DEOR'S LAMENT

Structure of Deor’s Lament

“Deor’s Lament”, one of the gems of Anglo-Saxon literature is found to
employ a refrain and stanza pattern quite artistically. It is the only poem
from the Anglo Saxon era in which stanzas are used for artistic effect.
"Deor" has six strophes (stanzas) of unequal length, and the refrain,
"That passed away, this may also" concludes each strophe. Some critics
have also posited that "Deor"'s unusual structure, which has more in
common with Old Norse poetry than Old English poetry, means that it
could actually be a translation of an older verse.

Deor’s Lament is a moving elegy of forty two lines which gives voice to
the suffering of a minstrel or a scop who has been replaced by a rival
after years of service to his Lord. It could be considered a begging
poem ,meaning that it was written by an itinerant begging poet without
an official palace in a court. The speaker’s self consolation takes a
meditative form as he looks back upon five instances of suffering
inflicted upon Germanic heroes. The characters employed here are all
from historical or mythical figures. The use of parallelism and
metaphor in the poem creates a sense of unity and coherence, while the
use of contrast and antithesis creates tension and reinforces the
central message. The poet also uses imagery and symbolism to evoke
emotions and create a vivid picture of the transience of human
existence.

The stanzas recount various figures from mythology and history who
have experienced suffering and hardship, but who ultimately overcame
their difficulties. These figures include Weland the Smith, who was exiled
and suffered in captivity but ultimately escaped, and the Germanic god
Ingwi-Freyr, who lost his throne but ultimately regained it. The poem
concludes with a statement of hope and determination, suggesting that
the scop too will overcome his present difficulties. "Deor's Lament" makes
use of various poetic devices, including alliteration, caesura, and
kenning, to create a musical and rhythmic effect. The poem also uses
metaphor and symbolism to convey its themes, such as the use of the
winter season as a metaphor for Deor's suffering.

Characters

Deor: Deor was a scop or minstrel who was replaced at his court by
another minstrel and deprived of his lands and his lord’s favor. He
compares his current predicament to the predicaments of figures from
stories traditional in medieval Germanic speaking culture.

Weland/Welund is better known today as Wayland the Smith. (Beowulf's

armor was said to have been fashioned by Weland.) According to an
ancient Norse poem, Weland and his two brothers came upon three
swan-maidens on a lake's shore, fell in love with them, and lived with
them happily for seven years, until the swan-maidens flew away. His
brothers left, but Weland stayed and turned to smithing, fashioning
beautiful golden rings for the day of his swan-wife's return. King Nithuthr,
hearing of this, took Weland captive, hamstrung him to keep him
prisoner, and kept him enslaved on an island, forging fine things. Weland
took revenge by killing Nithuthr's two sons and getting his daughter
Beadohild pregnant. Finally Weland fashioned wings and flew away,
sounding a bit like Icarus of Greek myth.

Maethhild (Matilda) and Geat (or "the Geat") are known to us from
Scandianavian ballads. Maethhild was distressed because she
foresaw that she would drown in a river. Geat replied that he would
build a bridge over the river, but she responded that no one can flee
fate. Sure enough, she drowned. Geat then called for his harp, and, like a
Germanic Orpheus, played so well that her body rose out of the waters.
In one version she returned alive; in a darker version she returned dead,
after which Geatburied her properly and made harpstrings from her
hair.

Theodoric was the ruler of the Mearing stronghold for thirty years. The
poem implies that his reign was tumultuous. The people alienated him.
He had been suffering powerlessness. Eventually, he got over his misery.
His final years were marked by suspicion and distrust.
Ermanaric was the king of Ostrogoths whose reign was tyrannical. His
subjects wanted him overthrown from his cruel regime. According to
other Old Norse Eddic poems Ermenric had his wife trampled by horses
because he suspected her of sleeping with his son. So he might qualify
as a "grim king" with "wolfish ways." He killed himself out of fear of the
invading Huns.

JULIAN OF NORWICH

Julian of Norwich (. 1342-1416 CE, also known as Dame Julian, Lady

Juliana of Norwich) was a Christian mystic and anchoress best known
for her work Revelations of Divine Love (Julian's original title: Showings).
Almost nothing is known of her life since, as an anchoress (a woman who
lives in seclusion, dedicated wholly to God), she would have been
disinclined to discuss details of whatever previous life she led in the
world. Even her actual name is unknown as “Julian of Norwich” derives
from her residency at St. Julian's Church in Norwich, England.

According to her book, when Julian was 30 and a half years old, she was
struck with an illness so severe she knew she would not survive. The
parish curate administered last rites, and she began to experience
visions from God. These visions lasted throughout the afternoon of 13
May 1373 CE (15 of them) and a final vision the next evening (for a total of
16), when she woke completely cured and, shortly afterwards, wrote them
down.

This early version of her visions is known today as the Short Text. At
some point in the 1390's CE, Julian returned to the work and expanded it
to create the manuscript now known as the Long Text. Neither version
seems to have been known during her lifetime, but she was much sought
after for spiritual counsel and became famous for her wisdom and
piety. The Christian mystic Margery Kempe (l. c. 1373 - c. 1438 CE) visited
her for counsel in c. 1413 CE and, along with bequests left to her in wills,
substantiates Julian's historicity.

Biographical Information:

Her book of brilliant, mystical revelations has intrigued and inspired

reading audiences since they were first published by the Benedictine
monk Serenus de Cressy (l. c. 1605-1674 CE) under the title Sixteen
Revelations on the Love of God in 1670 CE. The beauty of the work and
the complete lack of biographical information on the author has
encouraged later writers and scholars to construct their own
biographies for her based on 'clues' they seize upon in the book which
are then linked to knowledge of life in the Middle Ages.

YORK PLAY OF CRUCIFIXION

1) Mystery play, one of three principal kinds of vernacular drama in

Europe during the Middle Ages (along with the miracle play and the
morality play). The mystery plays, usually representing biblical subjects,
developed from plays presented in Latin by churchmen on church
premises and depicted such subjects as the Creation, Adam and Eve,
the murder of Abel, and the Last Judgment.

2) From around the second half of the fourteenth century to the middle
of the sixteenth century, York regularly hosted the Corpus Christi Play.
More commonly known today as the ‘Mystery Plays’, this lavish event was
one of the highlights of the annual calendar for the city’s inhabitants.
The ‘play’ comprised up to fifty ‘pageants’ (i.e. individual self-contained
performances), drawing on episodes from the Bible – from the creation
of world to Judgement Day – which were performed outdoors on wagons
that were moved around the city. The full cycle of pageants was a
tremendous feat of organisation, with around 300 speaking parts and a
substantial supporting stage crew.

To make the running of the Play more manageable, each pageant was
assigned to one of the city’s craft guilds. These were organisations
whose members shared a common occupation, such as the barbers, the
goldsmiths or the drapers.

3) While the soldiers are showing indifference toward their God, Jesus
Christ, Christ is taking a passive approach to their taunting. The first
words Christ speaks in the “York Play of the Crucifixion” create pain for
the reader. Christ shows his forgiveness in the mix of hurtful protest
from the soldiers. The soldiers see the task of leading Christ to His
crucifixion as an annoying job. The obligation of taking Christ lacks
prestige and skill in their eyes.

4) In the play, Christ will be taken by 4 soldiers towards the hill to be

able to be crucified. The 4 soldiers are unnamed, probably to help make
the particular soldiers more universal in addition to relatable to the
viewers. With this device, the particular viewers, or readers, are now able
to find more in common with these kinds of soldiers, and detect
resemblances to the soldiers in their complete disregard of Christ. The
soldiers show this particular disregard with comments like “Then to this
job us must take heed/ In order that our working become not wrang/
None some other note to neven will be need/ But let us all haste him for
in order to hang” (25-28).

These outlines, spoken by soldiers a single and

two in the particular beginning of the enjoy, introduce the audience to
be able to naivety of the soldiers, in that they have not a clue of who
they are crucifying. The soldiers, that represent everybody, show just
how we can be window blind to Christ and his atonement for us.

Typically the focus on Christ’s take action of atonement, and our own
place in remembering their sacrifice, is portrayed in a really different
way in typically the “ York Play of the Crucifixion, ” since compared to
plays through earlier eras. The play is told by each day soldiers, from
mankind’s point of view, to better depict our own relationship with
Christ. He or she is seen as yet another traitor to be crucified: “Come on,
let destroy this traitor strong” (32). By having this perspective arranged
before it, the viewers is better able to observe its relationship with Christ
as a blessing, being a gift we should get advantage of, instead of taking
in the previous beliefs that will centered on our debt in addition to
natural sin. Christ himself speaks a few lines in the play, which often
accentuates his divine whim.

5) The York Play of the Crucifixion is a medieval mystery play from the
York Mystery Cycle, which was performed in the 14th to 16th centuries.
While the primary focus of the play is on religious themes and the
portrayal of the Crucifixion of Jesus, there are instances of humor and
comedic elements in some of the scenes. These comedic elements often
serve to provide relief from the intense and somber subject matter.
For example, in the scene where the soldiers are casting lots for Jesus'
garments, there can be a lighthearted tone as they engage in banter
and gambling. Additionally, the character of Pilate may be portrayed in
a somewhat comical manner in some adaptations, emphasizing his
indecisiveness and attempts to wash his hands of responsibility.
Humor in these mystery plays was used as a means of engaging the
audience and adding variety to the performance. It served to make the
religious message more accessible and relatable to the medieval
audience. However, it's essential to remember that the primary purpose
of the York Play of the Crucifixion is to convey the religious narrative
and message.

6) Idhil theme of poem koode add cheyanm..like Jesus crucify

cheyunath, his patience, message to the world, religious aspects oke)
Temptation
One of the main themes of the play is temptation and this is introduced
early by the selection of the temptation of Eve as one of the individual
plays that are performed. Eve's temptation is shown to cause the fall
from grace of mankind as a whole and is therefore established as one of
the most important themes in the plays
.
Sacrifice
There are many examples of the theme of sacrifice in the plays,
throughout their span. The first example is that of Abraham who is
willing to sacrifice his only son, Isaac, because God has asked him to. We
also see sacrifice on the part of Noah who realizes that he must
potentially sacrifice his own life so that he is able to carry out God's
instructions.

The main example in the play as a whole of this sacrifice is

that of Christ who sacrifices his own life so that man may live, knowing
that he will be betrayed and crucified, but not attempting to change this
or to escape from what he knows is his inevitable death.

Faith and Piety

One of the themes of the plays is the necessity to have faith and to live
a pious existence. The plays are presented as a whole so that the
audience can see God's plan for mankind and so that they can re-affirm
their belief and understand the way in which they are being guided to
act. The plays also strengthen the Church from a political standpoint
and indeed managed to maintain in the same way until the religious
revolution that was brought about by the strong divide between
Protestantism and Catholicism centuries later.

7)The fact that Jesus tells Peter he will deny him three times before
morning is a symbol of the fact that everything that happened to Jesus
was already written as something that had to happen, and that his
destiny was already pre-determined. Peter protested fiercely and stated
that he would never deny Jesus, yet his doing so symbolizes the fact
that he was powerless to go against the events that were already in the
destinies of both Jesus and himself.

8)gives a religious message. Refer to 6th question.

9) The Anglo-Saxon poem known as, The Dream of the Rood is the
reverse image of the crucifixion. The Dream of the Rood is unique in
describing the crucifixion from the vantage point of the Cross, and
within the framework of a dream. In comparison, The York Play of the
Crucifixion discusses each step in the process of tying Christ to the
cross. Both representations of the crucifixion compare and contrast
each other.

The Dream of the Rood there are three parts to the story: the Dreamer’s
account of his dream of the Cross, the Rood’s monologue describing the
Crucifixion, and the Dreamer’s determination to pursue the salvation of
the Cross. The story begins with the narrator remembering a vision he
received in a dream, where he comes across the rood on which Christ
was crucified. “Attend to what I intend to tell you a marvelous dream that
moved me at night when human voices are veiled in my sleep. In my
dream I espied the most splendid tree. Looming aloft with light around,
the most brilliant beam. That bright tree was covered with gold;
gemstones gleamed fairly fashioned down to its foot, yet another five
were standing.” (Lines 1-8) In the lines above, when the narrator first
presents the rood he refers to it as though it were an icon. Later on, the
rood (cross) will be presented as a loyal being to Christ. However, light
was created for a purpose, to show the holiness of the tree.

Correspondingly, “Yet another five were standing”, is referencing to the

five wounds of Christ. The tree tells the story of the crucifixion to the
dreamer. The reason the tree is telling the story is for originality
purposes. The tree is conceivably the most common religion symbol in
the spirituality of mankind.

Nevertheless, Christ’s words were not cared for by the soldiers they only
cared for the possession of Christ’s cloak. The audience’s role within the
play is partly related to “All men that walk by way or street”; it is merely
indicating the relation that Christians must reflect on between their
daily work, and religious work.

After briefly going over the main ideas of both The Dream of the Rood
and The York Play of the Crucifixion, it came to the assumption that
there are many similarities and differences between the two texts. Both
of the texts are quite diverse and therefore result in no similarities.
10) The mystery play “York Play of the Crucifixion” takes place during the
time when Jesus Christ is being taken to the hill of Calvary to be
crucified. He is being taken in this story by four soldiers. The soldiers are
not given names in this work. It is interesting that the only identity they
are given is found in their disregard of Christ. Perhaps the soldiers are
not given names so that the audience is able to identify with them and
find more of a connection between themselves and the soldiers. Not
giving a name to a character causes them to be universal in nature,
they could be anyone without a name.

The indifference the soldiers have towards Christ is shown in the

remarks they make towards Him. “Then to this work us must take heed.
So that our working be not wrang. None other note to neven is need. But
let us haste him for to hang.”(25-28). These are the words on soldiers one
and two towards the beginning of the play. This is how the author
introduces the audience to these relatable characters. It is clear
through these lines that these soldiers are ignorant towards the power
and majesty of Christ. They do not know who they are helping to crucify.
This can be related to many people on a personal level. It can be easy to
not see what Christ has done for all of us through his atoning sacrifice.
This portrayal of our duty and relationship with Christ is unlike the
earlier works from this time period. The unique perspective of mankind’s
relationship with Christ has began to shift.

The soldiers continue to show their ignorance through their comments,

“Come on, let’s kill this traitor strong” (32). Christ is seen as a traitor.
Someone who betrays a friend or principle. To the soldier’s dismay,
Christ is anything but a traitor. This stark contrasted perspective of
Christ gives the audience the opportunity to think of Christ’s
relationship as a gift. Before this change in information Christ was
typically viewed as a debtor of mankind. Men were in debt to Christ
through the concept of natural sin. People were beginning to be able to
see the humanity in Christ instead of the authority in Christ through the
new genre of mystery plays.
While the soldiers are showing indifference toward their God, Jesus
Christ, Christ is taking a passive approach to their taunting. The first
words Christ speaks in the “York Play of the Crucifixion” create pain for
the reader. Christ shows his forgiveness in the mix of hurtful protest
from the soldiers. The soldiers see the task of leading Christ to His
crucifixion as an annoying job. The obligation of taking Christ lacks
prestige and skill in their eyes. Once they have reached their destination
the soldiers begin to look at the cross and nailing that will be used to
kill their Savior.

In the end, the business of crucifixion has been mercilessly drawn out,
not simply for theatrical macabre humor but to make the ironic point
that the phenomenon of distancing oneself from the importance of the
Passion of Christ is common. "Proud of their skill and yet comically
incompetent to us, the soldiers so lose themselves in their world of
mechanical details that they have no sense of the large issues
confronting them. As Christ compassionately observes, they know not
what they do" (Bevington 569). Here a central moment in Western history
has been familiarized, but even those physically involved remain obtuse.
And we audience members may understand that we would not have
acted differently.

BEOWULF
1) Authorship of Beowulf.
One of the most famous works in Old English, Beowulf has been the
subject of a long-running debate about the authorship .While some
argued the work is the product of multiple poets, others suggests it is a
single poet’s work.Although it is not known specifically who the author of
Beowulf is, there are many theories about what sort of person or people
might be behind the poem. For example, it has traditionally been
believed that Beowulf was written by a monk. This theory comes from the
fact that monks were among the most highly educated people at the
time and would have had access to the necessary resources. There is no
concrete evidence that the poet was a monk, but many scholars believe
it is a logical assumption to make.

2) Beowulf as a hero
In the epic poem, Beowulf, we are introduced to a true epic hero.
Described as 'the mightiest man on earth, highborn and powerful',
Beowulf. Beowulf is synonymous with the concept of the epic hero as his
courage, strength, loyalty, and wisdom are evident in the poem.He
exemplifies the traits of the perfect hero. The poem explores his heroism
in two separate phases—youth and age and through three separate
and increasingly difficult conflicts with Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and
the dragon. Although we can view these three encounters as
expressions of the heroic code, there is perhaps a clearer division
between Beowulf’s youthful heroism as an unfettered warrior and his
mature heroism as a reliable king. However, Beowulf epitomized the
persona of an epic hero.

3)King Hrothgar
Hrothgar, the aged ruler of the Danes who accepts Beowulf’s help in the
first part of the story, aids Beowulf’s development into maturity.
Hrothgar is a relatively static character, a force of stability in the social
realm. Although he is as solidly rooted in the heroic code as Beowulf is,
his old age and his experience with both good and ill fortune have
caused him to develop a more reflective attitude toward heroism than
Beowulf possesses. He is aware of both the privileges and the dangers
of power, and he warns his young protégé not to give in to pride and
always to remember that blessings may turn to grief. Hrothgar’s
meditations on heroism and leadership, which take into account a
hero’s entire life span rather than just his valiant youth, reveal the
contrast between youth and old age that forms the turning point in
Beowulf’s own development.

4)Queen Wealhtheow
Wealhtheow, Queen of the Danes and wife of Hrothgar, is the most fully
depicted female character in Beowulf. She appears in two scenes and
considerable space is devoted to her direct speech. It will be shown that
her presence in the story is indispensable because she directly affects
the events of Beowulf's adventure in Denmark. Thus, she is of substantial
importance to the whole poem. Her character is a fully integrated part
of the poetic structure. What is more, she is by no means passive or
helpless. To the contrary, she actively struggles to fulfill her duties of a
peace weaver and achieve her own goals. Neither her words nor her
actions are futile because she is evidently reputable and her efforts are
at least partially. Moreover,she is not a mere king's instrument because
she speaks freely and expresses her own opinion. She evidently acts of
her own free will when she criticises Hrothgar's intention to "adopt"
Beowulf.

5)The Mead Hall

One of the settings which appears throughout the poem is the Heorot,
the mead hall of the King Hrothgar is a sign of civilization, or people
conquering the wilds and creating a center for power.It is the place
where Beowulf uses to make a trap for the monster Grendel. Also, it is
where the great celebrations in the poem take place. The importance of
these feasts was about more than the celebration. The hall was a
physical symbol of the lord's power and status. These halls also allowed
for a sense of community and a central location for rituals.
While the story of Beowulf is widely considered to be fictional, set in
Scandinavia, some scholars believe Heorot was based on an actual
place elsewhere. One theory states the mead hall was based on the hall
at Harty, a small hamlet on the Isle of Sheppey off the coast of Kent,
England. While the descriptions in the poem match the architecture and
landscape, others believe there is very little concrete evidence for
Heorot being based on a real place.

6) Christian and pagan elements

In many works of art, it is common for people to examine how the work
reflects the beliefs of the author.Beowulf is a unique work because it
was likely to have been an oral story that was brought by the
Anglo-Saxons into England and later transcribed by monastic clerics. As
Such, it should not be surprising to find elements of Christianity mixed
with Anglo-Saxon pagan beliefs. A close examination of the poem yields
proof that the poem has both Christian and pagan beliefs with a
satisfying but complex result.

In the poem, the principal Christian beliefs consist of the gratitude that
is given to God, a belief in divine providence, and confidence that death
and judgment by God will come for all and so on.The act of giving
thanks to God is shown in the poem to bea central act and a deep
expression of faith. When the Geats cross the water that divides their
country from Denmark, they immediately express their gratitude. The
narrator states, “They Thanked God/ for that easy crossing on a calm
sea” (227-228). Further, when Beowulf introduces himself to the court of
Hrothgar and explains his intent of destroying Grendel, the queen
immediately gives thanks to God for “granting her wish” by sending a
deliverer to them to “ease their afflictions” (626-628). After the defeat of
Grendel, the king immediately renders thanks to God. He asserts, “First
and foremost, let the Almighty Father/ be thanked for this sight”
(927-928)Thus, throughout the poem, the characters and
the narrator exhibit a belief in God’s providential assistance to
humanity.

Although there are the pertinent Christian elements to this heroic poem,
this is still a largely Pagan story – the topic of a hero who has
supernatural strength and needs to fight and kill monsters in order to
protect the people is a plot very characteristic of the Pagan literature,
along with the story being set in Denmark and the characteristics being
blind loyalty of a soldier to the lord and vice versa, the loyalty to one’s
origin and ancestry, heroic courage to defend one’s property and
beliefs, an instilled sense for revenge, courtesy and respect towards - all
very dignified Pagan characteristics. As the poet says, “...So fame Comes
to the men who mean to win it And care about nothing else!” This
represents a common pagan belief that fame and good things come to
those who fight and win.
7) Beowulf as a Christian

Beowulf’s character, in the

beginning of the epic tale, he completed many courageous acts
seemingly out of the goodness of his heart and for the protection of his
people, exhibiting his heroism and potential Christian
virtue. Upon arrival to Heorot, he is set up to be the greatest and most
gracious warrior of all, seeking to defeat Grendel out of the goodness of
his heart—a Christian ideal—rather than accruing wealth—as Paganism
pervades. Before his arrival, he is described by the narrator,
“There was no one else like him alive. / In this day, he was the mightiest
man on earth” (4).

The narrator ultimately sets the stage to praise and

admire Beowulf’s genuine greatness. Within Beowulf’s own introduction,
he asserts his virtuous intentions, “We come in good faith to find
your lord / And nation’s shield” (5). Thus, he instates his loyalty to
Hrothgar and undoubtedly vows his commitment to kill the beast,
Grendel. Even though Beowulf makes this profound commitment, it is
not to obtain more treasure, but rather to bring peace to Hrothgar and
the community in need. Beowulf reassures, “I come to proffer / My
wholehearted help and counsel… I can calm the turmoil and terror in his
mind” (5).

Ultimately, Beowulf exudes empathy towards Hrothgar and

graciously offers his “awesome strength” to cast out Grendel, the
bringer of tremendous destruction and grief, exemplifying his honorable
and arguably holy nobility.

8) The Battle between Beowulf and Grendel

The battle between Beowulf and Grendel is likely one of the more famous
battles in literature history. It is an epic Scandinavian hero pitted
against a dark, bloodthirsty monster who plagues the Danes and feasts
upon them.Beowulf arrived in Denmark to offer his services because, for
many years, Grendel had plagued the Danes by coming at night to kill
them. Beowulf is touched by the warmth extended to him in the banquet.
He informs Queen Wealhtheow and the other Danes that he might either
succeed in killing Grendel or lose his life battling the “superhuman
creature.” After the feast concludes, Hrothgar and his warriors leave
Heorot. As part of Beowulf’s strategy to deal with Grendel, Beowulf and
his retainers decide to spend the night in Heorot, waiting for Grendel to
strike.

As expected, Grendel emerges from his underwater cave and

approaches Heorot menacingly. The poem posits a contrast between
Grendel’s dark cave hidden deep in a swamp with the joyful mood in
Heorot. Grendel is a humanoid with demonic features and superhuman
strength. Despite his gigantic body, Grendel does resemble humans,
nonetheless. Grendel next reaches for Beowulf but Beowulf grabs
Grendel's arm with a grip stronger than any Grendel has felt before.
Grendel becomes frightened, but Beowulf's hold is too strong for
Grendel to escape.

Grendel, an outsider who spurns society, and Beowulf, an outsider who

joins the Danes in fellowship, battle. Beowulf makes good on his boast
that he will fight Grendel single-handed.

Grendel's fierce cries and the sounds of their epic struggle wake the
warriors. Heorot shakes with the force of their fight. The men grab their
weapons to help, not knowing that a spell protects Grendel from all
swords.Fate (or God) does reward Beowulf's courage: if he had used a
sword rather than his bare hands he wouldn't have been able to harm
Grendel.Finally, Beowulf rips Grendel's arm and shoulder from its socket,
and the monster, mortally wounded, flees to the swamp to die. Beowulf
mounts Grendel's arm as a trophy on the wall of Heorot. Beowulf, the
narrator says, has fulfilled his boasts.

9) Banquet
Hrothgar hosts a great banquet in honor of Beowulf. He bestows upon
him weapons, armor, treasure, and eight of his finest horses. He then
presents Beowulf’s men with rewards and compensates the Geats with
gold for the Geatish warrior that Grendel killed.

After the gifts have been distributed, the king’s scop comes forward to
sing the saga of Finn, which begins with the Danes losing a bloody
battle to Finn, the king of the Frisians, a neighbor tribe to the Danes.
When the scop finishes recounting the saga, Wealhtheow enters,
wearing a gold crown, and expresses her hope that Beowulf will act as
a friend to their children and offer them protection and guidance. She
presents Beowulf with a torque (a collar or necklace) of gold and a suit
of mail armor, asking again that he guide her sons and treat them
kindly.

10) Character of Beowulf

The hero of all heroes," Beowulf, strong and courageous, is the prince of
Geats. Once he makes a vow, he stands by his word, no matter what the
cost, even if it takes his life. He is reluctant to back down from battle,
just so he can be there for the people who are in great need to be saved
from evil. He signifies the true heroic character because he is willing to
risk his life for his ideals. Beowulf defeats three gruesome monsters, two
of whom are descendants of Cain.

Besides being a brave and strong warrior, Beowulf is also characterized

as a very wise and righteous king who ruled over Geatland. He managed
to free his land and kingdom from wars and conflicts with other tribes.
And he reigned peacefully for over 50 years until he was killed by the
dragon.

The role of Beowulf in the poem is to show an example of a strong and

brave warrior whose actions speak for themselves. Not only was he a
skilled warrior, but also a wise, good king and a true hero.

11) Grendel as the symbol of evil

Grendel is described in Beowulf as “feond”, which is modernly translated
as “fiend,” or a creature of evil. He is later described as seeking the
company of“deofla” the plural of deofol, which is modernly translated as
“devil". Grendel is a fiend and a devil, a monster that represents evil in
society. He is an enemy of God, and God sends the hero Beowulf to
defeat Grendel. Grendel is also a descendant of Cain, who is marked by
God as a monster after Cain murders Abel in the Biblical creation
story.By attacking the mead hall, Grendel attacks the social and
economic center of Contemporary Danish society, which is also
a reflection of God’s kingdom becoming a representation of evil in
society.

Besides the spiritual part, Grendel remains a monster of flesh and blood
whose main trait is hostility to the human race. He is related to demons
and after death, he will be ranked among the genus of evil spirits.
His attacks on Heorot are driven by envy and resentment, born out of
his loneliness and isolation, which intensify his anger and violence,
making him a symbol of the destructive forces of evil. Grendel's
unrelenting violence, devoid of mercy or restraint, further underscores
his role as an embodiment of malevolence that threatens the safety and
stability of the human world. Beowulf's heroic struggle against Grendel
illustrates the eternal battle between good and evil, with Grendel
personifying the dark, chaotic side of that conflict, prompting the need
for a hero to restore order and protect the community.

LA MORTE DE ARTHUR

1) Twelve old men come as messengers from the Emperor Lucius at

Rome, commanding King Arthur to send tribute. If he refuses, Lucius will
make a great war against Arthur’s land. Arthur respects the Romans,so
he treats the messengers well, and draws his council together. However
,he refuses to comply with the Roman ambassadors' demand saying
that he’ll never pay tribute to Rome. Arthur's denial demonstrates his
commitment to maintaining the sovereignty and independence of his
own kingdom.The refusal is seen as a challenge to the authority of Rome
and an assertion of Arthur's own power. As a result, Arthur chooses to
enter into war with the Romans rather than submitting to their
demands.

2) In "Le Morte d'Arthur," Emperor Lucius is depicted as a powerful king

who embodies certain characteristics associated with bravery. Emperor
Lucius is likely portrayed as an honorable ruler who expects recognition
of his authority through the payment of tribute. His demand for tribute,
though seen as a challenge by King Arthur, can be interpreted as an
assertion of his kingdom's power and an expectation of honor from
other rulers.Lucius displays determination by insisting on the tribute
even when faced with King Arthur's refusal. His willingness to engage in
war rather than compromise on his demand highlights his commitment
to upholding his kingdom's interests. Just as King Arthur stands for the
sovereignty and independence of Camelot, Emperor Lucius represents
the same principles for his Roman realm. His stance against Arthur
reflects his desire to maintain his own
kingdom's autonomy. He never ran off from the battlefield. instead he
stood as a brave warrior and fought for rome. As the ruler of a powerful
empire, Emperor Lucius likely possesses military prowess and leadership
qualities. His decision to go to war against Arthur suggests that he is
willing to lead his armies into battle, demonstrating his dedication to his
kingdom and his courage on the battlefield.

3) Priamus is a Saracen, descendant of King Alexander the great,who

comes across Gawain, while he was riding through the forest in search of
food. In the beginning, he boasted about himself that he can easily take
gawain prisoner and later introduced as the man from Tuscany. After
the combat between the two, Priamus says that if gawain helps and
christens him, he will heal his wound. Moreover, he warns Gawaine with
the information that Dukes of Lorraine, Lombardy and the Saracen of
Southland, are preparing for a battle against King Arthur. And he
accompanied Gawain in defeating the Dukes and Saracen. Furthest, he
became Arthur's knight of the round table.

4 )Sir Lancelot is one of the most iconic and central characters in the
Arthurian legend including la morte de Arthur.He is one of Arthur's most
trusted and loyal knights, often serving as a right-hand man in times
ofneed. His internal struggles, his loyalty to Arthur, make him a
multi-dimensional and captivating figure in the Arthurian legend
The very first appearance of Launcelot in person (in the book) is in the
chapter seven, when he, along with Sir Cador, was in charge of the
Roman prisoners. And in this plot, launcelot and cador kill many
Romans even though they were have only 10,000 men along with. This is
how Malory portrayed Sir Lancelot as the epitome of chivalry and
knighthood. He upholds the values of honor, loyalty, and courage that
define a true knight.

5 )In Le Morte d'Arthur, dreams take on the role of prophetic visions that
describe future events. The prominence of prophetic dreams within the
story demonstrates their importance to the culture of the Middle Ages.
In those days, kings were considered representatives of God on earth;
the concept of the divine right of kings meant that a monarch derived
his authority from God alone. Therefore, it was considered fitting that he
should dream prophetic dreams and be given heavenly visions of the
future.

In Book 5, Chapter 4, Arthur dreams of a dragon that kills many of his

people and bathes the land and waters in flame. Then a black boar
seems to rise from the east, a hideous beast, and fights against the
dragon until both are bloody. Then the dragon strikes the boar on a
ridge, exploding it into nothing more than a powder that spreads over
the sea. Arthur was disturbed and sends for a philosopher, who tells
him that the dragon is himself, with the colors of his wings the kingdoms
he’s won, and his tail the knights of the Round Table. The boar is a tyrant
whom Arthur will have to fight against.The philosopher assures Arthur
that he will emerge victorious, just like the dragon in his dream.
These dream sequences infuse the narrative with a sense of the
mystical and the otherworldly, reflecting the deep connection between
Arthur's world and the supernatural forces at play. They emphasize the
idea that Arthur's life and destiny are intertwined with these
supernatural elements, shaping the course of the Arthurian legends.

6) The battle between King Arthur and the giant is one of the legendary
episodes in the Arthurian tales, showcasing Arthur's prowess as a
warrior and his encounters with larger-than-life adversaries. The giant
serves as a representation of the supernatural challenges that Arthur
faces in his role as a legendary king.
The reference of the Giant begins from the Chapter 5 .A man comes to
Arthur and tells him that a giant has been killing people in the country
of Constantine for seven years, and now has kidnapped the Duchess of
Brittany, the wife of Arthur’s cousin Sir Howell. He points to two great
fires in the distance and says he’ll find the giant there. Arthur calls for
Sir Kay and Sir Bedivere, and tells them to prepare themselves. Armed,
they ride fast to Saint Michael’s mount, where Arthur finds a sorrowful
widow. She says there is a devil nearby whom no one can conquer.
Arthur says he comes from King Arthur’s court, and she says the giant
lusts after Guenever.

Arthur continues onto a hill where he sees the giant gnawing at a man’s
limb, and baking damsels and young children on a skewer. Arthur yells
out insults at him, and the giant rises up and strikes at the king with a
club. Arthur carves out the giant’s belly, but then the giant catches
Arthur in his arms and crushes him. Writhing, Arthur strikes him with a
dagger, killing him. Kay and Bedivere cut off the giant’s head and bear it
on a platter to Sir Howell, who thanks God and the knights. Arthur tells
Howell to build a church on the same hill as a defence against the evil.
7) The battle between King Arthur and Emperor Lucius is described in
the medieval Arthurian legend "Le Morte d'Arthur" by Sir Thomas Malory.
Lucius, the ruler of Rome, demands tribute from Arthur, who refuses.
This leads to a conflict between their two kingdoms.

The aggression of war proliferate from Chapter six. After the battle with
giant, Arthur was resting in his tent while two messengers brought news
that Lucius had entered France, and his forces were burning towns and
slaughtering the people. Arthur commanded Sirs Gawaine, Bors, Lionel,
and Bedivere to demand Lucius leave Flanders, or else they would soon
engage in war. When the four knights arrived in Lucius’s camp, Gawaine
and Bors delivered the message while Lionel and Bedivere hid nearby.
Lucius, after hearing their message, promised that he would conquer all
of their lands and defeat Arthur.

One of Lucius’s cousins and knights, Sir Gainus, announced that the
Britons were arrogant people. Angered, Sir Gawaine beheaded Gainus,
after which he and Bors quickly escaped with the Romans on their trail.
A battle ensued, in which many Romans and Britons died. In the end,
Gawaine was wounded, but they had captured many Roman prisoners.
King Arthur praised his knights and helped heal Sir Gawaine before he
sent the prisoners on to France.

Lucius’s spies learned that the Roman prisoners were being taken to
France by Sir Launcelot and Sir Cador, with thousands of knights as
guards. Lucius sent an ambush of sixty thousand men into the forest,
but Launcelot’s scouts spotted them. Though they were outnumbered,
the Britons engaged the Romans.

When Lucius entered the battle at the Vale of Sessoine, he saw King
Arthur fighting. He gave a rousing, inspirational speech to his
compatriots, and then announced the charge.Many feats of arms were
performed by both sides that day but Arthur especially distinguished
himself. After a long battle, Arthur spotted Lucius and engaged him.
Though Lucius wounded Arthur on the face, Arthur swung Excalibur
onto the emperor's head and killed him.

8) Sir Thomas Malory was an English writer who is best known for his
work "Le Morte d'Arthur." This work, completed in the late 15th century, is
one of the most famous and influential collections of Arthurian legends
in English literature.
Le Morte d'Arthur" is a compilation of various stories, myths, and
legends about King Arthur, his knights, and the world of Camelot.
Malory's work weaves together different narratives to create a
comprehensive and cohesive portrayal of Arthur's life, his knights'
adventures, and the challenges they face.
Malory's writing style reflects the medieval chivalric tradition, focusing
on themes of honor, loyalty, and courtly love.

His work played a significant role in shaping the popular image of King
Arthur and his knights, influencing subsequent Arthurian literature and
adaptations. The term Chivalry was a medieval code of used by Knights
to instill discipline and honor. They were to follow a strict code of
conduct. If they didn’t, they were not a true knight. Because of this code
of chivalry, their behavior was affected tremendously. It changed the
way they acted, thought and lived. In Morte D’Arthur and Sir Gawain and
the Green Knight, chivalry governed the knights’ behaviors in three ways:
their respect towards women, courage, and honor.

There are several references that validate the chivalrous conduct in

King Arthur. He restored all the stolen land to its rightful owners, and set
about building castles to defend all the coasts and borders of the
kingdom,” (Excalibur pp 13).
This displays Arthur’s humility because he was selfless and put other’s
needs before his own.
Another example of when Arthur showed humility was when sir Ector
kneeled before him once realizing Arthur was the new king. At once
Arthur got down on his knees as well because he was too humble and
did not like the feeling of being superlative to anyone. (The Once And
Future King pp 914).

Arthur prefered to be treated as an equal although he was far greater

than that. “He announced. ‘All shall be equal at this table. No single
knight is more important that another.” (Gathering of the Knights pp 23).
Moreover ,As a warrior and leader, Arthur displays tremendous courage
on the battlefield. He faces danger with bravery, leading his knights. The
battle against giant and Lucius are the illustrations for his bravery.
Arthur treats others with courtesy and respect, regardless of their social
standing. It is obvious from his act of kindness towards the twelve
ambassadors of Emperor Lucius. Arthur respected the Romans and he
treats them ( Ambassadors) well, and draws his council together.
He values the concept of courtly love and encourages his knights to
show kindness to all, particularly to women. He takes it upon himself to
defend the oppressed and ensure justice for those who have been
wronged. He embodies the role of a protector of the weak and a
champion of justice.

I hereby pledge myself to the service of God and of my people, to the

righting of wrongs, to the driving-out of evil, to the bringing of peace
and plenty to my land...”

Roger Lancelyn Green's work

King Arthur and His Knights of the Round Table
The quote implies the King Arthur's commitment towards the god and
people and his aim to eliminate the evilness. These attributes portray
King Arthur as the ultimate embodiment of the code of knighthood.

LAMENT OF CHAUCER

1) In the poem "Lament for Chaucer" by Thomas Hoccleve, the grief and
loss felt over Chaucer's death are deeply profound. While the poem
doesn't explicitly discuss how England could replace Chaucer, it does
emphasize the immense impact Chaucer had on the literary and
cultural landscape of England. The poem itself is a form of tribute to
Chaucer, highlighting his significance and the void left in his absence.
Hoccleve's lamentation portrays Chaucer as a literary and intellectual
giant whose absence is acutely felt. The imagery and emotional
language used throughout the poem convey the sense that Chaucer's
contributions were unique and irreplaceable. The poem's structure, in
which Hoccleve engages in a dialogue with Chaucer's ghost, further
emphasizes the personal connection and influence that Chaucer had
on Hoccleve's own writing.

2) The poem lament of Chaucer by Thomas hoccleves emphasize the

immense impact Chaucer had on the literary and cultural landscape of
England. While the poem doesn't offer a direct solution for replacing
Chaucer, its very existence speaks to the enduring legacy and influence
of Chaucer's work. It suggests that the best way to honor and carry
forward Chaucer's impact is to continue engaging with his writings,
drawing inspiration from his themes and style, and allowing his legacy to
inspire new generations of writers to contribute to the ever-evolving
landscape of English literature.

3) Despoiled hath this land of the swetnesse

of rethorik; for into Tullius
In these lines, Hoccleve laments the loss of eloquence and rhetoric
("rethorik") in England since the passing of Chaucer. He suggests that
the land has been "despoiled" or deprived of the sweetness and beauty
of eloquent speech and literary expression. The reference to "Tullius" is a
mention of Marcus Tullius Cicero, the renowned Roman orator and
philosopher known for his mastery of rhetoric. By invoking Cicero's
name, Hoccleve highlights the scarcity of eloquence comparable to that
of Chaucer and Cicero in their respective languages and times. This
further emphasizes the magnitude of Chaucer's influence on English
literature and the sense of loss felt after his death.
4) Lament for Chaucer" by Thomas Hoccleve can be considered a
medieval elegy. Elegies in the medieval context were poems of mourning
and lamentation, often written to honor the memory of a deceased
person, typically a prominent figure. In this case, Hoccleve's poem
mourns the passing of Geoffrey Chaucer, a significant literary figure of
the time.The poem exhibits several characteristics of a medieval elegy
such as Expression of Grief, Praise and Tribute, Reflection on Mortality
and so on.

Part b
1) In "Lament for Chaucer" by Thomas Hoccleve, the personification of
death is a prominent literary device that adds depth and emotional
resonance to the poem. Throughout the poem, death is personified as a
relentless and inevitable force, portrayed as an active agent that has
taken away the beloved figure of Chaucer. This personification serves to
emphasize the finality of death and the sense of loss experienced by the
speaker.

Deth, was to hastyf

to renne on thee and reve the thi life...
She myghte han taried hir vengeance a while
til that sum man had egal to the be;
Death, was too fast
To run at you and rob you of your life.
She might have held her vengeance off a while
Until there was an equal in your place

"Death, was too fast / To run at you and rob you of your life." Here,
Hoccleve personifies death, describing it as being too eager or hasty in
taking Chaucer's life. The metaphor of death "running" at Chaucer
conveys a sense of urgency and suddenness. The phrase "rob you of
your life" metaphorically portrays death as a thief that steals life away
abruptly."She might have held her vengeance off a while / Until there
was an equal in your place" The speaker suggests that death could have
delayed its action ("held her vengeance off") and waited a bit longer
before claiming Chaucer's life. The term "vengeance" here refers to
death's action of taking a life. The speaker imagines that death could
have waited until someone else, "an equal" or a suitable replacement,
was present to take Chaucer's place. This implies that Chaucer's unique
talents and contributions were so significant that it would have been
better for him to remain until someone equally accomplished emerged.
But in the next verse, he dismisses his previous thought as he holds the
belief that there is no man equal to Chaucer.

Part C
1) Thomas Hoccleve's "Lament for Chaucer" is a heartfelt tribute to his
master, Geoffrey Chaucer, one of the most celebrated poets of Middle
English literature. It is not only a tribute but also an expression of deep
sorrow and admiration for Chaucer's contributions to English literature
1. **Emotional Intensity**:
- Hoccleve's poem is emotionally charged. He expresses profound
sorrow and mourning over Chaucer's death. The depth of his grief is
evident in lines such as, "Of al our care, god leve hym wel the space! /
For of this worlde it is but litel space" (meaning, "Of all our sorrow, may
God grant him a peaceful rest! For in this world, life is brief"). This
emotional intensity conveys the genuine sense of loss and affection he
had for his master.
2. **Literary Legacy and Pioneering**:
- Hoccleve acknowledges Chaucer as the "firste fyndere of our fair
langage" (meaning, "the first founder of our beautiful language"). This
tribute recognizes Chaucer's pioneering role in shaping Middle English
literature. Hoccleve emphasizes Chaucer's contribution to the
development of the English language as a literary medium, an
acknowledgment of his enduring influence.
3. **Personal Connection**:
- Hoccleve's poem illustrates a deep personal connection between him
and Chaucer. He refers to Chaucer as "maister dere" (meaning, "dear
master"), reflecting the mentor-student relationship they shared. This
personal dimension adds a layer of intimacy to the tribute, showing the
impact Chaucer had on Hoccleve's life and career.
4. **Chaucer's Role as a Literary Guide**:
- Hoccleve laments the loss of Chaucer's guidance and mentorship. He
expresses a sense of directionlessness and loss in Chaucer's absence.
This highlights Chaucer's role not only as a literary figure but also as a
teacher and guide to younger poets like Hoccleve.
5. **Cultural Significance**:
- The poem is historically significant as it provides insights into the
literary circles and relationships of the time. It offers a glimpse into the
esteem in which Chaucer was held by his contemporaries. This cultural
context adds depth to the tribute. In sum, Thomas Hoccleve's "Lament
for Chaucer" is a deeply emotional
and reverential tribute that reflects both the personal and literary
significance of Geoffrey Chaucer. It emphasizes Chaucer's pioneering
role in English literature, the mentor-student relationship, and his
lasting legacy. The poem serves as a testament to the profound impact
Chaucer had on his contemporaries and subsequent generations of
poets.

2) As a result of the great thematic, formal, and stylistic diversity that

marks the lyric genre throughout the Middle Ages, the medieval lyric is
somewhat difficult to define in precise terms. Modern expectations of
the term “lyric,” typically understood as words set to music or as a poem
designed to convey the emotions of the author, while not entirely
inappropriate, do not have immediate or universal relevance here. The
medieval lyric is most often, and perhaps most simply, understood as a
term that refers to a short poem, typically written as verse, on a given
subject. Such a definition may initially seem unhelpful, but it is
necessarily and even usefully broad, given the lack of overall uniformity
that governs the lyric corpus.

The "Lament for Chaucer" is lyrical in nature because it expresses the

deep grief and personal emotions of the author, Thomas Hoccleve, over
the death of his mentor and friend, Geoffrey Chaucer.
Lyric poems are often shorter in length and are intended to be sung or
recited with musical accompaniment. While the "Lament for Chaucer"
may not have been set to music, it shares the brevity and emotional
intensity typical of lyric poetry. It conveys its sentiments concisely and
powerfully.

Lyric poetry relies on vivid and emotive language to convey feelings and
emotions. Hoccleve's lament employs expressive and heartfelt language
to mourn the loss of Chaucer and to celebrate his literary contributions.
It reflects the emotional depth associated with lyric poetry.
Lyric poems often contain personal reflections and introspection. In this
case, Hoccleve reflects on his personal relationship with Chaucer,
adding a deeply personal and introspective dimension to the poem.
In summary, the "Lament for Chaucer" is called a medieval lyric poem
because it embodies the characteristics of lyric poetry, including its
emotional expression, concise form, expressive language, and personal
reflections. It serves as a poignant and heartfelt tribute to Geoffrey
Chaucer, conveying deep grief and admiration in a lyrical and emotive
manner.

CHAUCER

1)NARRATIVE ART
Chaucer’s narrative art is heavily infused with irony and satire. He often
introduces characters in a manner that highlights their flaws and
hypocrisies, allowing readers to discern the gap between appearance
and reality. It also includes the characterization, faming of devices, use
of satire and so on. Also, He uses a poetic form known as rhymed
couplets, written in iambic pentameter. Chaucer’s linguistic skill permits
him to create a rich and rhythmic narrative accessible and pleasing to
the ear despite the language’s considerable evolution since his time. His
poetic techniques, including metaphor, alliteration, and imagery, add
depth to his storytelling.

2)MAJOR WORKS
Geoffrey Chaucer wrote around 14 books that we know of at this time.
Some were novels, others were poetry, and at least one discussed a
scientific topic, that of the astrolabe. It includes, . The Book of the
Duches, ‘The Parliament of Fowls’,The House of Fame,Troilus and
Criseyde and The Canterbury tales.

3) MEDIEVAL POET
Geoffrey Chaucer (l. c. 1343-1400 CE) was a medieval English poet, writer,
and philosopher best known for his work The Canterbury Tales, a
masterpiece of world literature. The Canterbury Tales is a work of poetry
featuring a group of pilgrims from different social classes on a journey
to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket in Canterbury who agree to tell each
other stories to pass the time. Chaucer was well acquainted with people
from all classes, and this is evident in the details he chooses as well as
the accents employed, how the people dress, and even their hairstyles.
The Canterbury Tales have therefore been invaluable to later scholars
as a kind of snapshot of medieval life.

Chaucer was a prolific writer, creating many other fine works which have
been overshadowed by The Canterbury Tales. None of his pieces were
technically published during his lifetime as that concept had not yet
been invented. His works were hand-copied by scribes who admired
them and either sold or shared them. Chaucer did not make a living
from his writing, as his occupations and salaries from court records
attest, but was honored for his poetry by noble patrons in other ways.

4) STYLE
He used a blend of humor and satire to describe the antics and follies
of people from all walks of life, including the clergy, the nobility, the
merchants, and the common folk. Chaucer's style is also known for its
use of rhyming couplets, which was a popular form of poetry in medieval
England.He used this form to create a rhythmic and musical quality to
his writings, which was an important aspect of story telling in his time.
The rhythmic couplets also helped to create a sense of unity and
coherence in the collection of tales.

5) FATHER OF ENGLISH POETRY

Geoffrey Chaucer is one of the greatest poets in England. father of
English
According to Dryden –“Chaucer is the father of English poetry. “
There are three reasons to call him the father of English poetry. These
reasons are–
I)Contribution to the development of English poetry.
II)Use of Variation and Style in English poetry.
III)Contribution to the development of English language in poetry

6) CHARACTERIZATION
On the aisle of English poetry, Chaucer flourishes the fantastic colours
of his words and paints different characters of his age with minute
observation. Indeed, he is a great painter who paints not with colours
but with words. Undoubtedly, he has:

The Seeing Eye, the retentive memory, the judgment to select and the
ability to expound.

His keen analysis of the minutest detail of his characters, their dresses,
looks and manners enable him to present his characters lifelike and not
mere bloodless abstractions.

His poetical piece, The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales is a real picture
gallery in which thirty portraits are hanging on the wall with all of their
details and peculiarities. Rather it is a grand procession with all the life
and movement, the colour and sound. Indeed, His characters represent
English society, morally and socially, in the real and recognizable types.
And still more representative of humanity in general. So, the characters
in Chaucer’s “The Prologue” are for all ages and for all lands.

Chaucer is the first great painter of character in English literature. In

fact, next to Shakespeare he is the greatest in this field. In The Prologue
to the Canterbury Tales the thirty portraits traced by Chaucer give us
an excellent idea of the society at that time. Except for royalty and
aristocracy, on one hand and the robbers or out casts on the other, he
has painted in brief practically the whole English nation.

The thirty pilgrims, including the host, belong to the most varied
professions. The Knight and the Squire presents the warlike element of
the society. The learned and liberal vocations are signified by the Man
of Law, the Doctor and so on.

To preserve the distinctions among these typical characters, Chaucer

has indicated the differences in their clothes, manner of speech, habits
and tendencies representing the common traits and the average
characteristics of each profession.
It was for the first time in European literature that a writer proved
himself clearly conscious of the relation between individuals and ideas.
Moreover, Chaucer’s characters are consistent and instead of being
static, they grow and develop in the course of the tale, like living human
beings.

7) LITERARY CAREER
Literary critics and historians have tended to partition Chaucer's
literary career into three major periods: the French, the Italian and the
English.

French period:
During this time, Chaucer translated the "Roman de la Rose," a French
poem written during the 1200s. He also wrote his "Book of the Duchess,"
an elegiac poem that shared much with contemporary French poetry of
the time but also departed from that poetry in important ways.
Chaucer's extensive reading of Latin poets such as Boethius also
influenced his own work.
Italian period:
A journey to Italy in 1372 kicked off what is now widely considered to be
Chaucer's Italian period, which lasted from 1372 to 1385. The trip
introduced him to the works of contemporary Italian writers, such as
Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio. At the end of this period, Chaucer wrote
his longest poem, "Troilus and Criseide," a love poem that he adapted
from Boccaccio's "Il Filostrato."

English period:
During the final period of Chaucer's literary career, sometimes referred
to as the English period (1385-1400), Chaucer wrote the work for which he
is now best known, "The Canterbury Tales." In this classic of English
literature, Chaucer tells the stories of a group of disparate travelers on
a journey. Often sharp and funny, "The Canterbury Tales" was more
innovative and less formulaic than other contemporary English poetry,
such as the work of John Gower.
8) REALISM
Literature is the mirror of its age. Supreme literary artist is one who
becomes a mouthpiece and provides a real picture of his age with its
minute details. Chaucer is a perfect representative of his age. He is in
true sense a social chronicler of England. His poetry reflects the 14th
century not in fragment but as a complete whole.

Realism of Chaucer in The Canterbury Tales not gives us the impression

that whatever has been described is real in the ordinary sense of the
word. Realism is not reality; it is a collective term for the devices that give
the effect of reality.

Chaucer represented life in its nakedness.

What he has given is a direct transpiration of daily life.

Chaucer’s principle object of writing poetry was to portray men and

women truthfully without any exaggeration and to present an exact
picture of average humanity. He painted life as he saw it, and he saw it
with so observant eye that it seems that he was viewing all the events as
well as characters through a kaleidoscope. Because of his this quality
his epoch, “The Prologue of the Canterbury Tales” has become one of
the vivid epoch of history. Moreover he is a man of the world so he mixes
with all types of mankind and he observes the minute peculiarities of
human nature. “The Canterbury Tales” is not only a long poetical piece
but a social history of England. He exposes almost all the aspects of his
age as well as of the people along with the detail of their appearance,
sex profession, attire and conduct.
The setting of The Canterbury Tales is highly realistic. A pilgrimage was
one of the most common sights in the fourteenth century England. To
relate the stories of these pilgrims, Chaucer gives the illusion, not of an
imaginary world, but of real one. The more real the world of his setting
is, the more his tales by contrast seems like tales, even though some to
them deal with real everyday life. Unlike Boccaccio, who in his tales
quickly slips back into frank artificiality, Chaucer held consistently to
realism throughout The Canterbury Tales.

9) AGE OF CHAUCER
INTRODUCTION: The age of Chaucer is the first significant period in the
literary history of
England. In every walk of life there were signs of change. The social,
political, religious and
literary changes were taking place. In short, it was an age of change.
AN AGE OF TRANSITION: The age of Chaucer was a transitional age. The
medievalism was
departing and modernism was developing slowly. Wycliffe and his
followers were sowing
the seeds of Reformation. They were making attack upon the church.
Individualism was
being emphasized. Military events were contributing to the growth of
patriotism and
national consciousness. The industrial development was giving rise to
the middle and
working classes. It led to the end of feudal system. In this way we find
that the age of Chaucer
was an era of transition.
GROWTH OF NATIONAL SENTIMENT: The age of Chaucer witnessed the
beginning of the
Hundred Years War. England was at war with Scotland and France. This
war brought great
victories in the battles of Crecy and Poitiers. The consciousness of
national unity was
strengthened. The war gave a feeling of national pride and self respect
to the people of
England. The national life got purified and powerful national sentiments
grew.
BLACK DEATH, FAMINE AND SOCIAL UNREST: The age of Chaucer faced
natural calamities
and social unrest. Plagues and pestilences, constitutional conflicts and
unorthodoxy came to
the forefront. In 1348-49 came the terrible Black Death. It shook the
social fabric violently. A
large number of people died. It reappeared in 1362, 1367 and 1370.
Famine followed plague.
Vagrants and thieves multiplied. Labour became scarce. Heavy taxation
was imposed. The
Toll Tax brought about the peasants' revolt. This revolt was a clear sign
of social tension and
unrest.
THE CoRRUPTION OF THE CHURCH: In the age of Chaucer the church
was the seat of power
and prestige. It was infected with corruption. The churchmen were fond
of wealth and
luxury. They indulged themselves in all sorts of vices. They lived in a
Godless and worldly
way. John Wycliff, the morning star of the Reformation, led an attack
upon the growing
corruption of the church.
THE NEW LEARNING : The age of Chaucer marked the dawn of new
learning. It brought about
a change in the general outlook of the age. Man's intellectual horizon
expanded. He began to
make efforts to liberate himself from the shackles of theological slavery.
Two Italian writers
Petrarch and Boccaccio were the pioneers of this great revival. But
beneath the medievalism
the heaven of Renaissance was already at work. The modern world was
in the process of
being born.
CONCLUSION: Thus in the age of Chaucer a curious modern note
began to be apparent. There
was a sharper spirit of criticism. The vogue of the romance was passing.
In this age there was
a spirit of revolt. The church was losing her great hold upon the masses
of people.
Reformation was in process. The light of new learning was shining. This
age was given
proper voice by Chaucer.

10) CONTRIBUTION
Chaucer in some ways inaugurated English poetry at the time when
English wasconsidered a vernacular in England and French and Latin
reigned. Chaucer wasjust not a first-rate literary artist; he was the
pivotal figure in English literature who encompassed earlier traditions,
genres and novelty in forms and literary content with his ingenious
innovations. John Dart has called Chaucer the father of English
poetry due to his exceptional contributions to the English language.
Similarly,Matthew Arnold has remarked, “with him is born our real
poetry.”

Chaucer was the first English poet who gave full expression to the new
hopes and aspirations of the people of his time. He was a realist who
found fitting subjects for his poetry not in gods and heroes of a Golden
age but in life that unfolded before his eyes. He mixed freely with
humanity and expressed its aspirations and concerns in his poetry with
full sincerity. Chaucer’s realism is truly discernible in his mammoth work
The Canterbury Tales in which he has painted the truthful
picture of the 14th-century life through a group of pilgrims. By
introducing pilgrims from different classes and giving an analysis of
their manners, virtues and
follies, clothes and habits, Chaucer didn’t just give voice to the
tendencies of his
age but he also added new dimensions to the act of literary
characterisation.
Another remarkable aspect of Chaucer’s work is his humour which is
delightful
and stimulating. Before Chaucer, English humour was synonymous with
buffoonery and horseplay, but he refined and raised it to the standards
of literary
humour which were kind and patronising as in the case of the clerk of
Oxenford
and semi-farcical in the case of Wife of Bath. By his remarkable
observation of inconsistencies in conduct and power of selecting what
is typical in manners,
Chaucer also paved the path for satirists of the forthcoming
generations.
Chaucer is known for his metrical innovations. He invented Rhyme Royal
stanza
pattern which is a seven lined stanza in iambic pentameter with a rhyme
scheme of
ababbcc. He was also one of the first to use blank verse for his poetry
with only a
few anonymous short works using it before him. Chaucer is also
recorded in the
oxford english dictionary as the first author to use many common
english words in
his writings. These words were probably frequently used in the language
at the
time, but chaucer with his ear for common speech, is the earliest
masuscript source.

PROLOGUE

1)WHERE ARE THE CHARACTERS GOING:

The narrator opens the General Prologue with a description of the
return of spring. He describes the April rains, the burgeoning flowers
and leaves, and the chirping birds. Around this time of year, the narrator
says, people begin to feel the desire to go on a pilgrimage. Many devout
English pilgrims set off to visit shrines in distant holy lands, but even
more choose to travel to Canterbury to visit the relics of Saint Thomas
Becket in Canterbury Cathedral, where they thank the martyr for having
helped them when they were in need.
The narrator tells us that as he prepared to go on such a pilgrimage,
staying at a tavern in Southwark called the Tabard Inn, a great company
of twenty-nine travelers entered. The travelers were a diverse group who,
like the narrator, were on their way to Canterbury. They happily agreed
to let him join them. That night, the group slept at the Tabard, and woke
up early the next morning to set off on their journey.

2) THEME AND PURPOSE

The purpose of Chaucer’s Prologue was to express the social scene of
fourteenth-century England. In his portrayal of English society, the
author chooses the typical persona of every class and profession in
contemporary England and paints his character with a painter’s brush
and the lively interest and humor of a humanist. This gallery of portraits
depicts every realistic hue of modern-day social life.

Medieval society was divided into three estates: the Church (those who
prayed), the Nobility (those who fought), and the Peasantry (those who
worked). The General Prologue to The Canterbury Tales is an estates
satire. In the Chaucer's portraits of the pilgrims, he sets out the
functions of each estate and satirizes how members of the estates –
particularly those of the Church – fail to meet their duties.

3) SPRING SEASON
Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,
And bathed every veyne in swich licour
Of which vertu engendered is the flour;

The narrator opens the General Prologue with a description of the

return of spring. He describes the April rains, the burgeoning flowers
and leaves, and the chirping birds. Around this time of year, the narrator
says, people begin to feel the desire to go on a pilgrimage.
Springtime appears as a symbol of both courtly and erotic love
throughout many of the Tales. Both the Knight’s Tale and the Nun’s
Priest’s Tale are set in May, the time of courtly love and wooing.

4) KNIGHT
In The Canterbury Tales, the Knight is a representative of those who
belong to the very high social class of the nobility.
The Knight rides at the front of the procession described in the General
Prologue, and his story is the first in the sequence. The Host clearly
admires the Knight, as does the narrator. The narrator seems to
remember four main qualities of the Knight.

The Knight is "worthy," chivalrous, honest, honorable, and courteous.

Instead of opening with the pilgrim's appearance, as Chaucer does for
many other characters, he begins by directly associating the knight with
an upstanding moral stature.

5) SQUIRE
The Squire is the Knight’s son, a young man of about twenty, who is
training to follow in his father’s footsteps. Unlike the Knight, a dignified
and sincere veteran of the crusades, the Squire is far more focused on
courtly love and romance than war, likely because of his age and relative
inexperience. He dresses lavishly, sings, and rides well, necessary traits
for the Medieval bachelor. The Squire’s Tale, which is a Medieval
romance of the sort very much in fashion in Chaucer’s time, echoes the
Squire’s character. Like him, his tale follows Medieval trends, such as
telling stories set in far-off lands, and it is focused on brave and
romantic deeds.

6) APPEARANCE OF WIFE OF BATH

In "The General Prologue," Chaucer describes the Wife of Bath as a deaf,
gap-toothed woman. She has a bold face and wears ten pounds of
"coverchiefs" and a hat on her head (Chaucer 91). She wears a skirt with
red stockings and tight-laced supple shoes. She is also a great weaver
and has been on many pilgrimages. She is described in "The General
Prologue" as being a worthy woman who has only had five husbands.
She knows all the remedies of love and is an expert at and preaches and
practices the art of love.The Wife of Bath has been married since the
age of twelve and has had five husbands.

In her "Prologue," the Wife of Bath starts out by saying she is a believer
in experience rather than authority. She says, "Experience, though noon
auctoritee Were in this world, is right ynough for me" (Chaucer 117).

7) W O B AS BOLD
The Wife of Bath is a headstrong bold woman of her time. She shows off
her Sunday clothes with evident pride, wearing ten pounds of cloth,
woven by herself under her hat.Her clothing symbolizes to the reader
that she is not timid or shy and also shows off her expertise as a
weaver..He discusses how she is a talented weaver and devoted
Christian who goes on pilgrimages often. This may make the reader
believe that she is a religious woman, but the reader later sees that the
Wife's reason to go on these pilgrimages is not due to religion. She feels
that every place should be seen; this has nothing to due with religion.
She is a very self-confident woman who thinks highly of herself and her
skills as a cloth maker.

Part B

1) ECCLESIASTICAL CHARACTERS
Ecclesiastical means belonging to or connected with the Christian
Church.Chaucer depicted a range of religious characters in Canterbury
Tales to portray the image of Christianity during that time. During
Middle Age, church was in power and all the ecclesiastical characters
were dominant in the society. At the same time, there was corruption in
the church where these ecclesiastical were involved, but few were
struggling for the true image of the religion like the poor Parson. These
religious characters include, The Nun, The Monk, The Friar, The Parson,
The Summoner, and The Pardoner.
The Nun (Prioress)
Like the other pilgrims of the Canterbury, the Prioress is one of the
major pilgrims. She is the head of a small nunnery. She is very quiet and
simple in her ways.
The Monk
The portrait of the Monk is ironic. The Monk loves hunting and attaches
no importance to religious injunctions, which strictly indicates that a
monk should not leave his cloister or that a hunter could never become
a holy man.
The Friar
Chaucer draws the character of the Friar in a very realistic manner. The
Friar is a very authoritative person. He has the authority to hear
confessions. He hears the confessions most courteously, and the
absolution he grants is pleasant.

The Parson
The Parson is popular because of his kind heart and love of charity.
Even though he himself lives in poverty, he never misses a chance to
help those in need. He is a devoted churchman unlike others. His
preaching is about Gospel and he makes sure to adopt every rule and
preach himself first so he can become an example for others.

The Summoner
He is a summoner of the church who collects fines or summons people
to the church if they violate a law or commit any sin. His face is red,
scarred heavily with sores and blemishes. It gives a frightening
appearance to him. His taste in food is as bad as his appearance. He
likes garlic, onions and loves wine. He is willing to do anything for wine.

The Pardoner
The Pardoner is a thin man with greasy and pale hair. He is completely
beardless which shows his cleverness. Self-conscious in his appearance
shows he is from the middle class. His position, to offer indulgences or
pardons of the Pope to sinners, allows him to sell pardons, miracles and
complete repentance from sins at handsome prices. He has a corrupt
profession, giving people false hope and making money from it.
2) FEMALE CHARACTERS
Primarily, there are two women characters introduced in the General
Prologue of Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales: the Prioress and
the Wife of Bath. Critics have often categorized both of them as “misfits”
– women unfit for the role they represent. This is obvious, considering
the fact that the General Prologue belongs to the genre of medieval
estate satire, that essentially attempts to point out and satirize the
follies and abuses of position that occur in the Three Estates. Chaucer’s
satire, however, is tinged with irony and humour that portrays the
women characters in a much broader and complex perspective, far
beyond the scope of traditional estate satire.

The first woman to be introduced is the Prioress. Despite occupying a

social position within the clergy, she transcends her social boundaries
by mimicking the social behavior of the aristocracy. Chaucer is deeply
aware that Madam Eglantine is not a paragon of a nun. Her smile is coy,
her French is refined and courtly and she has the most elegant table
manners. Moreover, the Prioress is an ambiguous character, yet a
perfectly acceptable one for her time. The General Prologue shows the
Prioress as a human being, counterpart to the silent Second Nun.

The Wife of Bath, Alice’s physical appearance matches the medieval

stereotype of a lustful woman. She has had five husbands, not to
mention other companions of her youth, and she is quite prepared for a
sixth.
Profiting from her marriages as well as her business as an unmatched
cloth maker, she is financially successful and independent. With a red
face matched with her red stocking, a large gap between her two front
teeth, a heavy well-dyed Sunday kerchief, a big wimple, and a hat as
broad as a shield, her new well-spurred shoes, and her straight-tied
hose – the Wife is lust incarnate.

3) MAJOR CHARACTERS
The major characters of the prologue includes The knight, Wife of bath,
the Miller, the pardoner and the narrator (Chaucer) himself.
Chaucer (The Narrator)
In the General Prologue, the narrator presents himself as a gregarious
and naïve character. Later on, the Host accuses him of being silent and
sullen. Because the narrator writes down his impressions of the pilgrims
from memory, whom he does and does not like, and what he chooses
and chooses not to remember about the characters, tells us as much
about the narrator’s own prejudices as it does about the characters
themselves.
The Knight

The first pilgrim Chaucer describes in the General Prologue, and the
teller of the first tale. The Knight represents the ideal of a medieval
Christian man-at-arms. He has participated in no less than fifteen of the
great crusades of his era. Brave, experienced, and prudent, the narrator
greatly admires him.

Bath is an English town on the Avon River, not the name of this woman’s
husband. Though she is a seamstress by occupation, she seems to be a
professional wife. She has been married five times and had many other
affairs in her youth, making her well practiced in the art of love. She
presents herself as someone who loves marriage and sex, but, from what
we see of her, she also takes pleasure in rich attire, talking, and arguing.
She is deaf in one ear and has a gap between her front teeth, which was
considered attractive in Chaucer’s time. She has traveled on pilgrimages
to Jerusalem three times and elsewhere in Europe as well.

The Pardoner

Pardoners granted papal indulgences—reprieves from penance in

exchange for charitable donations to the Church. Many pardoners,
including this one, collected profits for themselves. In fact, Chaucer’s
Pardoner excels in fraud, carrying a bag full of fake relics—for example,
he claims to have the veil of the Virgin Mary. The Pardoner has long,
greasy, yellow hair and is beardless. These characteristics were
associated with shiftiness and gender ambiguity in Chaucer’s time. The
Pardoner also has a gift for singing and preaching whenever he finds
himself inside a church.

The Miller

Stout and brawny, the Miller has a wart on his nose and a big mouth,
both literally and figuratively. He threatens the Host’s notion of
propriety when he drunkenly insists on telling the second tale. Indeed,
the Miller seems to enjoy overturning all conventions: he ruins the Host’s
carefully planned storytelling order; he rips doors off hinges; and he
tells a tale that is somewhat blasphemous, ridiculing religious clerks,
scholarly clerks, carpenters, and women.

4) DESCRIPTION OF WIFE OF BATH

In "The General Prologue," Chaucer describes the Wife of Bath as a deaf,
gap-toothed woman. She has a bold face and wears ten pounds of
"coverchiefs" and a hat on her head (Chaucer 91). She wears a skirt with
red stockings and tight-laced supple shoes. She is also a great weaver
and has been on many pilgrimages. She is described in "The General
Prologue" as being a worthy woman who has only had five husbands.
She knows all the remedies of love and is an expert at and preaches and
practices the art of love.

In her "Prologue," the Wife of Bath starts out by saying she is a believer
in experience rather than authority. She says, "Experience, though noon
auctoritee Were in this world, is right ynough for me" (Chaucer 117). The
Wife of Bath has been married since the age of twelve and has had five
husbands. So she definitely has a lot of experience in the area of sex
and marriage. Therefore, she says that she is a strong believer in
experience as opposed to written authority such as the Bible. She does
not see anything wrong with the fact that she has had five husbands,
because she says that even God wants man to increase and multiply:
"God bad is for to wexe and multiplye: that gentil text can I wel
understonde" (Chaucer 117). In fact, she is going on this pilgrimage to
Canterbury with the hope of finding her sixth husband. Even though the
Wife of Bath says she is a believer in experience rather than authority,
she often quotes and uses the Bible to support her ideas and beliefs,
though she misquotes more often than not.
The Wife of Bath believes that the husband is his wife’s slave and owes
her for life. She believes that as his wife she has control and power over
him and owns his body and flesh.

The Wife of Bath has lived her life to the fullest and she does not regret
anything. In her youth she has had many lovers and has had a good
time. Even though age has taken away her youth and figure, it makes
her feel good to think that she has really enjoyed herself in her youth.

5) REVEAL OF TRAIT
The Wife of Bath has traveled all over the world on pilgrimages, so
Canterbury is a jaunt compared to other perilous journeys she has
endured. Not only has she seen many lands, she has lived with five
husbands. She is worldly in both senses of the word: she has seen the
world and has experience in the ways of the world, that is, in love and
sex.

Rich and tasteful, the Wife’s clothes veer a bit toward extravagance: her
face is wreathed in heavy cloth, her stockings are a fine scarlet color,
and the leather on her shoes is soft, fresh, and brand new—all of which
demonstrate how wealthy she has become. Scarlet was a particularly
costly dye, since it was made from individual red beetles found only in
some parts of the world.

The fact that she hails from Bath, a major English cloth-making town in
the Middle Ages, is reflected in both her talent as a seamstress and her
stylish garments. Bath at this time was fighting for a place among the
great European exporters of cloth, which were mostly in the Netherlands
and Belgium. So the fact that the Wife’s sewing surpasses that of the
cloth makers of “Ipres and of Gaunt” (Ypres and Ghent) speaks well of
Bath’s (and England’s) attempt to outdo its overseas competitors.

Although she is argumentative and enjoys talking, the Wife is intelligent

in a commonsense, rather than intellectual, way. Through her
experiences with her husbands, she has learned how to provide for
herself in a world where women had little independence or power. The
chief manner in which she has gained control over her husbands has
been in her control over their use of her body. The Wife uses her body
as a bargaining tool, withholding sexual pleasure until her husbands
give her what she demands.

6) SATIRE
Satire has power in society, poems, movies, political events, and even
controls parts of our everyday lives. Satire is the use of humor, irony,
exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize people or things.
Today’s generation of children are greatly affected by the use of this
literary tool, as it requires critical reflection, so the laughter of the
remark isn't the end of the joke. With the abundance of technology we
have today, it is easy for comedians, actors, and artists to spread their
thoughts and give their opinion on many controversial views. Geoffrey
Chaucer's poem, The Canterbury Tales, can be reflected through today’s
society with the use of satire, which conveys a great amount of power
and can transmit messages about women empowerment and the seven
virtues.

He uses satire to mock the estates, or the social classes in medieval

times. These three estates were those who prayed, those who fought,
and those who labored. Much irony was used in his tales, one most
commonly being satire. Satire is exposing someone or something’s
stupidity using humor or ridicule. The whole book can be viewed as
satire on medieval life that Chaucer was trying to show readers.
Chaucer uses satire while introducing the pilgrims in the General
Prologue. All of these pilgrims are making a trip to Canterbury together
no matter what estate they are a part of. One example of this is the
description of the monk. The monk is described as “hunting a hare or
riding at a fence, with all this fun he spared for no expense. I saw his
sleeves were garnished at the hand, with fine grey fur, the finest in the
land” (Chaucer 8). Typically, monks were to spend their time studying in
the monasteries or the churches. Also monks would wear modest
clothes, but the character Chaucer describes is dressed in lavish attire
showing off his wealth and material goods.

Chaucer also uses many techniques throughout his poem, such as

making some of the female characters in his story ‘different’ than the
“societal-norm”. The Wife of Bath, who has her own separate story, is
quite different from the women you would normally read about in this
time period. She had five husbands, she cusses and told dirty jokes, and
she was the one giving advice to people in town, instead of the men.
Chaucer gives a description of her that does not make her seem like the
kind of woman who would be a “man’s object” and abide to whatever he
says.

Chaucer wanted to portray and show the reader the troubles of life in
medieval times without making it sound boring. Many readers find
interest in reading humorous novels that give the story depth. As shown
in the story about the pardoner and the general prologue, satire is used
to Because of this, Chaucer decided to use satire to change the view or
to make the reader aware of a new view by showing them the opposite
view to be foolish and ridicule it.

7) HUMOUR
Geoffrey Chaucer is one of those artists who exerts a puzzling amount
and variety of humor, and wields it in a remarkably subtle manner. He
makes the common reader laugh and the intelligent reader smile. He is
the first great humorist in English literature.
Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400).

Chaucer's humor is refined. The purpose of humor in Chaucer's poem is

not to hurt others, but just to illuminate and illustrate just what they are.
It is said that Chaucer's humor is gentle because he has a deep
affection for humanity. He is a lover of mankind, a philanthropist. He
loves men equally, whether good or bad. He neither condemns fools nor
shows disgust for rascals. He gently unmasks their nature, manner or
behavior. He wants to give pleasure by portraying their funny traits
artistically revealing the secret of their foibles. He intends to amuse or
delights the reader. His humor is free from biting satire. However, he
exposes the vices of the society in a subtle and gentle manner.

In the Prologue, every character is dexterously enlivened by humorous

touches, and the pageant of merry pilgrims lives vividly in our memories.
There is the light-hearted touch of a genial humorist when Chaucer
presents the Prioress. Chaucer makes a sly dig at her tenderness when
he says that she is so charitable and tender-hearted that she would
weep if she saw a mouse caught in a trap. Though a Prioress, she
indulged in love-making. To Chaucer, with his frequent voyages to
foreign countries, her French appeared perhaps rather Londonish and
hardly Parisian.

His characterization of almost all the characters here is, indeed,

humorously satirical. for example, we laugh at the Squire's lovesickness,
the leanness of the Clerk of Oxford and of his horse which is compared
to a rake. The motive behind this kind of humor is laughter for its own
sake. But irony becomes much more conspicuous in Chaucer's
treatment of characters, especially when the poet shows a corrective
motive.

TROILUS AND CRISEYDE

1)Troilus is a Trojan knight and the son of King Priam of Troy.

At the beginning of Book 1, Troilus is an arrogant knight. He visits the
Palladium with his fellow knights and dismisses the actions of the
followers of love with cavalier disregard. The god of love Cupid hears his
comments and vows revenge. Troilus is immediately struck with love
when he sees Criseyde and is never able to fully recover. He shows his
emotional debilitation in the remainder of Book 1. He sets out on a
course of winning the love of Criseyde and consummates their
relationship in Book 3. However, the pair are separated in Book 4. In
Book 5 Troilus comes to terms with the finality of his condition. He
dedicates himself to cruelty on the battlefield and dies in battle. Only in
death does he receive the redemption of God's love.

2) Cressida is the daughter of Calchas, a Trojan priest who joined the

Greek side of the Trojan War, becoming a traitor to his country. She was
left behind in Troy until she was sent to the Greeks in a prisoner
exchange for Antenor.She is the object of the love interest of Troilus, a
Trojan knight and son of Priam, the King of Troy. Cressida is concerned
that Troilus's feelings for her are not true, and therefore, she hides her
own true feelings from him until her uncle, Pandarus, finally brings them
together. Once she arrives in the Greek camp, she gives herself to the
Greek warrior Diomedes instead of remaining loyal to Troilus.

3) Betrayal
The theme of betrayal first appears when Criseyde forsakes her vows to
Troilus and chooses to remain in the Greek camp with Diomede. Part of
Troilus's transformation is linked to Criseyde's betrayal. He starts out as
a young, arrogant knight and then evolves into a mature, responsible
partner. Troilus makes himself vulnerable by placing his trust in
Criseyde. Criseyde's betrayal of his trust leads to terrible suffering and
Troilus's eventual death on the battlefield. However, Troilus gains
spiritual maturity in death. God's love helps Troilus understand his
self-obsession and the foolishness of believing that human
relationships could provide him with unconditional and faithful love.

Chaucer also uses the theme of betrayal to add depth to the characters
of Troilus and Criseyde. Betrayal is not characterized as a
one-dimensional act of petty meanness. Instead, it involves
psychological complexities and conflicts that help readers see both
Troilus and Criseyde as completely human.
4) Imageries used:
In the first book, the narrator describes the coming of spring, a time
when the people of Troy are celebrating the gods at the
Palladium—despite their conflict with the Greeks. The vivid imagery of
the "meadow clothed with new greenery" and "white and red flowers
smell[ing] sweetly" expresses the gaiety that the Trojans feel, even amidst
the chaos of war. It also serves to contrast with the morbid mood and
attire of Criseyde, who is still mourning the exile of her father.

In Book 5, the narrator portrays Criseyde’s beautiful and elegant

qualities, such as her “shining hair” that falls over her back and is tied
“with a golden thread.” Her gaze is also described as especially powerful,
with the narrator exclaiming that “paradise stood mirrored in her eyes.

5) The setting of a work refers to the background against which the

action of the plot is set. This background involves various elements such
as the geographical location, the time period and the social context.
From Chaucer's viewpoint, Troilus and Criseyde is a historical romance
of the ancient world, set in Troy at the time of the war with Greece. The
setting is significant: legend and medieval chroniclers attributed the
name Britain to the founding of the nation by Brutus of Troy,
descendant of Aeneas, the founder of Italy. The war with Greece is the
basic condition of life in the city and the backdrop of the action, but
Chaucer's narrator tells us that his is a love story; we must go elsewhere
to hear about the war.

6) Pandarus is Criseyde’s uncle, and the only male presence in the young
maiden's life. He is also Troilus’ loyal friend, confidante, and advisor. He
has been previously described as a "secondary" narrator, prompting plot
points to occur and pushing characters into action. He orchestrates
almost all of Troilus and Criseyde’s love affair, from manipulating
Criseyde into agreeing to meet Troilus, to physically pushing the two
lovers into bed together. Pandarus is nearly as invested in the
relationship as Troilus, even telling Criseyde he will kill himself if she
doesn't accept Troilus' advances. When Criseyde and Troilus are
separated, Pandarus acts as a counselor and often soothes Troilus in
his bouts of sorrow and uncertainty.

7) HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Troilus and Criseyde has two significant contextual considerations. The
first consideration is the context in which the events of the story occur.
Understanding the historical conflict between Troy and the Greeks
clarifies the significance of the story's events. The second consideration
encompasses the inspiration, literary motives, and goals of Geoffrey
Chaucer for writing Troilus and Criseyde.

The Trojan War

The Trojan War (c. 12th–13th century BCE) is the setting for the events in
Troilus and Criseyde. Historians continue to debate whether the Trojan
War was a myth or historical fact. Although no definitive date has been
established for this conflict, multiple archaeological excavations have
found evidence that a large-scale battle was fought outside Troy around
roughly 1180 BCE.

From Chaucer's viewpoint, Troilus and Criseyde is a historical romance

of the ancient world, set in Troy at the time of the war with Greece. The
setting is significant: legend and medieval chroniclers attributed the
name Britain to the founding of the nation by Brutus of Troy,
descendant of Aeneas, the founder of Italy. The war with Greece is the
basic condition of life in the city and the backdrop of the action which
portrays a love story.

8) COURTLY LOVE
From the moment when Troilus sees Criseyde and begins to fall in love
with her in Book One of Troilus and Criseyde, it becomes evident that he
approaches courtly love with pure-hearted idealism, always adhering to
proper protocols and remaining faithful to his beloved. The narrator
reinforces this when he describes Troilus as inexperienced in love,
stating that “for no devocioun / Hadde he to non, to reven hym his
reste.”2 As the narrator illustrates, Troilus has not been jaded by
previous encounters with unrequited love, resulting both in his naivety
and in his ability to woo Criseyde and serve as her lover with an
approach of pure-hearted idealism. Although he is captivated by the
beauty and grace of Criseyde upon seeing her in the temple, Troilus,
adhering to the courtly love tradition, “neither chere made, ne word
tolde; / But from afer, his manere for to holde,” and quietly admires her
from a distance.3 Rather than openly proclaiming his intent to woo
Criseyde, Troilus instead returns to his private chamber to ponder her
beauty and virtue, resolving to serve her honorably and discreetly as a
true courtly lover. As he thinks upon Criseyde in secrecy, Troilus pledges
his enduring service to her, stating “more than myself wol love yow to my
laste.”4 Although he suffers greatly, desiring to immediately have
Criseyde as his lover, Troilus resolves to adhere to the rules of courtly
love when wooing her. This further reinforces that Troilus places his lady
and protecting her honor before the fulfillment of his own desires,
emphasizing his character as an ideal courtly lover entirely committed
to serving his beloved. This total commitment to Criseyde which Troilus
demonstrates is further evidenced in Book Three, as Troilus continues to
serve Criseyde faithfully after winning her affections according to the
protocols of courtly love.

9)WOMEN REPRESENTATION AND MEDEIVAL POEM

Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde was one of several versions of the story
in the medieval period and later. Chaucer's lengthy poem, composed
around 1385, was an adaptation of the work by Italian poet Giovanni
Boccaccio ||.
The love story of Troilus and Criseyde was a medieval invention. While
the accounts by Chaucer and other writers (see box) were presented as
an ancient tale, with characters’ names taken from the legend ofTroy,
the passions of those characters and their interrelationships were very
different from the Greek versions. For example, Criseyde can be
identified as Chryseis, the daughter of the Trojan priest Chryses, but in
the medieval story her father was a much more famous priest named
Calchas. The fact that Calchas was actually a Greek priest seems not to
have bothered the medieval audience—if they were even aware of such
discrepancies. The Trojan War served merely as a setting for a typical
medieval story in which everything revolved around the courtly love of
the main characters. Although the Trojan heroes were valiant in battle,
they put their romantic interests ahead of their exploits on the
battlefield, and love became the main focus of the story.

10) Major characters:

Troilus
A prince of Troy. The younger brother of Hector and Paris, he is a valiant
warrior and an honorable man. He is also desperately in love with
Cressida.

Cressida
A beautiful young Trojan woman. The daughter of Calchas, a Trojan
priest who defected to the Greek camp, she becomes Troilus's lover.

Hector
A prince of Troy. The greatest warrior on the Trojan side—and matched
in might only by Achilles himself—he is a hero to his entire city and is
respected even by his enemies.

Ulysses
One of the Greek commanders. A highly intelligent, even philosophical
man, he is renowned for his cunning.

Pandarus
Cressida's uncle. He serves as a go-between for Troilus and Cressida,
acting as a kind of cheerful, bawdy pimp for his niece.

Thersites
A deformed slave serving Ajax who has a vicious, abusive tongue.

Achilles
The greatest of the Greek warriors, he is also an arrogant, vicious thug,
who refuses to fight in the war whenever his pride is injured.
Ajax
A Greek warrior, he is as proud as Achilles, but less intelligent and less
skilled in battle.

Agamemnon
The Greek general, and the elder brother of Menelaus.

Diomedes
A Greek commander who seduces Cressida.
Paris
A prince of Troy. His theft of Menelaus's wife, Helen, precipitated the
Trojan War.

Menelaus
A Greek commander, Agamemnon's brother, and the abandoned
husband of Helen.

Calchas
A Trojan priest, and Cressida's father. He defected to the Greeks in the
early days of the war.

11) Theme:
Chaucer’s narrator regularly alludes to the concept of fortune,
personified by the goddess Fortuna and her symbol of the wheel. While
a man is held at the top of Fortuna’s wheel, he has good luck and
experiences positive outcomes. Yet, he is always in danger of the wheel
suddenly turning and encountering major challenges. At the beginning
of the first book, it is warned that Troilus will move "from woe to joy, and
then out of joy," confirming from the start that his fortune will fluctuate
and end quite badly.

Love is central to Chaucer’s tale, and Troilus and Criseyde’s love affair
follows many conventions of the medieval concept of "courtly love." This
includes worship of the maiden from afar (Book 1), rejection of the male
by the virtuous lady (Book 2), and chivalric behavior (Book 5). In Book 2,
Troilus complains of a sickness that he cannot recover from, and he
regularly faints. These are presented as symptoms of "lovesickness," a
medieval idea that suggested to be deprived of one’s love was akin to a
physical illness.

The maiden initially rejecting her suitor was also a characteristic

element that is included in Chaucer's text. As the convention goes, the
lady must first be seen as publicly demure, and reject the man's first
advances before submitting to his desire. However, Chaucer's story
differs slightly from other literary romances in that it doesn't comfort
readers with a happy ending. Instead, Criseyde decides to betray Troilus
for Diomede for the sake of comfort and security.

Troilus' insurmountable heartbreak is a rather dire conclusion to the

drama, yet it is a conscious plot choice by the author, who uses his
hero's downfall to impart a lesson to his readers about the true nature
of love. For Chaucer, the silly conventions of courtship and infatuation
are a mere shadow of a greater spiritual love which must first be
directed towards God. All else, as demonstrated through Troilus'
example, brings immense suffering and binds one ultimately to the
illusion of "worldly vanity."

12) Critical Analysis

Written between 1381 and 1386, Troilus is regarded by some as Chaucer’s

finest work; Pearsall implies that Chaucer himself treated it as such,
‘quite self consciously and deliberately’ (Pearsall 1992: 170) and indeed
Chaucer makes large claims for it in the final section of the text (Troilus,
V: 1786–92) where he envisages the poem paying its respects to Homer,
Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and Statius, all of whom wrote epics and among
whose illustrious number Chaucer thus places himself. Lucan (39–65 AD)
was the author of the Pharsalia,which deals with the war between
Caesar and Pompey. Statius (c.45–96 AD) wrote the Thebiad, which
recounts the rather bloody lives of Oedipus’ sons. Ovid was not only
responsible for the Metamorphoses, but also for the Heroides, in which
female characters from Classical myths and epic, give their own sides of
their stories, usually bewailing their fates in letter form (Chaucer goes
on to imitate this in his Legend [102]). Homer, of course, is the putative
author of the Greek epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, whom Virgi
limitated in writing his own epic, the Aeneid, which deals with events for
the surviving Trojans after the end of the Trojan War, thus taking up
where Homer left off. Chaucer’s boast is thus quite high, but his pride
may have been justified: Troilus is Chaucer’s longest single poem (the
only large endeavour he actually finished) and is remarkable for its
complexity of character and interweaving of plot, narration and
historical background, which lend it a quality now frequently associated
with novels. ‘Astonishingly’ so, according to Brewer (Brewer 1998: 180)
although Stephen Barney, the Riverside editor, more coolly refers to the
wider genre as historical romance, reminding us that not only
Boccaccio, but also Chrétien de Troyes and Benoît (in whose
mid-twelfth-century Roman de Troie the story of Troilus and Criseyde
first appeared) wrote in similar vein. Similar, but not identical: while the
story itself was well-known, and indeed Chaucer is in many ways
translating Boccaccio’s Il Filostrato, it is a translation informed by
Chaucer’s interest in Boethius which he was translating at roughly the
same time [83]), in narrative and in developing his own poetic repertoire.
The result is a richer text, which rewards study more than light reading.

PART A
1) The Wife of Bath’s Prologue provides an introduction to medieval
ideas about marriage and love. The Prologue begins like a sermon and
then takes on the terms of misogyny and misogamy as the Wife
describes her first three marriages, demonstrating her success in
manipulating the marriage system to her own advantage as a means to
consolidate money and power. When the Wife speaks of her fourth and
fifth husbands, however, the Prologue becomes more personal, like a
modern autobiography, exploring the role of love in marriage and its
relationship to gender hierarchy and domestic violence. In her prologue,
Chaucer’s Wife of Bath defends marriage against religious teachings
that claim that it is inferior to celibacy, maintaining the association of
marriage with sex but embracing a more modern perspective that
sexual pleasure is a virtue and rejecting the idea that wives should
always obey their husbands. The Prologue presents both the challenges
to women’s agency posed by medieval marriage and, conversely, the
ways existing practices of medieval marriage could be manipulated to
empower women.
2) The tale by the Wife is one full of irony. The statements that are
uttered from her lips are always against who she really is and what she
actually believes. Chaucer placed each type of irony: verbal, dramatic,
and situational within the contents of her speech to enhance the
readers’ perception of her. The main irony of this story is the fact that
the Knight committed a crime against a woman where he had complete
control over her, yet a woman has control over him in the end. Other
Things to Consider: In the Wife of Bath's tale, the Wife of Bath says that
women cannot keep a secret.
3) The Wife of Bath’s Prologue and Tale is littered with numerous
references of animals, birds, horses , domestic imageries and so on.
Animal imagery is used extensively throughout TheCanterbury Tales to
emphasise characters’physical features. Also, The Wife claims that,just
as Jesus was able to feed the five thousand with bread,so too can her
sexuality and the sexualityof other women refresh many men. She uses
the flour metaphor to describe her ageing,
explaining that“The flour is goon;ther is namoore to telle,/The bren,as I
best kan,now moste I selle”. The white “flour”suggests the loss of the
beauty of her youth but,every practical,she
intends to make the most of what she has.
4) Additionally, The Wife of Bath utilizes classical mythology allusions to
justify why women should be relieved from the expectations of sexual
purity. In fact, she makes many references to Greek and Roman
mythology to help expound on her point. At first glance, her arguments
are persuasive and seem quite substantial, but upon deeper reflection,
almost all of them lack a trustworthy and foundational basis. One
interpretation of this, might be that the Wife of Bath is intentionally
twisting scholarly information out of context, to deride and parody
scholars, like the Friar, who may twist and convolute texts in their own
favor.
5) Additionally, The Wife of Bath utilizes biblical allusions to justify why
women should be relieved from the expectations of sexual purity. In fact,
she makes over 30 references to the Bible, to help expound on her
point. As to be expected on a Christian pilgrimage, there are numerous
religious figures, including the Prioress, the Knight, the Friar and the
Summoner. Perhaps, this fact is the reason why she excessively laces her
language with countless mentions of God and heavily relies on
Christianity to help prove her point. There is frequent reptition of the
“hye God” (line 60) and the phrase “As help me God” (line 596) or “By God”
(line 634) are consistently stated, ironically, sometimes directly before
promiscuous phrases such as, “I was a lusty oon" (line 605).
6) Exemplum is a rhetorical device. It is a short story, narrative,
anecdote, or tale that's used in literature to explain moral reasoning.
The Wife of Bath's Tale is an exemplum, providing an answer to the
question, “What do women want?” Chaucer uses the Wife of Bath to
explain and give an example that women most desire sovereignty: “A
woman wants the self-same sovereignty / over her husband”. Chaucer
used this tale to challenge prevailing attitudes and norms of his time,
making it a significant exemplar within the medieval literary tradition.
7) The Wife of Bath's Prologue begins with a defense of serial marriage.
The Wife of Bath, who has been married five times, launches her
argument against those who might claim that a once-widowed woman
ought to become a nun. The Wife's argument moves on to be a defense
of marriage, period. She insists that though those who choose to marry
might not be as spiritually perfect as people who remain chaste all their
lives, they are still fulfilling God's commandments. The major feature of
marriage, for the Wife, is the marriage debt, or sex, which seems to be
why she's so strongly in favor of marriage. Another reason she's
pro-marriage appears to be the ability to gain property, wealth, and a
comfortable living situation through a husband.
8) The Prologue begins like a sermon and then takes on the terms of
misogyny and misogamy as the Wife describes her first three marriages,
demonstrating her success in manipulating the marriage system to her
own advantage as a means to consolidate money and power. When the
Wife speaks of her fourth and fifth husbands, however, the Prologue
becomes more personal, like a modern autobiography, exploring the
role of love in marriage and its relationship to gender hierarchy and
domestic violence. she celebrates marital sexuality and asserts her
mastery of her husband, inverting the convention of husbands ruling
their wives. Questioning the superiority of celibacy over marriage is one
of several ways that the Wife challenges the superiority of clerical over
lay authority.
9) Alisoun, the Wife of Bath, has been married five times and is ready for
another husband. She says that she used her first three marriages as a
way to consolidate money and power. She claims that she did this
through her sexuality and beauty when she was younger. Of her five
husbands, three have been “good” and two have been “bad.” The first
three were good, she admits, mostly because they were rich, old, and
submissive. She laughs to recall the torments that she put these men
through and recounts a typical conversation that she had with her
older husbands.
10) In "The Wife Of Bath’s Tale", women most desire sovereignty over men
in relationships. In other words, the power to have dominance over men
is the one thing women most desire. Chaucer portrays the Wife of bath
as the dominant person in her marriages. According to the text, the Wife
of Bath raises the question 'What do women most desire?' in her tale
through the Queen. The Queen poses this question to a young knight
who has been sentenced to death by having his head cut off, in order to
spare him his life. According to The Wife of Bath, the answer to this
question is that a relationship between men and women is at its heart
mercantile in that it is based upon a system of exchange where sex and
money are used to barter for sovereignty.
Part B
1) Geoffrey Chaucer’s “Wife of Bath’s Prologue and Tale” is considered
antifeminist literature that reflects the belief that women are
promiscuous, gold-digging, excessive, blabbermouthed, arrogant,
argumentative, deceitful, manipulative, and guilty of every wrongdoing
or annoying temperament men could think of. Examples of antifeminism
are plentiful in the context of the late Middle Ages, but less is found
about feminism during this time. Feminism is the belief that people
should be treated the same regardless of what gender they are.
Antifeminism is the idea that one gender has more rights and power
than another gender. However, Chaucer proves that he is a feminist in
“Wife of Bath’s Prologue and Tale,” by using the literary device of
characterization to show the Wife and the women of the Tale as having
authority.
The prologue of this tale showed that the Wife of Bath was not seen as
an upstanding woman, nor did she desire to be seen as one. She
portrayed feminism, almost as soon as she began speaking in the
prologue, she explained that she had gone through five husbands, and
she was on the look out for a sixth. She also admitted that she married
for money: "I’ll tell the truth. Those husbands I had, three of them were
good and two of them bad. The three I call “good” were rich and old.
They could indeed with difficulty hold the articles that bound them all to
me” (Bath 263). She even went to the point of saying that she didn’t value
her husbands’ love.
Based on her introduction in “The Canterbury Tales’, it appears from the
onset that the Wife of Bath truly makes use of her sexual attributes for
non-public reap alternatively of trying to exhibit her equal status in
society. In general, this lady stereotype is supposed to be considered as
a parody of sorts on account that she embodies a range of terrible girl
features together with arrogance, deceitfulness, and lewdness.
Although, she places once more at men, it is in fact, no longer for any
deeper motive other than for non-public profit. As it appears that in the
prologue to the Wife of Bath’s tale, Chaucer desires his readers to
chortle at this persona as a choice rather than to admire her for her
pro-feminist stances on existence and marriage.
2) Arthurian romance grew out of chronicles purporting to record the
history of King Arthur, his knights, and their martial or amatory
adventures.
The Wife of Bath is the most famous albeit the most troubling character
in Chaucerian literature. As with other storytellers in The Canterbury
Tales, we are initially given only her title: the “Wife of Bath.”
A ‘lusty bachelor’ in King Arthur’s court comes home after a day of
“hawking” when he suddenly rapes a maiden (recall the Knight’s son in
Chaucer’s “General Prologue” is also called a ‘lusty bachelor’). King
Arthur, a “just” king, sentences the man to death, but when the women
protest, King Arthur allows the Queen to decide his fate. The Queen says
she will spare his life if this man can name what women desire most of
all. He is given one year to respond (recall the premise in “The Green
Knight”).
During the year, he searches high and low, but no one can provide a
satisfactory answer. the man returns to King Arthur’s country, dismayed
at not finding his answer, when suddenly he comes upon a group of
twenty-four women dancing in the forest. As he approaches, they
disappear and an old hag now sits in their stead. She offers to teach the
man any skill if he will only swear an oath in return. So he asks her to
teach him what women desire most of all, and, upon learning the secret,
he returns to King Arthur’s castle. The thing women desire most of all is
sovereignty and mastery over their husbands.
The Wife of Bath believes in self-gratification, rather than love. Like
Thrasymachus’s denial of justice in Plato’s Republic, the Wife of Bath
lacks belief in love. When people believe in neither love nor justice in life,
compulsion and tyranny reign.
Hence, why the “Wife of Bath’s Tale” is merely a parody of an Arthurian
legend, or another instance in which the Knight is shown to be a mere
caricature. She has proven her own prophecy to be true: she longs for
what she cannot truly have. After all, she tells the Pardoner, her only
hope is to “amuse” with her story.
3) The Wife of Bath's Prologue" in "The Canterbury Tales" serves several
key purposes. It represents feminism and the belief that women should
be given power and control. She also represents the idea that women do
not need to conform to the norms of the time and can enjoy their own
sexuality.
Chaucer characterizes the Wife of Bath as a woman who was clearly
once beautiful but whose beauty is fading. He tells most about her
personality and her history with men. He paints the picture of a strong
woman who enjoys sex, love, and power and who is not burdened by
traditional gender roles.
The Wife of Bath's prologue is much longer than her actual story. She
uses her prologue to explain her beliefs and the story she discusses in
the 'Wife of Bath's Tale. 'The Wife of Bath feels she is an expert on
relations between men and women because of her experience with five
husbands. Moreover, She sets out to prove that women desire control
over their husbands most of all. She also wants to prove that it is best
for everyone involved if the women are given control.
The prologue introduces and develops the character of the Wife of
Bath, allowing readers to gain insights into her personality and
experiences. Additionally, it provides social commentary on gender
roles and marriage in medieval society, offering a critique of societal
norms. Chaucer employs humor and irony throughout the prologue,
often at the Wife of Bath's expense, which adds a satirical dimension to
the narrative. Lastly, the prologue acts as a literary technique,
establishing a connection between the character and her subsequent
tale, enhancing the overall storytelling experience in Chaucer's work.
4) "The Wife of Bath", in the collection of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales,
illustrates the stereotypical image of a women in medieval times ("The
Portrayal of Gender in The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale.") The tale
characterizes women as lustful and greedy burdens on men. However, to
readers today, "The Wife of Bath" represents a strong minded feminist
woman who is confident and open about her sexuality. Narrated by a
character called Alisoun, "The Wife of Bath" reveals an insight to a
woman’s point of view in medieval times. Alisoun begins her long
prologue by declaring that she follows the rule of experience;
announcing that she’s a self–proclaimed women. Throughout the her
tale Alisoun questions and challenges the idea of power and authority
in medieval society. Through Alisoun, Chaucer gives women a voice to
express their call for equality and their need for power. By using
description and characterization, Chaucer gives readers an insight to a
society in which women are starting to express their desire to have
power ultimately arguing that in order for men to be happy women need
to have sovereignty in medieval times. In "The Wife of Bath" Alisoun
challenges the society’s views on women’s sexuality and advocates for
women to take control over and have ownership over their own bodies.
There is an evident change from women being completely subjected to
men's superiority and authority to them starting the question the social
rules and beliefs. Through "The Wife of Bath" Chaucer illustrates
women’s need to be in control in order for men to be happy.
5) The world-renowned Canterbury Tales by the great Geoffrey Chaucer
aims to magnify the controversial social injustices of gender roles in
the medieval time period that consequently flow into today’s current
modern society. One of the greatest social standing issues addressed
throughout the poem includes the institution of marriage, and the
particular viewpoint held by the character named the Wife of Bath. The
Wife of Bath is notably shamed by her potential suitors and moralist
peers, for her devious actions of taking advantage of her former
husbands throughout her lengthy five marriage, Chaucer actually
invites the audience to give a closer look at the overall flawed instuition
of marriage. However, Chaucer uses the Wife of Bath to invite us to think
about the inequalities shaped in the institution of marriage that
produce bad behavior. The Wife of Bath becomes a social advocate for
women through her experiences.
The Wife of Bath is predominantly known for controversial views and her
rebellious actions towards the traditional social expectations of women
regarding sex and marriage. Therefore, by Chaucer highlighting the
issues of mandatory lifelong celibacy for widows and women only being
able to have sex for procreation, he is inviting the audience members to
embark on the bigger picture of the unfairness and repression of
sexuality for women in marriage.
Part C
1) In Geoffry Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, the author provides a
critique on station, power, and society that continues to help scholars
evaluate our society today. Specifically in The Wife of Bath’s prologue
and tale, readers and characters alike are asked to consider the
question, “what do women want?” Many scholars argue that the tale
describes the beginnings of feminism. This essay will explore that claim
by investigating if Chaucer’s character, the Wife of Bath, or Alisoun
(Chaucer 804), argues for possible feminist thought using a number of
arguments, and explore the theme of sovereignty throughout. The Wife
begins her prologue by discussing her numerous marriages, as
a self-pronounced expert, having been married five times. She then goes
through a number of arguments to defend herself and her decision to
marry five different times. Some of these claims and arguments are
religious scriptures that have been flipped on their sides for the sake of
her cause. The Wife of Bath interprets scripture her own way, for her own
purposes. For instance, she states, “God bade us to wexe and multiply:/
That gentil text I can well understonde” (Chaucer ll. 28-29). Here, the wife
is citing the Bible to support her cause, her message being that God
wants people to multiply, so not doing so is going against the word of
God. She goes on to cite Solomon and his many wives as further
support. Even with numerous biblical references and scriptures, Alisoun
has not met a man who can give her a straight answer when she asks
how many husbands a wife may have.
Carrying on with this line of feminist thought, Alisoun goes on with a
discussion of how her marriages have served her and her husbands.
She states that her many marriages have been good for her husbands,
because she takes the opportunity to educate them (Chaucer 44). All of
this, she goes on to say, is then returned to her in the forms of sex and
money, both things she receives from her husbands. This is where, in her
prologue, the Wife’s “feminist” thoughts are revealed. It is important to
acknowledge the discussion Alisoun has about virginity. Not only does
she argue that sex is acceptable in marriage (Chaucer 128), but that
virginity is not for everyone. She states,
“Virginitee is great perfeccioun
And continence eek with devotion
But Crist, that of perfeccioun is welle,
Bad nat every wight he sholde go selle
I wol bistowe the flour of al myn age
In the actes and in fruit of marriage. (ll. 105-114)
Here, Alisoun acknowledges that virginity is important, however it is not
something that can be achieved by everyone. She goes on to say that
Christ was a virgin, and he was perfect. Her argument here is that not
everyone should strive to be as perfect and virtuous as Christ, because
it’s not possible; instead, she chooses to practice sex in marriage, and
wield her sexual power that way (Chaucer ll. 149-152). This is clearly
another feminist idea.
However, some scholars believe that the Wife of Bath’s practices and
approaches to marriage are not true feminism. In her book, Feminism is
For Everybody, bell hooks gives her definition of feminism: “Simply put,
feminism is a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and
oppression” (hooks 1).
Overall, one can see many feminist ideals and beginnings in the Wife of
Bath’s Prologue and Tale. Because some scholars have pointed out
possible critiques of feminist ideas in the text, and one can see how it
has been widely debated whether or not Alisoun truly ascribed to her
tale’s morals. Through the study of themes like feminism, power, station,
and sovereignty in Chaucer’s tales, we can unveil the truth in his satire
to learn about medieval culture as well as further critique our own
society.
2) Themes of ‘The Wife of Bath’s Tale’
Geoffrey Chaucer’s ‘The Canterbury Tales’ is an immortal creation. It is a
most astonishing work which brings the middle ages to life. The idea of
the pilgrimage to Canterbury in which men and women drawn from all
walks of life lighten the tedium of the travel by telling stories which
reflect their character as well as their profession. Chaucer through his
Canterbury tales not only throws light on the character of the teller but
also provides contrasted viewpoints on the same theme, in such a way
that the collection becomes a panorama not only of life in fourteenth
century England, but of life anywhere and at anytime. This immortal
work was written in the late 1300s and published in the 1400 after the
death of Geoffrey Chaucer.
‘The Wife of Bath’s Tale’ caters mainly the following themes: sex,
marriage, domination and politeness. In the middle age, sex is regarded
as a sin and the one who is involved in it illegally is looked down with
scorn. The churches of those times did not approve of the sex. The
people of those times believed that sex is only for the married couples
and it is done just to give birth to the children. Women were considered
as a commodity of sex. Moreover the medieval regarded women as
having cold bodies which continually desired contact with the heat of
the male. Therefore, it was seen as a woman’s nature to desire for sex
voraciously. The Wife of Bath is, however, does not feel upset with this
view of churches and scientists. She glorifies sex in her own way. She
talks about sex with a certain level of dignity as she regards sex a
natural and biological need of human being. The whole section of The
Wife of Bath is full of instances of sex. She proudly announces that in all
her life she has never withheld ‘chambre’ of Venus from a good ‘felawe’
and this together with her ‘bele chose’ and her less politely name
‘queynte’ is the part of her anatomy we become best acquainted with in
the course of the text. Here, the female sexuality is not presented as
sinful as the medievalists thought of. The only sexual sin in the text is
the rape committed by the knight in the tale.
Marriage is another crucial theme in the tale of Wife of Bath in the
Canterbury tales. The churches at that time allowed sex only to the
married people. If possible they would not allow people to marry. A
religious and social hierarchy was created by the church: virgins at the
top, then the widows, and then the married people at the bottom. It was
made to believe that God loves those who are virgins, and married
people are least loved by God. The Wife of Bath vehemently criticizes the
hierarchy and defends the condition and benefits of marriage.
Through the character of Wife of Bath, Chaucer tries to puncture the
prejudices of his time and consolidates his disgust for the same by
making a female figure question the norm. The wife of bath is everything
that is deemed as morally corrupt. The navigation between the
conservative and liberal ideology is an interesting reading in Wife of
Bath’s Prologue and Tale. The contempt for misogyny is appropriated by
the Wife of Bath through her brave acceptance of ‘deceite’, ‘wepying’,
spynnyng’, the attributes commonly ascribed to women. The audacious
nature of the Wife of Bath in her monologue further portrays her
confidence in going against the stereotypes of marriage and
questioning its monogamous nature by talking about ‘bigamy’ and her
five husbands. She proudly describes all her husbands and her
romantic or sexual relation with them.
The next unavoidable theme in ‘The wife of Bath’s Tale’ is dominance.
The Sex in the tale of Wife of Bath and in the tale of the Knight has
nothing to do more with the desire, however, but with the power of
dominance. The rape in the case of the Knight displays the Knight
exercising power over the woman. The act of rape is shown as an effort
to regain the lost power. In the case of Wife’s prologue, it is also the
exercise of the power of domination. She dominated her husbands
merely with the weapon of sex. Chaucer’s theme of dominance does not
come only from these tales, but from the then fourteenth century
society. At that time, there were very few examples of women who could
have dominated men. The strict rules and regulations of the medieval
society put them in a place where they had no more options, but just to
obey. The wife of Bath challenged all those suppressive authorities. She
dictates and dominates her five husbands and also tries to control male
texts, possessing them and making twists and turns according to her
own interest. She also justifies her multiple marriages stating that Jesus
himself proposed the idea of going forth and multiplying. King Solomon
and St. Paul’s reference further validates her idea of multiple partners.
Politeness can be studied in contrast to the theme of domination
depicted by the Wife of Bath. She mentions noble ancestors for their
‘vertuous lyvyng’ and this comes in opposition to her way of living. The
theme of politeness comes only in the speech old woman when she
rebukes the Knight for not possessing this quality in spite of being a
Knight and a man. The old woman talks about politeness and poverty in
her speech. In contrast to the Wife of Bath’s colloquial arguments, the
old wife tries to make informed and intelligent comments in a
conventional narrative. The moralistic and virtuous undertone of her
arguments is different from the morally ambiguous statements of the
Wife of Bath. The reference of inherited nobility highlights Chaucer’s
concern of questioning the rigid structures of society. The old woman
appropriates the meaning of nobility or gentry by associating the
quality to the character of a human being and not to the social status.
This deflation of the medieval perspective with the introduction of a
modern ideology is Chaucer’s strong suit. He juxtaposes medieval along
with the modern which gives the possibility for fresher thoughts. The
quality of being noble can be now associated with the actions of an
individual and this gives any human being the power of rising above
mediocrity. The Wife of Bath’s domination can, therefore, be viewed as a
modern definition of the medieval politeness.
Thus through the tale of the Wife of Bath Chaucer puts forward his
opinions of marriage, sex, politeness and dominance etc in his ‘The
Canterbury Tales’.