OSI REFERENCE MODEL

COMPUTER NETWORKS AND DATA COMMUNICATION

OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION

1 OSI Model

1.1 History of computer networking and the Internet

1961-1972: Development and Demonstration of Early Packet Switching Principles

The field of computer networking and today's Internet trace their beginnings back to the early
1960s, a time at which the telephone network was the world's dominant communication network.
Given the increasing importance (and great expense) of computers in the early 1960's and the
advent of timeshared computers, it was perhaps natural to consider the question of how to hook
computers together so that they could be shared among geographically distributed users.
Three research groups around the world, all unaware of the others' work, began inventing the
notion of packet switching as an efficient and robust alternative to circuit switching. The first
published work on packet-switching techniques was the work by Leonard Kleinrock, at that time a
graduate student at MIT. Using queuing theory, Kleinrock's work elegantly demonstrated the
effectiveness of the packet-switching approach for bursty traffic sources.
At the same time, Paul Baran at the Rand Institute had begun investigating the use of packet
switching for secure voice over military networks, while at the National Physical Laboratory in
England, Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury were also developing their ideas on packet
switching.
The work at MIT, Rand, and NPL laid the foundations for today's Internet. J.C. R. Licklider and
Lawrence Roberts, both colleagues of Kleinrock's at MIT, both went on to lead the computer
science program at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the United States. Roberts
published an overall plan for the so-called ARPAnet , the first packet-switched computer network
and a direct ancestor of today's public Internet.
The early packet switches were known as Interface Message Processors (IMP's) and the contract
to build these switches was awarded to BBN(Bolt, Beraneck & Newman). On Labor Day in 1969,
the first IMP was installed at UCLA, with three additional IMP being installed shortly thereafter at
the Stanford Research Institute, UC Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. The fledgling
precursor to the Internet was four nodes large by the end of 1969.

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By 1972, ARPAnet had grown to approximately 15 nodes, and was given its first public
demonstration by Robert Kahn at the 1972 International Conference on Computer
Communications. The first host-to-host protocol between ARPAnet end systems known as the
Network Control Protocol (NCP) was completed. With an end-to-end protocol available,
applications could now be written. The first e-mail program was written by Ray Tomlinson at BBN
in 1972.

1972 - 1980: Internetworking, and New and Proprietary Networks

The initial ARPAnet was a single, closed network. In order to communicate with an ARPAnet host,
one had to actually be attached to another ARPAnet IMP. In the early to mid 1970's, additional
packet-switching networks besides ARPAnet came into being; ALOHAnet, a satellite network
linking together universities on the Hawaiian islands; Telenet, a BBN commercial packet-switching
network based on ARPAnet technology; Tymnet; and Transpac, a French packet-switching
network.
Pioneering work on interconnecting networks (once again under the sponsorship of DARPA), in
essence creating a network of networks, was done by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn; the term
"internetting" was coined to describe this work. The architectural principles that Kahn' articulated
for creating a so-called "open network architecture" are the foundation on which today's Internet is
built:
minimalism, autonomy: a network should be able to operate on its own, with no internal
changes required for it to be internetworked with other networks;
Best effort service: internetworked networks would provide best effort, end-to-end
service. If reliable communication was required, this could accomplished by retransmitting
lost messages from the sending host;
stateless routers: the routers in the internetworked networks would not maintain any per-
flow state about any ongoing connection
Decentralized control: there would be no global control over the internetworked networks.

In addition to the DARPA Internet-related research, many other important networking activities
were underway. In Hawaii, Norman Abramson was developing ALOHAnet, a packet-based radio
network that allowed multiple remote sites on the Hawaiian islands to communicate with each

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other. The ALOHA protocol was the first so-called multiple access protocol, allowing geographically
distributed users to share a single broadcast communication medium (a radio frequency).
Abramson's work on multiple access protocols was built upon by Robert Metcalfe in the
development of the Ethernet protocol for wire-based shared broadcast networks. Interestingly,
Metcalfe's Ethernet protocol was motivated by the need to connect multiple PCs, printers, and
shared disks together.
In addition to the DARPA internetworking efforts and the Aloha/Ethernet multiple access networks,
a number of companies were developing their own proprietary network architectures. Digital
Equipment Corporation (Digital) released the first version of the DECnet in 1975, allowing two
PDP-11 minicomputers to communicate with each other. DECnet has continued to evolve since
then, with significant portions of the OSI protocol suite being based on ideas pioneered in DECnet.
Other important players during the 1970's were Xerox (with the XNS architecture) and IBM (with
the SNA architecture). Each of these early networking efforts would contribute to the knowledge
base that would drive networking in the 80's and 90's.
It is also worth noting here that in the 1980's (and even before), researchers were also developing
a "competitor" technology to the Internet architecture. These efforts have contributed to the
development of the ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) architecture, a connection-oriented
approach based on the use of fixed size packets, known as cells.

1.1.1 1980 - 1990: A Proliferation of Networks

By the end of the 1970's approximately 200 hosts were connected to the ARPAnet. By the end of
the 1980's the number of host connected to the public Internet, a confederation of networks looking
much like today's Internet would reach 100,000. The 1980's would be a time of tremendous growth.
Much of the growth in the early 1980's resulted from several distinct efforts to create computer
networks linking universities together. BITnet (Because It's There NETwork) provided email and file
transfers among several universities in the Northeast USA. CSNET (Computer Science NETwork)
was formed to link together university researchers without access to ARPAnet. In 1986, NSFNET
was created to provide access to NSF-sponsored supercomputing centers. Starting with an initial
backbone speed of 56Kbps, NSFNET's backbone would be running at 1.5 Mbps by the end of the
decade, and would be serving as a primary backbone linking together regional networks.

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Paralleling this development of the ARPAnet (which was for the most part a US effort), in the early
1980s the French launched the Minitel project, an ambitious plan to bring data networking into
everyone's home. Sponsored by the French government, the Minitel system consisted of a public
packet-switched network (based on the X.25 protocol suite, which uses virtual circuits), Minitel
servers, and inexpensive terminals with built-in low speed modems. The Minitel became a huge
success in 1984 when the French government gave away a free Minitel terminal to each French
household that wanted one.

1.1.2 The 1990s: Commercialization and the Web

The 1990's were issued in with two events that symbolized the continued evolution and the soon-to
arrive commercialization of the Internet. First, ARPAnet, the progenitor of the Internet ceased to
exist. MILNET and the Defense Data Network had grown in the 1980's to carry most of the US
Department of Defense related traffic and NSFNET had begun to serve as a backbone network
connecting regional networks in the United States and national networks overseas.
In 1991, NSFNET lifted its restrictions on use of NSFNET for commercial purposes. NSFNET itself
would be decommissioned in 1995, with Internet backbone traffic being carried by commercial
Internet Service Providers.
The main event of the 1990's however, was to be the release of the World Wide Web, which
brought the Internet into the homes and businesses of millions and millions of people, worldwide.
The Web also served as a platform for enabling and deploying hundreds of new applications,
including on-line stock trading and banking, streamed multimedia services, and information
retrieval services.
The WWW was invented at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989-1991, based on ideas originating in
earlier work on hypertext from the 1940's by Bush and since the 1960's by Ted Nelson. Berners-
Lee and his associates developed initial versions of HTML, HTTP, a Web server and a browser --
the four key components of the WWW.
During the 1990's, networking research and development also made significant advances in the
areas of high-speed routers and routing and local area networks. The technical community
struggled with the problems of defining and implementing an Internet service model for traffic
requiring real-time constraints, such as continuous media applications. The need to secure and

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manage Internet infrastructure also became of paramount importance as e-commerce applications

proliferated and the Internet became a central component of the world's telecommunications
infrastructure.

1.2 Network Communication

• All entities in a network must agree on how information will be represented and communicated. The
Communication agreements involve many details that include;
how electrical signals are used to represent data
Procedures used to initiate, conduct and terminate communication,
The formatting and packaging of messages
Control of the data flow and errors
• One of the key issues in network and data communication is interoperability between network devices,
which refers to the ability of two entities from two different product manufacturers/implementers to
communicate or successfully exchange data.
• All communicating parties must agree on communication details, which must be governed by the same
set of rules and specifications. These rules and specifications are called communication protocols,
network protocol, or simply protocols.
• A protocol has a defined purpose and it specifies the details for one aspect of communication, which
may include but not limited to actions to be taken when errors or unexpected situations arise.
• To ensure that the resulting communication system is complete and efficient, it is demanded that each
protocol should handle a part of communication not handled by other protocols.
• To achieve this, protocols are not created in isolation, protocols are designed in complete, cooperative
sets called suites, families or stack, where each protocol in a suite handles one aspect of networking
and together they cover all aspects of communication.
• The fundamental abstraction used to collect protocols into a unified whole is known as a layering
model. Using the layering model, all aspects of a communication problem can be partitioned into pieces
that work together. These pieces are called layers.
• The division of protocols into layers helps both protocol designers and implementers manage the
complexity of communication process and hence concentrate on one aspect of communication at a
given time

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1.3 The need for standards

Over the past couple of decades many of the networks that were built used different hardware and
software implementations, as a result they were incompatible and it became difficult for networks
using different specifications to communicate with each other.
To address the problem of networks being incompatible and unable to communicate with each
other, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched various network
schemes.
The ISO recognized the need to create a NETWORK MODEL that would help vendors create
interoperable network implementations.

1.4 Standards Creation Committees

a) International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

• The ISO is a multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards
creation committees of various governments throughout the world.
b) International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
• International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
• From early 1970s, countries had begun defining national standards for telecommunications,
with little consideration for international compatibility.
• The United Nations responded to the crisis and formed its International Telecommunication
Union (ITU), a committee, the Consultative Committee for International Telegraphy and
Telephony (CCITT); focused on research and establishment of standards for
telecommunication - phone and data systems.
• Later, the name changed to International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication
Standards Sector (ITU-T).

c) American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

• Despite its name, the American National Standards Institute is a completely private, nonprofit
corporation not affiliated with the U.S. federal government.

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d) Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

• Electronic Industries Association that works closely with the ANSI, is a nonprofit organization
devoted to the promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns.
• It focuses on defining physical connection interfaces (ports etc.) and electronic signaling
specifications for data communication

e) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a professional engineering society.
• It focuses on defining and advancing the quality in electrical engineering, radio and electronics.
• It oversees the development and adoption of international standards for computing and
communications

1.5 International Organization for Standardization

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an International standards organization
responsible for a wide range of standards, including many that are relevant to networking.
In 1984 in order to aid network interconnection without necessarily requiring complete redesign, the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an international standard
for communications architecture.

1.6 Standardization within the OSI Framework

The principal motivation for the development of the OSI model was to provide a framework for
standardization. Within the model, one or more protocol standards can be developed at each layer.
The model defines in general terms the functions to be performed at that layer and facilitates the
standards-making process in two ways:
 Because the functions of each layer are well defined, standards can be developed
independently and simultaneously for each layer. This speeds up the standards-making
process.
 Because the boundaries between layers are well defined, changes in standards in one
layer need not affect already existing software in another layer. This makes it easier to
introduce new standards.

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Advantages of using the layered model include, but are not limited to, the following:

It divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components, thus aiding
component development, design and troubleshooting.

It allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of network components.

It encourages Industry standardization by defining what functions occur at each layer of the model.

It allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.

It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not hamper development.

1.7 Layers in the OSI Model

Note that the bottom layer is Layer 1. Various mnemonics make it easier to remember the order of the OSI
model’s layers:

1.7.1 Application layer

• The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
• The applications operating on this layer are the network “aware” applications – email applications,
remote access applications (Telnet), Web applications etc.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.
• Concerned with the semantics of data, i.e., what the data means to applications. It provides standards
for supporting a variety of application-independent services e.g. email services that make it possible to
send a message from one platform to another.
The Application layer provides a variety of functions:

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Identifies communication partners (Applications or processes)

Determines resource availability
Synchronizes communication
Examples of Application layer protocols include:
FTP, via an FTP client
HTTP, via a web browser
POP3 and SMTP, via an email client
Telnet

1.7.2 Presentation layer

• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems.

Functions
1) Translation:
• The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information in
the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit
streams before being transmitted.
• Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is
responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods.
• The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent
format into a common format.
• The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its
receiver-dependent format.
2) Encryption:
• To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
• Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form
(cipher text) and sends the resulting message out over the network.
• Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original
form.

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3) Compression:
• Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
• Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such
as text, audio, and video.
• Data compression on this layer saves on the overall bandwidth used during transmission
over the media.
Example protocols:
SSL(Secure Sockets Layer)
MIME(Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
Examples of Presentation layer formats include:
Text - RTF, ASCII, EBCDIC
Images - GIF, JPG, TIF
Audio - MIDI, MP3, WAV
Movies - MPEG, AVI, MOV

1.7.3 Session layer

• The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not sufficient
for some processes.
• The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the
interaction among communicating systems.
• Recovery from interrupted transport connections/sessions

Functions
1) Dialog control:
• The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
• It allows the communication between two processes (programs or applications) to take
place in either half-duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
2) Synchronization:
• The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a
stream of data.

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• For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert

checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of
page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to
523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.
Example protocols:
NetBIOS
SOCKS

1.7.4 Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. It ensures
that even though the original message may be sub-divided and transmitted as different units, on
the receiving end the message must be re-constructed back into the original form. Ensures that the
whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the
source-to-destination level. A process is an application program running on a host.
Activities on this layer:
• The message that comes from the session layer is sub-divided into small chucks called segment,
in a process called segmentation. A message is divided into transmittable segments (to conform
to frame requirements by different network standards e.g. Ethernet). Each segment is assigned a
sequence and an appropriate acknowledgement number. The sequence and acknowledgement
numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission through request for
retransmission from the source application.
• Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does
not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as though
each piece belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does. The transport layer, on the
other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error
control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.

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Functions
1) Message delivery: the transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
2) Service-point addressing: - Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but
also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running
program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a
service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
3) Segmentation and reassembly: - A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble
the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were
lost in transmission.
4) Connection control: - The transport layer connections can either be connectionless or
connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent
packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented
transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before
delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
5) Flow control: - Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However,
flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
6) Error control: - Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single
link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved
through retransmission.

Layer 4 protocols include:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
Reliable – uses sequence and acknowledgement numbers to track segments
Connection oriented – must establish connection between the communicating devices
before beginning transmission

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Reports on transmission status of the data and give reports like; “download complete”,
“network pass cannot be found”, “page cannot display” etc.
Suitable for non-time-sensitive data e.g. web content retrieval or email communication
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Unreliable – does not use acknowledgement numbers or sequence numbers
Connectionless oriented – does not establish connection between communicating devices
before transmission i.e. uses best effort
Does not give transmission status of the data.
Suitable for time sensitive data like voice or video related communications – a few frames
may be lost but it does not lead to corruption of the entire message.

1.7.5 Network Layer

• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination (devices) delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links).
Functions
i. Packet Delivery: the network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
ii. Logical addressing: - The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems and the source and destination
networks. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among
other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
iii. Routing: - When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetwork (network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or Layer switches) route or
switch the packets to their final destination. One of the key functions of the network layer is to
provide this mechanism.
The most common Network layer protocols are:
Internet Protocol (IP)
Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX)
AppleTalk

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1.7.6 Data Link Layer

• The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link. It
makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).

Functions of data link layer

i. Framing: - The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
ii. Physical addressing: - If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the
data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If
the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the
address of the device that connects the network to the next one (Default Gateway).
iii. Frame movement; the data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
iv. Flow control: - If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate
at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver. However, flow control at this layer is
performed across a single link rather than end to end
v. Error control: - The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms
to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize
duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the
frame.
vi. Media Access control: - When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given
time.
Examples of data link protocols: - ATM, Frame Relay, X.25, IEEE 802.3.

1.7.7 Physical Layer

• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform
for transmission to Occur.

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Functions of the Physical layer

1) Bit movement; the physical layer is responsible converting the frames received from the data
Link layer to bits and for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next. It also
converts the bits into appropriate signal depending on the transmission media in use (Light
pulses for optical fiber, electrical pulses for electrical cables and suitable form of
electromagnetic energy for the wireless)
2) Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: - The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface (configurations and physical dimensions) between the devices
and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.
3) Representation of bits: - The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s
or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or
optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and I s are changed to
signals).
4) Data rate: - The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long
it lasts.
5) Synchronization of bits: - The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but
also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks
must be synchronized.
6) Line configuration: - The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In
a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
7) Physical topology: - The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network.
8) Transmission mode: - The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send;
the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex
mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply
duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time.

Example protocols: - EIA/TIA-232, IEEE 802.3, RS-232, USB, Bluetooth.

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DATA EXCHANGE PROCESS (SEE DIAGRAM BELOW):

• When host A sends a message to host B, the message moves down the successive layers of host
A, from the application layer to the presentation layer, to the session layer, etc., until it reaches the
physical layer.
• It is then transmitted across the communication line between host A and host B. As the message
travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes (network access and inter-
networking devices).
• These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first two layers of the OSI model (for layer 2
devices: network access devices e.g. switch) or the first three layers of the OSI model (for layer 3
devices: inter-networking devices).
• In the illustration below, when the message gets to node X, Y or Z, the transmitted message goes
through the first 2 or 3 layers only and finally is transmitted to host B, where it moves up its seven
layers, until it arrives at the application layer of host B.

Note:
• Although actual communication takes place only at the physical layer, it is often useful to think of
virtual communication between corresponding layers.
• This means therefore that each layer on host A communicates virtually with corresponding layer on
host B. The corresponding layers in host B, reverses the actions performed on the data by
corresponding layer on host A.

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• Each of the seven layers of the OSI model hides the implementation details of the lower layers
from the upper layers.
• The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending device
and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible by an interface between
each pair of adjacent layers
• Well-defined protocols and interfaces for each of the layers make it possible for the layer to be
designed and implemented in isolation from the other layers
• The Application, Presentation, Session and Transport layers are called upper layers and they
entirely implemented in software. The Network, Data-Link and Physical layers are called the lower
layers. The network and Data-Link are implemented partly in software and partly in hardware, while
the physical on the other hand is implemented entirely in hardware.
• As data moves from the application to the physical layer, on the transmitting host, each layer on
the host adds an additional piece of information (header) to the message it is transmitting. The
corresponding layer on the recipient removes the additional piece of information. The additional
information appears in form of a header (e.g., TH = Transport Header). The data link layer adds a
header as well as a trailer to its data.

Source: Data Communications and Networking – Behrouz A. Forouzan.fourth edition

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• Data encapsulation; Data (header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated in a data at level 6. The
whole data at level 6 is encapsulated in a data at level 5, and so on. This enables the respective
receiving layers on the destination device to handle only the part of the data that applies to it.

The protocol data unit i.e. the pieces of data when at different layers are referred to using different
terminologies:
• Data: Application, Presentation and Session
• Segment: Transport Layer
• Packet: Network Layer
• Frame: Data-Link layer
• Bits: Physical Layer

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TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL & PROTOCOL SUITE

The TCPIIP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as having four layers: host-to-network (network access), internet, transport, and application

Source: Data Communications and Networking – Behrouz A. Forouzan.fourth edition

When compared, the OSI and TCP/IP, they roughly carry out the same functions. The Network Access
layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combination of the physical and data link layers in the OSI model. The
internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the application layer is roughly equivalent to the
session, presentation, and application layers. The transport layer of the TCP/IP model is equivalent to
transport layer in OSI model.

1. Application Layer
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model
Functions
Provides an interface through which the user or software can interact with underlying
network infrastructure and hosts the network aware applications that make the interaction
with the underlying network possible (email applications, web applications etc)
Carries out data compression, translation (character conversion) and generic encryption

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Establishes, maintains and terminates communication sessions between applications

(Processes)

2. Transport Layer
• Traditionally the transport layer defines three protocols TCP and UDP and SCTP. Whereas IP is a
host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to another.
• UDP, SCTP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from a
process (running program) to another process.
• SCTP is a new protocol that has been devised to meet the needs of some newer applications.

2.1. User Datagram Protocol

Compared to TCP and SCTP, UDP is a less complex protocol. It is a process-to-process protocol
that adds only port addresses, checksum error control, and length information to the data from the
upper layer. It does not use sequence or acknowledgement numbers

2.2. Transmission Control Protocol

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to applications. TCP
is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this context, means connection-
oriented: A connection must be established between both ends of a transmission before either can
transmit data

2.3. Stream Control Transmission Protocol

The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer applications such
as voice over the Internet

3. Internet Layer
• The internet layer or otherwise called the internetwork layer in TCP/IP model supports the
internetworking protocols (IP).
• It defines additional four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP, each with a specific
function.

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3.1. Internetworking Protocol (IP)

• The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP
protocols.
• It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service.
• It uses best effort to transmit data. The term best effort means that IP provides no error
checking or tracking.
• IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.
• Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated

3.2. Address Resolution Protocol

• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical
address.
• Each device on a link is identified by a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the
network interface card (NIC). The physical address is called a Media Access Control address
and is made up of 12 hexadecimal characters
• ARP is used to find the physical address (through ARP broadcasts)

3.3. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

• The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address

3.4. Internet Control Message Protocol

• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to
send notification of datagram problems back to the sender

3.5. Internet Group Message Protocol

• The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of recipients that possess a multicast logical address

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Network Access (Physical and Data Link Layers):

• At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does not define any specific protocol. It supports all the
standard and proprietary protocols.
• It covers the physical interface between a data transmission device (e.g., workstation, computer)
and a transmission medium or network.
• This layer is concerned with specifying the characteristics of the transmission medium, the nature
of the signals, the data rate, and related matters.

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