Soil Mechanics B.

Eng 3/C3S, Utech, Jamaica

The Principle of Effective Stress

The deformations of soils are like the deformations of a structural framework such as a truss.
The truss deforms from changes in loads carried by each member. If the truss is loaded in the
air or submerged in water, the deformations under a given load will remain unchanged.
Deformations of the truss are independent of hydrostatic pressure. The same is true for soils.

Stress, or intensity of loading, is the load per unit area. The fundamental definition of stress is the ratio of
the force ∆P acting on a plane ∆S to the area of the plane ∆S when ∆S tends to zero; ∆ denotes a small
quantity.

Effective stress (σ’) is the stress carried by the soil particles.

Total stress (σ) is the stress carried by the soil particles and the liquids and gases in the voids.

Strain, or intensity of deformation, is the ratio of the change in a dimension to the original dimension or the
ratio of change in length to the original length.

Stress (strain) state at a point is a set of stress (strain) vectors corresponding to all planes passing through
that point.

Mohr’s circle is used to graphically represent stress (strain) state for two-dimensional bodies.

Porewater pressure, u, is the pressure of the water held in the soil pores.

Let us consider an element of saturated soil subjected to normal stress, σ, applied on the horizontal
boundary. The stress s is called the total stress, and for equilibrium (Newton’s third law) the stresses in the
soil must be equal and opposite to σ. The resistance or reaction to σ is provided by a combination of the
stresses from the solids, called effective stress (σ’), and from water in the pores, called porewater pressure
(u). We will denote effective stresses by a prime (σ’) following the symbol for normal stress, usually σ. The
equilibrium equation is

σ = σ’ + u so that σ’ = σ – u
This is called the principle of effective stress and was first recognized by Terzaghi (1883–1963) in the mid-
1920s during his research into soil consolidation. The principle of effective stress is the most important
Soil Mechanics B.Eng 3/C3S, Utech, Jamaica

principle in soil mechanics. Deformations of soils are a function of effective stresses, not total stresses. The
principle of effective stresses applies only to normal stresses and not to shear stresses.

Soils cannot sustain tension. Consequently, the effective stress cannot be less than zero. Porewater
pressures can be positive or negative. The latter are sometimes called suction or suction pressure. For
unsaturated soils, the effective stress (Bishop et al., 1960) is

σ’ = σ - ua + x(ua - u)
where ua is the pore air pressure, u is the porewater pressure, and x is a factor depending on the degree of
saturation. For dry soil, x = 0; for saturated soil, x = 1.

Consider a soil element at a depth z below the ground surface, with the groundwater level (GWL) at the
ground surface. The total vertical stress is

σ = ysatz

Consolidation
Under loads, all soils will settle, causing the settlement of structures found on or within them. If the
settlement is not kept to a tolerable limit, the desired use of the structure may be impaired and the design life
of the structure may be reduced. Structures may settle uniformly or non-uniformly. The latter condition is
called differential settlement and is often the crucial design consideration.
The total settlement usually consists of three parts – immediate or elastic compression, primary
consolidation, and secondary compression. We will deal with primary consolidation and secondary
compression.

Consolidation is the gradual reduction in the volume of a fully saturated soil of low permeability due to
drainage of some of the pore water, the process continuing until the excess pore water pressure has
completely dissipated. The process of swelling, the reverse of consolidation, is the gradual increase in the
volume of a soil under negative excess pore water pressure.

Consolidation settlement is the vertical displacement of the surface corresponding to the volume change at
any stage of the consolidation process.

Pre-consolidation Pressure: (over-consolidated clay):

The pre-consolidated pressure is the maximum effective vertical stress that has acted on a soil in the past.
Such soil is said to be over-consolidated.

Normally consolidated clay:

This is when the effective vertical stress in the clay is at the maximum value that it has ever attained.
Soil Mechanics B.Eng 3/C3S, Utech, Jamaica

The odeometer test is used to determine the characteristics of a soil during one-dimensional consolidation or
swelling. The coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) and the compression index (cc) are determined
from this test, where the void ratio (e) after consolidation is plotted against effective stress (σ’) for a
saturated clay. (See figures below).

Void Ratio – Effective Stress Relationship

The pre-consolidation pressure for an over-consolidated clay can also be determined from this test.
Casagrande proposed an empirical construction from the e-log σ’ curve to make this determination.
Whenever possible the pre-consolidation pressure (i.e. the largest pressure ever experienced by the soil) for
an over-consolidated clay should not be exceeded in construction.

Consolidation Settlement
Consolidation settlement is estimated using either the coefficient of volume compressibility or the
compression index.

sc =mv'H
or in the case of a normally consolidated clay:-
1' 
C c log
 '
 
sc =  0 H
1+e0
sc – settlement of layer under consideration (see figures overleaf).
Soil Mechanics B.Eng 3/C3S, Utech, Jamaica

For one-dimensional consolidation, Terzaghi put forward a theory that relates the excess pore water pressure,
the depth below the top of the clay layer, and the time from the application of the stress increment.
Terzaghi’s theory is used in the calculation of the time required for consolidation settlement to take place.
Several assumptions were made by him in formulating this theory; they are:-
i) The soil is homogenous
ii) The soil is fully saturated
iii) The solid particles and water are incompressible
iv) Compression and flow are one-dimensional (vertical)
v) Strains are small
vi) Darcy’s law is valid at all hydraulic gradients
vii) The coefficient of permeability and the coefficient of volume compressibility remain constant
throughout the process
viii) There is a unique relationship, independent of time, between void ratio and effective stress.

Consolidation Settlement

Consolidation is the time-dependent settlement of soils resulting from the expulsion of water from the soil
pores.

Primary consolidation is the change in the volume of fine-grained soil caused by the expulsion of water
from the voids and the transfer of stress from the excess porewater pressure to the soil particles.

Secondary compression is the change in the volume of fine-grained soil caused by the adjustment of the soil
fabric (internal structure) after primary consolidation has been completed.
Soil Mechanics B.Eng 3/C3S, Utech, Jamaica

Excess porewater pressure, ∆u, is the porewater pressure in excess of the current equilibrium porewater
pressure. For example, if the porewater pressure in a soil is uo and a load is applied to the soil so that the
existing porewater pressure increases to u1, then the excess porewater pressure is ∆u = u1 - uo.

Drainage path, Hdr, is the longest vertical path that a water particle will take to reach the drainage surface.

Past maximum vertical effective stress, σ’zc, is the maximum vertical effective stress that a soil was
subjected to in the past.

Normally consolidated soil is one that has never experienced vertical effective stresses greater than its
current vertical effective stress (σ’zo = σ’zc)

Over-consolidated soil is one that has experienced vertical effective stresses greater than its existing vertical
effective stress (σ’zo < σ’zc)

Over-consolidation ratio, OCR, is the ratio by which the current vertical effective stress in the soil was
exceeded in the past (OCR = σ’zc /σ’zo).

Compression index, Cc, is the slope of the normal consolidation line in a plot of the logarithm of vertical
effective stress versus void ratio.

Unloading/reloading index or recompression index, Cr, is the average slope of the unloading/reloading
curves in a plot of the logarithm of vertical effective stress versus void ratio.

Modulus of volume compressibility, mv, is the slope of the curve between two stress points in a plot of
vertical effective stress versus vertical strain.

The current vertical effective stress or overburden effective stress is

σ’zo = (ysat – yw )z = y’z

The final vertical stress is

σ'fin = σ'zo + ∆σz

Procedure to Calculate Primary Consolidation Settlement

1. Calculate the current vertical effective stress (σ 'zo) and the current void ratio (eo) at the center of
the soil layer for which settlement is required.
2. Calculate the applied vertical stress increase (∆σ z) at the center of the soil layer using the
appropriate method.
Soil Mechanics B.Eng 3/C3S, Utech, Jamaica

3. Calculate the final vertical effective stress σ 'fin = σ 'zo + ∆ σ z.

4. Calculate the primary consolidation settlement.
a. If the soil is normally consolidated (OCR = 1), the primary consolidation settlement is
Ppc = Ho Cc log (σ 'fin )
1 + eo σ 'zo
b. If the soil is over-consolidated and σ 'fin < σ 'zc, the primary consolidation settlement is
Ppc = Ho Cr log (σ 'fin )
1 + eo σ 'zo

c. If the soil is over-consolidated and σ 'fin > σ 'zc, the primary consolidation settlement is
Ppc = Ho [Cr log (OCR) + Cc log σ 'fin )
1 + eo σ 'zc

Where Ho is the thickness of the soil layer.

You can also calculate the primary consolidation settlement using mv. However, unlike Cc, which is
constant, mv varies with stress levels. You should compute an average value of mv over the stress range
σ 'zo to σ 'fin. To reduce the effects of nonlinearity, the vertical effective stress difference should not
exceed 100 kPa in calculating mv or mvr. The primary consolidation settlement, using mv, is

Ppc = Homv∆ σ z
The advantage of using this Equation is that mv is readily determined from displacement data in
consolidation tests; you do not have to calculate void ratio changes from the test data as required to
determine Cc.