1.

0 Introduction
A residential development project is under a design and build contract. The site is located at
Welfare Road in Aberdeen, Hong Kong and this project includes six number of 30-storey
residential towers in two building masses with 5m gap in between, 1-storey of communal sky
garden, and 6-storey of carpark. There are 411 residential units with 59815 m2 GFA assessed
comprising high rise units and garden units at podium level.
This report aims to provide analyses how to make decisions regarding material choices, based
on (i) health and safety aspect, (ii) environmental sustainability, (iii) properties and
performance of materials, and (iv) human comfort requirements.

2.0 Health and Safety

2.1 Construction Site Safety
Construction site safety concerns about the protection of site workers from death, injury,
disease or other health related risks. The risks can be from working at height, moving
machinery, use, storage and handling of materials, use of power tools and electrical equipment,
chemical and hazardous substances, excessive noise, dust and vibration from construction
activities (Wikipedia 2022). The Labour Department of The Government of Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region continued to urge contractors to enhance construction site safety
through stepping up inspection and enforcement, as well as promotion and education to
ensuring more effective control of risks by contractors.
2.2 Impacts of Health and Safety Regulations
Fatalities and injuries at work are the major concerns in construction industry. Due to the
adaptions of health and safety regulations, there are improvements and the numbers of severe
injuries or fatalities have been reduced. In management’s aspect, there are other impacts as
well (phs Besafe 2022):
• Reduction in absenteeism and sick leave of workers;
• Higher retention of skilled staff;
• Improved company’s reputation/image
• Improvement in productivity; and
• Savings on insurance and legal costs.
2.3 Health and Safety Legislation, Design and Management
There are different ways to enhance the health and safety performance in construction industry;
for examples; legislation, design and specification, and site management.
From regulation’s aspect, there are two major ordinances concerning about health and safety
in construction in Hong Kong.
CAP509 Occupational Safety and Health Ordinance
The Occupational Safety and Health Ordinance protects employees’ safety and health at work
generally in all branches of economic activities prescribing standards for general working
environment, as well as specific safety and health aspects at work.
 The purposes of this Ordinance are (i) to ensure the safety and health of employees
when they are at work; (ii) to prescribe measures that will contribute to making the
workplaces of employees safer and healthier for them; (iii) to improve the safety and
health standards applicable to certain hazardous processes, plant and substances
used or kept in workplaces; and (iv) generally to improve the safety and health
aspects of working environments of employees (Hong Kong e-Legislation 2022a).
CAP59 Factories and Industrial Undertakings Ordinance
The Factories & Industrial Undertakings Ordinance regulates safety and health at work in
industrial undertakings, which include factories, construction sites, catering establishments,
cargo and container handling undertakings, repair workshops and other industrial workplaces.
This Ordinance aims to provide for the safety and health protection to workers in the
industrial sector and applies to industrial undertakings. Under the Ordinance, there
are 30 sets of subsidiary regulations covering various aspects of hazardous work
activities in factories and other industrial workplaces. The subsidiary regulations
prescribe detailed safety and health standards on work situations, plant and
machinery, processes and substances (Labour Department 2021).
In addition, there are ordinances and specific regulations which have impacts on the
management of construction site and site activities:
Cap59AF Factories and Industrial Undertakings (Safety Management) Regulation
This Regulation requires proprietors and contractors to implement a safety management system
applicable to Hong Kong, which consists of 14 elements. The proprietors and contractors are
also required to carry out safety audits or safety reviews of their safety management systems
(Hong Kong e-Legislation 2022b).
CAP59I Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations
This Regulation governs the safety and health of industrial undertaking, particularly, in
construction sites. For examples, excavation safety, machinery safety, safety in operation of
mechanics equipment, and other miscellaneous provisions such as materials kept on
construction sites (Hong Kong e-Legislation 2022c).
CAP354C Waste Disposal (Chemical Waste) (General) Regulation
This Regulation provides for the definition of chemical waste, the registration of chemical
waste producer, and the control of the possession, storage, collection, transport and disposal of
chemical waste. In addition, the Waste Disposal Ordinance provides for the licensing of waste
collection, transport and disposal activities and the control on import and export of chemical
waste (Hong Kong e-Legislation 2022d).
The Air Pollution Control (Amendment) Ordinance
The Air Pollution Control (Amendment) Ordinance 2014 amended the Air Pollution Control
Ordinance to prohibit the use, supply, import and transhipment of asbestos or asbestos
containing material; and to make related amendments to the CAP59AD Factories and Industrial
Undertakings (Asbestos) Regulation (Hong Kong e-Legislation 2022e).
Design for Safety
To enhance the health and safety performance, the design stage is a critical stage in any
development project. To achieve this, design for safety can be adopted:
Design for safety aims to (OSHC-DB 2022):
• Promote early involvement, effective cooperation and communication of all stakeholders
by provision of relevant and necessary information;
• Improve clarity on the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders for coordinating and
providing relevant project information on risks at all stages of a project;
• Identify the outputs of the design for safety application process and the specific risk
reduction measures
• Eliminate or minimize the risks of injury at the early design stage and be continued through
the subsequent stages by hazard identification and mitigation and better safety
management in the whole project life cycle.
The principle of design for safety is to bring the consideration of the hazards and risks in the
early design stage. Designers would be responsible for identifying and quantifying the hazards
and risks and develop a framework to prevent such hazards and risks in design, specification,
and planning of project. It is most effective to provide risk control measure by eliminating the
hazards at source. The considerations in design for safety include: safety maintenance, safe
construction, traffic management, temporary traffic management, work in confined spaces,
manual handling, machinery, hazardous material, human factors, working at height, excavation,
workplace housekeeping, utilities, and temporary works.
Health and Safety Guideline
It is effective to prevent accidents by taking measures or adopting proper working procedures;
therefore, the Labour Department and other authorities have published different guidelines to
outline the important issues on safety and health and to promote about good practices in
construction sites. The main contractor and sub-contractors should follow the guideline and
maintain good site practices.
For example, Safety Handbook for Construction Site Workers (Labour Department), this
guideline covers basic rules for safety and highlights the important issues for workplace safety
including falsework, scaffold and fencing, equipment and electricity, workplace safety and fire
prevention, personal safety and hygiene. the safety handbook advises that the workers should
(in manual handling operations):
• avoid manual handling operations as far as possible to minimize the risk of injury;
• estimate the weight of the load;
• lift an object with a correct posture;
• wear suitable protective equipment;
• seek assistance from someone in lifting a load if necessary
2.4 Regulations’ Impact on Use, Storage and Handling of Construction Materials
The health and safety regulations and guidelines may have the impact on the planning,
management and operation of a construction site, and also, selection of materials. Below is an
example of use, storage and handling of paint in construction site.
To eliminate and minimize the hazards and risks, main contractor and sub-contractors have to
follow the regulations, arrange and take the necessary actions shown as following:
Regulation Impact
CAP354C Waste Disposal Produce:
(Chemical Waste) • Chemical waste producer is required to register with
(General) Regulation Environmental Protection Department;
Use and Storage:
• Regulation requires producer/user to arrange proper
packaging, labelling and storage of chemicals;
• Containers should be resistant to the contents;
• Containers should be in good condition;
• Containers should be securely closed;
• No mixing of incompatible chemicals in a container;
• Provide sufficient air space in containers when storing
liquid chemical;
• Container of chemical should bear an appropriate label of
the design specified in Code of Practice;
• Provide a suitable area for temporary storage;
• Provide adequate supervision to prevent any danger or
injury;
• Provide warning signs;
• Provide safety training and personal protection equipment;
Disposal:
• Appoint licensed waste collectors to transport the waste;
• All movement of waste must be accompanied by trip ticket
system;
• Treatment and disposal must be carried out at licensed
facilities.
CAP59N Factories and • Construction of spraying room or spraying area;
Industrial Undertakings • Provision of efficient ventilation;
(Spraying of Flammable • Sources of ignition and prohibition of smoking;
Liquid) Regulations • Notices must be displayed;
• Provision of fire extinguishing appliances;
• Storage of flammable liquid;
• Kept clean and tidy;
• Disposal of flammable waste;
• Removal of contaminated material
Source: Adapted from A Guide to the Registration of Chemical Waste Producers and Code of
Practice on the Package, Labelling and Storage of Chemical Waste, Environmental Protection
Department (2022); and CAP59N Factories and Industrial Undertakings (Spraying of
Flammable Liquid) Regulations (Hong Kong e-Legislation 2022f)
3.0 Environmental Sustainability
This section aims to discuss the ways how to improve environmental sustainability through
material selection. In this development project, the materials selected should have the material
environmental profile and/or environmental certificate.
3.1 Material Environmental Profiling and Lifecycle Assessment
Environmental Profiles
The goal of environmental profiles is to encourage the demand and supply of construction
materials or products that cause less stress on the environment. The environmental profiles
methodology is a standardised method to identify and assess the environmental effects of
building material over its life cycle introduced by Building Research Establishment (BRE
2021):
1. Product stage (raw material supply, transport, manufacturing of products);
2. Construction process stage (transport to the building site and building
installation/construction);
3. Use stage (maintenance, repair and replacement, refurbishment); and
4. End of life stage (recycling and disposal; all including transport).

Source: Environmental Profiles Methodology, Building Research Establishment

https://tools.bregroup.com/greenguide/page.jsp?id=2106
Lifecycle Assessment
Srinivas (2015) defined that life cycle assessment identifies, quantifies and evaluates the
environmental impacts of a product, service or activity from the time that the materials are
extracted through manufacture, transportation, storage, use, recovery, reuse and disposal.
The basic steps in life cycle assessment are (i) goal and scope definition, (ii) analysis, (iii)
assessment, and (iv) interpretation or evaluation. The first step is to define the purpose of the
life cycle assessment, identifies assumptions and boundaries, and defines the scope such as
product, or process, or activity. The second step is to identify, classify and quantify the impacts
of energy, materials and emissions. In this step, all environmental impacts should be listed in
an inventory table. The third step is to assess the environmental of a product, or process, or
activity. The final step is to interpret and evaluate the results. Opportunities for environmental
improvements should be identified and value judgement should be made.
Life Cycle of Natural Wood is an example which helps to explain the material environmental
profiling and lifecycle assessment (TS 2022):
Product stage
• The tree is harvested from a sustainable forest;
• The trees are transported to a sawhill and broken down into boards. To reduce waste, saw
dust produced is used in the manufacture of chipboard and medium-density fibreboard;
• The rough sawn boards are seasoned to remove excessive water content, either by air
seasoning or kiln dried (by energy and heat);
Construction process stage
• The seasoned boards are used by manufacturers to construct products, for example, the
wood boards are cut to size and shape and manufactured into furniture
Use stage
• The furniture is purchased and used;
End of life stage
• The furniture is finally converted to chipboard, instead dispose to landfill.
3.2 Product Declaration and Environmental Certification
Product Declaration and Environmental Certification
Environmental product declaration and certification provide the information of the life cycle
of a product in a comprehensive report including the product’s impact upon the environment,
such as global warming, smog creation, ozone depletion and water pollution. It aims to
eliminate or minimize the product impact, such as change in land use and potential toxicity
risks (ULS 2022). It is also a manufacturer's commitment to measuring and reducing the
environmental impact of its products and services (EPDI 2022).
The environmental product declaration is based on lifecycle assessment to evaluate the
product’s environmental performance over its entire lifecycle, following ISO standard 14025
prinicples. The international standard requires the report to be prepared meeting the specific
criteria of product category rules, for examples, the product category, scope of lifecycle
assessment and identification of potential environmental impacts (EPDI 2022).
Product Declaration and Environmental Certification Processes
According to SCS Global Services (2022), the environmental product declaration processes
are:
1. Identify the product category rule;
2. Scope and collect data;
3. Perform lifecycle assessment; and
4. Prepare, verify and publish the environmental product declaration.
Benefits of Product Declaration and Environmental Certification
The benefits of obtaining product declaration are (OC 2022; BRE 2022):
• In European Union, all public procurement bodies are required to use environmental
product declaration to assess the environmental footprint of products;
• Environmental product declaration is recognized by building certification bodies such as
UK-BREEAM, US-LEED and HK-BEAM;
• The environmental product declaration helps the manufacturers to differentiate their
products from the others and promote global business opportunities;
• The environmental product declaration supports product development by improving
energy and transport costs and enhancing materials efficiency;
• The environmental product declaration report helps purchasers in better understand of the
product’s sustainable qualities; and
• The purchasers can enjoy the savings, in particularly energy-efficient products.
4.0 Properties and Performance of Construction Materials
4.1 Properties of Construction Materials
There are different types of materials used in the construction of engineering structures and
buildings such as concrete, steel, metals, timber, glass, plastics and paints. It is important for
engineer to select the materials correctly. To achieve this, material properties should be
understood.
The most important properties of construction materials are grouped as follows (TCBI 2022):
Group Properties
Physical Shape, Size, Density, Specific gravity, Porosity, etc.,
Mechanical Strength, Elasticity, Plasticity, Hardness, Toughness, Ductility,
Brittleness, Creep, Stiffness, Fatigue, Impact strength, etc.,
Thermal Thermal conductivity, Thermal resistivity, Thermal capacity, etc.,
Chemical Corrosion resistance, Chemical composition, Acidity, Alkalinity, etc.,
Optical Colour, Light reflection, Light transmission, etc.,
Acoustical Sound absorption, Transmission, Reflection.
Physiochemical Hygroscopicity, Shrinkage and swell due to moisture changes
• Density: It is defined as mass per unit volume. It is expressed as kg/m3.
• Specific gravity: It is the ratio of density of a material to density of water.
• Porosity: The term porosity is used to indicate the degree by which the volume of a
material is occupied by pores. It is expressed as a ratio of volume of pores to that of the
specimen.
• Strength: Strength of a material has been defined as its ability to resist the action of an
external force without breaking.
• Elasticity: It is the property of a material which enables it to regain its original shape and
size after the removal of external load.
• Plasticity: It is the property of the material which enables the formation of permanent
deformation.
• Hardness: It is the property of the material which enables it to resist abrasion,
indentation, machining and scratching.
• Toughness: It is the property of a material which enables it to be twisted, bent or stretched
under a high stress before rupture.
• Ductility: It is the property of a material which enables it to be drawn out or elongated
to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs.
• Brittleness: It is the property of a material, which is opposite to ductility. Material, having
very little property of deformation, either elastic or plastic is called brittle.
• Creep: It is the property of the material which enables it under constant load to deform
slowly but progressively over a certain period.
• Stiffness: It is the property of a material which enables it to resist deformation.
 • Fatigue: The term fatigue is generally referred to the effect of cyclically repeated stress.
A material has a tendency to fail at lesser stress level when subjected to repeated loading.
• Impact strength: The impact strength of a material is the quantity of work required to
cause its failure per its unit volume. It thus indicates the toughness of a material.
• Thermal conductivity: It is the property of a material which allows conduction of heat
through its body. It is defined as the amount of heat in kilocalories that will flow through
unit area of the material with unit thickness in unit time when difference of temperature
on its faces is also unity.
• Thermal resistivity: It is a heat property and a measurement of a temperature difference
by which an object or material resists a heat flow.
• Thermal capacity: It is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be
supplied to an object to produce a unit change in its temperature.
• Corrosion resistance: It is the property of a material to withstand the action of acids,
alkalis gases etc., which tend to corrode (or oxidize).
• Chemical composition: It is the arrangement, type, and ratio of atoms in molecules of
chemical substances.
• Hygroscopicity: It is the tendency of a solid substance to absorb moisture from the
surrounding atmosphere.
Source: Adopted from Properties of Construction Materials, The Constructor Building Ideas
https://theconstructor.org/building/properties-of-construction-materials/18/
4.2 Performance of Construction Materials
For the design and performance of a good building, the following factors should be considered.
Performance Functional Characteristics
Strength and Structural Stability • The structure should be able to resist all loads
including dead loads, imposed loads and wind loads.
• The compressive and tensile stresses for the materials
should consider the plastic deformation and the
effects of moisture and thermal changes.
Dimension Co-ordination and • The dimensions of the materials structure may have
standard changes due to different factors and it may cause
deformation and cracking. For examples, elastic and
plastic deformation due to long-term applied loads;
expansion and contraction due to temperature
variation or moisture; chemical reactions between
moisture air and materials.
Durability • Durability is the ability of a physical product to
remain function, without excessive maintenance or
repair over its design life time.
• The durability of a building depends on degree of
maintenance; method of construction adopted; types
of materials used in buildings; exposure conditions to
weathering; effect of frost action on exposed building
materials; crystallization of salts by groundwater
movestents; effect of sunlight on paints, plastics,
glass, asphalt, rubber, etc.
 Fire Resistance •Fire safety is one of the primary considerations in
building functions. Some of the building components
are designed to resist fire and to prevent spread of fire
and protect people and their properties from the effect
of fire.
Heat or Thermal Insulation • Thermal insulation reduces heat movements and
vapor condensation and prevents humidity, mold,
freezing, deformation. As a result, it helps the
minimisation of materials corrosion and preservation
of building.
• Proper insulation also helps to minimise the energy
consumption.
Weather and Moisture • The moisture deteriorates the strength and the
Resistance durability of materials so that the structure should
remain dry.
Sound Insulation • Sound proofing stops sound from bothering other
people in the building or other people outside the
room and the building.
Light and Ventilation • Sufficient daylight creates a pleasing environmental
to work and to live in.
• The ventilation is required to control dust and other
impurities, to suppress odours, smoke, concentration
of bacteria, to prevent or minimise condensation.
Safety and Security • Security and control system is designed to monitor
and control mechanical and electrical installations,
fire protection and escape, burglary, assault and
emergency communication.
Economy • A cost-effective design could lower the whole life cost
including the initial costs and operation costs.
Aesthetics • Aesthetics is an important consideration in
architecture.
• The appeal of a building covers the combined effects
of a building’s shape, size, texture, colour, balance,
unity, movement, emphasis, contrast, symmetry,
proportion, space, alignment, pattern, decoration,
culture and context.
Buildability • Buildability is a pre-construction exercise that assess
design, manufacture, construction and installation.
Adapted from Civil Engineering Home for Civil Engineers and Rethinking Internet Media Pvt
Ltd.
Sources:
https://cementconcrete.org/building-construction/functional-components-building-
structure/3246/
https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/rtf-fresh-perspectives/a1824-8-things-to-consider-
while-choosing-the-materials-for-your-project/
4.3 Materials Selection Criteria
The selection of building materials affects the quality of building and determines its overall
strength, longevity and appearance. It is important to consider the following factors (GP 2022):
Nature of Project – The choice of materials should be based on the nature of the project; for
examples, residential, commercial and industrial buildings. The choice of materials directly
affects the users and the investment budget of the developers.
Strength – Different materials have different abilities to sustain and withstand the building
loads and the structural failure under the actions of stresses.
Sustainability – It is good to chose the materials which can be reused or recycled so that they
can reduce the demand for new materials in future. Locally available materials also reduce the
emissions from the transportation.
Specifications – The specifications define the requirements and the quality of materials and
this limits the selection of materials.
Cost – It is desirable to look for the most affordable products. The lifespan or utility of the
products should also be considered.
Climate – The materials should be capable of adapting to the weather and climatic conditions
as the temperature variation and moisture deteriorate the strength and the durability of materials.
Durability – Some of the materials can be used longer and are more repellent to corrosion,
moisture and other environmental conditions. The materials should have the durability and
strength required for the specific area and condition of use. It is desirable to select the materials
which require less maintenance and replacement.
Availability – Some materials are available only at a particular place or it may be difficult to
transport. The availability of the materials determines the cost and time for transportation and
installation. It is better to acquire locally available materials.
Handling and Storage – The handling and storage affects the construction time, requirement of
labour and equipment for handling, as well as, the costs.
Skills Required – If the materials require skills to be constructed or installed, it would increase
the costs of construction and installation. The availability of skilled labour should also be
considered and it may cause the project delay.
Maintenance – Good quality materials require less maintenance and inexpensive to maintain.
It saves the costs in long run.
Warranty / Guarantee – It is important to check the product literature, technical specifications,
terms and conditions of warranty and guarantee provided by the dealer or manufacturers.
After Sales Support and Service – The seller provides the support and services like spares,
normal repairing and annual maintenance.
4.4 Construction Material Testing
The success of construction projects relies on materials testing and site inspections. A series of
assessment are conducted to examine and analyze the performance of materials such as soil,
concrete, rebar, and structural steel. Construction material testing are normally divided into
two categories: field testing and laboratory testing (Intertek 2021).
Standards of Testing of Construction Materials
There are various standards of testing of construction materials and they are set by
governmental authorities or professional organisations. For example, construction standards
and specifications published by Civil Engineering and Development Department of The
Government of The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
• General Specification for Civil Engineering Works, 2020 Edition
• Construction Standard CS1:2010 - Testing Concrete
• Construction Standard CS2:2012 - Steel Reinforcing Bars for the Reinforcement of
Concrete
• Construction Standard CS3:2013 - Aggregates for Concrete
Testing of Construction Materials
In this project, the buildings are designed and constructed as reinforced concrete structures. It
is important to ensure the quality and performance of the concrete and steel materials.
Therefore, the above-mentioned testing methods and standards shall be adopted. Tests on fresh
and hardened concrete are required under the regulatory requirements. The strength of
building/concrete will be the first priority and the main concern. The procedures of testing on
strength of concrete are shown below:
Workability - Determination of Slump Test (Fresh concrete test conducted on site)
According to CS1:2010, the internal surface of the slump cone should be clean and damp but
free from superfluous moisture. The test should be carried out on a first, level, non-absorbent
surface that is free from shocks or vibration.
1. Fill the cone in 3 layers of approximately equal depth, holding cone firmly.
2. Tamp uniform to its full depth of each layer with 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
3. During first layer, the tamping rod shall not forcibly strick the surface below. For
subsequent layers, the tamping rod shall just pass into the layer immediately below. The
concrete shall be heaped above the slump cone before the top layer is tamped
4. After the top layer is tamped, level the top of the slump cone by a sawing and rolling
motion of the tamping rod. Clean away concrete spillage.
5. Remove by raising the slump cone vertically, slowly and carefully, in five to ten seconds.
6. Immediately after the slump cone is removed, invert cone and stand it beside the slumped
concrete.
7. Lay tamping rod across cone and above slumped concrete.
8. Measure the difference between the height of the slump cone and the highest point of the
specimen being tested to the nearest 5mm. And record the form of slump.
9. Another sample should be taken and procedure repeated. The slump shall be recorded to
the nearest.
Strength - Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete Cube (Hardened concrete test
conducted in laboratory)
1. Remove the cube from the curing tank.
2. Wipe off surface water and grit with a damp cloth.
3. Measure the cube dimensions between the three pairs of opposing faces.
4. Weigh each cube to the nearest 5g.
5. Wipe the test machine platens with a dry cloth.
6. Place the test cube centrally on the lower platen of the test machine with the rough top
surface of the test cube facing towards you.
7. Lower the top platen onto the cube and ensure a uniform seating by gently rotating the top
platen as it is brought to bear on the cube. Get five rebound hammer readings on each of
the two faces of the cubes.
8. Make sure that the test machine is set to the correct loading.
9. Apply the load without shock and continuously increase the approx 6.8kN per sec. for
150mm cube and 3kN per sec. for 100mm cube (Between the range 0.2 – 0.4 N/mm2 per
sec as specified in the Hong Kong Standard CS1:2010).
10. When the cube fails, note the maximum applied load.
11. Calculate the compressive strength by dividing the maximum load by the cross sectional
area of the cube.
12. The result shall be expressed to the nearest 0.5MPa.
Discussions of Testing Results
Determination of Slump Test
The slump test measures the consistency and check the workability (concrete flow) of fresh
concrete (Wikipedia 2022). In this project, the concrete mix with high slump of the range 75
mm to 20 mm was supposed to be used.

The slump tests conducted followed the procedures in CS1:2010. The photos show the results
from two samples of slump test and the results were 80 mm and 140 mm. The slumps of
concrete were within the recommended slumps stated in the method statement. The tests
yielded a true slump which the concrete remains substantially intact and symmetrical, so that
the tests are considered as valid. From these results, the following conclusion can be made:
• The ratio of water to cement is correct. The right amount of cement paste the coating of
aggregates delivers a good consolidation and finish, and
• The size and shape of the aggregates used in the concrete mix were sufficient. The large
sizes of aggregates tend to bond best with the cement and deliver decent workability.
Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete Cube
The method statement stated that a set of two 150 mm test cubes would be made per 25m3 of
concrete placed. The design concrete mix and concrete grade were supposed to be 40D/20 and
40 MPa. The test of compressive strength of concrete cube was conducted by HOKLAS
laboratory and followed the procedures from CS1:2010. From the laboratory report, it showed
that the results of compressive strength at 28 days were 58.0 and 52.0 MPa, which beyond the
required concrete grade of 40 MPa. It implies that the concrete strength is able to resist all loads
including dead loads, imposed loads and wind loads and have good strength and structural
stability.
Although testing results were satisfactory, unexpected results may be happened in any time.
The slump test may be failed because of incorrect water content-water/cement ratio,
aggregate/cement ratio, and grading, shape, surface texture, maximum size of the aggregates,
etc. The unexpected results on the compressive strength of concrete may be caused by type of
cement, water/cement ratio, strength and grading of aggregates, degree of compaction, method
of curing and age of concrete.
4.5 Selection of Materials for given Project
The selection of construction materials based on their material and performance properties:
Construction Materials Performance Properties
Concrete • Strength and Structural Stability: Concrete is good in
(Reinforced Concrete compression and steel is good in tension, so that the reinforced
Structure) concrete structure should be able to provide enough strength to
resist all loads.
• Fire Resistance: As specified in the code of practice, adequate
concrete cover to steel has to be provided for protection of fire.
• Durability: Similarly, concrete cover is also used to protect
embedded bars from corrosion and to perform satisfactorily for
the design working life of the structure (50 years in Hong
Kong).
Glass (for Windows) • Strength: Tempered glass gets its strength from the
manufacturing processes and it can withstand wind load.
• Thermal Insulation: Toned glass has a lower solar heat gain but
does not affect the light levels.
• Sound Insulation: Double / Secondary glazing provide a good
noise control

5.0 Human Comfort Requirements

5.1 Human Comfort
According to ASHRAE Standard 55 (2020), “thermal comfort is the condition of mind that
expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation”.
Simply say that, thermal comfort describes a person’s state of mind in terms of whether they
feel too hot or too cold (HSE 2022).
There are six factors affecting thermal comfort from environmental and personal (HSE 2022):
1. Air temperature – The temperature of the air surrounding the body;
2. Radiant temperature – The heat radiates from a warm object, for examples, heat sources
from the sun, fire, and hot surfaces, etc;
3. Air velocity – The speed of air moving across the person;
4. Relative Humidity - Relative humidity is the ratio between the actual amount of water
vapour in the air and the maximum amount of water vapour;
5. Clothing Insulation – The insulating effect of clothing on the wearer; and
6. Work Rate / Metabolic Heat - The more physical work we do, the more heat we produce.
There is also relationship between thermal comfort and indoor environment (acoustics,
lighting and air quality).
Managing Thermal Comfort
Different methods can be adopted to manage the thermal comfort such as elimination and
isolation of hazard, and engineering controls (NSWG 2022):
• Design buildings that incorporate good ventilation and air flow, in examples, eg via
windows, shutters or roof design;
• Insulate around heat or cold generating plant and pipes;
• Isolate heat-producing equipment to limit exposure to radiant heat;
• Provide effective ventilation, extractors or air conditioning to increase air movement and
control the temperature and humidity;
• Provide additional equipment, such as fans, portable heating appliances, blinds, louvres,
reflective film, where appropriate.
Designing and Installation Considerations
CIBSE (2015) provide some suggestions about the design and installation of building
components:
• Use building orientation and envelope design to minimize the thermal load of the building
• Use equipment and lighting systems that reduce internal loads
• Consider air intakes. Clean outdoor air is preferable or appropriate filtration is required to
clean outdoor air of poor quality
• Minimize source pollution through material selections
• Design of an effective ventilation supply and distribution system
• Design of an effective thermal control scheme
• Selection of efficient equipment and proper controls to implement the ventilation and
thermal control design
• Commission the design, installation and operation of the systems.
5.2 Selection of Materials Regarding Thermal Comfort
Passive design can be adopted to maintain a comfortable environment. A good passive design
can reduce or eliminate the needs for additional heating or cooling; as a result, it can reduce
the use of energy and reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases.
In both passive and active design, building features such as thermal mass, insulation and
glazing should be considered.
 Passive / Active Strategy
Design objectives • To achieve effective cooling in a humid climate
• Well insulated and able to be made airtight while air-
conditioning is running
Design considerations • To take advantage of cooling breezes
• Use passive cooling measures, e.g. fans
• Locate cooking areas and heat-generating appliances away from
sleeping areas
• Use light colours on roofs and walls
• Position landscaping outside the buildings
• Maximise planted areas in landscapes
• Avoid overuse of glazing
• Use the highest energy rated air-conditioning appliances
• Locate the air-conditioning unit where its hot air output will be
directed away from the house
• Design air-conditioned spaces to be sealed off
• Provide fans in conditioned spaces
Windows and Shading • Shade all windows and walls
• Use glazing with low U value and low solar heat gain coefficient
• Shade the outdoor spaces with planting
Insulation • Ensure insulation is appropriate for the climate and installed
correctly
• Insulate internal wall surfaces well from any external thermal
mass
Construction systems • Use lightweight (low-mass) construction materials
• Use light-coloured reflective roof and external wall materials
Adapted from: Australia’s Guide to Environmentally Sustainable Homes, Your Home,
Australian Government
To achieve the passive and active strategies, the following design considerations and materials
selection criteria should be referred:
Design Considerations / Materials Selection
Passive heating • Use active solar heating systems to collect heat
• Use thermal mass for solar gain
• Use trombe wall with an outer skin of glass or clear
polycarbonate to collect heat in winter and dump heat in summer
• Avoid over-glazing for windows to lower energy liability
• Use thermally separated metal window frame to prevent heat
transfer
• Provide appropriate shading of windows to allow winter solar
gain and prevent summer overheating
• Create convective air movement to distribute warm air through
careful design
• Choose high-quality windows and doors with airtight seals
Passive cooling • Construct concrete slabs-on-ground for passive cooling
• Use low thermal mass and high levels of insulation materials for
solar gain such as double brick
 • Choose appropriate insulation products for passive cooling and
to prevent condensation,
• Construct green roofs and walls for insulation and shading
• Provide shading of glazing to minimize heat gain
• Provide double glazing windows to reduce heat gain
• Provide overhanging or vertical shading to windows
• Landscaping at outdoor spaces to reduce the temperature of air
moving over the surfaces around the house
• Provide cooling breezes to maximize the air flow through
careful design of windows
• Provide fans to increase the air movement
• Provide air-conditioning to lower temperature and humidity
Thermal mass • For passive heating, locate thermal mass in areas that receive
direct sunlight or radiant heat from heaters
• For passive cooling, protect thermal mass from summer sun
with shading and insulation.
• For both passive heating and cooling, locate thermal mass inside
the building on the ground floor for ideal summer and winter
efficiency
• Locate additional thermal mass near the centre of the building,
e.g. feature brick walls, slabs, water features
• Use surfaces such as quarry or ceramic tiles or polished concrete
slab
• Use masonry walls to provide good thermal mass if they are
located internally or protected by insulation
• Use reverse brick veneer construction for external walls
Insulation • Bulk insulation uses pockets of trapped air within its structure
to resist the transfer of conducted and convected heat, e.g. glass
wool
• Reflective insulation mainly resists radiant heat flow, e.g.
aluminium foil
Glazing • Use a lowest possible U value for glazing (U value measures the
ability to retain heat)
• Use single glazing with a more energy-efficient type of glass
such as low emissivity glass (reduces heat transfer)
• Provide double or triple glazing to offer better energy
performance with less energy transmission
• Use toned glass (lower solar heat gain but not affect light levels)
• Use secondary glazing (provide good noise control)
• Use frame to allow heat gain and loss, e.g. aluminium, timber
• Use window furnishings, blinds and curtains to increase the
insulation
Ventilation • Achieve good ventilation by using natural and mechanical
ventilation
• Use mechanical extractor fans to control moisture build-up and
humidity in kitchens and bathrooms
• Provide air conditioning to increase air movement and control
the temperature and humidity
Adapted from: Australia’s Guide to Environmentally Sustainable Homes, Your Home,
Australian Government
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