INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS

GROUP 1: THE STATE

GLOBAL CONTEXT /
DEMOCRATIC STATE
AND
DEMOCRATIZATION

ANTONIO, CALPITO, ELLORIN, FAUSTINO, MOLINA, TUAZON

The State-Global Context

What is a state? (Different scholars)

- A community formed by people exercising permanent power within a specified territory.
- James Garner - A state is a group of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a
definite portion of territory, having a government of their own, or which the huge body of
inhabitants renders habitual obedience and free from external control.
- According to international law, a state is typically defined as being based on the 1933
Montevideo Convention. According to Article 1 of the Convention, the state as a person
of international law should possess the following qualifications:
1. Permanent population
2. Defined territory
3. Government
4. Capacity to enter into relations with the other states.

Elements of the State

1. Population or People
- It is the people who make the state and population is essential for the state. Plato fixed the
number at 5,040 citizens while Aristotle had neither ten nor a hundred thousand but rather
laid a general principle that the number should neither be too large nor too small. It
should be large enough to self-sufficient and small enough to be well-governed.
Rousseau, the high priest of direct democracy said that 10,000 would be the ideal number.
2. Territory
- The is no state if there is no fixed territory. The people need territory to love and organize
themselves socially and politically. There is no definite size concerning the extent of the
area of the state that can be fixed.
3. Government
- It is the working agency of the state. Prof. Appadorai states that the Government is the
agency in which the state forces are formulated, expressed, and realized. The agency
promotes common policies, affairs, and interests.
4. Sovereignty
- “Sovereignty resides in the people and all government authority emanates from them.”
Sovereignty means supreme and being free from external control. There are two aspects
of Sovereignty;
 1. Internal Sovereignty - It means the State is supreme over all its citizens, and
associations.
2. External Sovereignty - It states that the State is independent and free from foreign
or outside control.
5. International Recognition - It is a declaration of intent by one state to acknowledge another
power as a state with the meaning of international law. Recognition constitutes a unilateral
declaration of intent. There are two forms of recognition; (see provisions Haupttext pdf)
i. De jure recognition means that all preconditions under the internal law for final
and complete recognition have been fulfilled.
ii. De facto recognition means that comparatively less binding effect because the
legal relationship - though effective in existence - is only provisional.

State Creation / Wave of Decolonization

1. Occurred in the nineteenth century in the Spanish and Portuguese territories of Latin America
- 15 new sovereign states were the result of the early wars of independence prompted by
the American and French revolutions. It was initiated by the white economic elite in the
colony’s capital stating that the wealth of the class was derived from stringent control of
large indigenous populations extracting commodities for export.
- The outcome of independence was not a contract between citizens subject to their consent
but rather because of the continued economic exploitation of native workforces with
unequal societies governed by autocrats lacking direct control over the interior
(McCreery, 2002).
2. Neglected Wave of Post-Colonial Statehood emerged in Europe and the Middle East.
- It was the final collapse of the multinational and religiously diverse Austro-Hungarian,
Ottoman, and Russian empires around the end of the First World War. The
Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved into five separate states; Austria, Hungary, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. In 1923, the historic core of the Ottoman Empire which
is Turkey became a sovereign state while Ottoman territories in the Middle East including
Iraq and Palestine were placed under the control of the British or French under the
mandates from the new League of Nations.
- Finland, Estonia Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Ukraine were able to achieve at least
temporary independence due to The Russian Revolution of 1917. New National identities
were present and eventually most of the countries were incorporated into Hitler’s
Germany or the Soviet Union. It was only in the 1990s when communism collapsed that
many post-colonial countries got into the European Union in 2002 and independent
statehood seemed to be assured.
- A colony is a country or area under the full or partial political control of another country,
typically a distant one, and occupied by settlers from the country.
- 13 British Colonies were founded in North America during the 17th century.
Colonies were often ruled by a royal governor with a council. People within each
of these colonies lived, worked, sourced food, and developed a culture together
as a community.
3. Occurred after 1945, The retreat from empire by European States diminished by war.
 - The exemplar was Indian Independence in 1047 in which many other colonies in Africa,
Asia, the Middle East, and the Caribbean followed also. From 1944 to 1984, 90 new
independent states were created resulting in one in two of the world’s countries existing
as independent states for less than a century. Colonial Legacy was most pronounced here.
Ethnic groups were battling to control the resources of the government. Whoever won,
they see it as theirs to explore therefore governance was removed from that found in the
Western States.
4. Occurred in the final decade of the twentieth century, with the collapse of communism.
- The Baltic States and a dozen Soviet satellites in East Europe such as Hungary, Poland,
and Romania gained effective independence with the dissolution of the communist bloc
previously dominated by the Soviet Union. The Russian Empire dissolved into 15
successor states including Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Russia itself.
- Lithuania in the Baltic Region has gained economic and political stability from its
proximity to the European Union. Asian republics such as Uzbekistan show a more
typical post-colonial pattern; small size, ethnic division, pre-industrial economies, and
autocratic rule.
- “Sovereignty remains important as a title of statehood, securing international recognition
and access to aid while deterring some invades” (Sorensen, 2004, p.117).

International, Intergovernmental, Regional, and Non-Governmental Organizations

- International Organization - an organization that is established by a treaty, or is an instrument
governed by international law and possessing its legal personality
- The most prominent IO is the United Nations with 191 members, Other examples include
the World Trade Organization, Universal Postal Union, and the International
Hydrographic Organization.
- Intergovernmental Organization - refers to an entity created by a treaty, involving two or more
nations, to work in good faith, on issues of common interest.
- IGOs lack enforcement mechanisms however most member states comply with IGO
decisions.
- Mechanisms of IGO Governance - conferences, discussions, treaties, and
pronouncements are characteristics of modern politics which is an appropriate response to
global problems by the international community lacking a world government.
- Examples include the United Nations which replaced the League of Nations, The
Universal Postal Union, the European Union, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries, the African Development Bank, the World Trade Organization, and the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization.
- Regional Organization - a group assembled in any “geographically appropriate” area, which
may include a city, country, groups of countries, or other geographic regions to address common
issues and promote regional integration and cooperation. Its primary purpose is to foster dialogue,
cooperation, and collaboration among member states in areas such as political stability, economic
development, trade, security, and cultural exchange.
 - North American Free Trade Association seeks to eliminate trade tariffs between two
developed states, the United States and Canada, and the developing economy, Mexico.
- The cornerstone of Regional Organizations is established democracies capable of making,
implementing, and sustaining agreements with other countries. Most Regional
organizations lacked the legitimacy that direct election can provide.
- Examples of Regional Organizations include The Organization of American States
(oldest) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.
- Non - governmental organizations are groups that function independently of any governments,
sometimes called civil societies established on community, national, and international levels to
serve social or political goals such as humanitarian cases of environmental protection.
- Examples include the Philippine Red Cross, Pro-Life Philippines, Habitat for Humanity
Philippines, ChildHope Asia, IBON Foundation, Society for the Conversation of
Philippine Wetlands, and the Philippines Alliance on Human Rights Advocates.

The State in the Global Economy

- The global economy is best described by the growing economic activity operating between
countries including international trade and currency trading. In the second half of the twentieth
century, international trade was free apace while production and finance broker fees of national
restraints. States in a developed world are reasonably favored with the balance of opportunities
while states in the least developed countries remain in a dependent position surviving by
exporting basic foodstuffs or minerals in competition with other equally poor states.
- Today’s global economy continues to recover from the pandemic and Russia’s invasion of
Ukraine. Energy and food prices decreased from war-induced peaks therefore allowing global
inflation pressures to ease faster than expected. Global inflation is expected to decline from 8.7
percent last year to 6.8 percent this year and 5.2 percent in the year 2024.

Developed Countries and Developing Countries

- Gross Domestic Product is one of the most well-known values for assessing economic health,
several other metrics can also be used to gauge a nation’s development. The World Bank uses
gross national income per capita for measurements consisting of four different categories;
high-income economies, upper middle-income economies, lower middle-income economies, and
low-income economies. According to the United Nations, its development status is a reflection of
its basic economic country conditions and it is measured by the Human Development Index. It is
a metric developed to assess the social and economic development levels of countries based on
life expectancy, educational attainment, and income.
- Developed Nation - a nation that meets certain socioeconomic criteria. These criteria may
include the country’s GDP/GNI per capita, its level of industrialization, its general standard of
living, and/or the amount of technological infrastructure. 36 countries were considered developed
as stated by the United Nations having shared several characteristics such as;
1. Birth and death rates are stable. Birth rates are not very high thanks to quality medical
care and high living standards. Infant mortality rates are low and families do not need to
have a large number of children for expectations that some will not survive.
 2. It is not just men working, but also career-oriented women with smaller families choosing
to not have children.
3. They use a disproportionate amount of the world’s resources. They use cars, fly on
airplanes, and power their homes with electricity and gas.
4. They have higher levels of debt, unlike developing economies. Developing economies are
unable to obtain that kind of bottomless financing.
- Developing Nation - a nation is considered developing if it does not meet the socioeconomic
criteria. These actions are most often with lower income, an underdeveloped industrial base, a
lower standard of living, and a lack of access to modern technology so as a result, they mostly
experience a lack of jobs, food, clean drinking water, education, healthcare, and housing.
According to the United Nations, 126 countries were considered developing and these are located
in either Africa, Asia, or Latin America and the Caribbean.
- Examples of Developed Countries include
1. Australia - GDP $1.55 trillion, Population 25.69 million, GPD per capita $60,443, HDI
0.951
2. Belgium - GDP $594.1 billion, Population 11.59 million, GPD per capita $51,247, HDI
0.937
3. Brazil - GDP $1.61 trillion, Population 214.33 million, GPD per capita $7,507, HDI
0.754
4. Canada - GDP $1.99 trillion, Population 38.25 million, GPD per capita $51,988, HDI
0.936
5. China - GDP $7.73 trillion, Population 1.41 billion, GPD per capita $12,556, HDI 0.768

Democratic State and Democratization

What is Democracy?
- Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people. It is derived from
the Greek words "demos," meaning "people," and "kratos," meaning "rule" or "power." In a
democratic system, the citizens of a country have the right to participate in the decision-making
processes that affect their lives.
- In a democratic society, people exercise their power through various means, such as voting in
elections, participating in political debates and discussions, and engaging in civic activities. The
fundamental principles of democracy include political equality, majority rule with respect for
minority rights, individual freedoms, and the protection of human rights.

Key Characteristics and Principles of Democracy

1. Popular Sovereignty - The ultimate source of political authority resides with the people. They
have the right to choose their representatives and participate in decision-making processes.
2. Political Equality - In a democracy, all citizens have equal political rights and opportunities. Each
person's vote carries the same weight, regardless of their social status, wealth, or other factors.
 3. Rule of Law - Democracy is based on the principle that everyone, including elected officials, is
subject to and accountable under the law. Laws are established and enforced to protect individual
rights and maintain order.
4. Majority Rule with Minority Rights - Decisions are typically made by majority vote, but the
rights of minorities and individuals are protected. Minority groups and dissenting opinions are
respected, and there are checks and balances in place to prevent the tyranny of the majority.
5. Free and Fair Elections - Democracy relies on regular, transparent, and fair elections to ensure
that citizens can choose their representatives freely. Elections provide a mechanism for peaceful
transfer of power and accountability of elected officials.
6. Protection of Individual Rights and Freedoms: Democracy upholds individual rights, such as
freedom of speech, assembly, religion, and the press. It ensures the protection of human rights,
including equality, justice, and the right to a fair trial.
7. Pluralism and Civil Society - Democracy fosters an environment where diverse opinions,
interests, and political parties can coexist. It encourages the active participation of citizens in civil
society organizations, such as non-governmental organizations, trade unions, and advocacy
groups.

It's important to note that there are different forms and variations of democracy practiced around the
world, ranging from direct democracy, where citizens directly participate in decision-making, to
representative democracy, where people elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. The
specific structures and mechanisms of democracy may vary, but the core principles of popular
participation, equality, and protection of rights remain central to democratic systems.

What makes a democratic state?

1. Constitution and Rule of Law: A democratic state typically has a constitution that outlines the
fundamental rights and freedoms of its citizens, as well as the structure and powers of the
government. The rule of law ensures that the government, including its officials, is bound by and
operates according to established laws and procedures.
- Example: The United States is a democratic state with a constitution that guarantees
individual rights and outlines the powers and limitations of the government. The U.S.
Constitution has served as a foundation for democratic governance for over two centuries.
2. Free and Fair Elections: Regular elections provide citizens with the opportunity to elect their
representatives and participate in decision-making. Elections should be conducted in a
transparent, impartial, and inclusive manner, allowing for the expression of diverse opinions and
the peaceful transfer of power.
- Example: India, the world's largest democracy, holds regular elections at national, state,
and local levels. These elections involve a significant portion of the population and are
conducted with widespread participation and oversight.
3. Separation of Powers: The democratic state typically divides power among different branches of
government to prevent the concentration of authority. Separation of powers ensures checks and
balances, with each branch having its responsibilities and the ability to limit or scrutinize the
actions of others.
 - Example: The parliamentary system in the United Kingdom features a separation of
powers between the executive (government), legislative (Parliament), and judicial
branches. This division of power establishes accountability and prevents the abuse of
authority.
4. Protection of Human Rights: A democratic state upholds and protects the fundamental human
rights and freedoms of its citizens. These rights include freedom of speech, assembly, religion,
and the press, as well as the right to a fair trial and protection from discrimination.
- Example: Germany is known for its strong commitment to human rights. The German
constitution guarantees various individual rights and protections, and German courts play
a crucial role in upholding these rights.
5. Civil Society and Freedom of Expression: A democratic state encourages the active participation
of its citizens in civil society organizations, such as non-governmental organizations, trade
unions, and advocacy groups. Freedom of expression allows individuals to express their opinions,
engage in public discourse, and hold the government accountable.
- Example: Sweden has a robust civil society, with numerous non-profit organizations and
advocacy groups that focus on issues such as human rights, environmental protection, and
social justice. Free speech is protected, allowing citizens to express their opinions openly.
6. Independent Media: A democratic state values and protects a free and independent media.
Journalists should have the freedom to report on issues of public interest without undue influence
or censorship. Independent media plays a crucial role in informing the public, promoting
transparency, and holding the government accountable.
- Example: Norway is frequently cited as a country with a strong commitment to press
freedom. Its media landscape is characterized by a diverse range of independent news
outlets that provide critical reporting and analysis.

Is the Philippines a democratic state?

- The Philippines is a democratic state. According to Article II, Section 1 of the 1987 Constitution,
" The Philippines is a democratic and republican state. Sovereignty resides in the people and all
government authority emanates from them.

The Philippines is considered a democratic state because it follows a democratic form of

government, which is defined by several key characteristics:
1. Sovereignty of the People
2. Regular and Free Election
3. Rule of Law
4. Protection of Human Rights
5. Separation of Powers

Examples of Democratic State

1. The United States
2. Germany
3. India
What is Semi-Democracy?
- Semi - Democracy is a form of government that is loosely defined as part democracy and part
dictatorship, or as a "regime that mixes democratic with autocratic features."
-The term semi-democracy is used to refer to a state that shares both democratic and authoritarian
features.

What is Democratization?
- Refers to a political process of transition from authoritarian to democratic regimes.
- This is the process through which a political government becomes democratic
- The process of making countries or organizations use democratic ways of making decisions

The manifestations of the democratization process include the following:

- increasing realization of human rights,
- valuing elections,
- amplify public opinion,
- and allowing sectoral participation in the general political agenda.

The Three Waves of Democratization

- Samuel Huntington
- First Wave
- comparison between the United States and the United Kingdom in the transition of the
first waves
- The USA gives the clearest picture of a liberal democracy
- while in Britain, the outcome of the democratic transition was less liberal but more on a
representative form of government
- Second Wave
- began in the Second World War
- some of the new democracies created at this time did not consolidate
- imposition of democracy on Japan and West Germany
- Third Wave
- began in 1974 and continued until 1991. Its main and highly diverse elements were:
- the end of right-wing dictatorships in Southern Europe (Greece, Portugal and Spain) in
the 1970s
- the retreat of the generals in much of Latin America in the 1980s
- the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe at the end of the
1980s.
New Democracies
- many new democracies do seem to have consolidated by one crucial test: a peaceful transfer of
power through elections
ex. the South Korean presidential election of 1997 witnessed the first peaceful transfer of power
to the center-left in that country’s history
- The difficulties facing new democracies can be grouped into two clusters: the political problems
associated with an illiberal inheritance and the economic problems caused by the combination of
limited development and extreme inequality.

Examples of Democratization
The ten most democratic countries are :
1. Norway
2. New Zealand
3. Finland
4. Sweden
5. Iceland
6. Denmark
7. Ireland
8. Taiwan
9. Australia
10. Canada
Democratization status of the Philippines
- The Philippines is Southeast Asia’s oldest democracy. Yet democratic institutions fail to show
coherence in what is largely seen as a resilient oligarchical state that manages to control the state,
economy, and society by constantly adapting and shifting along with the political contours.
Despite its rich democratic tradition, the country has not been able to reduce centuries-old
socio-economic inequalities that have sustained clientelistic politics. The continuing failure to
consolidate and deepen democracy has negatively impacted the Philippine state, the economy,
and society.
- This country study charts the various structural and institutional arrangements and
accommodations that have resulted in the country’s defective democratization. Using historical
and contemporary process tracing, this study hopes to provide a nuanced understanding of the
democratic and not-so-democratic trajectory that the country continues to experience. By
providing a mapping of the defective democracy in the Philippines, this study provides a lens to
see the conditions, depth, and alterations within the course of pursuing democratization. The
distinct and complementing structural and institutional arrangements over the years illustrate how
power can lead to various patterns of domination and transformation.
- On the other hand, according to CNN Philippines: 89% of Filipinos are satisfied with democracy
in the Philippines, In says survey, it was determined that 60% of Filipinos were committed
democrats and said"democracy is always preferable to any other kind of government."
- Meanwhile, 26% of respondents said that "under some circumstances, an authoritarian
government can be preferable to a democratic one" (conditional authoritarians). On the other
hand, 15% said "For people like me, it does not matter whether we have a democratic or a
non-democratic regime" (indifferent). (The survey was conducted from Dec. 10 to 14 and
interviewed 1,200 adults. The sampling error margins are ±2.8% for national percentages, and
±5.7% each for Metro Manila, Balance Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao" )