Lesson No. 13

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Lesson: 13
The Utilitarian Approach: a Revolution in Ethics:
Philosophers like to think that their ideas can change the society. But, often it is a vain hope.
Philosopher’s work is read by few, like-minded thinkers, the rest of the world goes unaffected.
For Example: The work of Russell and Whitehead, “Principia Mathematica” is considered a
classic in the philosophy of Mathematics and no publisher was ready to publish it.
Karl Marx, the founder of Communism thought that the aim of philosophy is not to interpret the
world, rather to change it.
On occasion, however, a philosophical theory can alter the way people think. Here is a good
example:
Utilitarianism, a theory proposed by Scottish philosopher Hutcheson (1694-1746), David Hume
(1711-1776) and Adam Smith (1723-1790) but given definite formation by English social
reformer Bentham (1748-1832) and J.S. Mill (1806-1873).
The late 18th and 19th century witnessed an astonishing series of upheavals/sudden changes:
• Emergence of Modern nation state after French Revolution and the wreckage of
Napoleonic Empire.
• Emergence of new ideas like: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.
• Industrial Revolution: brought about a total Restructuring of Society.
Amidst all this change, people begin to think differently about Ethics. The old values ---the old
ways of thinking----were very much in the air, open to challenge. Change is meant for all walks
of life.
Against this background, Bentham’s argument for a new conception of morality had a powerful
influence.
Bentham says: “Morality is not a matter of pleasing God, nor is a matter of faithfulness to
abstract rules. Morality is nothing more than the attempt to bring about as much happiness as
possible in this world.”
Thus the purpose of morality is being diverted from Transcendental World to this Mundane
World.
According to Bentham there is one ultimate moral principle: “The Principle of Utility.”
Whenever we have a choice between the alternative actions or social policies, we must choose
the one that has best overall consequences for every one concerned.
However, Bentham’s disciple J. S. Mill’s advocacy of Utilitarianism is more elegant and
persuasive than his master.
Mill says: “We envision a certain state of affairs that we would like to see come about---states of
affairs in which all people are as happy as they can be.”
In deciding what to do, we should, therefore ask what course of conduct would promote the
greatest happiness for all those who will be affected.
One may ask here the question that: ‘Every one opposes suffering and promotes happiness.’ How
it [Utilitarianism] becomes a Revolutionary/ Radical Idea?
The answer is: To understand radicalness of the Principle of Utility, we have to appreciate what
it leaves out of its picture of morality.
Accepting Utilitarianism means:
• Gone is all reference to God or to Abstract Moral Rules “written in heavens.”
• Morality is no longer to be understood as faithfulness to some divinely given code.
• Morality is not ‘Given’ to man rather Morality is ‘Created’ by man.
That, in its time, was a revolutionary idea.
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The utilitarians were social reformers as well as philosophers. They intended their doctrine to
make a difference, not only in thought but in practice.
What is Utilitarianism:
Story of a millionaire, as lies dying, he requests you for a final favor:
Will: Asking you to hand over $ 2 billion for his favorite baseball team New York Yankees.
Coming back to New York you see a newspaper advertisement placed by your favorite charity,
World Hunger Relief Organization (WHRO) demanding the same to save thousands of people.
Question: What should you do with the money?
What is the right thing to do in this kind of situation?
Here are certain traditional Moral Principles that can help us to decide what to do:
• ‘Let your conscience be your guide.’
• ‘Do what is most loving.’ (St. Augustine )
• Golden Rule: ‘Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.’
These may be workable in ordinary moral situation but are limited in when there are legitimate
conflicts of interests.
Decision Making in Morality:

Two major types of ethical systems:
1. Deontological [from the Greek deon, meaning “duty,” and logos, meaning “logic”], in
which the locus of value is the act or kind of act.
2. Teleological [from Greek teleos, meaning having reached one’s end”], in which the locus
of value is the outcome or consequences of the act.
If you decide to give money to Yankees (Keeping Promise) you are deontologist.
If you give money to WHRO (saving lives) you are teleologist.
Utilitarianism is a Universal teleological System. It calls for maximization of goodness in
society, that is, the greatest goodness for the greatest number.
Two features of Utilitarianism:

1. The Consequentialist Principle: (teleological aspect) the rightness or wrongness of an
action is determined by the goodness or badness of the results that flow from it. It is the
end, not means, that count, ‘End justifies means.’
2. The Utility Principle: (hedonistic aspect) the only thing that is good in itself is some
specific type of state (e.g., pleasure, happiness, welfare). ‘Pleasure the sole good and
Pain as the only evil.’
According to Bentham an act is right if it either brings about more pleasure than pain or prevents
pain, and an act is wrong if it either brings about more pain than pleasure or prevents pleasure
from occurring. He invented Hedonic Calculus to measure pleasure and pain. The quantitative
score for any pleasure or pain experience is obtained by summing the following seven aspects of
pleasurable and painful experience:
1. Intensity
2. Duration
3. Certainty
4. Nearness
5. Fruitfulness
6. Purity
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7. Extent
According to Bentham’s approach we can apply this on our example for making decision to give
money to Yankees or to WHRO. If we find that giving money to famine victims will cause more
hedons (units of happiness) we would have an obligation to give the money to WHRO.
Merits of Bentham’s Utilitarianism:

There is something appealing about Bentham’s utilitarianism:
1 It is a Simple Principle to apply: “Maximize Pleasure and Minimize Suffering.’
2 It is Commonsensical: Morality really is about ameliorating suffering and promoting
benevolence.
3 It is Scientific: Simply make Quantitative Measurements and apply the principle
impartially, giving no special treatment to ourselves or to any else because of race,
gender or religion.
Objections:
However Bentham’s philosophy may be too simplistic in one way and too complicated in
another:
It is too simplistic in that there are other values than pleasure.
It is too complicated in its artificial Hedonic Calculus because it has too many variables.
Bentham’s version of utilitarian was, in his own day, referred to as the ‘pig philosophy’, since a
pig enjoying his life would constitute a higher moral state than a slightly dissatisfied Socrates.
[Note: For further study see Rachels, James. “The Elements of Moral Philosophy” McGraw
Hill. p. 96-98]
[Note: For further study see Pojman Louis P. “Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong”
Wadsworth. p. 105-112]

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Decision Making in Morality:

Two features of Utilitarianism:

Merits of Bentham’s Utilitarianism:

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