles, AM has tremendous
facture jewelry and art decorations, but the products on the market are application potential. According to a recent report on AM for automotive
part production from 2019 to 2029 issued by SmarTech Analysis, the
55
Fig. 57. Automotive AM production revenue 2019–2029 [557].
revenue of automotive AM production has an opportunity to reach over with complex structures and novel combinations of materials, for
$9 billion by 2029 [557], as shown in Fig. 57. AM techniques have not example, lattice structures and combinations of different alloys for
only influenced the development of the original equipment manufac lightweight designs. AM has a high efficiency in terms of time and cost
turers and suppliers but they have also stimulated the emergence of savings because no additional tooling is required and the supply chain is
innovative designs and manufacturing methods, such as direct and in simplified. Moreover, compared with traditional manufacturing
tegral manufacturing [558]. methods, AM methods only use certain materials they need, thereby
Vehicle manufacturers are pioneers for the application of AM tech reducing material wastage [569]. Although AM technology has a bright
niques to their products. From the early used rapid prototyping to the future in automotive manufacturing, it still faces several challenges
currently popular 3D printing, AM technology has been applied in the [570]. First, the current production speed of AM is low and cannot keep
automobile field for more than 20 years. AM, for the moment, is mainly pace with the enormous automobile production. Second, the develop
used for communication of design intension, prototype performance ment of low-cost, large-sized AM methods is necessary for future ap
validation, pre-production for low-cost, rapid tooling, small-lot pro plications in automotive manufacturing. Third, more professional
duction of small and medium-sized products for multiple design itera technical AM staff are needed for long-term development. Fourth, the
tions, tooling production, end part production, and spare part intellectual property of AM products should be examined.
production to meet demand [559]. Many automobile manufactures have In addition to automobiles, bicycles and rolling stocks are the other
already adopted AM to fabricate car components and develop person two common road vehicles that have been influenced by AM technology.
alized services. For example, the supercar manufacturer Bugatti utilized Unlike traditional bicycle manufacturing methods, 3D printing has
the metal 3D printing technology to manufacture brake caliper [560]. proven to be a better method for lightweight bicycle production due to
Porsche started to offer a rare part printing service for classic car owners its superiority in manufacturing parts from titanium and carbon fiber.
using the SLM process in 2018 [561]. Similarly, Ford also adopted the 3D printing also can help to achieve design flexibility, affordable cus
3D printing technology for the fabrication of spare parts, such as the tomization, and faster times to market for bicycle production
heating/venting/air-conditioning parts for the 2006 Ford Focus, and [571–573]. However, so far, 3D printing has not been used for mass
manufacturing tools [562]. BMW has utilized AM for prototyping and production in the bicycle industry and only shines in one-off projects,
development since 1990 and has printed more than one million com such as customized, high-end bicycles. For railway sectors, a train or
ponents in series production. Volkswagen has also applied metal and subway can be used for several decades. Therefore, a common problem
desktop 3D printers, for mass end-use part production and tooling is that it is difficult to find replacements in a short time when compo
design. It also provides 3D printed customized car parts (for example, nents are damaged. To solve this problem, the railway sector, such as the
individualized gear knobs [563]), and parts for motorsports (for Deutsche Bahn, has begun to apply 3D printing to manufacture rare
example, the Motorsport’s I.D. R Pikes Peak racing car) [564]. parts [574]. In summary, AM in the rail industry can be used for time-
Furthermore, other traditional automotive original equipment manu and cost-saving replacement part production, cutting-edge and
facturer, such as Daimler, Audi, GM, Toyota, and Chrysler, all have high-performance material exploration, customized design fabrication,
invested in 3D printing technology [565]. In addition to the production and service life extension of vehicles due to fast part replacement [575].
of small or medium-sized parts, AM technology is also used for the For the moment, although AM technology has been adopted by many
production of large-sized parts or even full-scale vehicles. The first car vehicle manufacturers for their product manufacturing processes,
with a 3D printed body, URBEE, was fabricated in 2003 by KOR [566]. traditional manufacturing technologies still play a dominant role in the
In 2014, the first 3D printed electric car in the world, Strati, was man land transportation manufacturing industry. However, there is no
ufactured by ORNL and Cincinnati Inc. using a large-scale 3D printer denying that AM now is penetrating this industry at a high speed and
during the International Manufacturing Technology Show [567]. will accelerate the formation of new trends. It will not only influence the
Furthermore, ORNL also created a 3D printed utility vehicle (PUV), evolution of the product but may also affect the business model. The
which could be powered by a solar 3D printed home, and in return, future development prospects of AM technology in the land trans
could also power a house [568]. portation manufacturing industry will largely depend on the develop
In conclusion, AM technology has had a positive influence in auto ment trends of this technology in the future.
motive manufacturing. It provides more possibilities for smart designs
56
Fig. 58. Additively manufactured grippers for trapping deep sea specimens: (a) [582], (b) [576], (c) [581], (d) [584].
4.9. Underwater devices
AM is also promising for underwater applications, especially deep

sea applications, which are far from land with limited resources and face
the most severe environment. The fast custom-design and
manufacturing abilities enable AM adopted in the underwater studies to
be a real-time solution for engineering problems that arise in unpre
dicted scenarios. Currently, the soft robotic manipulators made by 3D
printing, whose typical structures are shown in Fig. 58a, have been well
applied to catch delicate and aged deep-sea organisms 2224 m under
water in the Phoenix Islands Protected Area [576], which were used on
the remotely operated vehicle shown in Fig. 58b. With the fast devel
opment and maturity of AM, various materials can be printed for custom
designed structures [577], including dielectric elastomer actuators,
hydrogels, electroactive polymers, SMAs, SMPs, and fluidic elastomers.
3D printed parts for operating in the deep sea under a high static pres
sure should be printed without void spaces to prevent collapse of the air
Fig. 59. Potential application scenarios of additive manufacturing in sea, land,
trapped inside the structures [576]. To reduce mechanical damage to the
and air transportation.
deep sea specimens, specific soft grippers [578–584] were made by AM
and tested in the sea. Compared with conventional rigid grippers made
from traditional machining, 3D printed soft grippers can have larger valuable solution to support engineering development and maintenance
shape transition abilities and better contact with soft materials, which during voyages, especially metal AM. With the further development and
also have better performances for trapping deep sea specimens, as maturity of AM, AM machines will be standard equipment for seagoing
shown in Fig. 58c and d. To better support engineering development and vessels. Furthermore, with its rapid development, AM is valuable for the
the shipboard maintenance of seagoing vessels, SLA printing on onboard advancement of commercial amphibious cars and aircraft, which may
passive stabilization platforms was investigated [585] in order to lower open a new commercial market as amphibian vehicles and aircraft are
down undesired influences from the dynamic environment on the sea primarily used for military purposes currently. As shown in Fig. 59,
surface. component structures made via AM are promising, and they are
The extreme environment in deep sea studies prevents many mature becoming popular in transportation vehicles in the air, on the land, and
devices from being applied for simple functions, such as grabbing ob in the sea, including on the surface and underwater. It is believed that
jects. With limited resources and space on seagoing vessels, which are the AM technique will contribute much more to transportation vehicles
far away from the mainland, AM is a promising solution for in the future, especially to the development of new structures for the
manufacturing soft robots or manipulating parts. However, AM is also a vehicles.
57
Fig. 60. Schematic of the 3D printing of a porous membrane [593].
Fig. 61. Multilayer porous ceramics prepared by DIW [595].
4.10. Porous structures effectively reduce the occurrence of stress shielding and prolong the life
of the implant [590,591].
Different microstructures as porous structures [123,586–588] are Porous scaffolds are a crucial part of bone tissue engineering. Porous
becoming increasingly important owing to the booming development of scaffolds act as templates for the attachment of cells as well as stimu
all kinds of AM technologies. There are many potential applications for lating bone tissue growth [591,592]. The pore size and volume are in
porous structures by using AM technology, especially in the medical tegral factors that affect the porous scaffold’s performance. A minimum
field, such as the fabrication of bone scaffolds. Components with pore size between 100 and 150 μm is required for bone formation.
different size distributions and morphologies can be fabricated using However, the pore sizes of the scaffolds that enhance bone formation
different 3D printing technologies [589]. With the aid of CAD, porous and vascularization are greater than 300 μm [593]. Bone scaffolds with
scaffolds with designed shapes could regulate chemistry and have porous structures could be fabricated in various ways, such as gas
interconnected pores. Due to individual patient differences, traditional foaming, drying through freezing, and separation induced by a thermal
implants cannot fully satisfy the needs of all patients, which results in phase.
implant limitations, poor biomechanical effects, and short service lives. Besides, 3D printed porous structures have enormous potential in
Nevertheless, different porous bone scaffolds fabricated by 3D printing filtration applications, particularly for the oil–water separation or water
can be customized based on different bone features, and thus, person purification. Fig. 60 schematically shows the porous membranes fabri
alized implants fabricated through AM methods can eliminate these cated by the AM approach, particularly the DIW method. Indeed, porous
problems. However, 3D printing technology can print porous bone membranes are manufactured through a programmed mesh structure by
trabecular prostheses to create prosthesis-bone interfaces that can using PDMS ink, which is a superhydrophobic material [594]. The
58
Fig. 62. Multiple perspectives of the AM of structural materials.
structures of the porous membranes can be programmed with the aid of 5. Perspectives
a computer to obtain the desired properties, integrating the super
hydrophobic surface within a porous lattice to avoid the weak interface This review has covered a broad range of topics, including structural
adhesion problem and achieve mechanical stability. Thus, such mem materials for AM (polymers, metals, ceramics, glasses, and composite
branes exhibit high efficiency in oil–water separations with low costs materials), 4D printing, and promising applications. Furthermore, new
and no secondary pollution. Research on porous ceramic catalytic ma perspectives on the strategies of AM for structural materials are pro
terials and devices modified by 3D printing metal–organic frameworks posed (as shown in Fig. 62), including MMa-AM, MMo-AM, MSc-AM,
(MOFs) [595] (Fig. 61) was carried out by using DIW 3D printing MSy-AM, MD-AM, and MF-AM. MMa-AM will include material combi
technology to prepare multilayer porous catalysts with structural tena nations among printing host materials, supporting materials, and me
bility, high catalytic capabilities, and long-term stabilities. The results dium materials. Soft/rigid hybrid systems and hierarchical structures
show that MOF-modified 3D printed multilayer porous catalysts with excellent behaviors will be achieved using MMo-AM and MSc-AM,
exhibited excellent catalytic performances for organic pollutants in respectively. MSy-AM involves material–structure–process–property
water. integration and concurrent manufacturing. MD-AM has two meanings:
With the rapid improvement of technology, 3D printing of porous (1) the printing dimension increasing from 2D/3D/4D AM to even
structures will be widely applied in bone tissue engineering and catal higher dimensional AM and (2) the printing efficiency increasing from
ysis. The breakthrough taking in artificial intelligence algorithms based dot-by-dot/line-by-line/sheet-by-sheet/volume-by-volume printing to
on biological inspiring will benefit complicated porous structure design block-by-block printing (Fig. 63). MF-AM, or AM+, includes pre-
and laser processing parameter optimization, and it will promote the programing, real-time treatment, or post-processing of the printed
development of 3D printing in porous structures. structural materials to generate functional materials for various appli
cations. Moreover, 3D printers may print everything with self-printing
capabilities, as shown in Fig. 64.
Fig. 63. Multi-dimensional additive manufacturing: higher dimensions and higher printing efficiencies.
59
Fig. 64. 3D printers may print everything with self-printing capabilities.
Declaration of Competing Interest S. Ostrovidov, A. Khademhosseini, R.D. Kamm, V. Mironov, L. Moroni, I.

T. Ozbolat, Biofabrication 12 (2020), 022002.
[17] M.A. Skylar-Scott, J. Mueller, C.W. Visser, J.A. Lewis, Nature 575 (2019)
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 330–335.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence [18] A. Bandyopadhyay, B. Heer, Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 129 (2018) 1–16.
the work reported in this paper. [19] E. MacDonald, R. Wicker, Science 353 (2016), aaf2093.
[20] R.L. Truby, J.A. Lewis, Nature 540 (2016) 371–378.
[21] C. Perez, Technological Revolutions and Financial Capital, Edward Elgar,
Acknowledgements Cheltenham, UK, 2003.
[22] F. Ning, W. Cong, J. Qiu, J. Wei, S. Wang, Compos. Part B Eng. 80 (2015)
369–378.
This work was supported by the Guangdong Provincial Department [23] P. Peyre, Y. Rouchausse, D. Defauchy, G. Régnier, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 225
of Science and Technology (Key-Area Research and Development Pro (2015) 326–336.
gram of Guangdong Province) under the grant 2020B090923002; [24] J.S. Shim, J.-E. Kim, S.H. Jeong, Y.J. Choi, J.J. Ryu, J. Prosthet. Dent. 124 (2019)
468–475.
Shenzhen-Hong Kong Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation [25] N. Hmeidat, J. Kemp, B. Compton, Compos. Sci. Technol. 160 (2018) 9–20.
Zone Shenzhen Park Project: HZQB-KCZYB-2020030; the Major Pro [26] S.H. Riza, S.H. Masood, C. Wen, D. Ruan, S. Xu, Mater. Des. 64 (2014) 650–659.
gram of National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (Grant [27] M.K. Imran, S.H. Masood, M. Brandt, S. Bhattacharya, J. Mazumder, Mater. Sci.
Eng. A 528 (2011) 3342–3349.
No. 51590892); the National Key R&D Program of China (Project No. [28] J.H. Martin, B.D. Yahata, J.M. Hundley, J.A. Mayer, T.A. Schaedler, T.M. Pollock,
2017YFA0204403); the JLFS - RGC-joint Laboratory Funding Scheme Nature 549 (2017) 365–369.
(Reference No.: JLFS/E-103/18). [29] B. Baufeld, O.Vd. Biest, R. Gault, Mater. Des. 31 (2010) S106–S111.
[30] H. Galarraga, D.A. Lados, R.R. Dehoff, M.M. Kirka, P. Nandwana, Addit. Manuf.
10 (2016) 47–57.
Appendix A. Supplementary data [31] Z.C. Cordero, R.B. Dinwiddie, D. Immel, R.R. Dehoff, J. Mater. Sci. 52 (2017)
3429–3435.
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the [32] T. Mukai, S. Suresh, K. Kita, H. Sasaki, N. Kobayashi, K. Higashi, A. Inoue, Acta
Mater. 51 (2003) 4197–4208.
online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2020.100596. [33] J. Ding, P. Colegrove, J. Mehnen, S. Ganguly, P.M. Sequeira Almeida, F. Wang,
S. Williams, Comput. Mater. Sci. 50 (2011) 3315–3322.
References [34] S.W. Williams, F. Martina, A.C. Addison, J. Ding, G. Pardal, P. Colegrove, Mater.
Sci. Technol. 32 (2016) 641–647.
[35] K. Chen, R. Huang, Y. Li, S. Lin, W. Zhu, N. Tamura, J. Li, Z.-W. Shan, E. Ma, Adv.
[1] H. Lipson, 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 1 (2014), 61-61. Mater. 32 (2020), 1907164.
[2] T. Economist, A Third Industrial Revolution, 2012. https://www.economist.com/ [36] Y.-J. Liang, J. Li, A. Li, X. Cheng, S. Wang, H.-M. Wang, J. Alloys Compd. 697
schumpeter/2012/04/19/a-third-industrial-revolution. (2017) 174–181.
[3] J.A. Faber, A.F. Arrieta, A.R. Studart, Science 359 (2018) 1386. [37] D. Karlsson, A. Marshal, F. Johansson, M. Schuisky, M. Sahlberg, J.M. Schneider,
[4] S. Tibbits, Archit. Des. 84 (2014) 116–121. U. Jansson, J. Alloys Compd. 784 (2019) 195–203.
[5] M. Zastrow, Nature 578 (2020) 20. [38] Y. Brif, M. Thomas, I. Todd, Scr. Mater. 99 (2015) 93–96.
[6] D.A. Walker, J.L. Hedrick, C.A. Mirkin, Science 366 (2019) 360. [39] T. Fujieda, H. Shiratori, K. Kuwabara, M. Hirota, T. Kato, K. Yamanaka,
[7] B.E. Kelly, I. Bhattacharya, H. Heidari, M. Shusteff, C.M. Spadaccini, H.K. Taylor, Y. Koizumi, A. Chiba, S. Watanabe, Mater. Lett. 189 (2017) 148–151.
Science 363 (2019) 1075. [40] C. Kenel, N.P.M. Casati, D.C. Dunand, Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 904.
[8] S.K. Saha, D. Wang, V.H. Nguyen, Y. Chang, J.S. Oakdale, S.-C. Chen, Science 366 [41] M.A. Gibson, N.M. Mykulowycz, J. Shim, R. Fontana, P. Schmitt, A. Roberts,
(2019) 105. J. Ketkaew, L. Shao, W. Chen, P. Bordeenithikasem, J.S. Myerberg, R. Fulop, M.
[9] A. Lee, A.R. Hudson, D.J. Shiwarski, J.W. Tashman, T.J. Hinton, S. Yerneni, J. D. Verminski, E.M. Sachs, Y.-M. Chiang, C.A. Schuh, A. John Hart, J. Schroers,
M. Bliley, P.G. Campbell, A.W. Feinberg, Science 365 (2019) 482. Mater. Today 21 (2018) 697–702.
[10] B. Grigoryan, S.J. Paulsen, D.C. Corbett, D.W. Sazer, C.L. Fortin, A.J. Zaita, P. [42] Y. Shen, Y. Li, C. Chen, H.-L. Tsai, Mater. Des. 117 (2017) 213–222.
T. Greenfield, N.J. Calafat, J.P. Gounley, A.H. Ta, F. Johansson, A. Randles, J. [43] D. Ouyang, N. Li, W. Xing, J. Zhang, L. Liu, Intermetallics 90 (2017) 128–134.
E. Rosenkrantz, J.D. Louis-Rosenberg, P.A. Galie, K.R. Stevens, J.S. Miller, [44] A. Vyatskikh, S. Delalande, A. Kudo, X. Zhang, C. Portela, J. Greer, Nat. Commun.
Science 364 (2019) 458. 9 (2018) 593.
[11] J.R. Tumbleston, D. Shirvanyants, N. Ermoshkin, R. Janusziewicz, A.R. Johnson, [45] G. Liu, Y. Zhao, G. Wu, J. Lu, Sci. Adv. 4 (2018), eaat0641.
D. Kelly, K. Chen, R. Pinschmidt, J.P. Rolland, A. Ermoshkin, E.T. Samulski, J. [46] Z.C. Eckel, C. Zhou, J.H. Martin, A.J. Jacobsen, W.B. Carter, T.A. Schaedler,
M. DeSimone, Science 347 (2015) 1349. Science 351 (2016) 58–62.
[12] D. Zhang, D. Qiu, M.A. Gibson, Y. Zheng, H.L. Fraser, D.H. StJohn, M.A. Easton, [47] E. Zanchetta, M. Cattaldo, G. Franchin, M. Schwentenwein, J. Homa, G. Brusatin,
Nature 576 (2019) 91–95. P. Colombo, Adv. Mater. 28 (2016) 370–376.
[13] Z. Chen, Z. Li, J. Li, C. Liu, C. Lao, Y. Fu, C. Liu, Y. Li, P. Wang, Y. He, J. Eur. [48] L.R. Meza, S. Das, J.R. Greer, Science 345 (2014) 1322–1326.
Ceram. Soc. 39 (2019) 661–687. [49] J. Klein, M. Stern, G. Franchin, M. Kayser, C. Inamura, S. Dave, J.C. Weaver,
[14] F. Kotz, K. Arnold, W. Bauer, D. Schild, N. Keller, K. Sachsenheimer, T. P. Houk, P. Colombo, M. Yang, N. Oxman, 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 2 (2015)
M. Nargang, C. Richter, D. Helmer, B.E. Rapp, Nature 544 (2017) 337–339. 92–105.
[15] A. Kumar, S. Mandal, S. Barui, R. Vasireddi, U. Gbureck, M. Gelinsky, B. Basu, [50] D.T. Nguyen, C. Meyers, T.D. Yee, N.A. Dudukovic, J.F. Destino, C. Zhu, E.
Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 103 (2016) 1–39. B. Duoss, T.F. Baumann, T. Suratwala, J.E. Smay, R. Dylla-Spears, Adv. Mater. 29
[16] W. Sun, B. Starly, A.C. Daly, J.A. Burdick, J. Groll, G. Skeldon, W. Shu, Y. Sakai, (2017), 1701181.
M. Shinohara, M. Nishikawa, J. Jang, D.-W. Cho, M. Nie, S. Takeuchi, [51] D.G. Moore, L. Barbera, K. Masania, A.R. Studart, Nat. Mater. 19 (2020) 212–217.
60
[52] I. Cooperstein, E. Shukrun, O. Press, A. Kamyshny, S. Magdassi, ACS Appl. Mater. [102] T. Sathish, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 8 (2019) 4354–4363.
Interfaces 10 (2018) 18879–18885. [103] X.H. Chen, J. Li, X. Cheng, H.M. Wang, Z. Huang, Mater. Sci. Eng. A Struct. Mater.
[53] S.C. Ligon, R. Liska, J. Stampfl, M. Gurr, R. Mülhaupt, Chem. Rev. 117 (2017) Properties Microstruct. Process. 715 (2018) 307–314.
10212–10290. [104] H. Liu, Z. Hu, X. Qin, Y. Wang, J. Zhang, S. Huang, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 91
[54] X. Wang, M. Jiang, Z. Zhou, J. Gou, D. Hui, Compos. Part B Eng. 110 (2017) (2017) 3967–3975.
442–458. [105] S.A. Khairallah, A.A. Martin, J.R.I. Lee, G. Guss, N.P. Calta, J.A. Hammons, M.
[55] H.L. Tekinalp, V. Kunc, G.M. Velez-Garcia, C.E. Duty, L.J. Love, A.K. Naskar, C. H. Nielsen, K. Chaput, E. Schwalbach, M.N. Shah, M.G. Chapman, T.M. Willey, A.
A. Blue, S. Ozcan, Compos. Sci. Technol. 105 (2014) 144–150. M. Rubenchik, A.T. Anderson, Y.M. Wang, M.J. Matthews, W.E. King, Science 368
[56] X. Tian, T. Liu, C. Yang, Q. Wang, D. Li, Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 88 (2020) 660–665.
(2016) 198–205. [106] L.P. Lefebvre, J. Banhart, D.C. Dunand, Adv. Eng. Mater. 10 (2008) 775–787.
[57] P.A. Eutionnat-Diffo, Y. Chen, J. Guan, A. Cayla, C. Campagne, X. Zeng, [107] C. Zhu, Z. Qi, V.A. Beck, M. Luneau, J. Lattimer, W. Chen, M.A. Worsley, J. Ye, E.
V. Nierstrasz, Sci. Rep. 9 (2019) 14333. B. Duoss, C.M. Spadaccini, C.M. Friend, J. Biener, Sci. Adv. 4 (2018), eaas9459.
[58] A. Bîrcă, O. Gherasim, V. Grumezescu, A.M. Grumezescu, in: V. Grumezescu, A. [108] T. Tancogne-Dejean, A.B. Spierings, D. Mohr, Acta Mater. 116 (2016) 14–28.
M. Grumezescu (Eds.), Materials for Biomedical Engineering, Elsevier, 2019, [109] S. Hwang, E.I. Reyes, K.-s. Moon, R.C. Rumpf, N.S. Kim, J. Electron. Mater. 44
pp. 1–28. (2015) 771–777.
[59] S. Fu, H. Hu, J. Chen, Y. Zhu, S. Zhao, Chem. Eng. J. 382 (2020), 122928. [110] C. Yan, L. Hao, A. Hussein, P. Young, D. Raymont, Mater. Des. 55 (2014)
[60] C.-H. Lin, Y.-M. Lin, Y.-L. Lai, S.-Y. Lee, J. Prosthet. Dent. 123 (2019). 533–541.
[61] M.L. Hammock, A. Chortos, B.C.K. Tee, J.B.H. Tok, Z. Bao, Adv. Mater. 25 (2013) [111] E. Hernández-Nava, C.J. Smith, F. Derguti, S. Tammas-Williams, F. Léonard, P.
5997–6038. J. Withers, I. Todd, R. Goodall, Acta Mater. 85 (2015) 387–395.
[62] K. Chenoweth, S. Cheung, A.C.T. van Duin, W.A. Goddard, E.M. Kober, J. Am. [112] L. Dong, V. Deshpande, H. Wadley, Int. J. Solids Struct. 60-61 (2015) 107–124.
Chem. Soc. 127 (2005) 7192–7202. [113] M.-S. Pham, C. Liu, I. Todd, J. Lertthanasarn, Nature 565 (2019) 305–311.
[63] Z. He, Y. Chen, J. Yang, C. Tang, J. Lv, Y. Liu, J. Mei, W.-m. Lau, D. Hui, Compos. [114] R. Martini, Y. Balit, F. Barthelat, Acta Biomater. 55 (2017) 360–372.
Part B Eng. 129 (2017). [115] M.M. Porter, N. Ravikumar, F. Barthelat, R. Martini, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed.
[64] J. Holländer, R. Hakala, J. Suominen, N. Moritz, J. Yliruusi, N. Sandler, Int. J. Mater. 73 (2017) 114–126.
Pharm. 544 (2017). [116] S.-X. Liang, X. Wang, W. Zhang, Y.-J. Liu, W. Wang, L.-C. Zhang, Appl. Mater.
[65] H. Xiang, X. Wang, Z. Ou, G. Lin, J. Yin, Z. Liu, L. Zhang, X. Liu, Prog. Org. Coat. Today 19 (2020), 100543.
137 (2019), 105372. [117] A. Ambrosi, J.G.S. Moo, M. Pumera, Adv. Funct. Mater. 26 (2016) 698–703.
[66] J. Stieghorst, T. Doll, Addit. Manuf. 24 (2018) 217–223. [118] L.O. Jose, R. Jagdheesh, J.J. García-Ballesteros, Adv. Opt. Technol. 5 (2016)
[67] H. Wei, X. Cauchy, I.O. Navas, Y. Abderrafai, K. Chizari, U. Sundararaj, Y. Liu, 87–93.
J. Leng, D. Therriault, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11 (2019) 24523–24532. [119] A. Ambrosi, M. Pumera, Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018), 1700655.
[68] H. Wei, Q. Zhang, Y. Yao, L. Liu, Y. Liu, J. Leng, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 [120] S.-X. Liang, Z. Jia, Y.-J. Liu, W. Zhang, W. Wang, J. Lu, L.-C. Zhang, Adv. Mater.
(2017) 876–883. 30 (2018), 1802764.
[69] W. Zhao, F. Zhang, J. Leng, Y. Liu, Compos. Sci. Technol. 184 (2019), 107866. [121] J.L. Ocaña, R. Jagdheesh, J.J. García-Ballesteros, Adv. Opt. Technol. 5 (2016).
[70] Y. Liu, W. Zhang, F. Zhang, J. Leng, S. Pei, L. Wang, X. Jia, C. Cotton, B. Sun, T.- [122] C. Yang, C. Zhang, W. Xing, L. Liu, Intermetallics 94 (2018) 22–28.
W. Chou, Compos. Sci. Technol. 181 (2019), 107692. [123] L.-C. Zhang, Z. Jia, F. Lyu, S.-X. Liang, J. Lu, Prog. Mater. Sci. 105 (2019),
[71] Q. Zhao, D. Yang, C. Zhang, X.-H. Liu, X. Fan, A.K. Whittaker, X.S. Zhao, ACS 100576.
Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 (2018) 43730–43739. [124] Z. Jia, X. Duan, P. Qin, W. Zhang, W. Wang, C. Yang, H. Sun, S. Wang, L.-
[72] V. Viswanathan, T. Laha, K. Balani, A. Agarwal, S. Seal, Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 54 C. Zhang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 27 (2017) 1702258.
(2006) 121–285. [125] Z. Jia, Q. Wang, L. Sun, Q. Wang, L.-C. Zhang, G. Wu, J.-H. Luan, Z.-B. Jiao,
[73] J. Li, C. Wu, P.K. Chu, M. Gelinsky, Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 140 (2020), 100543. A. Wang, S.-X. Liang, M. Gu, J. Lu, Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 (2019), 1807857.
[74] S. Yuan, F. Shen, C.K. Chua, K. Zhou, Prog. Polym. Sci. 91 (2019) 141–168. [126] Z. Jia, W.C. Zhang, W.M. Wang, D. Habibi, L.C. Zhang, Appl. Catal. B Environ.
[75] M. Nikzad, S. Masood, I. Sbarski, Mater. Des. 32 (2011) 3448–3456. 192 (2016) 46–56.
[76] D.V. Isakov, Q. Lei, F. Castles, C.J. Stevens, C.R.M. Grovenor, P.S. Grant, Mater. [127] Z. Jia, J. Kang, W.C. Zhang, W.M. Wang, C. Yang, H. Sun, D. Habibi, L.C. Zhang,
Des. 93 (2016) 423–430. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 204 (2017) 537–547.
[77] J. Wang, H. Xie, Z. Weng, T. Senthil, L. Wu, Mater. Des. 105 (2016) 152–159. [128] S. Nakahara, E.A. Périgo, Y. Pittini-Yamada, Y. de Hazan, T. Graule, Acta Mater.
[78] B.G. Compton, J.A. Lewis, Adv. Mater. 26 (2014) 5930–5935. 58 (2010) 5695–5703.
[79] F. Castles, D. Isakov, A. Lui, Q. Lei, C.E.J. Dancer, Y. Wang, J.M. Janurudin, S. [129] D. Liu, C. Wu, M. Yan, J. Wang, Acta Mater. 146 (2018) 294–303.
C. Speller, C.R.M. Grovenor, P.S. Grant, Sci. Rep. 6 (2016) 22714. [130] J. Farmer, J.-S. Choi, C. Saw, J. Haslam, D. Day, P. Hailey, T. Lian, R. Rebak,
[80] H. Chung, S. Das, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 437 (2006) 226–234. J. Perepezko, J. Payer, D. Branagan, B. Beardsley, A. D’amato, L. Aprigliano,
[81] F.V.D. Klift, Y. Koga, A. Todoroki, M. Ueda, Y. Hirano, R. Matsuzaki, Open J. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 40 (2009) 1289–1305.
Composite Mater. 06 (No. 01) (2016) 10. [131] H.X. Li, Z.C. Lu, S.L. Wang, Y. Wu, Z.P. Lu, Prog. Mater. Sci. 103 (2019) 235–318.
[82] D. Lin, S. Jin, F. Zhang, C. Wang, Y. Wang, C. Zhou, G.J. Cheng, Nanotechnology [132] S. Pauly, L. Löber, R. Petters, M. Stoica, S. Scudino, U. Kühn, J. Eckert, Mater.
26 (2015), 434003. Today 16 (2013) 37–41.
[83] X. Wei, D. Li, W. Jiang, Z. Gu, X. Wang, Z. Zhang, Z. Sun, Sci. Rep. 5 (2015) [133] X.P. Li, C.W. Kang, H. Huang, T.B. Sercombe, Mater. Des. 63 (2014) 407–411.
11181. [134] X.P. Li, M.P. Roberts, S. O’Keeffe, T.B. Sercombe, Mater. Des. 112 (2016)
[84] E. Fantino, A. Chiappone, F. Calignano, M. Fontana, F. Pirri, I. Roppolo, Materials 217–226.
9 (2016) 589. [135] G. Yang, X. Lin, F. Liu, Q. Hu, L. Ma, J. Li, W. Huang, Intermetallics 22 (2012)
[85] C. Panwisawas, Y.T. Tang, R.C. Reed, Nat. Commun. 11 (2020) 2327. 110–115.
[86] L.-Y. Chen, J.-Q. Xu, H. Choi, M. Pozuelo, X. Ma, S. Bhowmick, J.-M. Yang, [136] S. Pauly, C. Schricker, S. Scudino, L. Deng, U. Kühn, Mater. Des. 135 (2017)
S. Mathaudhu, X.-C. Li, Nature 528 (2015) 539–543. 133–141.
[87] T.-C. Lin, C. Cao, M. Sokoluk, L. Jiang, X. Wang, J.M. Schoenung, E.J. Lavernia, [137] D. Zhang, S. Sun, D. Qiu, M.A. Gibson, M.S. Dargusch, M. Brandt, M. Qian,
X. Li, Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 4124. M. Easton, Adv. Eng. Mater. 20 (2018), 1700952.
[88] Q. Tan, J. Zhang, N. Mo, Z. Fan, Y. Yin, M. Bermingham, Y. Liu, H. Huang, M.- [138] H. Dobbelstein, M. Thiele, E.L. Gurevich, E.P. George, A. Ostendorf, Phys.
X. Zhang, Addit. Manuf. (2020), 101034. Procedia 83 (2016) 624–633.
[89] C. Doñate-Buendía, F. Frömel, M.B. Wilms, R. Streubel, J. Tenkamp, T. Hupfeld, [139] T. Fujieda, H. Shiratori, K. Kuwabara, T. Kato, K. Yamanaka, Y. Koizumi,
M. Nachev, E. Gökce, A. Weisheit, S. Barcikowski, Mater. Des. 154 (2018) A. Chiba, Mater. Lett. 159 (2015) 12–15.
360–369. [140] H. Shiratori, T. Fujieda, K. Yamanaka, Y. Koizumi, K. Kuwabara, T. Kato,
[90] K.N. Amato, S.M. Gaytan, L.E. Murr, E. Martinez, P.W. Shindo, J. Hernandez, A. Chiba, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 656 (2016) 39–46.
S. Collins, F. Medina, Acta Mater. 60 (2012) 2229–2239. [141] X. Li, Adv. Eng. Mater. 20 (2018), 1700874.
[91] A.E. Jakus, S.L. Taylor, N.R. Geisendorfer, D.C. Dunand, R.N. Shah, Adv. Funct. [142] J. Joseph, T. Jarvis, X. Wu, N. Stanford, P. Hodgson, D.M. Fabijanic, Mater. Sci.
Mater. 25 (2015) 6985–6995. Eng. A 633 (2015) 184–193.
[92] H.Z. Yu, M.E. Jones, G.W. Brady, R.J. Griffiths, D. Garcia, H.A. Rauch, C.D. Cox, [143] J.O. Milewski, Addit. Manuf. Metals (2017).
N. Hardwick, Scr. Mater. 153 (2018) 122–130. [144] D.Ta.F.H.Ulrich E. Klotz, Additive Manufacturing of 18-karat Yellow-gold Alloys,
[93] Y.F. Li, X. Cheng, D. Liu, H.M. Wang, Mater. Sci. Eng. A Struct. Mater. Properties Jewelry Technology Forum 2017, 2016.
Microstruct. Process. 713 (2018) 75–80. [145] U.E. Klotz, D. Tiberto, F. Held, Gold Bull. 50 (2017) 111–121.
[94] J. Liu, J. Li, X. Cheng, H. Wang, Surf. Coat. Technol. 325 (2017) 352–359. [146] F. Cooper, Johnson Matthey Technol. Rev. 59 (2015) 233–242.
[95] Y. Wang, H. Tang, Y. Fang, H. Wang, Chinese J. Aeronaut. 26 (2013) 481–486. [147] P.D. Mushtaq Khan, Rapid Prototyp. J. 18 (2012) 81–94.
[96] G.W. Haiou Zhang, Huayu Zhang, Combined Additive Manufacturing Method [148] A.C. Damiano Zito, Alessandro Loggi, D.M. Patrizio Sbornicchia, P. S.p.A, Progold
Applicable to Parts and Molds, 2019. S.p.A 39 (2015) 1-26.
[97] Y. Fu, H. Zhang, G. Wang, H. Wang, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 250 (2017) [149] A.L.M. Hancox, A. Jeffrey, Int. J. Powder Metall. 45 (2009) 43–52.
220–227. [150] A. Zocca, P. Colombo, C.M. Gomes, J. Günster, D.J. Green, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 98
[98] G. Wu, K.-C. Chan, L. Zhu, L. Sun, J. Lu, Nature 545 (2017) 80–83. (2015) 1983–2001.
[99] L.G. Sun, G. Wu, Q. Wang, J. Lu, Mater. Today (2020). [151] K. Shahzad, J. Deckers, Z. Zhang, J.-P. Kruth, J. Vleugels, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 34
[100] N. Li, J.J. Zhang, W. Xing, D. Ouyang, L. Liu, Mater. Des. 143 (2018) 285–296. (2014) 81–89.
[101] H. Knoll, S. Ocylok, A. Weisheit, H. Springer, E. Jagle, D. Raabe, Steel Res. Int. 88 [152] H.-H. Tang, H.-C. Yen, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 35 (2015) 981–987.
(2017) 11.
61
[153] T. Chartier, C. Duterte, N. Delhote, D. Baillargeat, S. Verdeyme, C. Delage, [206] M. Invernizzi, G. Natale, M. Levi, S. Turri, G. Griffini, Materials (Basel,
C. Chaput, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 91 (2008) 2469–2474. Switzerland) 9 (2016) 583.
[154] X. Zheng, H. Lee, T.H. Weisgraber, M. Shusteff, J. DeOtte, E.B. Duoss, J.D. Kuntz, [207] M.B. McKinnon, G.E. Martin, S.I. Stoliarov, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 137 (2020)
M.M. Biener, Q. Ge, J.A. Jackson, Science 344 (2014) 1373–1377. 47697.
[155] H. Windsheimer, N. Travitzky, A. Hofenauer, P. Greil, Adv. Mater. 19 (2007) [208] M.R. Hartings, Z. Ahmed, Nat. Rev. Chem. 3 (2019) 305–314.
4515–4519. [209] T. Li, Y. Chen, L. Wang, Compos. Sci. Technol. 167 (2018) 251–259.
[156] Q. Fu, E. Saiz, A.P. Tomsia, Adv. Funct. Mater. 21 (2011) 1058–1063. [210] S. Bapari, A.H. Chokshi, Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 123 (2019) 114–122.
[157] E. Özkol, A.M. Wätjen, R. Bermejo, M. Deluca, J. Ebert, R. Danzer, R. Telle, J. Eur. [211] X. Li, Y.H. Tan, P. Wang, X. Su, H.J. Willy, T.S. Herng, J. Ding, Compos. Part A
Ceram. Soc. 30 (2010) 3145–3152. Appl. Sci. Manuf. 135 (2020), 105934.
[158] M. Jafari, W. Han, F. Mohammadi, A. Safari, S. Danforth, N. Langrana, Rapid [212] S. Fafenrot, N. Grimmelsmann, M. Wortmann, A. Ehrmann, Materials 10 (2017)
Prototyp. J. 6 (2000) 161–175. 1199.
[159] Y. Liu, Z. Chen, J. Li, B. Gong, L. Wang, C. Lao, P. Wang, C. Liu, Y. Feng, X. Wang, [213] S.K. Seol, D. Kim, S. Lee, J.H. Kim, W.S. Chang, J.T. Kim, Small 11 (2015)
Addit. Manuf. 35 (2020), 101348. 3896–3902.
[160] D. Jang, L.R. Meza, F. Greer, J.R. Greer, Nat. Mater. 12 (2013) 893–898. [214] L. Hirt, S. Ihle, Z. Pan, L. Dorwling-Carter, A. Reiser, J.M. Wheeler, R. Spolenak,
[161] J. Bauer, S. Hengsbach, I. Tesari, R. Schwaiger, O. Kraft, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 111 J. Vörös, T. Zambelli, Adv. Mater. 28 (2016) 2311–2315.
(2014) 2453. [215] T. Tanaka, A. Ishikawa, S. Kawata, Appl. Phys. Lett. 88 (2006), 081107.
[162] Y. Xu, M. Guron, X. Zhu, L.G. Sneddon, S. Yang, Chem. Mater. 22 (2010) [216] S. Shukla, E.P. Furlani, X. Vidal, M.T. Swihart, P.N. Prasad, Adv. Mater. 22 (2010)
5957–5963. 3695–3699.
[163] W. Denk, J.H. Strickler, W.W. Webb, Science 248 (1990) 73. [217] A. Cohen, R. Chen, U. Frodis, M.T. Wu, C. Folk, Rapid Prototyp. J. 16 (2010)
[164] T.A. Pham, D.P. Kim, T.W. Lim, S.H. Park, D.Y. Yang, K.S. Lee, Adv. Funct. Mater. 209–215.
16 (2006) 1235–1241. [218] M.S. Onses, E. Sutanto, P.M. Ferreira, A.G. Alleyne, J.A. Rogers, Small 11 (2015)
[165] S. Park, D.-H. Lee, H.-I. Ryoo, T.-W. Lim, D.-Y. Yang, D.-P. Kim, Chem. Commun. 4237–4266.
(2009) 4880–4882. [219] P. Heinl, L. Müller, C. Körner, R.F. Singer, F.A. Müller, Acta Biomater. 4 (2008)
[166] G. Pierin, C. Grotta, P. Colombo, C. Mattevi, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 36 (2016) 1536–1544.
1589–1594. [220] X. Wendy Gu, J.R. Greer, Extreme Mech. Lett. 2 (2015) 7–14.
[167] K. Huang, H. Elsayed, G. Franchin, P. Colombo, Addit. Manuf. 33 (2020), 101144. [221] M. Mieszala, M. Hasegawa, G. Guillonneau, J. Bauer, R. Raghavan, C. Frantz,
[168] Z. Li, Z. Chen, J. Liu, Y. Fu, C. Liu, P. Wang, M. Jiang, C. Lao, Virtual Phys. O. Kraft, S. Mischler, J. Michler, L. Philippe, Small 13 (2017), 1602514.
Prototyp. (2020) 1–15. [222] X. Zhang, J. Yao, B. Liu, J. Yan, L. Lu, Y. Li, H. Gao, X. Li, Nano Lett. 18 (2018)
[169] P. Colombo, G. Mera, R. Riedel, G.D. Sorarù, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 93 (2010) 4247–4256.
1805–1837. [223] X. Zheng, W. Smith, J. Jackson, B. Moran, H. Cui, D. Chen, J. Ye, N. Fang,
[170] C. Vakifahmetoglu, D. Zeydanli, P. Colombo, Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 106 (2016) N. Rodriguez, T. Weisgraber, C.M. Spadaccini, Nat. Mater. 15 (2016) 1100–1106.
1–30. [224] E. Sachs, M. Cima, P. Williams, D. Brancazio, J. Cornie, J. Eng. Ind. 114 (1992)
[171] E. Ionescu, H.-J. Kleebe, R. Riedel, Chem. Soc. Rev. 41 (2012) 5032–5052. 481–488.
[172] C. Minas, D. Carnelli, E. Tervoort, A.R. Studart, Adv. Mater. 28 (2016) [225] B.M. Wu, S.W. Borland, R.A. Giordano, L.G. Cima, E.M. Sachs, M.J. Cima,
9993–9999. J. Control. Release 40 (1996) 77–87.
[173] G. Mera, A. Navrotsky, S. Sen, H.-J. Kleebe, R. Riedel, J. Mater. Chem. A 1 (2013) [226] R. Singh, Adv. Mat. Res. 83 (2010) 342–349. Trans Tech Publ.
3826–3836. [227] R.O. Ritchie, Nat. Mater. 10 (2011) 817–822.
[174] K. Lu, J. Li, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 36 (2016) 411–422. [228] M. Mirkhalaf, A.K. Dastjerdi, F. Barthelat, Nat. Commun. 5 (2014) 3166.
[175] B. Papendorf, K. Nonnenmacher, E. Ionescu, H.-J. Kleebe, R. Riedel, Small 7 [229] M. Yahyazadehfar, D. Bajaj, D.D. Arola, Acta Biomater. 9 (2013) 4806–4814.
(2011) 970–978. [230] J.D. Currey, J.D. Taylor, J. Zool. 173 (1974) 395–406.
[176] Y. Yu, Y. Liu, J. Fang, L. An, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 98 (2015) 2894–2901. [231] E. Munch, M.E. Launey, D.H. Alsem, E. Saiz, A.P. Tomsia, R.O. Ritchie, Science
[177] E. Ionescu, C. Linck, C. Fasel, M. Müller, H.J. Kleebe, R. Riedel, J. Am. Ceram. 322 (2008) 1516.
Soc. 93 (2010) 241–250. [232] Z. Tang, N.A. Kotov, S. Magonov, B. Ozturk, Nat. Mater. 2 (2003) 413–418.
[178] J. Li, K. Lu, T. Lin, F. Shen, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 98 (2015) 1753–1761. [233] L.J. Bonderer, A.R. Studart, L.J. Gauckler, Science 319 (2008) 1069.
[179] J. Kaspar, C. Terzioglu, E. Ionescu, M. Graczyk-Zajac, S. Hapis, H.-J. Kleebe, [234] P. Podsiadlo, A.K. Kaushik, E.M. Arruda, A.M. Waas, B.S. Shim, J. Xu,
R. Riedel, Adv. Funct. Mater. 24 (2014) 4097–4104. H. Nandivada, B.G. Pumplin, J. Lahann, A. Ramamoorthy, N.A. Kotov, Science
[180] T. Kashiwagi, F. Du, J.F. Douglas, K.I. Winey, R.H. Harris, J.R. Shields, Nat. 318 (2007) 80.
Mater. 4 (2005) 928–933. [235] P. Walley, Y. Zhang, J.R.G. Evans, Bioinspir. Biomim. 7 (2012), 046004.
[181] P. Colombo, E. Bernardo, G. Parcianello, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 33 (2013) 453–469. [236] H.D. Espinosa, A.L. Juster, F.J. Latourte, O.Y. Loh, D. Gregoire, P.D. Zavattieri,
[182] F.Y. Hshieh, Fire Mater. 22 (1998) 69–76. Nat. Commun. 2 (2011) 173.
[183] D. Yang, W. Zhang, B. Jiang, Y. Guo, Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 44 (2013) [237] W.J. Clegg, K. Kendall, N.M. Alford, T.W. Button, J.D. Birchall, Nature 347 (1990)
70–77. 455–457.
[184] D. Bikiaris, Thermochim. Acta 523 (2011) 25–45. [238] X. Wu, M. Yang, F. Yuan, G. Wu, Y. Wei, X. Huang, Y. Zhu, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
[185] A. Ambrosi, M. Pumera, Chem. Soc. Rev. 45 (2016) 2740–2755. 112 (2015) 14501.
[186] J.A. Lewis, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 83 (2000) 2341–2359. [239] Y.A. Shin, S. Yin, X. Li, S. Lee, S. Moon, J. Jeong, M. Kwon, S.J. Yoo, Y.-M. Kim,
[187] G.M. Gratson, M. Xu, J.A. Lewis, Nature 428 (2004), 386-386. T. Zhang, H. Gao, S.H. Oh, Nat. Commun. 7 (2016) 10772.
[188] T. Sochi, Polymer 51 (2010) 5007–5023. [240] M.A. Meyers, P.-Y. Chen, A.Y.-M. Lin, Y. Seki, Prog. Mater. Sci. 53 (2008) 1–206.
[189] J.A. Lewis, Adv. Funct. Mater. 16 (2006) 2193–2204. [241] A. Velasco-Hogan, J. Xu, M.A. Meyers, Adv. Mater. 30 (2018), 1800940.
[190] A.R. Studart, Chem. Soc. Rev. 45 (2016) 359–376. [242] L.R. Meza, A.J. Zelhofer, N. Clarke, A.J. Mateos, D.M. Kochmann, J.R. Greer,
[191] C. Wang, W. Ping, Q. Bai, H. Cui, R. Hensleigh, R. Wang, A.H. Brozena, Z. Xu, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112 (2015) 11502.
J. Dai, Y. Pei, C. Zheng, G. Pastel, J. Gao, X. Wang, H. Wang, J.-C. Zhao, B. Yang, [243] L. Wang, J. Lau, E.L. Thomas, M.C. Boyce, Adv. Mater. 23 (2011) 1524–1529.
X. Zheng, J. Luo, Y. Mo, B. Dunn, L. Hu, Science 368 (2020) 521. [244] L.S. Dimas, G.H. Bratzel, I. Eylon, M.J. Buehler, Adv. Funct. Mater. 23 (2013)
[192] L.L. Hench, D.E. Day, W. Höland, V.M. Rheinberger, Int. J. Appl. Glass Sci. 1 4629–4638.
(2010) 104–117. [245] F. Barthelat, H. Tang, P. Zavattieri, C.M. Li, H. Espinosa, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 55
[193] A.J. Ikushima, T. Fujiwara, K. Saito, J. Appl. Phys. 88 (2000) 1201–1213. (2007) 306–337.
[194] N.P. Bansal, R.H. Doremus, in: N.P. Bansal, R.H. Doremus (Eds.), Handbook of [246] U.G.K. Wegst, H. Bai, E. Saiz, A.P. Tomsia, R.O. Ritchie, Nat. Mater. 14 (2015)
Glass Properties, Academic Press, San Diego, 1986, pp. 207–219. 23–36.
[195] N.P. Bansal, R.H. Doremus, in: N.P. Bansal, R.H. Doremus (Eds.), Handbook of [247] L.K. Grunenfelder, N. Suksangpanya, C. Salinas, G. Milliron, N. Yaraghi,
Glass Properties, Academic Press, San Diego, 1986, pp. 381–449. S. Herrera, K. Evans-Lutterodt, S.R. Nutt, P. Zavattieri, D. Kisailus, Acta Biomater.
[196] A. Dickson, J. Barry, K. McDonnell, D. Dowling, Addit. Manuf. 16 (2017). 10 (2014) 3997–4008.
[197] D. Hülsenberg, A. Harnisch, A. Bismarck, Microstruct. Glasses (2008). [248] H. Li, J. Shen, Q. Wei, X. Li, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 103 (2019), 109820.
[198] G. Marchelli, R. Prabhakar, D. Storti, M. Ganter, Rapid Prototyp. J. 17 (2011) [249] Z. Jia, L. Wang, Acta Mater. 173 (2019) 61–73.
187–194. [250] U. Scheithauer, E. Schwarzer, A. Haertel, H. Richter, T. Moritz, A. Michaelis,
[199] J. Luo, H. Pan, E.C. Kinzel, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 136 (2014). Addit. Manuf. Strat. Technol. Adv. Ceramics 258 (2016) 19.
[200] S. Klein, S. Simske, C. Parraman, P. Walters, D. Huson, S. Hoskins, HP [251] J. Saroia, Y. Wang, Q. Wei, M. Lei, X. Li, Y. Guo, K. Zhang, Int. J. Adv. Manuf.
Laboratories Technical Report, 2012. Technol. 106 (2020) 1695–1721.
[201] M. Fateri, M. Khosravi, LPI Contributions, 2012, p. 4368. [252] X.-Y. Ma, Y.-F. Feng, Z.-S. Ma, X. Li, J. Wang, L. Wang, W. Lei, Biomaterials 35
[202] P. von Witzendorff, L. Pohl, O. Suttmann, P. Heinrich, A. Heinrich, J. Zander, (2014) 7259–7270.
H. Bragard, S. Kaierle, Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 272–275. [253] S.J. Leigh, R.J. Bradley, C.P. Purssell, D.R. Billson, D.A. Hutchins, PLoS One 7
[203] K. Sasan, A. Lange, T.D. Yee, N. Dudukovic, D.T. Nguyen, M.A. Johnson, O. (2012).
D. Herrera, J.H. Yoo, A.M. Sawvel, M.E. Ellis, C.M. Mah, R. Ryerson, L.L. Wong, [254] E.H. Backes, L.D.N. Pires, C.A.G. Beatrice, L.C. Costa, F.R. Passador, L.A. Pessan,
T. Suratwala, J.F. Destino, R. Dylla-Spears, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 (2020) Polym. Eng. Sci. 60 (2020) 636–644.
6736–6741. [255] C. Li, Y. Lai, L. Li, H. Cao, J. Long, X. Wang, L. Qin, J. Orthop. Translat. 7 (2016)
[204] M. Fateri, A. Gebhardt, Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 12 (2015) 53–61. 78.
[205] C. Liu, B. Qian, R. Ni, X. Liu, J. Qiu, RSC Adv. 8 (2018) 31564–31567. [256] H. Arslan, A. Nojoomi, J. Jeon, K. Yum, Adv. Sci. 6 (2019), 1800703.
62
[257] M.D.N.I. Shiblee, K. Ahmed, M. Kawakami, H. Furukawa, Adv. Mater. Technol. 4 [301] C. Wang, X.P. Tan, Z. Du, S. Chandra, Z. Sun, C.W.J. Lim, S.B. Tor, C.S. Lim, C.
(2019), 1900071. H. Wong, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 271 (2019) 152–161.
[258] T. Chen, H. Bakhshi, L. Liu, J. Ji, S. Agarwal, Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018), [302] C.J. Chekotu, R. Groarke, K. O’Toole, D. Brabazon, Materials 12 (2019).
1800514. [303] H.Z. Lu, C. Yang, X. Luo, H.W. Ma, B. Song, Y.Y. Li, L.C. Zhang, Mater. Sci. Eng. A
[259] J. Wang, T. Lu, M. Yang, D. Sun, Y. Xia, T. Wang, Sci. Adv. 5 (2019) eaau8769- 763 (2019), 138166.
eaau8769. [304] V. Laitinen, A. Sozinov, A. Saren, A. Salminen, K. Ullakko, Addit. Manuf. 30
[260] J. Liu, O. Erol, A. Pantula, W. Liu, Z. Jiang, K. Kobayashi, D. Chatterjee, (2019), 100891.
N. Hibino, L.H. Romer, S.H. Kang, T.D. Nguyen, D.H. Gracias, ACS Appl. Mater. [305] M. Schaffner, J.A. Faber, L. Pianegonda, P.A. Ruhs, F. Coulter, A.R. Studart, Nat.
Interfaces 11 (2019) 8492–8498. Commun. 9 (2018) 878.
[261] J. Guo, R. Zhang, L. Zhang, X. Cao, ACS Macro Lett. 7 (2018) 442–446. [306] S. Mao, E. Dong, L. Zhou, H. Jin, Y. Tan, G. Liu, M. Xu, K.H. Low, Design and gait
[262] C. Yang, M. Boorugu, A. Dopp, J. Ren, R. Martin, D. Han, W. Choi, H. Lee, Mater. analysis of a tortoise-like robot with soft limbs, ASSISTIVE ROBOTICS:
Horiz. 6 (2019) 1244–1250. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on CLAWAR 2015 (2016)
[263] Y. Guo, Y. Liu, J. Liu, J. Zhao, H. Zhang, Z. Zhang, Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. 215–223.
Manuf. (2020), 105903. [307] V. Du, N. Luciani, S. Richard, G. Mary, C. Gay, F. Mazuel, M. Reffay, P. Menasche,
[264] Y. Liu, W. Zhang, F. Zhang, X. Lan, J. Leng, S. Liu, X. Jia, C. Cotton, B. Sun, B. Gu, O. Agbulut, C. Wilhelm, Nat. Commun. 8 (2017) 400.
T.-W. Chou, Compos. Part B Eng. 153 (2018) 233–242. [308] D. Gong, J. Cai, N. Celi, L. Feng, Y. Jiang, D. Zhang, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 468
[265] C. Yuan, D.J. Roach, C.K. Dunn, Q. Mu, X. Kuang, C.M. Yakacki, T. Wang, K. Yu, (2018) 148–154.
H.J. Qi, Soft Matter 13 (2017) 5558–5568. [309] E.B. Joyee, Y. Pan, Soft Robot. 6 (2019) 333–345.
[266] M. Zarek, M. Layani, I. Cooperstein, E. Sachyani, D. Cohn, S. Magdassi, Adv. [310] J. Tang, Q. Yin, Y. Qiao, T. Wang, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11 (2019)
Mater. 28 (2016) 4449–4454. 21194–21200.
[267] M. Elahinia, N. Shayesteh Moghaddam, A. Amerinatanzi, S. Saedi, G.P. Toker, [311] S. Lantean, G. Barrera, C.F. Pirri, P. Tiberto, M. Sangermano, I. Roppolo, G. Rizza,
H. Karaca, G.S. Bigelow, O. Benafan, Scr. Mater. 145 (2018) 90–94. Adv. Mater. Technol. 4 (2019), 1900505.
[268] T. Gustmann, A. Neves, U. Kühn, P. Gargarella, C.S. Kiminami, C. Bolfarini, [312] Z. Ji, C. Yan, B. Yu, X. Wang, F. Zhou, Adv. Mater. Interfaces 4 (2017), 1700629.
J. Eckert, S. Pauly, Addit. Manuf. 11 (2016) 23–31. [313] F. Zhang, L. Wang, Z. Zheng, Y. Liu, J. Leng, Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 125
[269] P. Zhu, W. Yang, R. Wang, S. Gao, B. Li, Q. Li, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 (2019), 105571.
(2018) 36435–36442. [314] Y. Zhang, L. Wang, W. Gao, T. Gu, Z. Li, X. Li, R. Li, G. Ye, W. Jiang, Y. Zhu,
[270] S. Roh, L.B. Okello, N. Golbasi, J.P. Hankwitz, J.A.C. Liu, J.B. Tracy, O.D. Velev, H. Liu, Smart Mater. Struct. 28 (2019), 075014.
Adv. Mater. Technol. 4 (2019), 1800528. [315] R. Tognato, A.R. Armiento, V. Bonfrate, R. Levato, J. Malda, M. Alini, D. Eglin,
[271] W. Gao, L. Wang, X. Wang, H. Liu, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (2016) G. Giancane, T. Serra, Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 (2019), 1804647.
14182–14189. [316] Q. Ze, X. Kuang, S. Wu, J. Wong, S.M. Montgomery, R. Zhang, J.M. Kovitz,
[272] Y. Kim, G.A. Parada, S. Liu, X. Zhao, Sci. Robot. 4 (2019), eaax7329. F. Yang, H.J. Qi, R. Zhao, Adv. Mater. 32 (2020), 1906657.
[273] Y. Kim, H. Yuk, R. Zhao, S.A. Chester, X. Zhao, Nature 558 (2018) 274–279. [317] H. Lu, M. Zhang, Y. Yang, Q. Huang, T. Fukuda, Z. Wang, Y. Shen, Nat. Commun.
[274] S. Wu, Q. Ze, R. Zhang, N. Hu, Y. Cheng, F. Yang, R. Zhao, ACS Appl. Mater. 9 (2018) 3944.
Interfaces 11 (2019) 41649–41658. [318] Z. Ren, W. Hu, X. Dong, M. Sitti, Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 2703.
[275] J. Cui, T.-Y. Huang, Z. Luo, P. Testa, H. Gu, X.-Z. Chen, B.J. Nelson, L. [319] J.J. Martin, B.E. Fiore, R.M. Erb, Nat. Commun. 6 (2015) 8641.
J. Heyderman, Nature 575 (2019) 164–168. [320] W. Hu, G.Z. Lum, M. Mastrangeli, M. Sitti, Nature 554 (2018) 81–85.
[276] X. Zhao, Y. Kim, Soft Microbots Programmed by Nanomagnets, Nature Publishing [321] T. Xu, J. Zhang, M. Salehizadeh, O. Onaizah, E. Diller, Sci. Robot. 4 (2019),
Group, 2019. eaav4494.
[277] Z. Mao, K. Zhu, L. Pan, G. Liu, T. Tang, Y. He, J. Huang, J. Hu, K.W.Y. Chan, J. Lu, [322] X. Liu, N. Kent, A. Ceballos, R. Streubel, Y. Jiang, Y. Chai, P.Y. Kim, J. Forth,
Adv. Mater. Technol. 5 (2020), 1900974. F. Hellman, S. Shi, D. Wang, B.A. Helms, P.D. Ashby, P. Fischer, T.P. Russell,
[278] Z. Zhao, X. Kuang, C. Yuan, H.J. Qi, D. Fang, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 Science 365 (2019) 264.
(2018) 19932–19939. [323] X. Wan, F. Zhang, Y. Liu, J. Leng, Carbon 155 (2019) 77–87.
[279] Y. Hu, Z. Wang, D. Jin, C. Zhang, R. Sun, Z. Li, K. Hu, J. Ni, Z. Cai, D. Pan, [324] Z. Song, L. Ren, C. Zhao, H. Liu, Z. Yu, Q. Liu, L. Ren, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces
X. Wang, W. Zhu, J. Li, D. Wu, L. Zhang, J. Chu, Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 (2020), 12 (2020) 6351–6361.
1907377. [325] W. Choi, T.-Y. Kim, Y.-G. Lee, Macromol. Mater. Eng. 303 (2018), 1700675.
[280] S.Y. Zheng, Y. Shen, F. Zhu, J. Yin, J. Qian, J. Fu, Z.L. Wu, Q. Zheng, Adv. Funct. [326] D. Raviv, W. Zhao, C. McKnelly, A. Papadopoulou, A. Kadambi, B. Shi, S. Hirsch,
Mater. 28 (2018), 1803366. D. Dikovsky, M. Zyracki, C. Olguin, R. Raskar, S. Tibbits, Sci. Rep. 4 (2014) 7422.
[281] L. Huang, R. Jiang, J. Wu, J. Song, H. Bai, B. Li, Q. Zhao, T. Xie, Adv. Mater. 29 [327] Y. Zhao, C. Xuan, X. Qian, Y. Alsaid, M. Hua, L. Jin, X. He, Sci. Robot. 4 (2019),
(2017), 1605390. eaax7112.
[282] L. Baggetto, D. Danilov, P.H.L. Notten, Adv. Mater. 23 (2011) 1563–1566. [328] K.W. Kwan, S.J. Li, N.Y. Hau, W.-D. Li, S.P. Feng, A.H.W. Ngan, Sci. Robot. 3
[283] T.K. Bhandakkar, H.T. Johnson, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 60 (2012) 1103–1121. (2018), eaat4051.
[284] X. Xia, A. Afshar, H. Yang, C.M. Portela, D.M. Kochmann, C.V. Di Leo, J.R. Greer, [329] O.M. Wani, H. Zeng, A. Priimagi, Nat. Commun. 8 (2017) 15546.
Nature 573 (2019) 205–213. [330] L. Chen, M. Weng, P. Zhou, F. Huang, C. Liu, S. Fan, W. Zhang, Adv. Funct. Mater.
[285] A. Chortos, E. Hajiesmaili, J. Morales, D.R. Clarke, J.A. Lewis, Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 (2019), 1806057.
30 (2020), 1907375. [331] J. Liang, Y. Xu, Y. Huang, L. Zhang, Y. Wang, Y. Ma, F. Li, T. Guo, Y. Chen,
[286] H. Cui, S. Miao, T. Esworthy, S.-j. Lee, X. Zhou, S.Y. Hann, T.J. Webster, B. J. Phys. Chem. C 113 (2009) 9921–9927.
T. Harris, L.G. Zhang, Nano Res. 12 (2019) 1381–1388. [332] E. Wang, M.S. Desai, S.-W. Lee, Nano Lett. 13 (2013) 2826–2830.
[287] H. Sareen, U. Umapathi, P. Shin, Y. Kakehi, J. Ou, H. Ishii, P. Maes, Printflatables: [333] H. Jiang, C. Li, X. Huang, Nanoscale 5 (2013) 5225–5240.
Printing Human-Scale, Functional and Dynamic Inflatable Objects, in: [334] L. Dong, Y. Zhao, Mater. Chem. Front. 2 (2018) 1932–1943.
Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing [335] A.H. Gelebart, D.J. Mulder, G. Vantomme, A.P.H.J. Schenning, D.J. Broer, Angew.
Systems, Association for Computing Machinery, Denver, Colorado, USA, 2017, Chemie Int. Ed. 56 (2017) 13436–13439.
pp. 3669–3680. [336] D. Iqbal, M.H. Samiullah, Materials 6 (2013) 116–142.
[288] F.B. Coulter, A. Ianakiev, 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 2 (2015) 140–144. [337] L. Li, J.M. Scheiger, P.A. Levkin, Adv. Mater. 31 (2019), 1807333.
[289] F.B. Coulter, B.S. Coulter, E. Papastavrou, A. Ianakiev, 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 5 [338] D. Hua, X. Zhang, Z. Ji, C. Yan, B. Yu, Y. Li, X. Wang, F. Zhou, J. Mater. Chem. C 6
(2018) 17–28. (2018) 2123–2131.
[290] A. Zolfagharian, A. Kouzani, B. Nasri-Nasrabadi, S. Adams, S.Y. Khoo, M. Norton, [339] H. Yang, W.R. Leow, T. Wang, J. Wang, J. Yu, K. He, D. Qi, C. Wan, X. Chen, Adv.
I. Gibson, A. Kaynak, 3D Printing of a Photo-thermal Self-folding Actuator, Mater. 29 (2017), 1701627.
DesTech 2016, Proceedings of the International Conference on Design and [340] A. Nishiguchi, H. Zhang, S. Schweizerhof, M.F. Schulte, A. Mourran, M. Möller,
Technology, Knowledge E (2017) 15–22. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 (2020) 12176–12185.
[291] F. Momeni, S.M. Mehdi, N. Hassani, X. Liu, J. Ni, Mater. Des. 122 (2017) 42–79. [341] J.J. Schwartz, A.J. Boydston, Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 791.
[292] J. Choi, O.C. Kwon, W. Jo, H.J. Lee, M.-W. Moon, 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 2 [342] M. Nadgorny, Z. Xiao, C. Chen, L.A. Connal, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (2016)
(2015) 159–167. 28946–28954.
[293] A. Sydney Gladman, E.A. Matsumoto, R.G. Nuzzo, L. Mahadevan, J.A. Lewis, Nat. [343] H. Hingorani, Y.-F. Zhang, B. Zhang, A. Serjouei, Q. Ge, Int. J. Smart Nano Mater.
Mater. 15 (2016) 413–418. 10 (2019) 225–236.
[294] S. Naficy, R. Gately, R. Gorkin Iii, H. Xin, G.M. Spinks, Macromol. Mater. Eng. 302 [344] A. Hamidi, Y. Tadesse, Mater. Des. 187 (2020), 108324.
(2017), 1600212. [345] L. Ge, L. Dong, D. Wang, Q. Ge, G. Gu, Sens. Actuators A Phys. 273 (2018)
[295] L. Ren, B. Li, Y. He, Z. Song, X. Zhou, Q. Liu, L. Ren, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 285–292.
12 (2020) 15562–15572. [346] C.S. Ong, L. Nam, K. Ong, A. Krishnan, C.Y. Huang, T. Fukunishi, N. Hibino,
[296] Z. Ding, C. Yuan, X. Peng, T. Wang, H.J. Qi, M.L. Dunn, Sci. Adv. 3 (2017), Biomed Res. Int. 2018 (2018).
e1602890. [347] Z. Fan, Y. Yang, F. Zhang, Z. Xu, H. Zhao, T. Wang, H. Song, Y. Huang, J.
[297] T. Liu, L. Liu, C. Zeng, Y. Liu, J. Leng, Compos. Sci. Technol. 186 (2020), 107935. A. Rogers, Y. Zhang, Adv. Mater. 32 (2020), 1908424.
[298] C. Zeng, L. Liu, W. Bian, Y. Liu, J. Leng, Compos. Part B Eng. 194 (2020), 108034. [348] B.Y. Ahn, E.B. Duoss, M.J. Motala, X. Guo, S.-I. Park, Y. Xiong, J. Yoon, R.
[299] C. Lin, J. Lv, Y. Li, F. Zhang, J. Li, Y. Liu, L. Liu, J. Leng, Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 G. Nuzzo, J.A. Rogers, J.A. Lewis, Science 323 (2009) 1590.
(2019), 1906569. [349] Y. Dong, J. Wang, X. Guo, S. Yang, M.O. Ozen, P. Chen, X. Liu, W. Du, F. Xiao,
[300] J. Mohd Jani, M. Leary, A. Subic, M.A. Gibson, Mater. Des. (1980-2015) 56 U. Demirci, B.-F. Liu, Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 4087.
(2014) 1078–1113. [350] Y. Ji, Y. Xing, X. Li, L.-H. Shao, Nanomaterials 9 (2019).
63
[351] Y. Wang, Q. Guo, G. Su, J. Cao, J. Liu, X. Zhang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 (2019), [388] M. Molitch-Hou, Boeing Talks 3D Printing for Aerospace, 2017. https://www.eng
1906198. ineering.com/3DPrinting/3DPrintingArticles/ArticleID/15475/Boeing-Talks-3D-
[352] J.A.C. Liu, J.H. Gillen, S.R. Mishra, B.A. Evans, J.B. Tracy, Sci. Adv. 5 (2019), Printing-for-Aerospace.aspx.%2013/10/2017.
eaaw2897. [389] J.E.G.A.K. Misra, R. Carter, Additive Manufacturing of Aerospace Propulsion
[353] M. Li, Y. Wang, A. Chen, A. Naidu, B.S. Napier, W. Li, C.L. Rodriguez, S. Components, Additive Manufacturing for Small Manufacturers, Pittsburgh, PA;
A. Crooker, F.G. Omenetto, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 115 (2018) 8119. United States, 2015.
[354] M. Pilz da Cunha, Y. Foelen, R.J.H. van Raak, J.N. Murphy, T.A.P. Engels, M. [390] M.H. Wong, Singapore Airshow: 5 Ways Aviation Will Change, 2016. https://editi
G. Debije, A.P.H.J. Schenning, Adv. Opt. Mater. 7 (2019), 1801643. on.cnn.com/travel/article/aviation-emerging-tech-singapore-airshow/index.
[355] C. Ma, W. Lu, X. Yang, J. He, X. Le, L. Wang, J. Zhang, M.J. Serpe, Y. Huang, html.
T. Chen, Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018), 1704568. [391] I. Kottasová, How 3D Printers Are Transforming Flying, 2018. https://edition.cnn
[356] D.G. Karis, R.J. Ono, M. Zhang, A. Vora, D. Storti, M.A. Ganter, A. Nelson, Polym. .com/2018/12/14/tech/3d-printer-plane-airbus/index.html.
Chem. 8 (2017) 4199–4206. [392] EOS, Cost-Efficient 3D Printing-Based Manufacturing for Aviation Reduce Fuel
[357] J. Wang, Z. Wang, Z. Song, L. Ren, Q. Liu, L. Ren, Adv. Mater. Technol. 4 (2019), Consumption and Material Costs, Lower CO2 Emissions, 2021. https://www.eos.
1900293. info/press/case_studies/first-3d-printed-hydraulic-component-flies-on-ai
[358] S. Dutta, D. Cohn, J. Mater. Chem. B 5 (2017) 9514–9521. rbus-a380.
[359] SLM Solutions, Case Report Monolithic Thrust Chamber, https://exhibitorsearch. [393] H. You, S. Kim, W.Y. Joe, G.J. Yun, AIAA J. 57 (2019) 1786–1792.
messefrankfurt.com/images/original/userdata/bata/212474/5d3fd794ac6fe.pdf. [394] L.P. Bishay, E. Burg, A. Akinwunmi, R. Phan, K. Sepulveda, Designs 3 (2019).
[360] NASA/MSFC, Pogo Z-Baffle for RS-25 Engine, 2013. https://www.nasa.gov/explo [395] J. Kimaru, A. Bouferrouk, Design, manufacture and test of a camber morphing
ration/systems/sls/j2x/turbocover2.html. wing using MFC actuated mart rib, 2017 8th International Conference on
[361] S. Ridinger, NASA Advances Additive Manufacturing for Rocket Propulsion, May, Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering (ICMAE) (2017) 791–796.
9, 2018, https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/nasa-advances-additi [396] A. Menshchikov, A. Somov, Phys. Fluids 31 (2019), 037105.
ve-manufacturing-for-rocket-propulsion.html. [397] D. Keidel, G. Molinari, P. Ermanni, J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 30 (2019)
[362] RollsRoyce, Advance and UltraFan, 2016. https://www.rolls-royce. 908–923.
com/media/our-stories/innovation/2016/advance-and-ultrafan.aspx#overview. [398] F. Svoboda, M. Hromčík, Construction of the smooth morphing trailing edge
[363] RollsRoyce, Trent XWB, 2021. https://www.rolls-royce. demonstrator, 2019 22nd International Conference on Process Control (PC19)
com/products-and-services/civil-aerospace/airlines/trent-xwb.aspx#/. (2019) 136–139.
[364] Pratt &Whitney, Pratt & Whitney GTF Engine, 2021. https://prattwhitney.com/ [399] U. Fasel, D. Keidel, L. Baumann, G. Cavolina, M. Eichenhofer, P. Ermanni, Manuf.
products-and-services/products/commercial-engines/pratt-and-whitney-gtf. Lett. 23 (2020) 85–88.
[365] GE, The CT7 Engine, 2021. https://www.geaviation.com/commercial/engines/c [400] M. Eichenhofer, J.C.H. Wong, P. Ermanni, Addit. Manuf. 18 (2017) 48–57.
t7-engine. [401] N.B. Cramer, D.W. Cellucci, O.B. Formoso, C.E. Gregg, B.E. Jenett, J.H. Kim,
[366] GE, Introducing GE’s Catalyst™ Advanced Turboprop Engine, 2021. https://www M. Lendraitis, S.S. Swei, G.T. Trinh, K.V. Trinh, K.C. Cheung, Smart Mater. Struct.
.geaviation.com/bga/engines/ge-catalyst. 28 (2019), 055006.
[367] GE, The T901 Is Here, 2021. https://www.geaviation.com/military/engines/t90 [402] B. Jenett, S. Calisch, D. Cellucci, N. Cramer, N. Gershenfeld, S. Swei, K.C. Cheung,
1-turboshaft-engine. Soft Robot. 4 (2016) 33–48.
[368] GE, GE9X Commercial Aircraft Engine, 2021. https://www.geaviation.com/c [403] C. Abdessemed, Y. Yao, A. Bouferrouk, P. Narayan, Analysis of a 3D Unsteady
ommercial/engines/ge9x-commercial-aircraft-engine. Morphing Wing with Seamless Side-edge Transition, 2018 Applied Aerodynamics
[369] CFM, https://www.cfmaeroengines.com/engines/leap/. Conference, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (2018).
[370] EOS, Bell Helicopter and Harvest Technologies Utilize Design-Driven [404] Q. Chanzy, A.J. Keane, Aeronaut. J. 122 (2017) 390–408.
Manufacturing With EOS Technology, 2021. https://www.eos.info/en/3d-printin [405] T.A. Campbell, S. Tibbits, B. Garrett, Washington, DC: The Atlantic Council, 2014,
g-examples-applications/innovation-stories/bell-helicopter-flight-certified-hardw pp. 1–15.
are-using-industrial-3d-printing-for-aviation. [406] K. Ntouanoglou, P. Stavropoulos, D. Mourtzis, Procedia Manuf. 18 (2018)
[371] Printing the Future: Airbus Expands Its Applications of the Revolutionary 120–129.
Additive Layer Manufacturing Process, 2014. March, 14, https://www.airbus. [407] S. Arabnejad, B. Johnston, M. Tanzer, D. Pasini, J. Orthop. Res. 35 (2017)
com/newsroom/news/en/2014/03/printing-the-future-airbus-expands-its-a 1774–1783.
pplications-of-the-revolutionary-additive-layer-manufacturing-process.html. [408] G. Gupta, OsseoTi Porous Metal for Enhanced Bone Integration an Animal Study,
[372] First Titanium 3D-printed Part Installed into Serial Production Aircraft, 2017. 2012. https://www.zimmerbiomet.com/medical-professionals/common/our-scie
September, 13, https://www.airbus.com/newsroom/press-releases/en/2017/09/ nce/osseoti-porous-metal.html.
first-titanium-3d-printed-part-installed-into-serial-production-.html. [409] A. Medical, 3D Printed Products, 2019. http://www.ak-medical.net/en/p
[373] Aerospace, Sogeti - Additive Manufacturing for the New A350 XWB, 2021. https roduct/list_43.html.
://www.eos.info/press/case_studies/sogeti-additive-manufacturing-for-the-new [410] Q. Han, K. Zhang, Y. Zhang, C. Wang, K. Yang, Y. Zou, B. Chen, J. Wang, Medicine
-a350-xwb. 98 (2019) e16658-e16658.
[374] Amstelveen, From Drink to Ink — KLM Makes Tools from PET Bottles, October, [411] Stryker, One Step Ahead, 2021. https://www.stryker.com/us/en/portfolios/ortho
22, 2019, https://news.klm.com/from-drink-to-ink–klm-makes-tools-from-pet- paedics.html.
bottles/. [412] N. Xu, F. Wei, X. Liu, L. Jiang, H. Cai, Z. Li, M. Yu, F. Wu, Z. Liu, Spine 41 (2016)
[375] A. Broda, Additive Manufacturing Insight 3D Printing Matures for Tooling, 2019. E50–E54.
https://www.boeing.com/features/innovation-quarterly/2019_q4/btj-additive- [413] K.E.G. Dienel, B. van Bochove, J.V. Seppälä, Biomacromolecules 21 (2020)
manufacturing.page. 366–375.
[376] Bridging the Gap With 3D Printing, 2018. Apirl, 9, https://www.airbus.com/news [414] J. Johnson, TRUMATCH® Titanium 3D-Printed Implants Launch in the U.S.,
room/news/en/2018/04/bridging-the-gap-with-3d-printing.html. 2017. https://www.jnjmedicaldevices.com/en-US/news-events/trumatchr-titan
[377] M.O. Gradl Paul, Andrews Nathan, 2018. ium-3d-printed-implants-launch-us.
[378] Aerospace, Liebherr - First Metal 3D Printed Primary Flight Control Hydraulic [415] LITHOZ, Additive Manufacturing Systems for Dental and Medicinal Purposes,
Component Flies on an Airbus A380, 2021. https://www.eos.info/press/case 2021. https://www.lithoz.com/en/3D-printing/medical-dental.
_studies/first-3d-printed-hydraulic-component-flies-on-airbus-a380. [416] G. Ahn, J.-S. Lee, W.-S. Yun, J.-H. Shim, U.-L. Lee, J. Craniofac. Surg. 29 (2018)
[379] EOS, Aerospace: ArianeGroup - Future Ariane Propulsion Module Simplified by 1880–1883.
Additive Manufacturing, 2021. https://www.eos.info/press/case_studies/ [417] M. Lu, J. Wang, F. Tang, L. Min, Y. Zhou, W. Zhang, C. Tu, BMC Surg. 19 (2019)
future-ariane-propulsion-module-simplified-with-3d-printing. 29.
[380] B. Hubscher, The Future of Exploration Starts With 3-D Printing, 2013. https:// [418] EOS, Additive Manufacturing for the Dental Industry - Final Dental Products on
www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/j2x/3d_print.html. the Basis of Industrial 3D Printing, 2021. https://www.eos.info/dental.
[381] D. Thomas, AIAA Technical Committee on Management Center Overview and [419] A.A. Giannopoulos, D. Mitsouras, S.-J. Yoo, P.P. Liu, Y.S. Chatzizisis, F.J. Rybicki,
Additive Manufacturing at MSFC, 2014. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 13 (2016) 701–718.
[382] T. Prater, Study of Material Consolidation at Higher Throughput Parameters in [420] N. Noor, A. Shapira, R. Edri, I. Gal, L. Wertheim, T. Dvir, Adv. Sci. 6 (2019),
Selective Laser Melting of Inconel 718, in: The Materials Society (TMS) Annual 1900344.
Meeting and Exhibition, Nashville, Tennessee, USA, 2016. [421] J. Li, X. Li, T. Luo, R. Wang, C. Liu, S. Chen, D. Li, J. Yue, S.-h. Cheng, D. Sun, Sci.
[383] J.M. Waller, B.H. Parker, K.L. Hodges, E.R. Burke, J.L. Walker, E.R. Generazio, Robot. 3 (2018), eaat8829.
Nondestructive evaluation of additive manufacturing. National Aeronautics and [422] E. Mods, 3D Printing Hits Case Modding, 2014. https://reprapsquad.wordpress.
Space Administration, 2014. com/2014/12/20/3d-printing-hits-case-modding/?wref=tp.
[384] S. X, SpaceX Astronaut Wearing a 3D Printed Helmet, 2020. https://www.spacex. [423] Av. Bieren, Ed. Rijk, J. Ansermet, A. Macor, Monolithic metal-coated plastic
com/human-spaceflight/. components for mm-wave applications, 2014 39th International Conference on
[385] CCTV, (2020). http://news.cctv.com/2020/05/07/ARTItl3hfFa9IOTnz Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves (IRMMW-THz) (2014) 1–2.
WAgDlNA200507.shtml. [424] C. Guo, X. Shang, J. Li, F. Zhang, M.J. Lancaster, J. Xu, IEEE Microw. Wirel.
[386] M.E. Carkaci, M. Secmen, Adv. Electromagn. 8 (2019) 39–47. Compon. Lett. 26 (2016) 568–570.
[387] T.D. Ngo, A. Kashani, G. Imbalzano, K.T.Q. Nguyen, D. Hui, Compos. Part B Eng. [425] M. Vasso, P. Beaufils, S. Cerciello, A. Schiavone Panni, Arch. Orthop. Trauma
143 (2018) 172–196. Surg. 134 (2014) 543–553.
64
[426] Z. Li, R. Müller, D. Ruffoni, J. Orthop. Res. 36 (2018) 584–593. [469] E. Miralles, B. Schoenlinner, B. Á, H. Esteban, V. Ziegler, Radio Sci. 54 (2019)
[427] X. Wang, S. Xu, S. Zhou, W. Xu, M. Leary, P. Choong, M. Qian, M. Brandt, Y. 158–165.
M. Xie, Biomaterials 83 (2016) 127–141. [470] L. Bosui, G. Xun, W.J. Chappell, Layer-by-layer polymer stereolithography
[428] D.C. Ackland, D. Robinson, M. Redhead, P.V.S. Lee, A. Moskaljuk, G. Dimitroulis, fabrication for three-dimensional RF components, in: 2004 IEEE MTT-S
J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 69 (2017) 404–411. International Microwave Symposium Digest (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37535), vol 2,
[429] S. Bose, D. Ke, H. Sahasrabudhe, A. Bandyopadhyay, Prog. Mater. Sci. 93 (2018) 2004, pp. 481–484. Vol.482.
45–111. [471] N. Delhote, D. Baillargeat, S. Verdeyme, C. Delage, C. Chaput, IEEE Trans.
[430] D. Wang, Y. Wang, S. Wu, H. Lin, Y. Yang, S. Fan, C. Gu, J. Wang, C. Song, Microw. Theory Tech. 55 (2007) 548–554.
Materials 10 (2017) 35. [472] M. D’Auria, W.J. Otter, J. Hazell, B.T.W. Gillatt, C. Long-Collins, N.M. Ridler,
[431] C. Oldani, A. Dominguez, Recent Adv. Arthroplasty 218 (2012) 149–162. S. Lucyszyn, IEEE Trans. Comp. Packaging Manuf. Technol. 5 (2015) 1339–1349.
[432] X. Kong, L. Wang, G. Li, X. Qu, J. Niu, T. Tang, K. Dai, G. Yuan, Y. Hao, Mater. Sci. [473] B. Zhang, H. Zirath, Electron. Lett. 51 (2015) 1791–1793.
Eng. C 86 (2018) 42–47. [474] V.Td. Crestvolant, P.M. Iglesias, M.J. Lancaster, IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory
[433] Y. Shi, W. Wang, Mater. Lett. 261 (2020), 127131. Tech. 63 (2015) 3433–3444.
[434] C. Chang Tu, P.-I. Tsai, S.-Y. Chen, M.Y.-P. Kuo, J.-S. Sun, J.Z.-C. Chang, [475] C. Guo, X. Shang, M.J. Lancaster, J. Xu, IEEE Microw. Wirel. Comp. Lett. 25
J. Formos. Med. Assoc. 119 (2020) 420–429. (2015) 442–444.
[435] W. Xue, A. Bandyopadhyay, S. Bose, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater. [476] D.L. Creedon, M. Goryachev, N. Kostylev, T.B. Sercombe, M.E. Tobar, Appl. Phys.
91 (2009) 831–838. Lett. 109 (2016), 032601.
[436] H. Cho, S. Tarafder, M. Fogge, K. Kao, C.H. Lee, Connect. Tissue Res. 57 (2016) [477] A. Tamayo-Domínguez, J. Fernández-González, M. Sierra-Pérez, IEEE Trans.
488–495. Microw. Theory Tech. 65 (2017) 4138–4147.
[437] L. Li, Y. Li, L. Yang, F. Yu, K. Zhang, J. Jin, J. Shi, L. Zhu, H. Liang, X. Wang, [478] B. Zhang, H. Zirath, IEEE Trans. Comp. Packaging Manuf. Technol. 6 (2016)
Q. Jiang, Ann. Transl. Med. 7 (2019) 11. 796–804.
[438] G. Bouet, F. Cabanettes, G. Bidron, A. Guignandon, S. Peyroche, P. Bertrand, [479] S. Pandey, B. Gupta, A. Nahata, Opt. Express 21 (2013) 24422–24430.
L. Vico, V. Dumas, ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 5 (2019) 4376–4385. [480] N.T. Nguyen, N. Delhote, M. Ettorre, D. Baillargeat, L.L. Coq, R. Sauleau, IEEE
[439] H. Liang, Y. Yang, D. Xie, L. Li, N. Mao, C. Wang, Z. Tian, Q. Jiang, L. Shen, Trans. Antennas Propag. 58 (2010) 2757–2762.
J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 35 (2019) 1284–1297. [481] M. Liang, W. Ng, K. Chang, K. Gbele, M.E. Gehm, H. Xin, IEEE Trans. Antennas
[440] Y. Zhu, K. Liu, J. Deng, J. Ye, F. Ai, H. Ouyang, T. Wu, J. Jia, X. Cheng, X. Wang, Propag. 62 (2014) 1799–1807.
Int. J. Nanomed. 14 (2019) 5977–5987. [482] H. Yi, S. Qu, K. Ng, C.H. Chan, X. Bai, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 64 (2016)
[441] A. Entezari, I. Roohani, G. Li, C.R. Dunstan, P. Rognon, Q. Li, X. Jiang, H. Zreiqat, 442–449.
Adv. Healthc. Mater. 8 (2019), 1801353. [483] G.B. Wu, Y. Zeng, K.F. Chan, S. Qu, C.H. Chan, IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett.
[442] V.S. Cheong, P. Fromme, M.J. Coathup, A. Mumith, G.W. Blunn, Ann. Biomed. 18 (2019) 921–925.
Eng. 48 (2020) 502–514. [484] G. Wu, K.F. Chan, W.C. Mok, C.H. Chan, 3-D Printed Terahertz Lens for Bessel
[443] J.-p. Zheng, L.-j. Chen, D.-y. Chen, C.-s. Shao, M.-f. Yi, B. Zhang, Trans. Beam Generation, 2019 IEEE Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference (APMC) (2019)
Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 29 (2019) 2534–2545. 637–639.
[444] A.A. Zadpoor, Int. J. Mol. Sci. 18 (2017) 1607. [485] J. Kwon, Y. Takeda, K. Fukuda, K. Cho, S. Tokito, S. Jung, ACS Nano 10 (2016)
[445] J. Wu, N. Aage, R. Westermann, O. Sigmund, IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph. 24 10324–10330.
(2018) 1127–1140. [486] G.-W. Huang, Q.-P. Feng, H.-M. Xiao, N. Li, S.-Y. Fu, ACS Nano 10 (2016)
[446] M. Castilho, M. Dias, E. Vorndran, U. Gbureck, P. Fernandes, I. Pires, B. Gouveia, 8895–8903.
H. Armés, E. Pires, J. Rodrigues, Biofabrication 6 (2014) 025005. [487] T. Ching, Y. Li, R. Karyappa, A. Ohno, Y.-C. Toh, M. Hashimoto, Sens. Actuators B
[447] Z. Biomet, OsseoTi® Porous Metal Technology, 2021. https://www.zimme Chem. 297 (2019), 126609.
rbiomet.com/medical-professionals/common/our-science/osseoti-porous-metal. [488] A.P. Taylor, L.F. Velásquez-García, Nanotechnology 26 (2015), 505301.
html. [489] T. Blachowicz, A. Ehrmann, Micromachines 11 (2020).
[448] D. Chimene, L. Miller, L.M. Cross, M.K. Jaiswal, I. Singh, A.K. Gaharwar, ACS [490] E. Saleh, F. Zhang, Y. He, J. Vaithilingam, J.L. Fernandez, R. Wildman, I. Ashcroft,
Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 (2020) 15976–15988. R. Hague, P. Dickens, C. Tuck, Adv. Mater. Technol. 2 (2017), 1700134.
[449] M. Zhang, R. Lin, X. Wang, J. Xue, C. Deng, C. Feng, H. Zhuang, J. Ma, C. Qin, [491] R. Hensleigh, H. Cui, Z. Xu, J. Massman, D. Yao, J. Berrigan, X. Zheng, Nat.
L. Wan, J. Chang, C. Wu, Sci. Adv. 6 (2020), eaaz6725. Electron. 3 (2020) 216–224.
[450] H. Attar, M. Calin, L.C. Zhang, S. Scudino, J. Eckert, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 593 (2014) [492] K. Sun, T.-S. Wei, B.Y. Ahn, J.Y. Seo, S.J. Dillon, J.A. Lewis, Adv. Mater. 25 (2013)
170–177. 4539–4543.
[451] D. Wu, A. Spanou, A. Diez-Escudero, C. Persson, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. [493] K. Fu, Y. Wang, C. Yan, Y. Yao, Y. Chen, J. Dai, S. Lacey, Y. Wang, J. Wan, T. Li,
103 (2020), 103608. Z. Wang, Y. Xu, L. Hu, Adv. Mater. 28 (2016) 2587–2594.
[452] D.J. Richards, Y. Tan, J. Jia, H. Yao, Y. Mei, Isr. J. Chem. 53 (2013) 805–814. [494] A. Maurel, S. Grugeon, B. Fleutot, M. Courty, K. Prashantha, H. Tortajada,
[453] S. Miao, W. Zhu, N.J. Castro, J. Leng, L.G. Zhang, Tissue Eng. Part C Methods 22 M. Armand, S. Panier, L. Dupont, Sci. Rep. 9 (2019) 18031.
(2016) 952–963. [495] X. Gao, Q. Sun, X. Yang, J. Liang, A. Koo, W. Li, J. Liang, J. Wang, R. Li, F.
[454] J. Chen, D. Huang, L. Wang, J. Hou, H. Zhang, Y. Li, S. Zhong, Y. Wang, Y. Wu, B. Holness, A.D. Price, S. Yang, T.-K. Sham, X. Sun, Nano Energy 56 (2019)
W. Huang, J. Colloid Interface Sci. (2020). 595–603.
[455] C.S. Russell, A. Mostafavi, J.P. Quint, A.C. Panayi, K. Baldino, T.J. Williams, J. [496] H. Ragones, A. Vinegrad, G. Ardel, M. Goor, Y. Kamir, M.M. Dorfman,
G. Daubendiek, V. Hugo Sánchez, Z. Bonick, M. Trujillo-Miranda, ACS Appl. Bio A. Gladkikh, D. Golodnitsky, J. Electrochem. Soc. 167 (2019), 070503.
Mater. 3 (2020) 1568–1579. [497] J. Zhang, Y. Yao, L. Sheng, J. Liu, Adv. Mater. 27 (2015) 2648–2655.
[456] G. Gao, H. Kim, B.S. Kim, J.S. Kong, J.Y. Lee, B.W. Park, S. Chae, J. Kim, K. Ban, [498] R. Gill, Introducing 3D-printable Parts for ASUS Motherboards, Graphics Cards,
J. Jang, Appl. Phys. Rev. 6 (2019), 041402. and Peripherals, 2016. https://edgeup.asus.com/2016/introducing-asuss-3d-pr
[457] F. Rengier, A. Mehndiratta, H. von Tengg-Kobligk, C.M. Zechmann, intable-parts-motherboards-gpus-peripherals/.
R. Unterhinninghofen, H.U. Kauczor, F.L. Giesel, Int. J. Comput. Assist. Radiol. [499] E. Vasquez, P.-F. Giroux, F. Lomello, M. Nussbaum, H. Maskrot, F. Schuster,
Surg. 5 (2010) 335–341. P. Castany, Powder Technol. 360 (2020) 998–1005.
[458] J.D. Howard, D. Eggbeer, P. Dorrington, F. Korkees, L.H. Tasker, Proc. Inst. Mech. [500] X. He, Z. Zhu, C. Shao, R. Huang, Additive Manufacturing of Spent Fuel Storage
Eng. Part H: J. Eng. Med. (2020), 0954411919899844. Rack Model by Selective Laser Melting, International Conference on Nuclear
[459] J. Lu, A new, simple projection model for COVID-19 pandemic, medRxiv (2020). Engineering, Vol 51548, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (2018) p.
[460] P.T. Timbie, J. Grade, Dvd. Weide, B. Maffei, G. Pisano, Stereolithographed MM- V001T002A001.
wave corrugated horn antennas, 2011 International Conference on Infrared, [501] H. Neuberger, J. Rey, M. Hees, E. Materna-Morris, D. Bolich, J. Aktaa, A. Meier,
Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves (2011) 1–3. S. Fischer, C. Schorle, U. Fuhrmann, Fusion Sci. Technol. 72 (2017) 667–672.
[461] C.R. Garcia, R.C. Rumpf, H.H. Tsang, J.H. Barton, Electron. Lett. 49 (2013) [502] C. Gao, X. Chen, C. Su, A.R. Singh, S. Jayalakshmi, Mater. Express 9 (2019)
734–736. 179–184.
[462] J.S. Chieh, B. Dick, S. Loui, J.D. Rockway, IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 13 [503] X. Yao, S.K. Moon, B.Y. Lee, G. Bi, Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. 18 (2017)
(2014) 201–204. 1693–1701.
[463] B. Zhang, Z. Zhan, Y. Cao, H. Gulan, P. Linnér, J. Sun, T. Zwick, H. Zirath, IEEE [504] O. Halevi, T.-Y. Chen, P.S. Lee, S. Magdassi, J.A. Hriljac, RSC Adv. 10 (2020)
Trans. Terahertz Sci. Technol. 6 (2016) 592–600. 5766–5776.
[464] L. Schulwitz, A. Mortazawi, A compact millimeter-wave horn antenna array [505] M.A. Kiani, S.J. Ahmadi, M. Outokesh, R. Adeli, A. Mohammadi, Radiat. Phys.
fabricated through layer-by-layer stereolithography, 2008 IEEE Antennas and Chem. 141 (2017) 223–228.
Propagation Society International Symposium (2008) 1–4. [506] X. Zhang, X. Zhang, S. Guo, Polym. Eng. Sci. 59 (2019) E348–E355.
[465] G.-L. Huang, S.-G. Zhou, T.-H. Chio, T.-S. Yeo, 3-D metal-direct-printed wideband [507] A. Delfini, M. Albano, A. Vricella, F. Santoni, G. Rubini, R. Pastore, M. Marchetti,
and high-efficiency waveguide-fed antenna array, 2015 IEEE MTT-S International Materials (Basel, Switzerland) 11 (2018) 1730.
Microwave Symposium (2015) 1–4. [508] D.D. DiJulio, C.P. Cooper-Jensen, H. Perrey, K. Fissum, E. Rofors, J. Scherzinger,
[466] A. Buerkle, K.F. Brakora, K. Sarabandi, IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 5 P.M. Bentley, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accelerators
(2006) 479–482. Spectrometers Detectors Assoc. Equip. 859 (2017) 41–46.
[467] J. Kimionis, M. Isakov, B.S. Koh, A. Georgiadis, M.M. Tentzeris, IEEE Trans. [509] Z. Pei, Y. Xu, F. Wei, T. Liu, D. Su, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 493 (2020), 165742.
Microw. Theory Tech. 63 (2015) 4521–4532. [510] M.B. Stone, D.H. Siddel, A.M. Elliott, D. Anderson, D.L. Abernathy, Rev. Sci.
[468] S. Alkaraki, Y. Gao, arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.03925, 2020. Instrum. 88 (2017), 123102.
65
[511] Y. Zhang, F. Chen, X. Tang, H. Huang, T. Chen, X. Sun, J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 37 0/en/SmarTech-Analysis-Issues-New-Report-on-Automotive-Additive-Manufactu
(2017) 181–190. ring-Market-Sees-a-9-Billion-USD-Opportunity-on-the-Horizon.html.
[512] M. Nabipour, B. Akhoundi, A. Bagheri Saed, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 137 (2020) [558] C.A. Giffi, B. Gangula, P. Illinda, Additive Manufacturing Hits the Road, Deloitte
48717. University Press, 2014. https://dupress.deloitte.com/content/dam/dup-us-en/
[513] S.-Z. Guo, K. Qiu, F. Meng, S.H. Park, M.C. McAlpine, Adv. Mater. 29 (2017), articles/additive-manufacturing-3d-opportunity-in-automotive/DUP_707-3D-
1701218. Opportunity-Auto-Industry_MASTER.pdf.
[514] Z. Wang, X. Guan, H. Huang, H. Wang, W. Lin, Z. Peng, Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 [559] S.G. Sarvankar, S.N. Yewale, Int. J. Res. Aeronaut. Mech. Eng. 7 (2019) 1–10.
(2019), 1807569. [560] BUGATTI, World Premiere: Brake Caliper From 3-D Printer, 2018. https://www.
[515] A.D. Valentine, T.A. Busbee, J.W. Boley, J.R. Raney, A. Chortos, A. Kotikian, J. bugatti.com/media/news/2018/world-premiere-brake-caliper-from-3-d-printer/.
D. Berrigan, M.F. Durstock, J.A. Lewis, Adv. Mater. 29 (2017), 1703817. [561] A.m. news, Get to Know How Additive Manufacturing Is Contributing to Classic
[516] Z. Lei, Q. Wang, P. Wu, Mater. Horiz. 4 (2017) 694–700. Car Revival, 2021. https://additivenews.com/get-know-how-additive-manufact
[517] J.T. Muth, D.M. Vogt, R.L. Truby, Y. Mengüç, D.B. Kolesky, R.J. Wood, J.A. Lewis, uring-contributing-classic-car-revival/.
Adv. Mater. 26 (2014) 6307–6312. [562] P. Malnati, Plast. Eng. 75 (2019) 48–55.
[518] A. Frutiger, J.T. Muth, D.M. Vogt, Y. Mengüç, A. Campo, A.D. Valentine, C. [563] Volkswagen, Ready for Mass Production: Volkswagen Uses the Latest 3D Printing
J. Walsh, J.A. Lewis, Adv. Mater. 27 (2015) 2440–2446. Process for Production, 2018. https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/2018/0
[519] A.J. Blake, R.R. Kohlmeyer, J.O. Hardin, E.A. Carmona, B. Maruyama, J. 9/volkswagen_3d_printing.html.
D. Berrigan, H. Huang, M.F. Durstock, Adv. Energy Mater. 7 (2017), 1602920. [564] Volkswagen, Brake Calipers and Wheels? Now From a 3D Printer, 2018.
[520] T.-S. Wei, B.Y. Ahn, J. Grotto, J.A. Lewis, Adv. Mater. 30 (2018), 1703027. https://www.volkswagenag.
[521] R.R. Kohlmeyer, A.J. Blake, J.O. Hardin, E.A. Carmona, J. Carpena-Núñez, com/en/news/stories/2018/12/brake-calipers-and-wh
B. Maruyama, J.D. Berrigan, H. Huang, M.F. Durstock, J. Mater. Chem. A 4 (2016) eels-now-from-a-3d-printer.html#.
16856–16864. [565] S. Goehrke, Additive Manufacturing is Driving the Future of the Automotive
[522] B. Chen, W. Tang, T. Jiang, L. Zhu, X. Chen, C. He, L. Xu, H. Guo, P. Lin, D. Li, Industry, 2018. https://www.forbes.com/sites/sarahgoehrke/2018/12
J. Shao, Z.L. Wang, Nano Energy 45 (2018) 380–389. /05/additive-manufacturing-is-driving-the-future-of-th
[523] S. Chen, T. Huang, H. Zuo, S. Qian, Y. Guo, L. Sun, D. Lei, Q. Wu, B. Zhu, C. He, e-automotive-industry/#3821707a75cc.
X. Mo, E. Jeffries, H. Yu, Z. You, Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018), 1805108. [566] K.E. Inc, URBEE, 2014. https://korecologic.com/media/pictures/.
[524] H. Li, R. Li, X. Fang, H. Jiang, X. Ding, B. Tang, G. Zhou, R. Zhou, Y. Tang, Nano [567] M. Chinthavali, 3D printing technology for automotive applications, 2016
Energy 58 (2019) 447–454. International Symposium on 3D Power Electronics Integration and Manufacturing
[525] S. He, Z. Yu, H. Zhou, Z. Huang, Y. Zhang, Y. Li, J. Li, Y. Wang, D. Li, Nano Energy (3D-PEIM) (2016) 1–13.
52 (2018) 134–141. [568] Autoblog, We Drive a 3D-printed Utility Vehicle That Can Power a Home |
[526] C. Qian, L. Li, M. Gao, H. Yang, Z. Cai, B. Chen, Z. Xiang, Z. Zhang, Y. Song, Nano Translogic 203, 2016. https://www.autoblog.com/2016/06/30/3d-printed-utilit
Energy 63 (2019), 103885. y-vehicle-wireless-home-translogic-203/.
[527] H. Yuk, B. Lu, S. Lin, K. Qu, J. Xu, J. Luo, X. Zhao, Nat. Commun. 11 (2020) 1604. [569] R. Manghnani, Int. J. Curr. Eng. Technol. 5 (2015) 3407–3410.
[528] D.H. Ho, P. Hong, J.T. Han, S.-Y. Kim, S.J. Kwon, J.H. Cho, Adv. Sci. 7 (2020), [570] C.W.J. Lim, K.Q. Le, Q. Lu, C.H. Wong, IEEE Potentials 35 (2016) 18–22.
1902521. [571] N. Tanikella, J. Gershenson, B. Savonen, J.M. Pearce, (2017).
[529] Y.Y. Choi, D.H. Ho, J.H. Cho, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 (2020) 9824–9832. [572] AMFG, Application Spotlight: 3D Printing for Bike Manufacturing, 2019. https
[530] B. Chen, Y. Jiang, X. Tang, Y. Pan, S. Hu, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) ://amfg.ai/2019/08/01/3d-printing-for-bike-manufacturing-application-spotli
28433–28440. ght/.
[531] G. Sun, J. An, C.K. Chua, H. Pang, J. Zhang, P. Chen, Electrochem. Commun. 51 [573] L. Nickels, Met. Powder Rep. 69 (2014) 38–40.
(2015) 33–36. [574] P. Kingsland, 3D Printing in the Railway Sector with Deutsche Bahn, 2019. htt
[532] Y. Wang, C. Chen, H. Xie, T. Gao, Y. Yao, G. Pastel, X. Han, Y. Li, J. Zhao, K. Fu, ps://www.railway-technology.com/features/3d-printing-in-the-railway-sector/.
L. Hu, Adv. Funct. Mater. 27 (2017), 1703140. [575] RAILENGINEER, Bringing 3D Printing to the UK Rail Industry, 2020. https://
[533] Y. Ni, R. Ji, K. Long, T. Bu, K. Chen, S. Zhuang, Appl. Spectrosc. Rev. 52 (2017) www.railengineer.co.uk/2020/02/06/bringing-3d-printing-to-the-uk-rail-in
623–652. dustry/.
[534] C.L. Manzanares Palenzuela, M. Pumera, TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 103 (2018) [576] D.M. Vogt, K.P. Becker, B.T. Phillips, M.A. Graule, R.D. Rotjan, T.M. Shank, E.
110–118. E. Cordes, R.J. Wood, D.F. Gruber, PLoS One 13 (2018), e0200386.
[535] D. Buenger, F. Topuz, J. Groll, Prog. Polym. Sci. 37 (2012) 1678–1719. [577] J.Z. Gul, M. Sajid, M.M. Rehman, G.U. Siddiqui, I. Shah, K.-H. Kim, J.-W. Lee, K.
[536] X. Liu, J. Liu, S. Lin, X. Zhao, Mater. Today (2020). H. Choi, Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 19 (2018) 243–262.
[537] R.L. Truby, M. Wehner, A.K. Grosskopf, D.M. Vogt, S.G.M. Uzel, R.J. Wood, J. [578] M. Tessler, M.R. Brugler, J.A. Burns, N.R. Sinatra, D.M. Vogt, A. Varma, M. Xiao,
A. Lewis, Adv. Mater. 30 (2018), 1706383. R.J. Wood, D.F. Gruber, Curr. Biol. 30 (2020) R157–R158.
[538] A. Kotikian, C. McMahan, E.C. Davidson, J.M. Muhammad, R.D. Weeks, [579] B. Liao, H. Zang, Y. Liu, Y. Wang, X. Lang, J. Jin, N. Zhu, Q. Yin, Programmable
C. Daraio, J.A. Lewis, Sci. Robot. 4 (2019), eaax7044. Design of Soft Actuators and Robots*, 2019 WRC Symposium on Advanced
[539] M. Wehner, R.L. Truby, D.J. Fitzgerald, B. Mosadegh, G.M. Whitesides, J.A. Lewis, Robotics and Automation (WRC SARA) (2019) 222–227.
R.J. Wood, Nature 536 (2016) 451–455. [580] C.B. Teeple, T.N. Koutros, M.A. Graule, R.J. Wood, Int. J. Rob. Res. (2020),
[540] M. López-Valdeolivas, D. Liu, D.J. Broer, C. Sánchez-Somolinos, Macromol. Rapid 0278364920910465.
Commun. 39 (2018), 1700710. [581] N.R. Sinatra, C.B. Teeple, D.M. Vogt, K.K. Parker, D.F. Gruber, R.J. Wood, Sci.
[541] T. Chartier, C. Dupas, M. Lasgorceix, J. Brie, N. Delhote, C. Chaput, J. Ceram. Sci. Robot. 4 (2019), eaax5425.
Technol. 6 (2014) 95–104. [582] Z. Shen, H. Zhong, E. Xu, R. Zhang, K.C. Yip, L.L. Chan, L.L. Chan, J. Pan,
[542] W. Chang, Y. Jun-ping, J. Gems Gemmol. 3 (2007). W. Wang, Z. Wang, Soft Robot. (2020).
[543] Z.W. Zou, X.C. Ye, Appl. Mech. Mater. 697 (2015) 340–343. [583] N. Jackson, P. Chastain, M. Crowther, M. Shin, Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. 20
[544] D. Wu, Z. Zhao, Q. Zhang, H.J. Qi, D. Fang, Soft Matter 15 (2019) 6151–6159. (2019) 2183–2192.
[545] L.T. Dean, K. Niedderer, Craft Res. 7 (2016) 51–77. [584] B.T. Phillips, K.P. Becker, S. Kurumaya, K.C. Galloway, G. Whittredge, D.M. Vogt,
[546] M. Khan, P. Dickens, Gold Bull. 43 (2010) 114–121. C.B. Teeple, M.H. Rosen, V.A. Pieribone, D.F. Gruber, R.J. Wood, Sci. Rep. 8
[547] Y. Zhai, D.A. Lados, J.L. LaGoy, JOM 66 (2014) 808–816. (2018) 14779.
[548] A. Pasricha, R. Greeninger, Fash. Text. 5 (2018) 30. [585] B.T. Phillips, J. Allder, G. Bolan, R.S. Nagle, A. Redington, T. Hellebrekers,
[549] W. Chang, Y. Jun-ping, J. Gems Gemmol. 3 (2007). J. Borden, N. Pawlenko, S. Licht, Addit. Manuf. 31 (2020), 100969.
[550] L.T. Dean, E. Pei, Experimental 3D digital techniques in design practice, DS 73-2 [586] Z. Jia, T. Yang, L. Sun, Y. Zhao, W. Li, J. Luan, F. Lyu, L.-C. Zhang, J.J. Kruzic, J.-
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Design Creativity Volume 2 J. Kai, J.C. Huang, J. Lu, C.T. Liu, Adv. Mater. 32 (2020), 2000385.
(2012) 220–226. [587] Q. Zhao, X. Wang, J. Liu, H. Wang, Y. Zhang, J. Gao, J. Liu, Q. Lu, J. Electrochem.
[551] E. Bassoli, A. Gatto, L. Iuliano, M. Grazia Violante, Rapid Prototyp. J. 13 (2007) Soc. 162 (2015) A845–A851.
148–155. [588] Q. Zhao, D. Yang, A.K. Whittaker, X.S. Zhao, J. Power Sources 396 (2018) 12–18.
[552] S. Pattnaik, D.B. Karunakar, P.K. Jha, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 212 (2012) [589] L.C. Hwa, S. Rajoo, A.M. Noor, N. Ahmad, M.B. Uday, Curr. Opin. Solid State
2332–2348. Mater. Sci. 21 (2017) 323–347.
[553] D.p.a.D.p. news, Studio Under Develops a Large & Fast Ceramic 3D Printer, 2014. [590] S. Bose, S. Vahabzadeh, A. Bandyopadhyay, Mater. Today 16 (2013) 496–504.
https://www.3ders.org/articles/20140403-studio-under-develops-a-large-fast-ce [591] H. Seitz, W. Rieder, S. Irsen, B. Leukers, C. Tille, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B
ramic-3d-printer.html. Appl. Biomater. 74B (2005) 782–788.
[554] C.Y. Yap, C.K. Chua, Z.L. Dong, Z.H. Liu, D.Q. Zhang, L.E. Loh, S.L. Sing, Appl. [592] S.C. Cox, J.A. Thornby, G.J. Gibbons, M.A. Williams, K.K. Mallick, Mater. Sci.
Phys. Rev. 2 (2015), 041101. Eng. C 47 (2015) 237–247.
[555] D.S. Vlley, What Kind of Internet Can Meet the Demand Trend of Light Luxury and [593] V. Karageorgiou, D. Kaplan, Biomaterials 26 (2005) 5474–5491.
Customized Jewelry?, 2016. www.3dsciencevalley.com/?p=6777. [594] J. Lv, Z. Gong, Z. He, J. Yang, Y. Chen, C. Tang, Y. Liu, M. Fan, W.-M. Lau,
[556] B. Artley, Automotive 3D Printing Applications, 2021. https://www.3dhubs. J. Mater. Chem. A 5 (2017) 12435–12444.
com/knowledge-base/automotive-3d-printing-applications/#industry. [595] D. Liu, P. Jiang, X. Li, J. Liu, L. Zhou, X. Wang, F. Zhou, Chem. Eng. J. 397 (2020),
[557] S.M. Publishing, SmarTech Analysis Issues New Report on Automotive Additive 125392.
Manufacturing Market, Sees a $9 Billion ($USD) Opportunity on the Horizon,
2019. https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2019/08/01/1895642/
66
Xuliang CHEN received his bachelor’s degree of Engineering

in Material Forming and Control Engineering from Huazhong
University of Science and Technology in 2015. He did research
Dr. Guo LIU received the B.E. in Mechanical Engineering and on surface cladding for 3 years in Wuhan University of Tech
Automation from the University of Science and Technology of nology. Currently he is a PhD student in City University of
China in 2013 and the Ph.D. in Mechanical and Biomedical Hong Kong supervised by Prof. Jian LU. His research interests
Engineering from City University of Hong Kong in 2018 under focus on additive manufacturing of metallic materials, espe
the supervision of Prof. Jian LU. He currently works as Postdoc cially microstructural control and mechanical/functional per
at City University of Hong Kong with his research interests formance of crystal and amorphous alloy. He is also interested
focused on 3D/4D printing, polymer-derived ceramics, and in numerical simulation of additive manufacturing process and
nano-materials. residual stress estimation using thermomechanical coupled
finite element method.
Yunhu HE is a PhD research student from Department of Me

chanical Engineering at City University of Hong Kong. He
received his bachelor’s degree (2017) from Sichuan University
Dr. Xiaofeng ZHANG is a senior engineer at National Engi and master’s degree (2018) from The Chinese University of
neering Laboratory of Modern Materials Surface Engineering Hong Kong. His research interests include 3D printing of soft
Technology, Guangdong Institute of New Materials, China. He materials, manufacturing of smart materials and their
received his Ph.D. degree in Materials Processing Engineering applications.
from South China University of Technology in 2016. Now, he
works in City University of Hong Kong as senior research
associate. His research interests focus on thermal/environ
mental barrier coatings. So far, he published 113 papers and
received 11 patents.
Prof. Jian LU received the Dip. Ing., Master (DEA) degree and
Doctoral degree from University of Technology of Compiegne
France. He is Chair Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mate
rial Science and Engineering, Department of Biomedical Sci
ence. He is an academician of the National Academy of
Technologies of France. He is a Fellow of Hong Kong Academy
of Engineering Science and a Fellow of the Society for Experi
mental Mechanics (SEM).
67

1 s2.0 S0927796X20300541 Main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 s2.0 S0927796X20300541 Main

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 s2.0 S0927796X20300541 Main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100596

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Science & Engineering R

Additive manufacturing of structural materials

1. Introduction layer by layer with the guidance of a computer-aided design (CAD)

Fig. 1. Technological roadmap of additive manufacturing (AM).

ABS+ Low cost, high strength, multi-material

Fig. 4. Polymer 3D printing technologies.

Fig. 6. Outline of metal AM.

Table 2 similar requirements, such as oil–water separations.

2.5.1.2. Surface coating of metals on 3D-printed polymers. Nature is

Fig. 22. Application and development prospects of polymer–metal–ceramic composites.

Fig. 23. Relationships between various stimuli.

Biosensors, actuators, soft

applied. one-dimensional/2D folding (Fig. 31a).

Fig. 33. Pneumatically driven 4D printing principle [289].

Fig. 34. Inflatable 3D printing process [287].

Parts References Parts References

Engines [359] Baffles [360]

Parts References Parts References

Engines [362,363,364,365,366,367,368,369] Ductwork [370]

Fig. 41. Parts made by additive manufacturing:

Parts References Parts References

Dental implant and orthopedic prosthesis

Commercial pure Ti SLM Ultimate compressive strength: 1136 ± 15 MPa [450]

Parts Materials AM technology References

Parts References Parts References

Parts References Parts References

Parts Materials AM technology Others References

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate DIW [527,533,534,535,536]

Table 11 by light-cured 3D printing technology have exquisite detail and high

Fig. 57. Automotive AM production revenue 2019–2029 [557].

4.9. Underwater devices

AM is also promising for underwater applications, especially deep

Fig. 60. Schematic of the 3D printing of a porous membrane [593].

Fig. 61. Multilayer porous ceramics prepared by DIW [595].

Fig. 62. Multiple perspectives of the AM of structural materials.

Fig. 64. 3D printers may print everything with self-printing capabilities.

Declaration of Competing Interest S. Ostrovidov, A. Khademhosseini, R.D. Kamm, V. Mironov, L. Moroni, I.

Xuliang CHEN received his bachelor’s degree of Engineering

Yunhu HE is a PhD research student from Department of Me­

You might also like

Yunhu HE is a PhD research student from Department of Me