NAME : LILI WIJAYA

NPM : 712004110013

SUBJECT : FUNCTIONAL SYNTAX

(V SEMESTER – EVENING)

Task 6

Cohesion
Cohesion is the unity of the meaning of a text through lexical items or non-structural
properties. Cohesion functions as a tie to link one sentence to another in the text. Cohesion is
used for the analysis of a text beyond the clause level. It is used not only to characterize text
structure but also to study language development and written composition.
Grammatical cohesion refers to grammatical items which are used to connect clauses in a text to
make the meaning cohesive. The devices which function to link various lexico-grammatical
elements in a text to convey meaning relations are called cohesive devices.

A. Pronoun
In English pronouns are differentiated into the following:
1. Personal pronouns I, We, you, he, she, it, they are used as the subject of a finite or non-
finite clause.
2. Personal pronouns me, us, you, him, her, it, them function as the object of a transitive
verb or a preposition.

3. Possessive pronouns mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs indicate possession and they are
used as pronouns when not followed by the nouns possessed but when they are followed
by a noun possessive determiners are used namely my, our, your, his, her, their, and its.

4. Reflexive pronouns myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself,

themselves are used as the object of a transitive verb in which the subject refers to the
same person as the object.

5. Emphatic pronouns myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself,

themselves, which have the same form as reflexive pronouns, are used to emphasize the
meaning of the subject in the sentence.

6. Emphatic possessive pronouns my own, our own, your own, his own, her own, its own,
their own are used to emphasize the meaning of possessive.
7. Indefinite pronouns are those pronouns as few, many, some, one, none, all, each, others,
anyone, and somebody which do not refer to a particular person or thing with indefinite
number. Indefinite pronouns can be used as a subject or object.
 8. Distributive pronouns refer to such pronouns as each, both, either, neither, everyone as
used in the following.

9. Demonstrative pronouns this and these are used for something close to the speaker and
that and those are used for something remote.

10. Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. Who is used for human antecedent as a
subject, whom as an object and whose as a possession. What is used for non-human
antecedent as either a subject or an object and which is used for both human and non-
human antecedents as a choice.

11. Relative pronouns are those words such as who, whom, which and that which function to
relate two clauses with the substitution of the second noun. Who is in the nominative case
and used for human antecedents and whom, which is also used for human antecedents, is
in the accusative case. Which, on the other hand, is for non-human antecedents and it may
function both as a subject and an object. The relative that, which is not adopted from the
nine interrogative words, may replace the other three relative pronouns who, whom and
which, provided that it is not in the non-restrictive relative clauses. The use of the relative
that is also compulsory for any antecedents in the clauses with superlative degree or with
the words only and all.

12. Reciprocal pronouns in English are each other and one another. Each other is used to
refer to two things and one another is used for more than two things.

13. Exclamatory pronoun in English is what which is used for expressing a surprise. It may
be used alone or with a noun phrase.

B. Demonstrative
Demonstrative reference is a reference which is identified by means of location on a scale of
proximity. Demonstratives cover neutral demonstrative the; class determiners this, these, that,
and those; and circumstantial adjuncts near, here, far, there, now, then, not near nor far, yonder,
thence, etc.

C. Comparative

Comparative reference is an indirect reference by means of identity or similarity. Comparative

reference may express likeness and unlikeness without respect to any particular property and this
is known as general comparison. Some common words used in general comparison are
identical, same, equal, identically, similarity, similar, additional, likewise, different, other, else,
differently, otherwise, etc.
 D. Retrieval System
Retrieval system of reference is concerned with how a certain participant is related to another in
the context. It is differentiated into six categories: Anaphora, Cataphora, Exophora,
Homophora, Endophora, and Esphora.
1. Anaphora is a reference to the preceding participant (earlier mentioned). It occurs when
the writer refers back to someone or something that has been previously identified, to
avoid repetition. In anaphora reference the reader has to look back for the referred item in
the text in order to find the interpretation of the item, and if the reader has looked back to
something that has the effect of linking the two passages into a coherence unity, they
become part of a single text: - Romeo picked up a flower. Then, he gave it to Juliet.
2. Cataphora is a reference to the ensuing (following) participant. It occurs when the writer
refers forward to someone or something that has not been identified. To find out the
referred item, the reader should look forward in the text: -Although he was young Romeo
was very wise.

3. Exophora is a reference to something outside the text in terms of context of situation. It

occurs when the writer refers to someone or something which is not identified in the text
but it is understood from the situation: -They are very noisy in the next room.

4. Homophora is a reference to something outside the text in terms of context of culture. It

occurs when the writer refers to someone or something which is not identified in the text
but it is conventionally understood from the culture: -This country may go bankrupt if the
law enforcement remains weak.

5. Endophora is a reference to a participant within the text. It occurs when the writer refers
to someone or something which is identified in the text either following or preceding;
thus, endophora includes anaphora, cataphora and esphora: -Although he was young
Romeo was very wise.
6. Esphora is a reference to a contiguous participant (e.g. within the same phrase or clause).
Esphora is identical to endophora in the case that it occurs when the writer refers to
someone or something which is identified in the text, regardless whether the position of
the referred item and the referent is contiguous or remote. When the position between the
referred item and the referent is just close to each other, then it is called esphora: - Your
better answer is taken as a model of work.

E. Ellipsis and Substitution

=>Ellipsis is the deletion of a linguistic unit from a text as it is considered to be obvious.
In natural language certain words are deleted when the speaker thinks that those linguistic
units are not required to be repeated as the missing elements are understood and predicted
from the context.
The linguistic units that may undergo ellipsis are content words such as processes,
process groups, nominal, nominal groups, adjectives, adjective groups, and clauses. In the
 following clauses you can observe that the position of the ellipsis is marked by Ø and the
deleted elements are given in italics.

=>Substitution is a cohesive device in which a linguistic unit is substituted by another in

the text provided that the substitute item must have the same structural function as the
substituted one. Substitution is somewhat different from reference in that another word
takes the place of the thing that is being discussed and it is lexico-grammatically related,
whereas reference is a relation between meanings; and on the other hand, ellipsis is a zero
substitution.

Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion refers to the connectedness of a message conveyed in a discourse due to
a careful choice of lexical items which are related to one another in the text. A text must be
lexically cohesive. A meaningful text is not just a group of words that are grammatically correct,
but also the meaning of these words must be related to the topic of the text. Many words have
different meanings and determining the appropriate meaning in a particular text is highly related
to the contextual environment surrounding it. The selection of vocabulary in organizing relations
within a text constitutes a cohesive link between one word to the other in a paragraph. Thus,
lexical cohesion is expressed through the vocabulary used in the text and the semantic relations
between those words. Identifying semantic relations in a text can be a useful indicator of its
conceptual structure.
In short, lexical cohesion involves meaningful connections in text that are created through the
use of lexical items and that do not intrinsically involve reference, ellipsis and substitution, or
conjunction. However lexical cohesion differs from reference cohesion and conjunctive cohesion
because every lexical item is potentially cohesive and because nothing in the occurrences of a
given lexical item necessarily makes it cohesive. If we encounter the word this in a text, we
would either supply a referent from our working memory of a text or reread the text to find the
referent.

 Repetition
Repetition belonging to iteration refers to a word or phrase which is used repeatedly in a text. In
English content words or phrases cannot be used repeatedly in the same sentence but they can be
repeated by using other words of the same meaning or in subsequence sentences. Repetition
includes total repetition, partial repetition, derivational word repetition, and inflectional word
repetition.

a. The hunter shot the alligator in the valley. The alligator was finally thrown to the hungry
crocodiles in the pond. (Total repetition)
b. The handsome young man married the daughter of the King of Selangor. The man worked
as the Manager of HSBC Bank in Kuala Lumpur. (Partial repetition)
c. The student was so careless in answering the questions; consequently, his carelessness
resulted in his failure in the subject. (Derivational repetition)
 d. Last year Nazar worked in a bank but now he is working as a lecturer in UISU.
(Inflectional repetition)

 Synonymy
Synonymy, which also belongs to iteration, refers to a word or phrase which has the same
meaning as another word used in the text. Synonyms consist of different words or sometimes
phrases with identical or very similar meaning. Synonymy covers content words such as nouns,
processes, adjectives, and adjuncts; or preposition as the only function word, as long as both
members of the pair are in the same word class.

Here are some pairs of synonymy in various different word classes:

Noun: child = kid; pants = trousers; student = pupil; human being = mankind; rubbish =
garbage; market = bazaar; place = venue; key = clue; duster = eraser; laptop = notebook;
Process: buy = purchase; die = pass away; study = learn; become = turn into; depart = leave
for; chase = run after; do = commit; state = declare; wipe = erase; delete = omit; plant =
grow; leave = desert; shout = cry
Adjective: happy = glad; sad = sorrowful; sick = ill; wet = watery; true = right; good =
fine; economical = thrifty; far = remote; near = close; tidy = orderly; proud = boastful; stubborn
= pigheaded; late = recent; expensive = costly
Adjunct: quickly = speedily; soon = immediately; generally = commonly; calmly = slowly;
totally = absolutely; merely = solely; actually = really; recently = lately; basically =
fundamentally;
Preposition: behind = at the back of; in = within; on = upon; to = towards; because of = due to;
in front of = before; despite = notwithstanding; about = concerning.

 Antonymy
Antonymy as a cohesive device refers to a word which is opposite in meaning to another word
used in the text. Opposites are words that lie in an inherently incompatible binary relationship in
the opposite pairs. It means when one word which is in an opposite pair entails that it is not the
other pair member. For instance, something which is wet entails that it is not dry; so wet and dry
are members in a set of opposites and they have binary relationship. Antonymy divides into three
subtypes: gradable antonym, contradictory or complementary antonym, and converses or
relational antonym.

 Hyponymy
Hyponymy refers to the relationship between two words, in which one of the words used in the
text is one of the members of the other which has a higher scope called superordinate. Thus, a
superordinate may have many members called hyponyms and this is also called co-hyponymy.
Here are some superordinates with their hyponyms.
  Meronymy
Meronymy refers to the relationship between two words, in which one of the words used in the
text constitutes part of the other. It is part of the whole thing. The members of meronyms are also
called co-meronymy. Here are some examples of general word and the meronyms.

 Collocation
Collocation is a cohesive device which is achieved through the association of lexical items that
regularly co-occur in the text. Collocation involves not only in the same grammatical category
but also across various grammatical categories. In collocation the various lexical relations do not
depend on referential identity and not of the form of reference, repetition, synonymy, antonymy,
hyponymy, or meronymy, but it is based simply on association. For instance, the word computer
may collocate with many other words of various grammatical categories as the following:
a. Noun: printer, virus, internet, file, website, blog, email, server, domain, database,
homepage, password, network, username, webpage, hacker, hot spot, wifi, spam.
b. Process: boot, save, delete, upload, download, browse, restart, shut down, edit, copy,
paste, install, log in, log out, sign in, sign out, sign up, scan.
c. Adjective: hang, crashed, lag, on line, off line, wireless, cut, fast, slow.
Collocation may be based on structural association which means that the set of lexical
items which becomes the members of collocation is restricted to the structural consideration in
the language. Collocation may also be based on cultural association which means that the set of
lexical items which becomes the members of collocation is associated with the culture of the
speaker of the language. For instance, the word morning in English may collocate with the
adjective good such as in Good morning; but, in Bahasa Indonesia the word pagi ‘morning’ does
not collocate with the word bagus ‘good’, as the word selamat ‘safe’ is culturally used instead, to
say Selamat pagi ‘Good morning’. Finally, collocation based on environmental association
means that a set of lexical items which becomes members of collocation is associated with the
environment of the speaker or the setting where the discourse is supposed to take place. For
instance, the word office collocates with a number of things around it such as table, chair,
computer, secretary, Director, file, stamp, paper, etc. or such processes as type, file, sign, stamp,
send, etc. or such adjectives as present, absent, open, closed, confidential, etc. or adjuncts such
as early, late, soon, immediately, etc.