INTRODUCTION TO MINING

MNE - 201 (ESO1)

Lecture-8
EXPLORATION
Stages of Exploration:
1.Reconnaissance Surveys (G4 stage)
2.Preliminary Exploration (G3 stage)
3.General Exploration (G2 stage)
4.Detailed Exploration (G1 stage)
 STAGES OF EXPLORATION AS PER
UNFC (United Nations Framework
Classification) NORMS
The geological assessment (G) as per UNFC norms
has four codes in order of increasing details
(i) Reconnaissance (G4)
(ii) Prospecting (G3)
(iii) General Exploration (G2)
(iv) Detailed Exploration (G1)
Each stage generate resource data with a clearly
defined degrees of geological assurance
 UNFC STAGES IN PROSPECTING /
EXPLORATION
The Geological exploration has been divided into four successive
stages of geological assessment in order of increasing details
Minimum distance of observation points is recommended for the
each of the four stages depending on the tectonic setting and type of
mineralization
Classification of activities in each step of geological exploration
depend upon the basis of works, and the resultant status of resource
evaluation
Where geological studies have been carried out and an estimate of
the quantity of mineralization is possible (volume, tonnes,
grade/quality etc.) then classification takes place on the geological
axis on the basis of the level of detail of the studies and the degree
of confidence in the geological model
 RECONNAISSANCE STAGE (G-4)
Means the systematic process of identifying
areas of enhanced mineral potential on a regional
scale based primarily on results of regional
geological studies
The objective is to identify mineralized areas
worthy of further investigation towards deposit
identification
Estimates of quantities (during exploration phase)
should only be made if sufficient data available
Estimated quantities associated with a potential
deposit, based primarily on indirect evidence
 PROSPECTING STAGE (G-3)
Prospecting is the systematic process of
searching for a mineral deposit by narrowing
down areas of promising enhanced mineral
potential
The objective is to identify a deposit which will
be the target for further exploration
Quantities estimated for the deposits are with a
low level of confidence
Estimates of quantities are inferred, based on
interpretation of geological, geophysical and
geochemical results
 GENERAL EXPLORATION STAGE (G-2)
General Exploration involves the initial delineation of an
identified deposit
The objective is to establish the main geological features
of a deposit, giving a reasonable indication of continuity and
providing an initial estimate of size, shape, structure and
grade
The degree of accuracy should be sufficient for deciding
whether a Pre-feasibility study and Detailed Exploration are
warranted
Quantities estimated for the deposits are with a moderate
(medium) level of confidence
Estimates of quantities are indicated, based on
interpretation of geological, geophysical and geochemical
results
DETAILED EXPLORATION STAGE (G-1)
Detailed Exploration involves the detailed three-
dimensional delineation of a known deposit
Size, shape, structure, grade, and other
characteristics of the deposit are established with a
high degree of accuracy
A decision whether to conduct a Feasibility Study
can be made from the information provided by Detailed
Exploration
Quantities estimated for the deposits are with a high
level of confidence
Estimates of quantities are measured, based on
interpretation of geological, geophysical and
geochemical results
 Deposit Classified for Providing Field
Guidelines
Stratiform, Stratabound and Tabular deposits of regular
habit
Stratiform, Stratabound and Tabular deposits of irregular
habit
Lenticular bodies of all dimensions, including bodies
occurring en echelon , silicified linear zones of composite
veins
Lenses veins and pockets, stock-works, irregular shaped,
modest to small sized bodies
Gemstones and rare metal pegmatite's, reefs and veins
Placers and residual refractory mineral deposit of hill and
valley wash
Dimension stones
 Stratiform, Stratabound and Tabular
Deposits of Regular Habit
Characteristics of deposits
Regular habit with predictable change in trend with sharp to moderate
physical contrast with bounded surfaces, low to moderately steep
dipping, simply folded and faulted. Also as blanket capping and
surficial tabular bodies
Principal kinds of minerals
Coal seams, lignite beds, iron ore formation and capping, manganese
horizons in sedimentary and meta-sedimentary sequences, thick
bauxite capping, regional chromite lodes in large ultramafics;
limestone, dolomite, barytes, gypsum, evaporites (including potash and
salt beds), chalk and fireclay, fuller's earth
 G4 RECONNAISSANCE
1) Aerial Reconnaissance: Remote sensing, airborne geophysical etc
2) Geological survey: Mapping on 1:50,000 or smaller scale
3) Geochemical Survey:
i) Grab, chip sampling (Nil for coal/lignite)
ii) Recording of broad geomorphology, drainage etc
4) Geophysical Survey: Ground Geophysical survey
5) Technological:
i) Pitting/Trenching: one or two to expose mineralized zone at
ideal location
ii) Drilling: A few boreholes to know the existence of mineral
iii) Sampling: Regional and random chip samples
6) Petrographic and mineralogical studies: To determine principal
rock types, mineral assemblage, identification of mineral of interest
7) Synthesis of all available data / concepts
8) The activity as above or less than that required for G3
 G3 PROSPECTING
1) Geological Surveys:
i) Mapping on 1:50,000 to 1:25,000 (for coal/lignite 1:10,000)
ii) Linking of prepared maps with topo-grid
iii) Assessment of lithology, structure, surface mineralization, analysis of old
workings etc
2) Geochemical Survey: Geochemical sampling rock type wise, soil survey
3) Geophysical Survey: Detailed ground geophysical work, borehole logging
4) Technological:
i) Pitting/trenching to explore mineralized zone
ii) Drilling borehole spacing:
(a) coal, gypsum, potash, salt beds 1,000 to 2,000m
(b) limestone/dolomite 400 to 500m
(c) Iron and manganese 200 to 400m
(d) Bauxite 300 to 400m
(e) chromite 300m
(f) barite 500m
5) Sampling: Litho geochemical from a well known section, pit/trench and core
sampling
6) Petrographic and mineralogical studies: Study of host rock of the deposits and
alteration zone, determination of phase in which minerals occur and mineralogical
studies (ore microscopic, EPMA etc), identification of oxidized and primary zones
[EPMA (Electron Probe Micro Analyzer- is a non-destructive microanalysis procedure for characterising minerals (different composition))]
 G2 GENERAL EXPLORATION
1) Geological Survey: Mapping on 1:25,000 to 1:5,000 or larger scale with triangulation
points, linking of prepared maps with topo-grid and assessment of lithology, structure,
mineralization.
2) Geochemical Survey:
i) Detailed litho geochemical survey, channel sampling from fresh mineralized rocks
exposed by trenching/pitting,
ii) recording of deleterious elements and by product elements,
iii) for coal/lignite geochemical sampling of coal/lignite and water to be done
3) Geophysical survey:
i) Borehole geophysical survey
ii) special survey for problem solving
4) Technological :
i) Systematic pitting / trenching
ii) Drilling Borehole spacing
a) coal/gypsum/rock salt 400 to 1,000m
b) iron and manganese 100 to 200m
c) limestone/dolomite/barite 200 to 400m
d) bauxite / chromite 100 to 300m.
5) Sampling: Systematic pit/trench and core sampling
i) Bulk sampling, if necessary
ii) Collection of geo-environmental parameters
6) Petrographic and mineralogical studies:
 G1 DETAILED EXPLORATION
1) Geological Survey:
i) Mapping – for coal 1:5,000 and for others 1:1,000
ii) Preparation of detailed topographic cum geological map incorporating lithology,
structure, mineralized zone, pits/trench and boreholes etc.
iii) Topogrid / triangulation station , identified fiducially linking in the map
2) Geochemical survey: Detailed grid pattern sampling and analysis
3) Geophysical Survey: Detailed and specific borehole geophysical survey
4) Technological:
i) Pitting 2 to 5 per sq km
ii) Trenching at 200 to 300m spacing
iii) Drilling closer spaced a. coal 12 to 15 borehole per sq km b. for open cast project grid
spacing may be 100x50m
iv) Exploratory mining
v) Sampling of pit/trench/core
5) Petrographic and mineralogical studies
6) Geostatistical studies
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
Basis of Classification
1. Geological consideration
Quantum of Exploration
Geologic nature (mode of occurrence, shape, depth etc)
2. Techno economic consideration
Mining Technology
Processing technology ECONOMIC RESOURCES
or
RESERVE

RESOURCES

RESOURCES BASE
Diagramatic representation of Mineral Resource Classification for
preparation of National Inventory of Minerals (GSI,1981)
USGS: U. S. Geological Survey, USBM: U. S. BUREAU OF MINES
 United Nations Framework Classification for
Mineral Reserves and Resources and Fossil Energy
(UNFC‐2001)
Universally acceptable and internationally applicable
scheme for the classification and reporting of mineral
resources / reserves
Generic principle‐based system in which quantities are
classified, using numerical coding system, on the basis of
the three fundamental criteria:-
a) Economic and social viability (E),
b)Field project status and feasibility (F) and
c) Geological knowledge (G)
Combinations of these criteria create a three‐dimensional
system
 United Nation Framework Classification
The main objective of this classification is to create an instrument
that will permit reserves/ resources of solid fuels and mineral
commodities to be classified on an internationally uniform system
based on market economy criteria
The system designed to allow incorporation of existing terms into it
in order to make them comparable and compatible, thus enhancing
international communication
The three digit code system Directly reflects the procedure used
in the practices to investigate and evaluate mineral reserves /
resources and accommodates the results of these investigations and
evaluations i.e. reserves/ resources figure quoted in the respective
reports and documents
 An overview of UNFC
UNFC is a system classifying the estimates based on three digit
codes representing 3 axes, viz. Geological assessment (G), Feasibility
assessment (F) and Economic viability (E).
Codes are represented as (EFG)

Three codes for each

economic and feasibility
axis i.e. 1,2 and 3 (in order
of decreasing economic
viability and feasibility
assessment, respectively).
However, four codes for
geological axis i.e. 1,2,3
and 4 (in decreasing order
of geological certainty).
 Stages/levels of E, F & G axis
Code Economic Feasibility Axis Geological Axis
Axis
1 Economic Feasibility Study & Detailed
Mining Report Exploration

2 Potentially Pre-Feasibility General

Economic Study Exploration
3 Intrinsically Geological Prospecting
Economic Study
4 - - Reconnaissance

(Stages of G,F,E Axes)

The Highest category of resource under UNFC System will have
the code (111) and Lowest category the code (334)
 UNFC
To classify reserves under UNFC in different confidence
levels, specific norms of exploration have been fixed
To classify reserves under UNFC, exploration details
alone not sufficient. In addition, feasibility assessment and
economic viability should also be addressed
It is obvious that economic viability can not be
addressed with out feasibility assessment and feasibility
assessments can not be done with out exploration details.
Thus exploration details of a deposit are basic and
essential information
All the three attributes of the UNFC i.e economic
viability, feasibility assessment and exploration details
are interlinked and reserves and resources are defined
under UNFC in combination of these three attributes
 UNFC three digit code system
Economic viability axis represents the first
digit, the feasibility axis the second digit and the
geologic axis the third digit
Economic viability has three codes which in
decreasing order are:- E1 (Economic), E2
(Potentially economic) and E3 (intrinsically
economic)
Feasibility study has three codes which in
decreasing order are:- F1 (Feasibility study), F2
(Pre-feasibility study) and F3 (geological study)
 An overview of UNFC
3 D MODEL OF CODES
 TERMS AND CODES IN UNFC
ECONOMIC AXIS FEASIBILITY AXIS GEOLOGICAL AXIS CODE
Economic Feasibility Study & Detailed Exploration 111
Mining Report
Economic Pre-feasibility Study Detailed Exploration 121
Economic Pre-feasibility Study General Exploration 122
Potentially Economic Feasibility Study & Detailed Exploration 211
Mining Report
Potentially Economic Pre-feasibility Study Detailed Exploration 221
Potentially Economic Pre-feasibility Study General Exploration 222
Intrinsically Economic Geological Study Detailed Exploration 331

Intrinsically Economic Geological Study General Exploration 332

Intrinsically Economic Geological Study Prospecting 333

Undetermined Geological Study Reconnaissance 334

Economic
 UNFC CODES FOR VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF
RESERVES/ RESOURCES

1 Economically Proved Mineral Reserves 111

minable part of Resources Probable Mineral Reserves 121, 122
2 Feasibility Mineral Resource 211
Pre- Feasibility Mineral Resource 221, 222
3 Intrinsic economic interest, reasonal Measured Mineral Resources 331
prospect for eventual economic
extraction Indicated Mineral Resources 332
Inferred Mineral Resources 333
4 Reconnaissance Resource 334

To classify reserves under UNFC, economic viability of the deposit

plays major role
Estimates of deposits, which are economically viable, are classified
as Reserves and remaining are placed under Resources
Summary of various attributes have to be addressed in
Geology, Feasibility and Economic axes of UNFC
Economic Axis Feasibility Axis Geological Axis
Information on  Geology  Aerial Survey
 Detailed  Mining  Geological study
Exploration  Environment  Geophysical
 Mining  Mineral study
Report  Beneficiation  Geochemical
 Marketing  Infrastructur study
 Knowledge e  Technological
about  Costing study
 other  Marketing  Petrography/
attributes like  Economic mineralogical
 forest etc viability study
 Other factors
Four stages of Geological Assessment Provide Four Resource
Categories reflecting increasing degree of geological knowledge and
confidence which are:
Reconnaissance (G-4 Stage) Reconnaissance Resource
Prospecting (G-3 Stage) Inferred Resource (333)
General Exploration (G-2 Stage) Indicated Resource (332)
Detailed Exploration (G-1 Stage) Measured Resource (331)

After Field project status and feasibility (F), Economic and social
viability (E) studies Mineral Reserves are classified as:
Proved Mineral Reserves: code 111
Probable Mineral Reserves: codes 121 + 122
Feasibility Mineral Resources: code 211
Pre-Feasibility Mineral Resources: codes 221+222
 UNFC CLASSIFICATION
(United Nations Framework Classification )

UNFC Category & Code

Mineral Proved 111 Recoverable Mineral Resource
Reserve Probable 121, 122 Reserve
Mineral Measured 331 In situ Mineral Remaining
Resource Indicated 332 Resource Resources
Inferred 333
Feasibility 211 Recoverable Mineral
Mineral Resource Resource
Pre Feasibility Conditional in situ
221, 222 Resource
Reconnaissance Mineral Resource Prospective Mineral
Mineral 334 resource
Resource
Mineral Reserve:
Economically mineable part of measured and/or
indicated mineral resource
(i) Proved Mineral Reserves (111)
Economically mineable part of Measured
Mineral Resource
(ii) Probable Mineral Reserves (121 & 122)
Economically mineable part of indicated or in
some cases a measured mineral resource
Mineral Resource:
A concentration (or occurrence) of material of
intrinsic economic interest
(i) Measured Mineral Resource (331): that part of
mineral resource for which tonnage, density,
shape, grade and mineral content can be
estimated with a high level of confidence i.e.
based on detailed exploration
(ii) Indicated Mineral Resource (332): Tonnage,
shape, grade and mineral content can be
estimated with reasonable level of confidence.
Location of boreholes, pits etc are too widely
spaced
(iii) Inferred Mineral Resource (333): Inferred
from geological evidence. Tonnage, grade and mineral
content can be estimated with low level of confidence.
(iv) Feasibility Mineral Resource (211):
That part of measured mineral resource, which after
feasibility study has been found to be economically not
mineable
Possibly economically viable subject to changes in
technological, economic, environmental and/or other
relevant condition
(v) Prefeasibility Mineral Resource (221 and
222):
That part of an indicated and in some
circumstances measured mineral resource that
has been shown by prefeasibility study to be
not economically mineable
Possibly economically viable subject to
changes in technological, economic,
environmental and/or other relevant condition
Reconnaissance Mineral Resource (334):
Estimate based on preliminary field inspections,
regional geological studies and mapping.
Uneconomic Occurrence:
Materials of estimated quantity, that are too low in grade or for other
reasons are not considered potentially economic
Uneconomic Occurrence is not pat of a Mineral Resource
If quantity and quality are considered worthy of reporting, it
should be recognized that an Uneconomic Occurrence cannot be
exploited without major technological and/or economic changes,
which are not currently predictable

Mineral Occurrence:
A Mineral Occurrence is an indication of mineralisation, that is
worthy of further investigation. The term Mineral Occurrence does
not imply any measure of volume/tonnage or grade/quality and is
thus not part of a Mineral Resource.
“Threshold Value of minerals” means limit
prescribed by the Indian Bureau of Mines from
time to time based on the beneficiability and or
marketability of a mineral for a given region and a
given time, below which a mineral obtained after
mining can be discarded as “waste”.

“Cut off Grade” means the minimum economic

assay grade of the mineral for a deposit below
which the mining operations become unviable in
the present market dynamics or end use quality. It
may vary from deposit to deposit depending upon
the market conditions.
THRESHOLD VALUE OF MINERALS
IBM (Indian Bureau of Mine)
25th April, 2018
 Ore reserves estimated as on 01.04.2019
(HUTTI GOLD MINES)
Ore (Million Grade Total Gold
Tonnes) (gm/Tonne) (Tonnes)
Proved &
Probable
Category up to 16.30 4.41 71.88
depth of 842 m
@ 2.0 g/t cut off
 Table : Producers of Gold, 2017-18

Table : Production of Gold Ore 2016-17 and 2017-18

(By States)
Table : Reserves/Resources of Gold as on 1.04.2015
Table : World Reserves of Gold
(By Principal Countries)
Table : World Mine Production of Gold
(By Principal Countries)
Reserve Estimation:
Depending on certain parameters:
Cut off grade
Weighted average and average grade
Tonnage factor
Core recovery
Thickness
Strike length/ strike influence
Dip length/ width influence
 SAMPLING METHODS
Sample is defined as a true representative portion of a mineral
mass as a whole
Sampling: It is the technique by which a part is collected to
represent the whole
Purpose of sampling is to give a quantitative value as well as
give a qualitative value of the entire deposit without mining
Objective of sampling:
To estimate the distribution, quantity, and mineral
associations of the metals or mineral present in the known ore
bodies
To determine the average grade of the ore body and to
estimate the quantity of ore reserved
To estimate the future profit (from the sale of recoverable
minerals)
To correlate different parts of the ore body
Assay value:
Geological materials can be chemically analyzed that
determines the proportion of metallic (Cu, Pd, zn, Au, Ag
etc) or non-metallic (S, P, etc) elements in a sample is
commonly referred to as an assay

Sampling tools:
Hand held Chisel - 22 mm Hand held Hammer – 1 kg – 1.5 kg
Hand held Noel (for harder rocks) Box / Pan
Canvass bag Canvass cloth
A wire brush (cleaning the surface) Spraying pump
Bucket Angle measuring instrument (clinometers)
Chalks Sampler notebook
Strings Pick hammer
Small ladder Mask
Different Sampling Method
1. Pitting
2. Trenching
3. Channel sampling
4. Chip sampling
5. Grab sampling
6. Bulk sampling
1. Pitting:
Pitting is practiced during the initial stage of surface
geochemical exploration
Sampling is carried out by excavating ~ 1× 1 m2 pits in
a rectangular or square grid pattern covering the entire
target area
Pit depth varies depending on extent of weathering and
nature of rocks
2. Trenching:

Trenches are cut across the orebody after the probable

configuration of mineralization is outlined either by pitting
or by rock/soil sampling
The sample recovered from each meter of trench is
stacked separately as a sample for analysis to identify
variations across mineralization
3. Channel Sampling:
Channel sampling is suitable for uniformly distributed
mineralization in the form of veins, stringers, and
disseminations
Sampling is performed by the cutting of channels across a
mineralized body in fresh surface exposures or underground
mine workings, such as the mine face, walls, and roof
4. Chip Sampling
Chipping fragments of ~1 - 2 cm by 1 - 2 cm size covering
the entire surface exposure, underground mine face, walls,
and roof in a regular grid interval
The area is cleaned before sample cutting
Chisel and hammer are used for collection of chip samples
The chips are collected in a clean box or on a canvas sheet
spread on the floor
Chip sampling is preferred due to low cost, faster
identification of mineralized contacts, and quick evaluation
of grade of the area
5. Grab Sampling
Grab sampling is performed at any stage of exploration, and
during mine production for a quick approximation of run-of-
mine grade
The samples are randomly picked up from loose broken
material from outcrops, pits, trenches, mine workings, mine
cars, and all types of stockpiles
Good care should be taken to avoid inclusion of any foreign
objects like wood, iron pieces, nails, masonry, and plastics
6. Bulk Sampling
A bulk sample comprises a large volume of material
representing all metal grades and mineral distributions of
an entire orebody
Samples are collected from different parts of stockpiles
generated from surface trial pits, underground cross-cuts,
and run-of-mine ore of regular production
The best collection equipment is shovels to handle huge
volumes
Total material is mixed thoroughly to reduce
heterogeneity
Samples are used for developing beneficiation flowsheets
for optimum reagent consumption and maximizing
recovery efficiency
SAMPLE REDUCTION FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Laboratories require a few grams (~5-30 g) for chemical analysis
Samples collected by different methods are reduced without sacrificing
the property of mass being sampled
Sample reduction is done by progressive grinding of fragment size and
gradual reduction of quantity at stages
The size is reduced successively by using a succession of mini-crusher
(jaw crusher), grinding roll crusher etc
The sample quantity is further reduced by coning and quartering

Figure: Sample quantity

reductions for chromite
Figure: Sample production grade at the mine
Figure: Sample size quantity reductions head by coning-and-quartering
reductions by a small, by coning-and- practices. Quarters II and IV
portable, laboratory jaw quartering principles will be mixed for further
crusher reduction