Lecture 3

Historians and ecologists have found the evidence to prove that many centuries ago Britain was
part of the European Continent. About 950,000 years ago a broad natural land bridge
connected southeast Britain to mainland Europe. Footprints and stone tools at Happisburgh,
Norfolk, were left behind by members of an unknown human species who crossed this bridge,
becoming the first known Britons. Later several Ice Ages and fluctuations of the sea level made
Britain the island.

The identity of the very first people in Britain is still a mystery. No one knows when first people
arrived in England.

No human remains have been found, but stone tools discovered in Norfolk and Suffolk reveal a
human presence between 950,000 and 700,000 years ago. The age of the finds suggests they
could have been made by Homo antecessor, a human species so far only found in Spain.
Our own species is a relative newcomer to Britain. The earliest direct evidence, a human jaw, is
estimated to be at least 40,000 years old.
For thousands of years the presence of modern humans in Britain remained brief and sporadic.
It has only been continuous since about 12,000 years ago. From c. 8000 to 3000 BC people from
Spain & France settled on hilltops in southern England. They made tools of flint, grew crops,
made pottery, and raised cattle & sheep. 2000 BC: people from Rhine & Danube River regions
of Europe migrated to England. They wove cloth, mined tin, & made bronze tools.

Chadder Man

The fossil, known as Cheddar Man, was unearthed more than a century ago in Somerset. He
lived shortly after the first settlers crossed from continental Europe to Britain at the end of the
last ice age. People of white British ancestry alive today are descendants of this population.

It was initially assumed that Cheddar Man had pale skin and fair hair, but his DNA paints a
different picture, strongly suggesting he had blue eyes, a very dark brown to black complexion
and dark curly hair. his ancestors would have left Africa, moved into the Middle East and later
headed west into Europe,Today, about 10% of white British ancestry can be linked to this
ancient population.

There is a monument in Britain called Stonehenge. It is believed that the first Britons, the Celts,
built it. Many graves and buries temples were recently discovered under the Stonehenge. DNA
tests of burials show that people came from Germany, France, Switzerland, & Mediterranean.

 First monument begun c. 3100 BC using wood

 C. 2600 BC: builders began replacing wood with stone

 C. 1600 BC: last known construction at Stonehenge

 No one left written records and scholars are uncertain how Stonehenge was used

 It was used for burials from the beginning

 The design has astronomical uses (sundial)

The first invasion of England

The Celts were a collection of tribes with origins in central Europe that shared a similar
language, religious beliefs, traditions and culture. Several tribes made up the larger
population of the Celtic people. Indeed, the Gaels, Gauls, Britons, Irish and Galatians
were all Celtic tribes. The Celts began crossing the English Channel about 500 BC. Gaels were
the earliest invading Celtic tribe. They were warlike tribal people from Europe, including
present day France, Belgium and Germany. They settled in west & north of Great Britain.
Britons (or Brythons) were second group of Celtic invaders. They occupied most of today’s
England & Wales.

The Celts

 Worshiped nature gods & practiced human and animal sacrifice

 Believed in afterlife and magic

 Priests were called Druids

 Celts used iron, mined tin, & made woolen cloth

 They traded with Gauls in France and Celtic tribes in Ireland

 Celts are ancestors of Scots, Irish, & Welsh

 Gaelic & Welsh languages are Celtic

 Women had political and spiritual power. Sometimes fought as warriors, and some were
Druids.

Celtic torc – neck ring

Julius Caesar

was a Roman dictator, politician, military general, and historian who played a critical role in the
events that led to rise of the Roman Empire.

The Celts helped ancient people in their struggle to resist Roman invasion in what is now
France. As a result, the Roman army, commanded by Julius Caesar, Conquered France in 55 BC
& crossed English Channel with small force to explore Britain. But they met the resistance from
the locals and bad weather, so they left. Next year Julius Caesar and the Romans returned for
the second time. They defeated some Celts & then returned to Rome. This invasion marked the
beginning of English recorded history, because Julius Caesar kept a diary and wrote down
everything he saw in England.

Julius Caesar did not follow up his victory in England. He left. The next successful invasion of
Britannia by the Romans happened in 43 AD headed by the Emperor Claudius. The Romans
didn’t meet with much resistance from the locals and got possession of what is now England by
making the Celts go into the mountains of Scotland and Wales. The Romans failed to conquer
Scotland.
 Romans put down major revolt by Queen Boudicca and Iceni tribe, 61 AD

 Completed conquest of England by 80s AD

Boudicca’s husband was the king of Iceni tribe (Celtic tribe) and led his tribe into friendship with
Romans. After his death Romans abused Iceni – they invaded their territory, publicly beat
Boudica raped her daughters. Boudica led the Iceni in a large-scale revolt against Rome.

 Very similar to Trung Sisters who led rebellion against Chinese occupation of Vietnam at
about the same time (40-43 AD)

 Both rebellions failed and Rome and China continued to occupy England and Vietnam
for centuries

 Boudicca and Trung Sisters still seen as heroic freedom fighters

Roman Empire

 Rome conquered the entire Mediterranean and controlled most of Europe, including
much of Britain. The Roman Empire was contemporary with Han China.

The Romans brought other things with them besides their swords. They introduced the Roman
civilization into England. The Romans built two great walls, the Hadrian’s Wall to prevent the
Picts in Scotland from invading England and another wall in the west to protect England from
the Celtic Welsh. Roman roads connected much of England. Roman baths were centers of social
and political life. They built temples, amphitheaters beautiful parks and gardens.

Romans built a network of towns, mostly walled. These towns used names ending with “-ster”
or “-shire” – Lancaster, Derbyshire, Yorkshire – deriving from castra, the Latin name for camp.
They also built a fort on the banks of the Thames River. They named it Londinium. Londinium
became London.

Romans left in 410 AD when Rome was threatened by barbarians (German tribes). The invasion
made it necessary to withdraw the Roman soldiers from England to defend their home country.
England became the part of the Roman Empire, but Roman influence was limited & short-
lived. The Romans always treated the Britons as slaves and they married the Britons. After the
Romans left, England was at mercy of new foreign invaders.
Anglo-Saxons

The Britons were ruled and protected by the Romans so long that they forgot how to protect
themselves. The island became an easy prey for other tribes. So soon after the Romans left, a
band of new invaders invaded the southern part of England. They were known as the Jutes. The
Jutes helped the Britons to fight against Scots. After the war was over the Jutes decided to stay
in England because they like the climate better.

Then Saxons came from northern Germany and established their kingdom of Essex (Eats Saxon),
Sussex (South Saxon) and Wessex (West Saxon).

In the 6th century the Angles, also from northern England, came and settles in the eastern part
of England. After these tribes had taken possession of all the land known as England, the
movement, known in history as Anglo-Saxon Conquest, was over.

We should bear in mind that these tribes never invaded Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland,
these places were inhabited by the Celtic tribes.

The Anglo-Saxon tribes were at constant war with each other trying to get the upper land.

There were some legendary heroes, such as King Arthur, trying to unite the kingdoms.

King Arthur

King Arthur was a semi - legendary British king who, according to medieval histories, led the
defense of Britain against Saxon invaders in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. The details of
Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and his historical
existence is debated and disputed by modern historians. It is possible that King Arthur was the
Roman officer or a son of Roman officer. Legends may be based on local chieftain (leader) who
united Britons against Anglo-Saxon invaders.

Arthur fought with mighty sword named “Excalibur” - Excalibur (/ɛkˈskælɪbər/) is the legendary
sword of King Arthur, sometimes also attributed with magical powers or associated with the
rightful sovereignty of Britain.

Arthur was the ideal king - King Arthur is usually portrayed as the ideal king who brought
prosperity and peace to Britain, and was originally seen as a warrior who defeated the Anglo-
Saxons due to god being on his side

Arthur & his knights battled evil

Early Christianity

 Celtic communities developed a strong Christian tradition

 During next few centuries the Bishop of Rome gained more power & became Pope
(“Papa”) or supreme leader of Western Christendom

 Celtic Christians did not recognize Pope’s authority

 This will lead to later conflict

Anglo-Saxon influence on English language

 Old English is Anglo-Saxon

 Place names:

 Sussex (south Saxon)

 Wessex (west Saxon)

 Essex (east Saxon)

 East Anglia, Mercia, & Northumbria

 Hundreds of towns throughout England

 Tiu
 God of war
 Tuesday honors Tiu

 Woden (Odin)
 King of heaven
 Wednesday honors Woden

 Thor
 God of storms
  Thursday is “Thor’s Day”

 Freya
 Goddess of peace
 “Freya’s Day” is Friday
Anglo-Saxon Words (gh, ch, & ght endings)

Cough, enough…

Reintroduction of Christianity

Christianity, brought in by Roman soldiers, soon disappeared after the departure of the
Romans. But in the year of 597 Pope Gregory I sent Augustine to England to convert the English
to Christianity. Augustine founded a Christian church in Canterbury and Augustine became the
first Archbishop of Canterbury. He converted Ethelbert, King of Jutes & nobles. Also convents &
monasteries were established throughout the country. Monks converted common people.

Christianity

There was disagreement between the Roman missionaries and the Celtic missionaries. The
Roman missionaries believed that the Pope’s authority was supreme, and the Celtic
missionaries opposed to the authority of the Pope. Roman missionaries converted much of
southern England. Celtic missionaries converted northern tribes, Picts & Scots.

Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms

 Tribes slowly formed 7 separate kingdoms called Heptarchy: East Anglia, Essex, Kent,
Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, & Wessex

 From c. 500-800 AD Northumbria, Mercia, & Wessex controlled other 6 in turn

 King Egbert of Wessex: last king to control Heptarchy – often considered first king of
England

 By 700 AD pagan Anglo-Saxons had converted to Christianity

 Monasteries became centers of religion, scholarship & education

 They had large libraries and schools

 Religion, education, and the arts flourished in this time

Classes of society

 Thanes or nobles
  Churls (ordinary free men)

 Slaves

 Many Britons were enslaved

 Also war captives & criminals

 Sometimes people sold children (or themselves) into slavery to pay debts

 Christianity lessened harshness of slavery

Anglo-Saxon (English) law

 Different classes had different standards

 Penalty for killing a man varied with his class or social status

 Usually it involved payment to the man’s kin, but it could involve killing the killer

 If his social rank allowed, an accused might swear an oath of innocence

English law

 Sometimes the oath of an accused was not allowed

 Then he would undergo “trial by ordeal,” or the Judgment of God

 The Church handled the ordeals

 An ordeal began with a 3-day fast

 The accused was encouraged to confess his guilt, before taking Catholic mass

Ordeal by hot water

 Accused must remove a stone from a pot of boiling water (or oil)

 The hand was then bandaged

 If the wound healed after 3 days without festering, accused was cleared of charge

 If not, then he was declared guilty

 But his punishment was still less than if he had been caught in the act

Ordeal by hot iron

 Hand was examined after 3 days

 For a serious charge, weight of iron was increased to 1.5 kg

 For hot water ordeal, accused must plunge arm to the elbow instead of wrist

Vikings

The Anglo-Saxon Conquest was not the end of the invasion of England. In the 8 th, 9th and 10th
centuries AD there came a new invasion and colonization which had a big influence on Britain.
It was the invasion by the Vikings and Danes from North Europe.

The Vikings and Danes started their invasion of England before Alfred the Great succeeded the
throne.

Vikings (Danes) spread terror throughout the countryside

Vikings (Danes) easily conquered Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, except Wessex.

Viking/Dane Invasion

 Vikings destroyed the monasteries and schools

 Danes began to settle in England

 Vikings added Danish elements to English language

 Danes controlled nearly half of England

 Viking/Danish England was called the Danelaw

King Alfred the Great

Alfred’s reign was significant, both for the direction of the country’s development and for the
fortunes of his descendants.

After the kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia and Mercia had fallen to the Vikings, Wessex
under Alfred was the only surviving Anglo-Saxon province. Alfred won a decisive victory at the
battle of Edington in 879 and made an agreement with the Vikings, creating what was known as
the Danelaw in the North of England.. At the same time Alfred promoted himself as the
defender of all Christian Anglo-Saxons against the pagan Viking threat and began the liberation
of neighbouring areas from Viking control. Alfred also converted the Viking leader to
Christianity. He thus paved the way for the future unity of England. He defended his kingdom
against the Viking attempt at conquest, becoming the dominant ruler in England.

But King Alfred was greater at piece than he was in war. King Alfred built the first English navy.
Alfred’s ships were superior to those of his Viking enemies. Established schools & repaired
monasteries destroyed or damaged by the Danes. Invited scholars to come to England. Learned
to read and write Latin & English. Translated Scriptures into language of his people. His writings
and translations are regarded as the beginning of prose literature in England.

Death of Alfred, 899 AD, and Rise of the Danes

After Alfred’s death in 899 AD Biking invasions renewed. Alfred’s successors were not as
capable as Alfred had been. More Danes came and set about taking possession of the entire
country. In 1016 Canute, the Danish leader became the king of England after he defeated King
Ethelred II. He made England the part of Scandinavian empire. He was a wise ruler. He divided
power between Danes and the Anglo-Saxons. He also forced Scots to submit to his power.

King Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066

After the death of Canute’s son, the crown passed to Edward the Confessor, the last Anglo-
Saxon king in English history. Taking the throne, Edward restored Anglo-Saxon rule. He spent
most of his life in Normandy. He appointed his favourites to top jobs. He was called “Confessor”
because of his devout Christian faith. He built first church on what is now site of Westminster
Abbey in London

Prelude to Norman Conquest

Vikings invaded France in 845. The French king gave them the land in the northern part of
France. They settled their and adopted the French language and customs, their country took on
the name Normandy and they called themselves the Normans.

After the death of Edward the Confessor English nobles chose Harold Godwinson, Earl of
Wessex, as king. But William, the Duke of Normandy, claimed that Edward had promised the
crown to him.

 King Harold took throne of England & defeated another rival named Harold Hardrata

 His victorious army was weakened

 William, Duke of Normandy, saw an opportunity

William landed his army in Southeastern England in 1066. In October 1066 the army of William
and the army of Harold met near Hastings. The Norman cavalry defeated the Anglo-Saxons.
Harold was killed. On Christmas day, 1066, William the Conqueror was crowned the first Anglo-
Norman king of England.

Bayeux Tapestry

is an embroidered cloth nearly 70 meters long and 50 centimeters tall, which depicts the events
leading up to the Norman conquest of England concerning William, Duke of Normandy,
and Harold, Earl of Wessex, later King of England, and culminating in the Battle of Hastings.

Tomb of William the Conqueror

 William established strong central government

 Divided conquered land among Normans

 Forced most Anglo-Saxons into serfdom

Effects of Norman Conquest

 William built many cathedrals & castles like Tower of London

 Beginnings of English Feudalism

 William replaced English bishops with Normans

 King became head of bishops