Machine Design -I Q1) These are the steps/procedure involved in Machine Design. 1)identifying the need for the Equipment or a Machine 2)Selecting the possible Mechanisms 3)Analysis of Forces 4)Selection of Materials, 5)Design of Elements 6)Modification ‘7)Detailed Drawings 8)Production 9)Quality Checking 1) Identifying the need for the Equipment or a Machine First of all, we have to identify the problem in the system. Whether the problem exists or not. Then we have to decide the aim and the purpose of the machine/element to be designed. 2)Selecting the possible Mechanisms Identify and analyze the best mechanism and motions which will suit the given machine. 3/Analysis of Forces Then analyze the forces acting on the different machine parts which are in motion or stationary 4)Selection of Materials After analysis of forces, select proper material with required properties. 5)Design of Elements After analyzing forces and selecting material, we have to design every element of the machine to select the proper dimensions to withstand the stresses. The stresses should be below the limit of the permissible stresses of that material. We have to provide the correct factor of safety to every element. 6)Modification After the overall design of the machine elements, we have to modify the machine according to the resources and reduce the cost of the overall machine. Because sometimes we design a machine properly by taking every aspect in mind but in the real world we have to take considerations of available resources in the market and the total cost of the machine. ‘7)Detailed Drawings After the modification, we will make drawings of every part, subassembly, and assembly drawings of the machine. Also, we have to take into consideration of the available ‘manufacturing facilities in the market while drawing the parts. After that, we will go for manufacturing. 8)Production As per the drawing, components are manufactured in manufacturing units and assembled as per the drawings.9)Quality Checking The machine will then go through quality checking ensuring the good quality and safety of the product, So, these are the basic design procedure followed while designing any machine or machine elements. We hope you gained some valuable knowledge. Q2) General Considerations in Machine Design -Designing machine components or assembly needs to consider various factors, on these factors or Standard Data final product is designed. Final Design should involve Details information about Dimensions, Processes required, Surface finishing and tolerance details, etc. Mechanical Design engineers may use Design Databook, 3D,2D Design Softwares, research papers as a tools for Designing machine Components. In this article, we will cover some important factors on which the machine design process is dependant. 1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load. The load, on a machine component, may act in several ways due to which the internal stresses are set up. Compression- Applying forces to both ends Tension- Forces applied in the opposite direction ‘Shear- Sliding forces that are applied in the opposite direction Bending- Force off-centered Torsional- Twisting force Combination — Combination of any loads 2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine. The successful operation of any machine depends largely upon the simplest arrangement of the parts which will give the motion required. The motion of the parts may be: {a) Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and reciprocating motions, (b) Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory, and simple harmonic. (c) Constant velocity. (d) Constant or variable acceleration. 3. Selection of materials A designer must have a thorough knowledge of the properties of the materials and their behavior under working conditions. Some of the important characteristics of materials are strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and corrosion, ability to cast, welded or hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity, etc, Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most difficult problems for the designer. The best material is one which serves the desired objective at the minimum cost. The following factors should be considered while selecting the material: 1. Availability of the materials, 2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and3. The cost of the materials. The important properties, which determine the utility of the material, are physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. We shall now discuss the physical and mechanical properties of the material in the following articles. Classification of Engineering Materials The engineering materials are mainly classified as: 1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminum, etc. 2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc. The metals may be further classified as: (a) Ferrous metals and (b) Non-ferrous metals. 4. Form and size of the parts. The form and size are based on judgment. The smallest practicable cross-section may be used, but it may be checked that the stresses induced in the designed cross-section are reasonably safe. To design any machine part for form and size, it is necessary to know the forces which the part must sustain, Itis also important to anticipate any suddenly applied or impact load which may cause failure. 5. Frictional resistance and lubrication. There is always a loss of power due to frictional resistance and it should be noted that the friction of starting is higher than that of running friction. It is, therefore, essential that careful attention must be given to the matter of lubrication of all surfaces which move in contact with others, whether in rotating, sliding, or rolling bearings. 6. Convenient and economical features. In designing, the operating features of the machine should be carefully studied. The starting, controlling, and stopping levers should be located based on convenient handling. The adjustment for wear must be provided employing the various take-up devices and arranging them so that the alignment of parts is preserved. If parts are to be changed for different products or replaced on account of wear or breakage, easy access should be provided and the necessity of removing other parts to accomplish this should be avoided if possible. The economical operation of a machine which is to be used for production or the processing of material should be studied, to learn whether it has the maximum capacity consistent with the production of good work, 7. Use of standard parts. The use of standard parts is closely related to cost because the cost of standard or stock parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts made to order. The standard or stock parts should be used whenever possible: parts for which patterns are already in existence such as gears, pulleys and bearings, and parts that may be selected from regular shop stock such as screws, nuts, and pins. Bolts and studs should be as few as possible to avoid the delay caused by changing drills, reamers, and taps and also to decrease the number of wrenches required. Interchangeabilty, The term interchangeabilty is normally employed for the mass production of identical itemswithin the prescribed limits of sizes. A little consideration will show that to maintain the sizes of the part within a close degree of accuracy, a lot of time is required. But even then there will be small variations. If the variations are within certain limits, all parts of equivalent size will be equally fit for operating in machines certain variations are recognized and allowed in the sizes of the mating parts to give the required fitting. This facilitates selecting at random from a large number of parts for an assembly and results in a considerable saving in the cost of production. 8. Safety of operation. ‘Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially those which are speeded up to insure production at a maximum rate. Therefore, any moving part of a machine that is within the zone of a worker is considered an accident hazard and may be the cause of an injury. It is, therefore, necessary that a designer should always provide safety devices for the safety of the operator. The safety appliances should in no way interfere with the operation of the machine. 9. Workshop facilities. ‘A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of this employer's workshop, to avoid the necessity of having work done in some other workshop. It is sometimes necessary to plan and supervise the workshop operations and to draft methods for casting, handling, and machining special parts. 10. The number of machines to be manufactured. The number of articles or machines to be manufactured affects the design in several ways. The engineering and shop costs which are called fixed charges or overhead expenses are distributed over the number of articles to be manufactured. If only a few articles are to be made, extra expenses are not justified unless the machine is large or of some special design. An order calling for a small number of the product will not permit any undue expense in the workshop processes so that the designer should restrict his specification to standard parts as much as possible. 11. Cost of construction. The cost of construction of an article is the most important consideration involved in design. In some cases, the high cost of an article may immediately bar it from further considerations. If an article has been invented and tests of handmade samples have shown that it has commercial value, itis then possible to justify the expenditure of a considerable sum of money in the design and development of automatic machines to produce the article, especially ifit can be sold in large numbers. The aim of the design engineer under all conditions should be to reduce the manufacturing cost to the minimum. 12. Assembling. Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can function. Large units must often be assembled in the shop, tested, and then taken to be transported to their place of service. The final location of any machine is important and the design engineer must ai the exact location and the local facilities for erection, ipate Q3)Phases of Design Process -The design process begins with identification of a need and a decision to do something about it, After a number of iterations, the process ends with the presentation of the plans for satisfying the need. Depending on the nature of the design task, several phases may be repeated beforethe design is finalized. Complete design process can be explained with the help of Figure1.1, which shows the phases of design process and iterations. 1.2.1 Identification of Need Design process generally starts with the identification of need, a problem or with the recognition of a potential market for a product, device or process. Recognition of the need requires a lot of imagination and creativity, because the need is generally not clear and evident and can be vague. It can be just a feeling of uneasiness or a sensing that something is wrong. For example, there is a need to do something about the design of a motor vehicle may be indicated by its low efficiency, lesser maximum speed or high noise and vibration levels. Then the need statement ‘may say that the design of the motor vehicle needs an improvement. 1.2.2 Definition of Problem Need statement is generally brief and doesn't include the details. The definition of problem is more specific and includes all the specifications for the object to be designed, which include the input ie. resources to be utilized, expected output, cost limitations, quantity required, expected life and reliability, temperature limitations, maximum range and expected variations in the variables, dimensional & weight limitations, manufacturing limitations etc. Anything that limits the designer's freedom of choice is a constraint and all the constraints should be clearly defined in the problem definition, Background information on all the relevant aspects of the problem should also be gathered. It includes the study to find out whether this, or a similar problem, has been solved before. Ifa ready-made solution is available in the market, it can be used. Or even if something new is to be done, the study of existing similar technologies, products, relevant patent literature and technical publications can be very helpful. 1.2.3 Synthsis, ‘Synthesis is the process of concept generation, the purpose of which is to develop as many ideas as possible to offer potential solutions to the problem defined in previous phase. Primary need is identified for initial focus and then all feasible design alternatives are developed. Different proposed alternatives should not be compared with each other, in this phase, and each alternative should be separately evaluated on the basis of established criteria 1.2.4 Analysis and Optimization After synthesis, different proposed solutions are analyzed to assess their performance and can be ranked. Alternatives having unsatisfactory performance can either be revised and improved or discarded. It is always advisable to select two or three design concepts and develop them instead of selecting presumably the best one only. Concepts, with potential, are optimized to further increase their performance. Optimization is the repetitive process of refining a set of criteria, which are often conflicting, to achieve the best compromise. These competing design concepts can finally be compared again so that the path leading to the most competitive product can be chosen. For analysis and optimization, mathematical models are prepared to simulate the real physical system. ‘Synthesis, analysis and optimization go hand in hand. Identification of any kind of deficiency or inadequacy in the proposed solution, in the analysis and optimization phase, may require synthesis of some new solution and process keeps on repeating until an adequate and optimumsolution is obtained. 1.2.5 Evaluation In this phase, prototype model of the design is generally made and tested, which is the final evaluation of the design to make sure that it satisfies the original requirements. In addition to this, design is evaluated for its reliability, competitiveness, economic viability, maintenance requirements, profitability and so on. 1.2.6 Presentation Final phase of the design process is to communicate the design to others. This presentation can be in the form of drawings, computer models on in any other form that would help in ‘manufacturing and utilization of the product. (Q4) standardization in design For easy identification of materials, further improvement of machine elements, and easy replacement of worn-out parts and for quick and easy manufacturing, the parameters of ‘machine elements are standardized. In design, the aim is to use as many standard components as possible for a given mechanism. Standardization is defined as obligatory norms or standards to which various characteristics of a product should conform. The characteristics include materials, dimensions and quality of the product, method of testing and method of marking, packing and storing of the product, Standardization becomes a global activity to cover all economical, technical and material aspects of engineering products. The work of standardization is accomplished by national or international organizations. The following standards are used in mechanical engineering design: 1. Standards for materials, their chemical compositions, mechanical properties and heat treatment. 2. Shapes and dimensions of commonly used machine elements such as bolts, screws and nuts, rivets, belts and chains, bearings, wire ropes, keys, gears etc.. 3. Standards for fits, tolerances and surface finish of components. 4. Standards for testing of products such as pressure vessels, boilers, overhead traveling cranes, 5. Standards for engineering drawing of components. There are three types of standards used in the design: v International standards organization (I.S.0) i National standards, such as |.S (Bureau of Indian Standards), D.I.N (Dutch International Number, German), A.I.S.l or S.A.E (American Iron and Steel Institute, USA), B.S (U.K) standards and J.I.S (Japanese Standards) i Company standards for use in a particular company or a group of sister concems like air-craft and ship-building industries manufacture their products with their own standard without adopting the general standard parts. This type of individual plant standardization is known as Normalization. The objective of standardization is to make the mass production of components easier. Interchangeability of components is possible due to standards. Repair and maintenance of machines simple because the worn out or damaged parts can be easily replaced by standard ones. It aims at reduction of design, manufacturing, inventory and handling costs as well as theefforts to achieve uniformity, efficiency and a specified quality. Q5) What is Preferred Series Numbers? ‘The Preferred Series Number is a designed machine component that needs standardization to avoid variations. It implies that the product's important parameters should be common in nature. For example, the sizes of the ingots (Raw Material) available in the market have standard sizes. ‘A manufacturer does not produce ingots of sizes of his wish, he must follow a definite pattern to produce the ingots in that size. The designer can choose the dimensions from those standard available sizes. Motor speed, the engine power of a tractor, machine tool speed and feed, all follow a definite pattern or series. This also helps in the interchangeability of products. It has been shown by experience that if the sizes are put in the form of geometric progression, then wide ranges are covered with a definite sequence. These numbers are called preferred series numbers having common ratios as, Depending on the common ratio, four basic series are formed; these are R5, R10, R20 and R40. These are named as Renard series (French balloonist and engineer Charles Renard). Many other derived series are formed by multiplying or dividing the basic series by 10, 100 etc. Typical values of the common ratio for the four basic Geometric Progression series are given below. Examples of R5/R10/R20/R40 Number Series R10, R20 and R40: Thickness of sheet metals, wire diameter. R5, R10, R20: Speed, layout in a machine tool (R10: 1000,1250, 1600, 2000) R20 or R40: Machine tool feed. The hoisting capacities (in tonnes) of cranes are in R10 series, while the hydraulic cylinder diameters are in R40 series and hydraulic cylinder capacities are in R5 series. Wire diameter of helical springs are in R20 series. Types of Preferred Series There are two types of series Basic Number Series and Derived Number Series and derived series are further divided into Method 1 and Method 2 Basic series of preferred numbers “R5, R10, R20, R40 and R80 are called basic series.” Any series that is formed based on these five basic series is called derived series. Derived series of preferred numbers There are two methods of forming derived series, namely, reducing the numbers of a particular basic series or increasing the numbers. Q6) What is ISO 9000eee * TRADITIONAL DESIGN METHODS + There are two traditional methods of design— design by craft evolution and design by drawing. Bullock cart, rowing boat, plow and musical instruments are some of the products, which are produced by the craft-evolution process. The salient features of this age- old technique are as follows: + (i) The craftsmen do not prepare dimensioned drawings of their products. They cannot offer adequate justifi cation for the designs they make, * (ii) These products are developed by trial and error over many centuries. Any modifi cation in the product is costly, because the craftsman has to experiment with the product itself. Moreover, only one change at a time can be attempted and complete reorganization of the product is diffi cul + (iii) The essential information of the product such as materials, dimensions of parts, manufacturing methods and assembly techniques is transmitted from place to place and time to time by two ways. First, the product, which basically remains unchanged, is the main source of information. The exact memory of the sequence of operations required to make the product is second source of information. There is no symbolic medium to record the design information of the product. + USE OF STANDARDS IN DESIGN + Standardization is defi ned as obligatory norms, to which various characteristics of a product should conform. The characteristics include materials, dimensions and shape of the component, method of testing and method of marking, packing and storing of the product. The following standards are used in mechanical engineering design: + (i) Standards for Materials, their Chemical Compositions, Mechanical Properties and Heat Treatment For example, Indian standard IS 210 specifi es seven grades of grey cast iron designated as FG 150, FG 200, FG 220, FG 260, FG 300, FG 350 and FG 400. The number indicates ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2. IS 1570 (Part 4) specifi es chemical composition of various grades of loy steel. For example, alloy steel designated by 55Cr3 has 0.5—0.6% carbon, 0.10-0.35% silicon, 0.6-0.8% manganese and 0.6-0.8% chromium. i) Standards for Shapes and Dimensions of Commonly used Machine Elements The machine elements include bolts, screws and nuts, rivets, belts and chains, ball and roller bearings, wire ropes, keys and splines, etc. For example, |S 2494 (Part 1) specifies dimensions and shape of the crosssection of endless V-belts for power transmission. The dimensions of the trapezoidal cross- section of the belt, viz. width, height and included angle are specifi ed in this standard. The dimensions of rotary shaft oil seal units are given in IS 5129 (Part 1). These dimensions include inner and outer diameters and width of oil seal units|) Standards for Fits, Tolerances and Surface Finish of Component For example, selection of the type of fi t for different applications is illustrated in IS 2709 on ‘Guide for selection of fi ts’. The tolerances or upper and lower limits for various sizes of holes and shafts are specifi ed in IS 919 on ‘Recommendations for limits and fi ts for engineering’. IS 10719 explains method for indicating surface texture on technical drawings. The method of showing geometrical tolerances is explained in IS 8000 on ‘Geometrical tolerancing on technical drawings’. (iv) Standards for Testing of Products These standards, sometimes called ‘codes’, give procedures to test the products such as pressure vessel, boiler, crane and wire rope, where safety of the operator is an important consideration. For example, IS 807 is a code of practice for design, manufacture, erection and testing of cranes and hoists. The method of testing of pressure vessels is explained in IS 2825 on ‘Code for unfi red pressure vessels’. (v) Standards for Engineering Drawing of Components For example, there is a special publication SP46 prepared by Bureau of Indian Standards on ‘Engineering Drawing Practice for Schools and Colleges’ which covers all standards related to engineering drawing. There are two words—standard and code— which are often used in standards. A standard is defi ned as a set of specifi cations for parts, materials or processes. The objective of a standard is to reduce the variety and limit the number of items to a reasonable level. On the other hand, a code is defi ned as.a set of specifi cations for the analysis, design, manufacture, testing and erection of the product. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specifi ed level of safety. There are three types of standards used in design office. They are as follows: (i) Company standards They are used in a particular company or a group of sister concerns. (ii) National standards These are the IS (Bureau of Indian Standards), DIN (German), AISI or SAE (USA) or BS (UK) standards. (iii) Internati tion (ISO) nal standards These are prepared by the International Standards Organiz.The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an independent, non-governmental organization made up of members from the national standards bodies of over 160 countries that set international standards related to products and services. ISO has published over 13,000 standards. The ISO 9000 series of standards, related to quality management, is perhaps the most widely known and impactful of any standards issued by ISO. The ISO 9000 definition is a description of a quality management system. The object of the ISO 9000 family of standards is to provide organizations with the guidance and tools needed to ensure that their products and services meet external requirements and drive consistent quality improvement.What is the ISO 9001 Standard? The ISO 9001 standard is a document that describes all of the requirements needed in order to create and maintain a quality management system as described in ISO 9000. This is a subtle difference between ISO 9000 and ISO 9001 that some fail to recognize. So, to explicitly point it out, the difference between the two (ISO 9000 vs 9001) is summarized as the definition of quality management system (ISO 9000) and requirements needed to meet that definition (ISO 9001). Both the ISO 9000 and 9001 standards are based on a number of quality management principles including a strong customer focus, the motivation, and implication of top management, the process approach and continual improvement. The seven quality management principles include the following as described by the ISO:¢ Customer focus — Quality management primarily focuses on meeting customer requirements and striving to exceed customer expectations. e Leadership — Helping leaders to establish unity of purpose and direction at all levels and to create conditions to engage members of the organization in achieving the organization's quality objectives. Engagement of people — Obtaining and maintaining (at all levels throughout the organization) competent, empowered, and engaged people to enhance the organization’s capability to create and deliver value.¢ Process approach — Delivering consistent and predictable results through the use of effective and efficient activities that are understood and managed as interrelated processes that function as a coherent system. Improvement — Maintaining an ongoing, organization-wide focus on improvement. Evidence-based decision making — Using the analysis and evaluation of data and information in the decision making process to produce desired results. Relationship management — Managing the organization's relationships with related parties, such as partners or vendors, for sustained success.1. Aesthetics: - Aesthetic is defined as a set of principles of appreciation of beauty. 1.1.Aesthetic is deals with the appearance of the product. Appearance is the outward expression of quality of the product and is the first communication of the product with the user is nothing but the appearance of the product. 1.2.Now days, number of products available in the market are having most of the parameters identical, so the appearance of the product plays a major role in attracting the customer. 1.3.To compete and succeed in the market place, manufacturers will have to look beyond reliability and physical quality, and pay more and more attention to the aesthetic and subjective quality of the product. 1.4.Aesthetic quality and cannot be separated from the product quality. 2. The parameters that are normally considered by the customer while selecting the products are: Each product is to be designed to perform a specific function or a set of function to the satisfaction of the customer. Some of the important parameters are as given below. 2.1.Functional performance. 2.2.Durability. 2.3.Initial costs. 2.4.Rumning costs. 2.5.Ability to withstand adverse condition. 2.6.Comfort to user. 2.7.Aesthetic and ergonomic considerations. 3. Guidelines in Aesthetic Design:- 3.1.The appearance should contribute to the performance of the product. Example, the aerodynamic shape of the car will have a lesser air resistance, resulting in lesser fuel consumption. 3.2.The appearance should reflect the function of the product. Example, the aerodynamic shape indicates the speed. 3.3.The appearance should reflect the quality of the product. Example, the robust and heavy appearance of the hydraulic press reflects its strength and rigidity. 3.4.The appearance should not be at too much of extra cost unless it is a prime requirement. 3.5, The appearance should be achieved by the effective and economical use of materials. 3.6.The appearance should be suitable to the environment in which the product is used.4. Aspects of Aesthetic Design:- 4.1.Form (Shape):-form is the image presented by the outer surface of an object or structure. There are 05 basic types of the products namely, step, taper, shear, streamline and sculpture as shown in fig. a. Step form: - structure having vertical ascent. Ex. Multi-storey building. b. Taper form: - It consists of tapered blocks or taper cylinders. c. Shear form: - It has a square outlet. d. Streamline form: - It has a streamlined shape having a smoothflow as seen in automobile and aeroplane structures. e. Sculpture form:- It consists of ellipsoids, paraboloids and hyperboloids. 4.2.Symmetry and Balance:- a. Most of the life forms in the nature are approximately about at least one axis. D. The human eye is thus conditioned to see the things in symmetrical form and tends to reject asymmetrical shapes as ugly. C. Hence in many products, symmetry about at least one axis improves the aesthetic appeal of the product. d. However, wherever functional requirement demands asymmetry, balance in the product improves the aesthetic feeling. €. Fig. shows three arrangements of a control panel: 1) Arrangement (a): It is symmetrical but is ergonomically poor, as control knobs are placed on either side of the panel. 2) Arrangement (b): It is ergonomically good but looks unbalanced because bulk of the display mass is towards the right of the panel, and hence aesthetically poor. 3) Arrangement (c): It is ergonomically good as well as aesthetically pleasing because of the sence of balance of mass about the central axis. 43,Colour:- > Colour is one of the major contributors to the aesthetic appeal of the product. Many colours are linked with different moods and conditions. > The selection of the colour should be compatible with the conventions. Morgan has suggested the colour code given in table. Colour Meaning Red Danger, Hot Orange Possible danger Yellow Caution Green Safe Blue Cold Grey Dull4.4,Continuity:- > Aproduct which has good continuity of elements is aesthetically appealing. > For example, a fillet radius at the change of cross section adds the continuity to the product, and hence improves the appearance as shown in fig. 4.5.Variety:- > Variety is particularly useful while marketing the range of products. The variety relieves the user of the boredom. > For example, in consumer appliances, the functionally identical products are manufactured in a number of varieties by a single manufacturer. 4.6.Proportion:- > Proportion is concerned with the relationship, in size, between connected items or elements of items. > The product which is out of proportion is not aesthetically pleasing. > Normally, the proportions of the products are developed from the sound functional requirements, but can sometimes override the functional aspects. > The spanner, shown in fig satisfies the functional requirements and is also easy to manufacture. But it is out of proportion, and hence poor in appearance. > The spanner shown in fig. is in proportion and aesthetically pleasing. 4.7.Contrast:- > Contrast is a distinction between the adjacent elements of the product which have clearly different characteristic and functions. > The contrast improves the aesthetic appeal of the product. 4.8.Impression and purpose:- > The product not only should look nice but also should look as if it will work. > The product should give the impression of the satisfactory performance or purpose. > The taper shape gives the impression of strength and stability as shown in fig. resp. > Similarly, the streamline shape gives the impression of speed. 4.9Style:- > Style is a visual quality of the product which sets it apart from the rest of the functionally identical products. > Good style will skilfully reflect a current public mood, which may be influenced by the technological developments, or by a prevailing social or environmental climate.4.10. Material and surface finish:- > The material and surface finish of the product contribute significantly to the appearance. > The material like, stainless steel gives hetter appearance than the C.I., plain carbon steel or low alloy steels. > The brass or bronze give richness to the appearance of the product. > The products with better surface finish are always aesthetically pleasing. > The surface coating processes like, spray painting, anodizing, electroplating, etc. greatly enhances the aesthetic appeal of product. 4.11, Tolerances:- > Proper tolerance of the mating parts improves the aesthetic appeal of the product. > Unwanted clearance or interference hampers the aesthetic appeal. 4.12. Noise:- » Unwanted noise is disturbing and is suggestive of some malfunction within the product, and hence it greatly reduces the aesthetic appeal. 5, Ergonomic Considerations in Design: > The word Ergonomic is formed from two greek word “Ergon (work)” and “Nomos(natural laws)”. > Ergonomics is defined as the scientific study of the man — machine - working environment relationship and the application of anatomical, physiological and psychological principles to solve the problems arising from this relationship. > The final objective of the ergonomic is to make the machine fit for the user rather than to make the user adapt himself or herself to the machine. > Ttaims at decreasing the physical and mental stresses to the user. 6, Areas covered under Ergonomics:- ‘The different area covered under the ergonomics is as follows. > Communication between man (User) and machine. > Working environment. > Human anatomy and posture while using the machine. > Energy expenditure in hand and foot operations.