Lesson

FIXED POINTS AND FIXED LINES OF

11 AFFINE TRANSFORMATIONS
Duration: 3 hrs

Learning Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:

 Find the fixed points and fixed lines of affine transformations
 State and apply the Fundamental Theorem of Affine Geometry

Lesson Proper

Notations:
▶ For any vector 𝑣𝑣, let
[𝑣𝑣] = {𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 | 𝑡𝑡 ∈ 𝑅𝑅}.
▶ A line through point 𝑃𝑃 with direction vector 𝑣𝑣 can be written as
ℓ = 𝑃𝑃 + [𝑣𝑣].

Definition:
1) A fixed point of a mapping 𝑇𝑇 is a point 𝑋𝑋 satisfying 𝑇𝑇(𝑋𝑋) = 𝑋𝑋.
2) If 𝑙𝑙 is a line such that 𝑇𝑇(𝑙𝑙) = 𝑙𝑙, we say that 𝑙𝑙 is a fixed line of 𝑇𝑇.

Theorem 3.2.1: Let 𝑇𝑇 be an affine transformation, and let ℓ = 𝑃𝑃 + [𝑣𝑣] be a line. Then
𝑇𝑇(ℓ) is the line 𝑇𝑇(𝑃𝑃) + [𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴], where 𝐴𝐴 is the linear part of 𝑇𝑇.

Proof:

Let 𝑏𝑏 be the translation part of 𝑇𝑇. For real 𝑡𝑡,

𝑇𝑇(𝑃𝑃 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴(𝑃𝑃 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑇𝑇(𝑃𝑃) + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.
From this equation, we can see that every point of 𝑇𝑇(ℓ) lies on 𝑇𝑇(𝑃𝑃) + [𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴], and
conversely. Note that 𝑇𝑇(ℓ) is a line because 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ≠ 0.

Example 1: Find the image of the line that passes through the point (2, − 1) and is
1
parallel to the vector 𝑣𝑣 = � � under the affine transformation 𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 +
−2⁄3
1, 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 2).

Solution:

2 1
The equation of the line is 𝑙𝑙 = � � + 𝑡𝑡 � �
−1 −2⁄3
𝑥𝑥 1 1 𝑥𝑥 1
The affine transformation is defined by 𝑇𝑇 ��𝑦𝑦�� = � � � � + � �.
1 −1 𝑦𝑦 2
 MODERN GEOMETRY | Unit 3: Affine Transformations in the Euclidean Plane

2 1 1 1
Then, 𝑇𝑇(𝑙𝑙) = 𝑇𝑇 �� �� + 𝑡𝑡 � �� � (by Theorem 3.2.1)
−1 1 −1 −2⁄3
2 + (−1) + 1 1⁄3
=� � + 𝑡𝑡 � �
2 − (−1) + 2 5⁄3
2 1⁄3
= � � + 𝑡𝑡 � �
5 5⁄3

Definition: If 𝐴𝐴 is an 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛 matrix, then a nonzero vector 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛 is called an

eigenvector of 𝐴𝐴 if 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 for some scalar 𝜆𝜆. The scalar 𝜆𝜆 is called an eigenvalue
of 𝐴𝐴, and 𝑥𝑥 is said to be an eigenvector corresponding to 𝝀𝝀.

Corollary: Let 𝑇𝑇 be an affine transformation with linear part 𝐴𝐴 and translation part 𝑏𝑏.
A line 𝑃𝑃 + [𝑣𝑣] is a fixed line of 𝑇𝑇 if and only if 𝑣𝑣 is an eigenvector of 𝐴𝐴 and (𝐴𝐴 − 𝐼𝐼)𝑃𝑃 +
𝑏𝑏 ∈ [𝑣𝑣].

Example 2: Find the fixed point(s) and fixed line(s) of the affine transformation 𝑇𝑇
1 2 1
with 𝐴𝐴 = � � , 𝑏𝑏 = � �.
2 1 −1
Solution:
For the fixed point, we just need to solve the equation 𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥.
Given 𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏, we solve for 𝑥𝑥 in the equation 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼, where 𝐼𝐼 is the
identity matrix.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
1 2 𝑥𝑥 1 1 0 𝑥𝑥
� � �𝑦𝑦� + � � = � �� �
2 1 −1 0 1 𝑦𝑦
1 2 1 0 𝑥𝑥 1
�� �−� �� �𝑦𝑦� = − � �
2 1 0 1 −1
0 2 𝑥𝑥 −1
� �� � = � �
2 0 𝑦𝑦 1
0 2 −1 1 0 1⁄2 1 −1
Note that � � �≈� � �. Thus, 𝑥𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦𝑦 = 2 . Therefore, the fixed
2 0 1 0 1 −1⁄2
1 −1
point is �2 , 2 �.
For the fixed line, first, we want to find those numbers 𝜆𝜆 for which there is a nonzero
vector 𝑥𝑥 such that 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 or (𝐴𝐴 − 𝜆𝜆𝐼𝐼2 )𝑥𝑥 = 0 has a nontrivial solution. But this
happens if and only if 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝐴𝐴 − 𝜆𝜆𝐼𝐼2 ) = 0.
We have
1 2 1 0 1 − 𝜆𝜆 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝐴𝐴 − 𝜆𝜆𝐼𝐼2 ) = det �� � − 𝜆𝜆 � �� = det � �
2 1 0 1 2 1 − 𝜆𝜆
= (1 − 𝜆𝜆)2 − 4
= 𝜆𝜆2 − 2𝜆𝜆 − 3
Equating to zero,
𝜆𝜆2 − 2𝜆𝜆 − 3 = 0
(𝜆𝜆 − 3)(𝜆𝜆 + 1) = 0

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 MODERN GEOMETRY | Unit 3: Affine Transformations in the Euclidean Plane

Thus, the eigenvalues of 𝐴𝐴 are 𝜆𝜆 = 3 and 𝜆𝜆 = −1.

𝑥𝑥1 1 2 1 0 𝑥𝑥1 0
𝜆𝜆 = 3: We want 𝑥𝑥 = �𝑥𝑥 � such that (𝐴𝐴 − 3𝐼𝐼2 )𝑥𝑥 = 0 ⟹ �� � − 3� �� �𝑥𝑥 � = � �.
2 2 1 0 1 2 0
−2 2
The coefficient matrix of this system is � �, and is row equivalent to the matrix
2 −2
1 −1
� �. Thus, the solutions to this homogeneous system are
0 0
𝑡𝑡 1
𝑥𝑥 = �� � : 𝑡𝑡 ∈ 𝑅𝑅� = �𝑡𝑡 � � : 𝑡𝑡 ∈ 𝑅𝑅�.
𝑡𝑡 1
That is, any eigenvector of 𝐴𝐴 corresponding to the eigenvalue 3 is a nonzero multiple
1 1
of � �. In particular, � � is an eigenvector of 𝐴𝐴 corresponding to the eigenvalue 3.
1 1
1 1⁄2
Now, we show that (𝐴𝐴 − 𝐼𝐼)𝑃𝑃 + 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑡𝑡 � �. We let 𝑃𝑃 be equal to the fixed point � �.
1 −1⁄2
Then,
1 2 1 0 1⁄2 1 0 2 1⁄2 1
�� �−� �� � �+� �=� �� �+� �
2 1 0 1 −1⁄2 −1 2 0 −1⁄2 −1
−1 1
=� �+� �
1 −1
0 1 1
= � � = 0 � � ∈ 𝑡𝑡 � �.
0 1 1
𝑥𝑥 1⁄2 1
Thus, from the previous Corollary, the line �𝑦𝑦� = � � + 𝑡𝑡 � � for real numbers 𝑡𝑡, is
−1⁄2 1
a fixed line of 𝑇𝑇.
𝑥𝑥1 1 2 1 0 𝑥𝑥1 0
𝜆𝜆 = −1: We want 𝑥𝑥 = �𝑥𝑥 � such that �� � − (−1) � �� �𝑥𝑥 � = � �.
2 2 1 0 1 2 0
2 2
The coefficient matrix of this system is � �, and is row equivalent to the matrix
2 2
1 1
� �. Thus, the solutions to this homogeneous system are
0 0
−𝑡𝑡 −1
𝑥𝑥 = �� � : 𝑡𝑡 ∈ 𝑅𝑅� = �𝑡𝑡 � � : 𝑡𝑡 ∈ 𝑅𝑅�.
𝑡𝑡 1
−1
Thus, � � is an eigenvector of 𝐴𝐴 corresponding to the eigenvalue −1.
1
Also,
1 2 1 0 1⁄2 1 0 2 1⁄2 1
�� �−� �� � �+� �=� �� �+� �
2 1 0 1 −1⁄2 −1 2 0 −1⁄2 −1
−1 1
=� �+� �
1 −1
0 −1 −1
= � � = 0 � � ∈ 𝑡𝑡 � �.
0 1 1
𝑥𝑥 1⁄2 −1
Thus, the line �𝑦𝑦� = � � + 𝑡𝑡 � � for real numbers 𝑡𝑡, is another fixed line of 𝑇𝑇.
−1⁄2 1

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 MODERN GEOMETRY | Unit 3: Affine Transformations in the Euclidean Plane

Example 3: Find the fixed point(s) and fixed line(s) of the affine transformation 𝑇𝑇
1 2 2
with 𝐴𝐴 = � � , 𝑏𝑏 = � �.
0 1 0
Solution:
For the fixed point, we just need to solve the equation 𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥.
Given 𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏, we solve for 𝑥𝑥 in the equation 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼, where 𝐼𝐼 is the
identity matrix.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
1 2 𝑥𝑥 2 1 0 𝑥𝑥
� � �𝑦𝑦� + � � = � �� �
0 1 0 0 1 𝑦𝑦
1 2 1 0 𝑥𝑥 2
�� �−� �� �𝑦𝑦� = − � �
0 1 0 1 0
0 2 𝑥𝑥 −2
� �� � = � �
0 0 𝑦𝑦 0
0 2 −2 0 1 −1
Note that � � �≈� � �. The solution to the system is 𝑦𝑦 = −1.
0 0 0 0 0 0
Thus, the set of fixed points constitute the entire line 𝑦𝑦 = −1. We will get the same
answer if we will use the same method in Example 2 in finding the fixed line. (But
𝑥𝑥 1 1
with different parametrization, e.g., �𝑦𝑦� = � � + 𝑡𝑡 � � for real numbers 𝑡𝑡.)
−1 0
Example 4: Find the fixed point(s) and fixed line(s) of the affine transformation 𝑇𝑇
1 2 2
with 𝐴𝐴 = � � , 𝑏𝑏 = � �.
0 1 1
Solution:
For the fixed point, we just need to solve the equation 𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥.
Given 𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏, we solve for 𝑥𝑥 in the equation 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼, where 𝐼𝐼 is the
identity matrix.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
1 2 𝑥𝑥 2 1 0 𝑥𝑥
� � �𝑦𝑦� + � � = � �� �
0 1 1 0 1 𝑦𝑦
1 2 1 0 𝑥𝑥 2
�� �−� �� �𝑦𝑦� = − � �
0 1 0 1 1
0 2 𝑥𝑥 −2
� �� � = � �
0 0 𝑦𝑦 −1
0 2 −2
� � �
0 0 −1
The system is inconsistent and hence has no solution.
Therefore, the affine transformation has no fixed points and fixed lines.

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 MODERN GEOMETRY | Unit 3: Affine Transformations in the Euclidean Plane

Theorem 3.2.2: If two lines are parallel, their images under any affine transformation
are parallel.

Theorem 3.2.3: The set 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨(𝟐𝟐) of all affine transformations of 𝑅𝑅 2 is a group, called
the affine group of 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 .

Theorem 3.2.4 (Affine transformation preserves segment division ratio): If 𝑇𝑇 is

an affine transformation and 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄, and 𝑅𝑅 are three distinct collinear points such that
𝑑𝑑(𝑄𝑄, 𝑃𝑃) 𝑑𝑑(𝑇𝑇(𝑄𝑄), 𝑇𝑇(𝑃𝑃))
𝑑𝑑(𝑄𝑄, 𝑅𝑅)
= 𝑘𝑘, then 𝑑𝑑(𝑇𝑇(𝑄𝑄), 𝑇𝑇(𝑅𝑅)) = 𝑘𝑘.

Theorem 3.2.5: If 𝑇𝑇 is an affine transformation and 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄, and 𝑅𝑅 are three collinear
points with 𝑃𝑃 between 𝑄𝑄 and 𝑅𝑅, then 𝑇𝑇(𝑃𝑃) is between 𝑇𝑇(𝑄𝑄) and 𝑇𝑇(𝑅𝑅).

Theorem 3.2.6:
i. If an affine transformation leaves fixed two distinct points, then it leaves fixed
every point on the line joining these points.
ii. If an affine transformation leaves fixed three noncollinear points, it must be
the identity.

Corollary (Affine transformation preserves segments and their midpoints): If 𝑇𝑇

is an affine transformation and 𝑀𝑀 is the midpoint of the segment with endpoints 𝑄𝑄
and 𝑅𝑅, then 𝑇𝑇(𝑀𝑀) is the midpoint of the segment with endpoints 𝑇𝑇(𝑄𝑄) and 𝑇𝑇(𝑅𝑅).

Theorem 3.2.7 (Fundamental Theorem of Affine Geometry): Given two

noncollinear triples of points, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 and 𝑃𝑃’𝑄𝑄’𝑅𝑅’, there is a unique affine transformation
𝑇𝑇 such that 𝑇𝑇(𝑃𝑃) = 𝑃𝑃’, 𝑇𝑇(𝑄𝑄) = 𝑄𝑄’, and 𝑇𝑇(𝑅𝑅) = 𝑅𝑅’.
Equivalently, given two triangles, ∆𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 and ∆𝑃𝑃′ 𝑄𝑄 ′ 𝑅𝑅′, there is a unique affine
transformation mapping ∆𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 to ∆𝑃𝑃′ 𝑄𝑄 ′ 𝑅𝑅.

Remark: If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑏𝑏, we may easily check that the 3 by 3 matrix equation
𝑦𝑦1 𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑏𝑏1 𝑥𝑥1
�𝑦𝑦2 � = �𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝑏𝑏2 � �𝑥𝑥2 �
1 0 0 1 1
holds and that the composition operation in 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(2) corresponds to matrix
multiplication of the associated 3 by 3 matrices.

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 MODERN GEOMETRY | Unit 3: Affine Transformations in the Euclidean Plane

Example 5: Find the matrix of an affinity mapping 𝑃𝑃(1, − 1), 𝑄𝑄(2, 1), and 𝑅𝑅(3, 0) to
𝑃𝑃’(0, 1), 𝑄𝑄’(1, 2), and 𝑅𝑅’(0, 3), respectively.

Solution:

First find the matrix of the affinity 𝑆𝑆 that maps 𝑂𝑂(0, 0), 𝑋𝑋(1, 0), and 𝑈𝑈(1, 1) to 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄,
and 𝑅𝑅, respectively.

Using the previous remark, the mapping from 𝑂𝑂 to 𝑃𝑃 is defined by

1 𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑏𝑏1 0 1 𝑏𝑏1

�−1� = �𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝑏𝑏2 � �0� ⟹ �−1� = �𝑏𝑏2 � ⟹ 𝑏𝑏1 = 1, 𝑏𝑏2 = −1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
The mapping from 𝑋𝑋 to 𝑄𝑄 is defined by

2 𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑏𝑏1 1 2 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑏𝑏1

�1� = �𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝑏𝑏2 � �0� ⟹ �1� = �𝑎𝑎21 + 𝑏𝑏2 � ⟹ 𝑎𝑎11 = 1, 𝑎𝑎21 = 2
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
The mapping from 𝑈𝑈 to 𝑅𝑅 is defined by

3 𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑏𝑏1 1 3 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎12 + 𝑏𝑏1

�0� = �𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝑏𝑏2 � �1� ⟹ �0� = �𝑎𝑎21 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑏𝑏2 � ⟹ 𝑎𝑎12 = 1, 𝑎𝑎22 = −1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
Thus, 𝑆𝑆 = �2 −1 −1�.
0 0 1
Second find the matrix of the affinity 𝑇𝑇 that maps 𝑂𝑂(0, 0), 𝑋𝑋(1, 0), and 𝑈𝑈(1, 1) to
𝑃𝑃′, 𝑄𝑄′, and 𝑅𝑅′, respectively.

Using the previous remark, the mapping from 𝑂𝑂 to 𝑃𝑃′ is defined by

0 𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑏𝑏1 0 0 𝑏𝑏1

�1� = �𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 �
𝑏𝑏2 0� � ⟹ � 1� = � 𝑏𝑏2 � ⟹ 𝑏𝑏1 = 0, 𝑏𝑏2 = 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
The mapping from 𝑋𝑋 to 𝑄𝑄′ is defined by

1 𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑏𝑏1 1 1 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑏𝑏1

�2� = �𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝑏𝑏2 � �0� ⟹ �2� = �𝑎𝑎21 + 𝑏𝑏2 � ⟹ 𝑎𝑎11 = 1, 𝑎𝑎21 = 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
The mapping from 𝑈𝑈 to 𝑅𝑅′ is defined by

0 𝑎𝑎11 𝑎𝑎12 𝑏𝑏1 1 0 𝑎𝑎11 + 𝑎𝑎12 + 𝑏𝑏1

�3� = �𝑎𝑎21 𝑎𝑎22 𝑏𝑏2 � �1� ⟹ �3� = �𝑎𝑎21 + 𝑎𝑎22 + 𝑏𝑏2 � ⟹ 𝑎𝑎12 = −1, 𝑎𝑎22 = 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1

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 MODERN GEOMETRY | Unit 3: Affine Transformations in the Euclidean Plane

1 −1 0
Thus, 𝑇𝑇 = �1 1 1�.
0 0 1
Finally, the affinity 𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 −1 will map 𝑃𝑃, 𝑄𝑄, and 𝑅𝑅 to 𝑃𝑃’, 𝑄𝑄’, and 𝑅𝑅’, respectively.

1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1
−1
𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 = �1 1 1� �2 −1 −1�
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 −1 0 1⁄3 1⁄3 0
= �1 1 1� �2⁄3 −1⁄3 −1�
0 0 1 0 0 1
−1⁄3 2⁄3 1
=� 1 0 0�
0 0 1
𝑥𝑥 −1⁄3 2⁄3 𝑥𝑥 1
Therefore, the affinity is defined by 𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 −1 ��𝑦𝑦�� = � � �𝑦𝑦� + � �.
1 0 0

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