Group of Manufacturing Technology

MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY
NGUYỄN VĂN TÌNH (PhD)

1
 Course Description

 Course name: Manufacturing Technology – ME3086, ME3205

 Number of credits: 4 – 66 (3 – 49.5) periods
 Student duties
 Attend classes
 Discussion
 Assessment
 Experiment
 Quizz/Assignment/Mini project
 Midterm exam
 Final exam
Reference BOOK
1- C«ng nghÖ ChÕ t¹o m¸y 1, 2 Nhµ xuÊt b¶n KHKT- Do bé m«n
CNCTM-ĐHBK biªn so¹n
2- M¸y c«ng cô
3- Dông cô c¾t kim lo¹i
4- Nguyªn lý c¾t kim lo¹i
5- Kim lo¹i häc vµ NhiÖt luyÖn
6- Dung sai vµ L¾p ghÐp
7- Đå g¸ gia c«ng c¬
8- Sæ tay C«ng nghÖ CTM
9- John R Walker, Machining Fundamentals

3
Overview

4
Overview

5
Overview

6
Overview
Overview
Overview

9
Overview
Overview

11
 Contents

Chapter 1: Basic notions

Chapter 2: Surface quality
Chapter 3: Machining accuracy
Chapter 4: Locating principles
Chapter 5: Traditional machining methods
Chapter 6: Advanced machining methods

12
 Chapter 1

Basic notions

13
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY?

Nice!

Manufacturing technology of automobiles

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY?

How to make a part?

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY?

The study of the process of forming the surfaces of

the parts according to the technical requirements and
the methods to assembly the mechanical parts.
Consist of:
 1- Forming the surface of the parts.
 2- Assembly methods
 3- Quality checking

16
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY?
1.1 . Target of manufacturing technology
- Quality of product
- Productivity
- High economic efficiency.
1.2 . Production process and technological process
1.2.1 Production process
In the wider sense “The production process is the
process, in which a man improves the
environment in order to obtain the product for the
human life”

17
Production process
In the narrowest sense “The production process is a general
process in order to change the material and semifinished product
into final product”
Other auxiliary (secondary) process like:
 Tool preparing
 Jig and fixture preparing/fabricating
 Transporting
 Machine preparing and repairing
 Test running
 Painting
 Correction
 Packaging
 Storing in warehouse
Production process
Exploitation
Metallurgy

Workpiece fabrication

Machining Technological process

Production
Thermal treatment Standard
process documents

Assembly

Testing
Technological process
Product
19
Production process

20
Production process
Design process

Principle–Working
Tools Engineer

Design the principle (Drawing)

Design the structure (Drawing)

Drawing of assembly Drawing of part

2D Drawing 3D Drawing 2D Drawing 3D Drawing

21
Production process

Design tools

Previous: Ruler, compass, calculator and

the others: table, easel…

From now: Personal computer, printer and design software:

1. CAD (Computer Aided Design)
2. CAE (Computer Aided Engineering)

22
Production process

Production process

iron ore Gear

Humans act on the nature => Products

23
Production process
 Workshops in mechanical factory:
 Foundry workshops (for steels, cast iron, ferrous metals, metal forming
etc.)
 Fabrication workshops (cutting workshop, thermal treatment workshop,
assembly workshop, paint workshop etc.).
 Auxiliary workshops (tool workshop, machine repairing, electrical
repairing, mould workshop, experimental workshop, testing etc.).
 Storehouses (material storehouse, tool storehouse, mould storehouse,
fuel storehouse, product storehouse etc.).
 Energy supply stations (electricity, heat, gas and water).
 Transportation equipments.
 Warming equipment, ventilation equipment, water supply equipment
 Other offices such as technology office, measurement laboratory,
infirmary, dining-room and information station.

24
1.2. Technological process

A part of production process, directly change the shape and properties of the
the workpieces.
- Shape
- Dimension
- Physical properties
- Correlated position
 Workpiece fabrication
 Machining
 Thermal treatment
 Test
 Assembly
…

25
1.2. Technological process

Technological process:
- Reasonable
- Documents

TECHNOLOGICAL PROCEDURE

26
1.3 Elements of technological process

1.3.1 Operation
“Operation is one part of technological process,
which is realized continuously in a working place
by one operator or group of operators in order to
work one or group of parts” (if there is no
operator, we have automatic operation).
 Operation is a basic unit of technological process.

27
1.3 Elements of technological process
Separation of technological process into operations has technical
and economical senses:
 Technical sense: depending on technical requirement we have to
work a surface by milling or by grinding.
 Economical sense: depending on output and production conditions
we can separate technological process into a big number of
operations or concentrate technological process into some operations.

Workpiece Operation 1 Operation 2 … Product

28
1.3 Elements of technological process

Turn 1 Operation

Turn 2
Workpiece
Turn 3
Drill
Turning

Drilling

Turning

Drilling 6 holes
29
1.3 Elements of technological process
Operation
 “Operation is one part of technological process, which
is realized continuously in a working place by one
operator or group of operators in order to work one or
group of parts” (if there is no operator, we have
automatic operation).
 Operation is a basic unit of technological process.
Separation of technological process into operations
has technical and economical senses:
 Technological process may includes some operations.

30
1.3 Elements of technological process

Operation
 Separation of technological process into operations
has technical and economical senses:
• Technical sense: depending on technical requirement
we have to work a surface by milling or by grinding.
• Economical sense: depending on output and
production conditions we can separate technological
process into a big number of operations or
concentrate technological process into some
operations.

31
1.3 Elements of technological process
1.3.2. Step
Step is one part of operation which is necessary to work
one surface or a number of surfaces by one cutting tool
or a number of cutting tools with constant cutting data.
- If we change one of conditions such as: working surface
or cutting data (cutting tool, S, V, t), we will have
another step.
Operation

Step 1 Step 2
32
1.3 Elements of technological process
 Operation and Step
• Method 01: Machining side G and turn away for machining
another side, repeating for all of pieces
• Method 02: Machining side G for all of pieces and turn
away for machining another side

Lot size: 1000 pieces

33
1.3 Elements of technological process
1.3.3 Tool move
Tool move is one part of step which is necessary to
cut a depth of cut with constant cutting data by one
cutting tool.

Line 2 Line 3
Line 1
34
1.3 Elements of technological process
1.3.4. Locating and clamping
 Locating and clamping is a part of operation, which is
realized in only one time of location and clamping.
 One operation perhaps has one or a number of location and
clamping.

35
1.3 Elements of technological process
1.3.5. Position
Position is a part of operation, which is defined by one
relative position between working piece and machine
or cutting tool.

Operation

…
Position 1 Position 2 Position 6

Locating and clamping

36
1.3 Elements of technological process
1.3.6. Movement
Movement is operator’s action to manipulate
(operate) the machine in working process or
assembly process: Pressing button, clamping…

37
1.3 Elements of technological process

Operation is a basic unit in production Planning

in production
Movement is smallest unit in production
Improving the efficiency, automation in production

38
1.4 Types of production

 Applications:

Heavy machines, test Machines-tool,

machines, Ordered Agriculture machines,
machines Repaired Engines etc.
parts.
Job Batch
Production Production

Mass
Production
Automobiles, Tractors,
Ball bearings, Measured
equipments etc.

39
1.4 Types of production

Job production
Definition
• Job production is a type of production in which there
is a small output (only one or some machines, parts),
product is not stable, great number of kinds of
product, manufacturing frequency (cycle, period)
can’t be determined.

40
1.4 Types of production

Job production
Characteristics
• Use of general-purpose machines.
• Machines are arranged according to their type
• Use of general-purpose jig and fixture
• There is no interchangeable system for assembly, it is
necessary to repair the part when they carry out the
assembly.
• Level of operator skill is high.
• Production organisation is simple.
• Productivity is low.

41
1.4 Types of production

Batch production
Definition
• Batch (in series) production is a type of production in
which annual output is medium. Product is
manufactured in series with determined frequency
(cycle, period). The product is relatively stable.
• Small batch production, medium batch production and
large batch production

42
1.4 Types of production

Batch production
Characteristics
• In a place they carry out some operations with determined
stable frequency (cycle, period).
• Working and assembly are realized according to
technological process
• Use general-purpose and special machines.
• Machines are arranged according to technological process.
• Using a lot of special cutting tools and jig and fixture
• Guarantee for interchangeable system (for assembly).
• Level of operator skill is medium.

43
1.4 Types of production

Mass production
Definition
• Mass production is a type of production in which
product has a great output, product has a stable
frequency in long time ( from 1 to 5 years)

44
1.4 Types of production

Mass production
Characteristics
• Machines are arranged closely according to technological
process.
• Using a lot of specialized machines-tool, complex
machines, automatical machines, machine center and
automatical lines.
• Using a lot of specialized cutting tools, special clampings
and automatical equipments.
• Guarantee for interchangeable system (for assembly).
• High productivity and low product’s cost.
• Level of operator skill is low (low level of operator skill),
but correction operator’s skill is very high.
45
1.4 Rhythm of production

Concept
• Rhythm of production is the working or assembly time
frequency. It is determined by following formula:
Where:
t - rhythm of production,
F - working time (shift, month, year, min),
q - number of product or number of pieces
which are produced in the time F.

• Used in batch and mass production generally to ensure a

synchrorous line production (in cutting and in assembly).
 Machine arrangement, position number, productivity, no
standstill between operations

46
1.4 Rhythm of production

Example:
• Problem
 Working time per day = 8 hours
 Workpieces = 160 pieces
 Operation of gear cutting: 12 min
• Question:
Calcuate the rhythm of production and number of gear cutting
machine

47
1.4 Rhythm of production

Example:
• Problem
 Working time per day = 8 hours
 Workpieces = 160 pieces
 Operation of gear cutting: 12 min
 Calcuate the rhythm of production and number of gear
cutting machine
• Solution
 Convert working time unit: F = 8x60 min = 480 min
 Rhythm of production t = 480/160 = 3 min.
 The time of every operation is 3 min (transportation
included) or multiple of 3
 Number of gear cutting machine = 12/3 = 4 machines
48
1.4 Determination of production types

Number of workpieces/Output
• Output is a number of machines or number of workpieces which
are produced in a unit of time (year, quarter, month).
• Yeartly output of pieces is determined by following formula:

Where
 N- number of pieces which are produced in a year.
 - number of products (number of machines) which are
produced in a year.
 m- number of pieces in one product (one machine).
 α- number of waste pieces (especially in foundry and forge
workshops).
 β- number of pieces which are produced for reservation
• Number of machines, workpieces or raw pieces producing
according to technical drawing are called a series or lot.
49
1.4 Determination of production types

Weight Q of pieces is determined by following

formula:

Where
 V - volume of piece ( ),
 - density of materials ( of steel = 7,852 kg/dm3);
of cast iron = 7,2kg/ dm3 ; of copper =
8,72kg/dm3; of aluminium = 2,7 kg/dm3).
 Production type is determined according to N and Q

50
1.4 Determination of production types

Weight of piece (Q)

Production types > 200 kg 4 – 200 kg < 4 kg

Number of workpieces per year (N)

Job production <5 <10 <100

Small batch production 55-100 10-200 100-500
Medium batch production 100-300 200-500 500-5.000
Great batch production 300-1000 500-5.000 5.000-50.000
Mass production >1000 >5.000 >50.000

51
1.5 Concentration of operations & dispersion of operations

Concentration of operations
 Operations are machined on one machine.
 Used for similar steps of manufacturing process such as: drilling,
cylindrical turning etc.
 Used for workpieces which have a lot of complicated surfaces.
 For working these workpieces they use complex machines,
machine centers, multiaxial machines and automatic machines.
 Productivity of these machines is very high.
 Concentration of production increases a using coefficient
of workshop space.
 Machine is complicated and control system is very difficult.

52
1.5 Concentration of operations & dispersion of operations

Dispersion of operations
 Manufacturing process is divided into a lot of operations.
 Operations are machined in many machine
 They use general-purpose machines, standard cutting tools
and simple technological equipments.
 It has high flexible capacity. It means that process for
workpiece transfer can be machined very quickly and
production cost is low.

53
1.5 Concentration of operations & dispersion of operations

Concentration of operations and Dispersion of operations

• Concentration of operations is used for production
automation.
 Production automation can increase the productivity,
 Decrease production period,
 Decrease the cost of production management and production
planning.
• Dispersion of operations is used only in great batch
production and mass production if the technical level is low.

54
 Concentration of operations

NC1 NC2 NC3 NC4

Dispersion of operations
55
 CHAPTER 2

MACHINING SURFACE
QUALITY

56
 CONTENTS

2.1 The notions of surface working quality

2.2 Roughness of working surface
2.3 Methods for roughness obtainment
2.4 Surface roughness evaluation

57
 Quality of product

Parts + Assembly => Quality of product

Quality of mechanical parts
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

Surface working quality is evaluated by:

 Surface topography/geometry charecteristics
 Mechanical and physical properties of surface metal

60
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality
 Geometrical accuracy of machining surface
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality
 Accuracy of relative position of surfaces
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Machining surface quality

2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Working quality of surface depends on:

 Property of metal cutting.
 Cutting methods (turning, milling, drilling, grinding, etc.
 Cutting data (cutting speed, feedrate, cutting depth).
 Rigidity of technology system (machine-tool, cutting-tool,
jig and fixture, workpiece)
 Geometric parameters of cutting tool.
 Coolant fluid

64
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

Surface roughness

65
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Surface roughness

66
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Surface roughness
• Roughness of working surface is a set of all convex and
deep-set traces with short paces and is determined in the
standard distance
• Roughness is formed by the action of machining surface
with the cutting tool
• Types of surface roughness
 Rz - Height of roughness
 Ra - Arithmetical average
 The standard length, l – the length used to determine parameters
of roughness ( l = 0,01-25 mm)

67
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Height of roughness (Rz)

• Height of roughness (Rz)
• It is equal to average value of height difference between
the 5 highest peaks (summit - himax) and 5 deepest peaks
(deepest trough - himin):
• Roughness is formed by the action of machining surface
with the cutting tool

68
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Height of roughness (Rz)

Where
 l - the standard length.
 h - ordinate of profile determined from standard
line (sampling length).
 n - number of measured ordinates
 Arithmetical average (Ra)
• It is equal to the mean of all profile errors yi within the
standard length.

69
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Surface roughness
 Roughness of working surface is divided into 14 ranks
with Ra and Rz . Rank 14 has the lowest roughness (Ra,
= 0,01μm, Rz = 0,05 μm).
 Ra is given for roughness equivalent to ranks 6-12 (Ra =
2,5- 0,04 μm).
 Rz is given for roughness having ranks 1-5 (Rz = 320-20
μm) or ranks 13-14 (Rz = 0,08-0,05 μm).

70
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Surface roughness
 Roughness level
Quality Level Ra Rz Standard length
1 80 320
2 40 160
Rough 8
3 20 80
4 10 40
5 5 20 2,5
Semi-finish 6 2,5 10
7 1,25 6,3
8 0,63 3,2 0,8
9 0,32 1,6
Finish
10 0,16 0,8
11 0,08 0,4
0,25
12 0,04 0,02
Super finish 13 0,02 0,08
0,08
14 0,01 0,05

71
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Surface roughness
 Roughness level
Machining methods Roughness level
Turning, rough plane 3
Turning, finish plane 4-6
Turning, superfinish plane 6-7
Rough milling 4
Finish milling 5-7
Drilling 3-6
Boring 6-8
Polishing 6-7
Finish polishing 7-8
Raw grinding 5-6
Finish grinding 7-8
Supergrinding 9-10
Sharpening (super finishing) 9-13
Special polish 11-14

72
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

 Surface waves
 Is the uneven cycle of the surface of the workpiece observed
within the larger surface roughness (from 1-10mm).
 Surface wave is a collection of all undulations that are
repeated periodically on the surface of a part
 The cause of the wave is due to the rigidity of the technology
system (machine-cutting tool-jig&fixture-workpiece).
 Surface roughness is proportional to:
l / h = 0 ÷ 50
 Surface waves are proportional to:
L / H = 50 ÷ 1000

73
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

Mechanical & physical properties of the machining surface

Surface hardness (microscopic)

 Surface hardness is generated during machining under the

effect of shearing force.
 The degree of hardness and the depth of the hardened layer
depends on
- The effect of the shear force,
- The degree of plastic deformation of the metal and
- The thermal effect in the cutting zone.

74
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

Mechanical & physical properties of the machining surface

Residual stress

 Residual stress is stress that exists on the surface layer of a

part in the absence of external forces (e.g. force and
temperature).
 Cause residual stress

- Hardening phenomenon of the outer metal layer

- Thermal effect of the cutting zone after the cutting zone
cools quickly
- Metal transitions in the cutting zone

75
2.1 The notions of machining surface quality

Mechanical & physical properties of the machining surface

Surface layer structure

 The surface layer structure is the shape, size and layout of

metal particles.
 Changes to the surface layer structure can be localized and
cause local burns and other defects.
 Under the influence of the temperature of the cutting zone, the
metal structure is strongly changed. The surface layer is
heated almost by heat treatment
 Greatly affects the quality of the parts

76
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Usage properties of machining parts

• Wear resistance
Rz going down increase wear resistance

77
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Usage properties of machining parts

• Wear resistance
 It is the ability of the part's surface to resist abrasion during use.
 When worn out, the size and shape of parts change
- Change the fit of part
- Change relative positions of machine mechanisms and
damage machines during work
 Fatigue resistance
- It is the part's ability to resist the impression cyclic load
during use: Insufficient fatigue strength will cause the part to
break
 Other properties
- Chemical corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity,
magnetic conductivity

78
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Effects of surface roughness

• Relationship between roughness and wear process
 The wear process of the pair of machine parts is judged on
the basis of friction at the contact surface has 3 phases:
initial wear, normal wear and severe wear

Model of two contact

surfaces

79
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Effects of surface roughness

• Relationship between roughness and wear process
 The wear process of the pair of machine parts is judged on
the basis of friction at the contact surface has 3 phases:
initial wear, normal wear and severe wear
- Initial wear can reduce undulating height 65-75%. The
undulating peaks wear rapidly causing the mounting gap
to increase
- Normal wear: The wear process becomes normal and
slow (Working wear)
- Extremely wear: The contact surface is peeled off, the
surface structure of the part is damaged (wear damage)

80
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Effects of surface roughness

• Optimal surface roughness
 Optimal surface roughenss Ra can be determined for
minimum U wear.
 Surface roughness Ra for minimum U wear depends on the
contact type and conditions of use

Effect of surface roughness

Initial wear U

on part wear
1. Light working conditions Bearings: Ra(op) = 0.04-0.08µm;
2. Heavy working Cylinder-piston: Ra(op) = 0.08-0.32µm
conditions

Surface roughness Ra

81
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Effects of surface roughness

• Surface roughness affects fatigue strength
 Because undulating bottom is the concentration of stress
especially when roughness is high.
 Fatigue strength increases with decreasing surface
roughness
- Polished steel surfaces have 40% higher fatigue strength
than unpolished surfaces

82
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Effects of surface roughness

• Roughness affects chemical corrosion resistance
 The higher the roughness, the greater the groove depth, high
concentration of surface corrosive
 Chemical corrosion on the surface of the part along the side
of the undulating and new undulating formation.
Old undualting Impurities

New undualting

83
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Effects of surface roughness

• Roughness affects the mounting accuracy and strength,
contact hardness
 The precision of the joint is dependent on the quality of the
mounting surfaces.
 The strength of the joints, the stability of the mounting
mode depends on the mounting surface roughness.

84
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Effects of surface hardening layer

• The microscopic hardness formed during the cutting process allows
• enhanced surface wear resistance
• Surface hardening during machining has a good influence on the
fatigue strength of the parts (prevents cracks from appearing).
• Hardening of the surface during machining has the ability to increase
the chemical corrosion resistance of the surface of the part
• A hardened surface can increase the fatigue strength of a part by
about 20%, increasing its wear resistance by 2-3 times.

85
2.2 Effects of surface quality on usage of machining parts

Effects of residual stress

• Compresion stress on the surface layer can increase the fatigue
strength of the part (can be increased by 50%).
• Tensile stress on the surface layer reduces the fatigue strength
of the part (30% discount possible).

86
2.2 Factors affecting surface quality

Effects on surface roughness (geometry properties)

• Tool geometry and federate.

87
2.2 Factors affecting surface quality

r =0

r0

88
2.2 Factors affecting surface quality

Effects on surface roughness (geometry properties)

• Tool geometry and federate.

Decrease S

Decrease φ1 Exist r1

Increase r

89
2.3 Factors affecting surface quality

Effects on surface roughness (geometry properties)

• Tool geometry and feedrate
 Through experiments, the relationship between the parameters
has been determined: surface roughness Rz, feedrate S, the tool
tip radius r, the minimum chip thickness that can be cut hmin.
(Prof. Nga Trepsep)
 When S> 0.15 mm/r:
 When S <0.1 mm/r:
- The metal chip thickness hmin depends on the tip radius r.
- If the feedrate S is too small (S <0.03 mm/r), the value of Rz
increases again
- Rake angle and wear have an effect on Rz.
+ The rake angle increases: Rz decreases
+ Tool wear increases: Rz increases.

90
2.3 Factors affecting surface quality

Effects on surface roughness (plastic deformation)

• Cutting speed V
 When cutting carbon steel at low speeds, cutting heat is not high,
metal chips easily separate, surface layer deformation is not
much, thus Rz low
 When increasing the cutting speed to about V = 20 - 40 m/min
:BUE appears, thus Rz increases
 If the cutting speed continues to increase, BUE is heated faster.
BUE is swept away and disappears when the cutting speed is
about V = 30-60 m/min
 With the cutting speed V> 60m/min, BUE can not form, thus Rz
decrease
91
2.3 Factors affecting surface quality

Effects on surface roughness (plastic deformation)

• Cutting speed V

Effect of cutting speed on surface

roughness when machining steel

92
2.3 Factors affecting surface quality

Effects on surface roughness (plastic deformation)

• Feedrate S (machining carbon steel)
 If feedrate S <0.02 mm/vg: Rz increase
- Because the effect of plastic deformation is greater than
the influence of the geometrical factors.
 If feedrate S = 0.02 - 0.15 mm/r: Good Rz
 If feedrate S> 0.15 mm/vg: Rz increase
- The elastic deformation will affect the
formation of microscopic undulating, combined
with the influence of geometrical factors to
increase surface roughness.

93
2.3 Factors affecting surface quality
 Effects on surface roughness (plastic deformation)
• Cutting depth t
 If the cutting depth is too great, the vibrations during the cutting process
increase, thus Rz increase
 If the cutting depth is too small, the cutting tip will slip and cut
intermittently, thus Rz increase
- Slippage usually occurs with depth of cut t = 0.02 - 0.03 (mm).
• Material properties
 Ductile materials (low carbon steel) that are easily deformed will give a
greater Rz than hard and brittle materials (iron).
 The hardness of the workpiece increases, the micro roughness height
decreases and limits the effect of cutting speed on micro roughness
height.
 Reducing the ductility of the material to be processed by surface
hardening also reduces the height of micro roughness

94
2.3 Factors affecting surface quality
Effects on surface roughness (vibration)
• Vibration
 Vibration in the technology system creates relatively cyclic
movement between the cutting tool and the workpiece, altering
the frictional conditions, causing waves and micro-roughnes on
the machining surface.
 When the technology system has vibrations, the wave and micro-
vertical roughness will increase in case the cutting force
increases, the cutting depth is large and the cutting speed is high.
 The roughness of the surface depends on the rigidity of the part
when clamped.
 The machine condition has a significant influence on the
roughness of the machining surface.

95
2.3 Factors affecting surface quality
Effects on surface hardness
• As the shear force, shear heat and plastic deformation increase, the
surface hardness increases.
• If the rake angle increases from negative to positive value, the degree
and depth of surface hardness of the part decreases.
• Increased cutting speed reduces the impact time of the force causing
metal deformation, the depth of hardening and the degree of surface
hardening decrease
 V <20 m/ph: the depth of the hard variable layer increases with
the cutting speed
 V> 20 m/ph: the depth of the hard variable layer decreases with
the feedrate
• Surface hardness also increases if the cutting tool is worn out or dull.

96
2.4 Methods to ensure surface quality

Machining methods Roughness level

Method of achieving surface
Turning, rough plane 3
smooth Turning, finish plane 4-6

• We can choose various Turning, superfinish plane 6-7

Rough milling 4
methods with reasonable
Finish milling 5-7
cutting data S, V, t and Drilling 3-4

cutting tool geometry Boring 6-8

Polishing 6-7
for surface roughness
Finish polishing 7-8
obtainment Raw grinding 5-6

• The rigidity of technical Finish grinding 7-8

Supergrinding 9-10
system
Sharpening (super finishing) 9-13

Special polish 11-14

97
2.4 Methods to ensure surface quality

Method of achieving surface smooth

Machining methods Surface hardness (%) Hardness depth (μm)
Rough turning 120-150 30-50
Finish turning 140-180 20-60
Face milling 140-160 40-100
Cylindrical milling 120-140 40-80
Drilling & Boring 160-170 180-200
Reaming 150-160 150-200
External grinding for unharden
140-160 30-60
steel
External grinding for low
160-200 30-60
carbon steel
External grinding for harden
125-130 20-40
steel
Plane grinding 150 16-25

98
2.4 Methods to ensure surface quality
Method of achieving surface residual stress
• Increasing the cutting speed (V) or increasing the feedrate (S) can
also increase or decrease residual stress on the machining surface of
the part.
• The feedrate (S) increases the depth with residual stress
• The front angle has a negative value that causes residual compressive
stress (beneficial residual stress).
• Machining brittle materials with a cutting tip shear causes excess
compressive stress, while machining with ductile materials often
causes residual tensile stress.
• Machining with grinding wheels often causes residual tensile stress,
while machining with grinding belts often creates residual
compressive stress.

99
2.5 Surface quality evaluation

Surface roughness evaluation

• The comparative method by vision.
 In the production workshop they compare working surface with
sampling piece and conclude surface roughness with ranks of
roughness.
 This method allows us to determine roughness ranks from 3 to 7.
• Optical method
 Use the optical instruments such as microscope
 Owing to microscope they can measure parameter Rz and Ra.
• Roughness measurement by profile machine
 Owing to this machine they can measure Rz, Ra, Rmax and some
diagrams coud be drawn.

100
2.5 Surface quality evaluation
Surface roughness evaluation

101
2.5 Surface quality evaluation

Evaluate the degree and depth of hardening

• Use the diamond tip to exert a force P on the sample surface,
then determine the surface area of the sample eaten by the
diamond tip.

Where
 Hv - hardness (N/mm2)
 P - force acting on the diamond tip (N);
 S - the surface area pressed down by the diamond
tip (mm2).

102
 CHAPTER 3

MACHINING ACCURACY

103
 Content

3.1 The notions

3.2 Characterization of machining accuracy
3.3 Methods for obtaining machining accuracy
3.4 Causes of machining accuracy
3.5 Methods for determination of machining accuracy

104
3.1 The notions

Definition: Machining accuracy is a similar level about

dimension, geometric form, relative position of working
pieces on the machine and ideal piece on the drawing.

105
3.1 The notions
 Dimension errors/Tolerances
• It is the precision of linear dimensions, angle dimension.
• Dimension precision is evaluated by real dimension errors relative
to ideal dimension errors on the drawing.
 Geometric form errors
• It is a similar level between real geometric form and ideal
geometric form
• Flatness, straightness, cylindricity, circularity
 Relative position errors
• This accuracy is actually the orientation of some surface relative
to the other
• Parallelism, perpendicular, concentricity, circular runout
106
3.1 The notions

Range of dimensional
tolerances obtained in various
machining processes as a
function of workpiece size.
Note that there is an order of
magnitude difference between
small and large workpieces.

107
3.1 The notions
• Example

108
3.1 The notions
• Example

109
3.1 The notions
• Example

110
3.1 The notions
• Example

111
3.1 The notions
• Example

112
3.1 The notions
 Significance
• Machining accuracy is one of main characteristics of workpieces
• Improving metal forming accuracy enables to reduce machining
amount, reduce machining residue and save materials.
• Improved machining accuracy eliminates assembly adjustment
work, and implements a in-line assembly approach.

113
3.1 The notions
 The relationship between machining accuracy & machining cost
• The relationship between machining accuracy & machining cost
• Economical accuracy is a precision which can be obtained in the
normal production conditions (normal machines, normal jig and
fixtures and normal cutting tools) with lowest cost.
• Reached/Highest accuracy is a precision which they obtain in the
special production conditions (high precise machines, good jig and
fixtures, high skill workers…) and they don’t pay attention
to the product cost
Relation between
Cost working cost and
Relation precision tolerance of
between different cutting
precision methods
tolerance
and cost
Tolerance
1. Rough turning, 2. Fine turning, 3. Grinding
114
3.1 Characteristics of machining error
 Systematic constant error
• This kind of error has constant value for all the workpieces in the
lot.
• The causes of this error are:
 Theoretical error of cutting method.
 Error of machines, cutting tools and jig and fixture
 Systematic constant error
• This kind of error changes according to some law, for example it
changes to time.
• The causes of this error are:
 Wear of cutting tools.
 Heat deformation of workpiece.
115
3.1 Characteristics of machining error
 Random error
• This kind of error are:
 Changeable hardness of cutting materials.
 Changeable cutting width/cutting depth
 Changeable position of workpiece in the jig and fixture
 Changeable stress
 Changeable location of cutting tools.
 Multi-sharpening of cutting tools.
 Change of different machines to work one lot of workpieces.
 Heat change of cutting process.
 Vibration in a cutting process.
116
3.3 The methods for obtaining of machining accuracy

Test cutting
• The worker cuts one layer of material and stops the machine
in order to measure the dimension.
• If the dimension is not correct the worker continue to cut
other layer of material, after that he stops the machine again
and measure the dimension of piece.
• This action will be continued until required dimension.

117
3.3 The methods for obtaining of machining accuracy

Test cutting

118
3.3 The methods for obtaining of machining accuracy
 Test cutting
• Advantages:
 On the normal machine we can obtain a high precision (owing to
great skill of worker)
 To limit influence of cutting tool wear.
 Complicated jig and fixture is not necessary, but skill worker is
necessary to make a location of workpiece in required position.
• Disadvantages:
 Machining accuracy depends on the minimum chip thickness.
 Workers work stress so easily tired, which can cause defects.
 Low productivity due to multiple cuts.
 Due to low productivity, high processing costs.

119
3.3 The methods for obtaining of machining accuracy
 Test cutting
• Application:
 Used only in a job production and in a small batch production, in
cutting tool workshop.
 In a great batch and mass production, this method is used only for
grinding, because on grinding operation the wear of grinding
wheel maybe compensative owing to correction of grinding
wheel by hand.

120
3.3 The methods for obtaining of machining accuracy

 Automatical dimension obtaining method

Before cutting, cutting tool is corrected in relative

position to workpiece.
This position of the workpiece is located by the jig.
The jig also has a defined position on the machine
thanks to its own locating mechanism

121
3.3 The methods for obtaining of machining accuracy
 Automatical dimension obtaining method
• Advantages:
 Ensure machining accuracy, reduce waste.
 Only cut once to reach the size, without wasting time for marking
and testing, thus increasing machining productivity
 Reasonable use of skilled workers.
 Improve economic efficiency

122
3.3 The methods for obtaining of machining accuracy
 Automatical dimension obtaining method
• Disadvantages
 Expenses for the design and manufacture of jigs as well as costs
for machine adjustment and cutting tool adjustment increase
 Expenses for making the precise stock sometimes fails to
compensate if the number of parts is too small.
 If the tool wears quickly, the adjusted dimensions will change
rapidly, so it will need to be adjusted several times.
• Application
 In batch and mass production to achieve machining precision

123
3.4 Causes of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Rigidity of technology system

124
3.4 Causes of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• When turning, under the action of cutting force, the cutting
tool is displaced by Δ. At that time, the radius of the
workpiece will increase from (R) to (R + ΔR). We have:

• Since z is very small compared to R, it is an insignificantly

small quantity, approximation we have

125
3.4 Causes of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Rigidity of technology system
 Technology system is one elastic system. Elastic deformations
of this system cause error for dimension and geometry
tolerance of workpiece.
 Rigidity of technology system is its capacity which fight
against its deformation causing by external force.
 Rigidity of technology system is showed by following
formula: Where:
J - rigidity (kN/m or kG/mm);
Py - radial force (kN or kG).
y - movement of cutting tool peak
along the direction of force (mm).
126
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Rigidity of technology system
 Sometime they give the notion of flexibility (ability of elastic
deformation causing by external force).
 Flexibility of technology system  ( m/kN or mm/kG) is
determined by following formula:

Where:
Py - force along the centre (kN or kG).
y - length of move of cutting tool peak along the direction of force
(mm).
J – rigidity of technology system.
127
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Contact deformation of mounting surfaces
 Dependent on surface roughness, geometry error, elastic
property of contact material, load characteristics of contact
surface, lubrication condition
 The contact hardness is determined by the formula

Where:
ζ - contact hardness (N /mm 3)
q - specific pressure (N /mm2)
y - deformation (mm).

128
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Deformation of workpiece
 Tensile strain, compression strain, bending strain, torsional
strain or a combination of those deformations
 The deformation of the workpiece itself is calculated
according to the formulas of material strength or the theory
of elasticity.

129
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Deformation of workpiece
 When turning a smooth shaft with two-sided center support, rigidity
of workpiece can be calculated by placing it on two supports.

 The deflection y of the part has the maximum value when

the tool is in the center of the shaft:

130
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Deformation of workpiece
 When the tool is in the center of the shaft, the shaft rigidity
will be:

 When the tool is located at a distance x from the left end of

the workpiece, the rigidity of the workpiece

Where:
L - the length of the part (mm);
E - modulus of elasticity;
I - the inertia module of a part, if a part has a circular cross-section then I =
0.05D 4 ; D is the diameter of the part
x - the distance from the left end of the shaft.
131
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Deformation of workpiece
 When turning one end on the chuck and one end against the
center

 The deflection y of the workpiece has the greatest value:

 The rigidity of the workpiece will be:

132
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Elastic deformation of technology system
 Deformation of workpiece
- When turning a smooth shaft, one end is clamped (the cylinder
clamp) on the chuck

 The deflection y of the workpiece has the greatest value:

 The rigidity of the workpiece will be:

133
 3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Elastic deformation of technology system
 Effect of raw stock error
- Stamping phenomenon of geometry tolerance between raw stock
and workpiece (oval, taper, run out)
- Assume that the raw stock is oval:
- When semi-finish or finish turing, workpieces have similar errors:

- Let ratio be the coefficient of precision:

- K is false reduction coefficient or stamping coefficient):

Adjusted
dimension

134
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Elastic deformation of technology system
 Effect of raw stock error
- If the machining process consists of n cutting passes with
the coefficients K1, K2… Kn, then the total error reduction
coefficient KΣ:

- In order to achieve accuracy, split into several cuts

- In fact, when designing a process plan, it is necessary to pay
attention to the following rule:

- It is advisable to get a small K value from the very

beginning to ensure economy

135
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Elastic deformation of technology system
 Determining the rigidity of the technology system by
calculation method
- To determine the rigidity of the technological system, it is
necessary to determine the relative displacement between
the tool tip and the work piece under the action of a fixed
cutting force.
- The total strain y is calculated according to the formula:

- The flexibility of the system is calculated according to the

formula:
Where:
y 1 , y 2 ... y n – Deformation of component
factors
J 1 , J 2 , J 3 , J 4 ...J n – Rigidity of component
factors
J – Rigidity of technology system
136
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Determining the rigidity of the technology system by calculation
method. Example: Turning a shaft using two head centers
• Consider cutting force Py when the tool moves from the right to left
 The elastic deformation of the tailstock y2 varies along the line
BC,
 The elastic deformation of the headstock y1 changes along the
straight line ED.
 The deflection of the part center line under the action of Py force
is represented by the dashed line.
 Thus, all the deformation of the technological system causes the
size of the diameter to increase compared to the adjustment size.
However, the size of the work piece varies with length.

137
 3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Determining the rigidity of the technology system by calculation
method. Example: Turning a shaft using two head centers
 At A-A section, the actual diameter dt(A-A) of workpieces is equal
to:

y2(A-A)- deflection of
tailstock at A-A; yd(A-A)-
d đc - adjusted diameter deflection of cutting tip
dt(A-A) - actual diameter A-A; at A-A;
y1(A-A) - deflection of yct(A_A) - deflection of
headstock at A-A; workpiece at A-A;

138
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Determining the rigidity of the technology system by calculation
method. Example: Turning a shaft using two head centers
 Consider the case when the tool is at the midpoint of the work piece.
 The workpiece itself is considered to have absolute rigidity.
 The variation of the part diameter will be affected by the elastic
influence of the headstock, tailstock and tool carriage. The values of
that elastic strain are calculated as follows:

Where:
ybd - deflection of tool carriage;
y1 - deflection of headstock;
y2 - deflection of tailstock;
J bd - rigidity of tool carriage;
J 1 - rigidity of headstock; J 2 - rigidity of tailstock;
P y - radial cutting force(tool carriage is affected by Py, headstock and
tailstock are affected by Py/2).
139
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Determining the rigidity of the technology system by calculation
method. Example: Turning a shaft using two head centers
 The total deformation of the headstock and tailstockat the midpoint
of the part will be:

 Thus, the strain of the machine ym is calculated as follows:

 We introduce the concept of "rigidity of the machine" Jm, which is

related to the deformation of the machine ym as follows:

 Balancing the two equations we get:

140
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Determine the rigidity of the technology system by experimental method
 Static rigidity is determined when a part is mounted on a machine in
a stationary state (idle state).
 Dynamic rigidity (when the machine is running) allows for more
accurate assessment of the rigidity of the machine than the method
of determining the static rigidity

Based on stamping coefficient

141
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Determine the rigidity of the technology system by experimental method
 Determine the rigidity of the technology system by experimental
method - Static rigidity
 Increasing load P and using dial 2 to determine the elastic
deformation of spindle. P is increase from 0 to certain maximum
value (depending on each machine)
 After obtain the maximum value, decrease P and using the dial 2 to
determine the elastic deformation
 The diagram between P and y is shown in following figure y = f(P)

Contact deformation and

friction at contact surface

142
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Determine the rigidity of the technology system by experimental method
 Determine the rigidity of the technology system by experimental
method - Dynamic rigidity
 Radial cutting force:
 Deflection y at step i: :

 Difference of deflection when machining two adjacent step with

fixed federate

 Assumed xp = 1, Δph – stock error (step height)

 Δct – workpiece error (Stamping phenomenon of step height)

143
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Determine the rigidity of the technology system by experimental method
 Determine the rigidity of the technology system by experimental
method - Dynamic rigidity
 Flexibility is determined as follow:

 Ratio is coefficient of precision, Flexibility ωi is determined as

follow:

 Thus, the rigidity of technology system is calculated:

144
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Elastic deformation of technology system
• Methods of improving the rigidity of technology systems
 Increase the rigidity of each component in the technology
system
- By choosing the right size and shape, choosing the right
materials and heat treatment method.
- Use of devices that increase the rigidity of the technology
system (workpiece, tool post ...)
 Increases contact rigidity by reducing surface roughness and
waviness while creating reasonable tension (in loose joints).
 Reduce the number of components in the technology
system, because the flexibility of the technology system is
the total flexibility of the component stages.

145
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Effect of the machine’s accuracy on the machining error
• Example 1: The center line of the main spindle of the lathe is not
parallel to the guideways of the machine in a horizontal plane

Spindle

Guideway

• The maximum diameter of the workpiece Dmax is calculated as

follows:

Where, a: non-parallelism over length L in the horizontal plane.

146
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Effect of the machine’s accuracy on the machining error
• Example 2: The guideway is not parallel to the center line of the
main spindle in the vertical plane

Spindle

Guideway

• The maximum diameter of the workpiece Dmax is calculated as

follows:

Where, b: non-parallelism in the vertical plane over length L

147
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Effect of the machine’s accuracy on the machining error
• Example 3: On vertical milling machines, the machine spindle is
not perpendicular to the table horizontally by the table

Table

148
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Effect of the machine’s accuracy on the machining error
• Example 3: On vertical milling machines, the machine spindle is
not perpendicular to the table horizontally by the table

Table

149
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Effect of jig and fixture's error on machining accuracy
• Design error and machining error of jig have a great influence on
machining workpiece precision.
• The important parts such as locating parts, tool guidable parts and
tool positioning parts etc. have machining error or wear, change a
relative position among machine-cutting tool-workpiece, so they
also cause machining error.
 In general, wear speed of jig is very slow, therefore geometric
error of jig will have a similar systematic error on workpiece.
 In order to obtain machining precision, precision of jig has to
be higher than precision of machining dimension
• Besides, assembly error of jig cause machining workpiece
precision, because it change a relative position of jig to cutting
tool.

150
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Influence of cutting tool error on machining error
• Machining accuracy of cutting tool
 Errors of dimensional cutting tool (drill, boring, reamer,
broach) influence directly machining accuracy
 Errors of formal tool (formal turning tool, gear module milling
tool) will cause a geometric error of machining surface.
• Wear of cutting tool
 Besides machining error of cutting tool, during cutting, tool
will wear and influence the working precision.
 Wear in back face has a great influence on working dimension

151
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Influence of machine thermal deformation on machining
error
• During working, the temperature of different components of
machine increases.
• This temperature appears owing to friction, thermit of engine and
hydraulic system.
• The temperatures of different components maybe different interval
10-50oC,
 The temperature in two ball-bearing of spindle is highest and
has the great influence on machining accuracy.
 The temperature moves the axis of spindle to another position
(in horizontal and vertical positions).
• The machining dimensions for the first workpieces and for the
latest workpieces are different.

152
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Influence of machine thermal deformation on machining
error
• To reduce the thermal deformation of the machine, people use the
following methods:
 The structure of the machine must ensure good heat radiation
 Parts such as motors and hydraulic systems must be arranged
in such a way that their temperature will have little effect on
the machine while also reducing vibrations for the machine.
 Machine components must have enough area to radiate heat.
 Choose the right oil tank so that the oil has the ability to
generate heat quickly during work.
 High precision machines should be located in a suitable cool
place, avoiding the influence of sunlight

153
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Heat in the cutting zone

154
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Effect of thermal deformation of the cutting tool on the
machining accuracy

155
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Effect of thermal deformation of the cutting tool on the
machining accuracy
• The infusion temperature of the cutting tool (10-20%) however
also causes considerable deformation of the cutting tool
• When machining small parts, the elongation of the tool causes
dimensional error, while when machining large parts it will cause
geometry errors.

Relationship between tool elongation (ΔLd) and

continuous cutting time (ΔT) 1, 2, 3, 4 -
corresponding speeds (200, 124, 72 and 42
m/min, t = 0.25 mm; S = 0.1 (mm / r)

T (min)

156
3.4 Reasons of machining error
Effect of thermal deformation of the cutting tool on the
machining accuracy
• The cutting tool gets elongated and shortened when cutting is
interrupted
• If cutting smoothness is not guaranteed, the thermal deformation
of the cutting tool is unstable  causing machining dimension
error
• The effect of thermal deformation of the milling or broaching
cutter on machining accuracy is less with the turning tool

Influence of interrupted machining on thermal

deformation
1 - when machining continuously;
2 - when machining is interrupted;
a - heating;
b - cooling.

157
3.4 Reasons of machining error
The influence of thermal deformation of the workpiece on
the machining accuracy
• Some of the heat in the cutting zone is transferred to the
workpiece, causing it to deform and cause machining errors.
• If a workpiece is heated evenly, it will only cause dimension error,
but if it is heated locally, unevenly, in addition to the dimension
error it also causes geometry error.
• The temperature transferred depends on the cutting data.

158
3.4 Reasons of machining error
The influence of thermal deformation of the workpiece on
the machining accuracy
• To overcome thermal deformation of workpieces, people use the
following methods:
 Using cooling fluid into the machining area according to
reasonable cutting data.
 Machining of the workpieces requires high precision in the
private workshop.
 Before machining, the machine should be run idle for some
time to balance heat.

159
3.4 Reasons of machining error
The effect of vibration during cutting on machining accuracy
• The vibration of the technology system during the cutting process
causes the relative position between the cutter and the workpiece
to change periodically, thus recording on the surface of an uneven
shape.
• If vibration frequency is low, large amplitude will produce surface
wave, if vibration frequency is high and low amplitude will
produce surface roughness.
• In addition, due to the depth vibrations of the cutting depth, the
chip cross-section and the cutting force will increase and decrease
cyclic affecting the machining accuracy.

• Force vibration
• Self excite vibration

160
3.4 Reasons of machining error
The effect of vibration during cutting on machining accuracy
• Forced vibration: The cause of forced vibration is stimulated
forces from outside.
• The source of forced vibration is:
 Machine, cutting tool or workpiece rotate quickly but are not
well balanced.
 The transmission parts in the machine have large errors.
 Uneven machining residue.
 The machined surface is discontinuous.
 The contact surfaces have large gaps.

161
3.4 Reasons of machining error
The effect of vibration during cutting on machining accuracy
• Forced vibration: To reduce forced vibrations, the following
measures are commonly used:
 Improve the rigidity of the technology system.
 Reduced stimulus from outside.
 Transmission parts need to be machined with high precision.
 The quick rotating parts need to be good balance
 Avoid intermittent cutting.
 When machining high precision parts, it is necessary to have
vibration damping mechanisms and vibration damping
foundation isolated from the outside.

162
3.4 Reasons of machining error
The effect of vibration during cutting on machining accuracy
• Self-vibration:
 The vibration generated by the cutting process and is maintained
by the cutting force. When the cutting stops, the self-vibration
ends.
 To reduce self-vibration, people use the following methods:
- Do not cut too wide and too thin chip layers.
- Select the appropriate cutting mode so that it is not in the area
where the BUE appear.
- Change the cutting tool geometry so that the cutting force in the
direction of the vibration decreases.
- Use a cool, fluid solution to reduce cutting tool wear.
- Improve the rigidity of the technology system.
- Use vibration damping devices.

163
3.4 Reasons of machining error
The influence of the locating method on machining accuracy
• Self-vibration:
 The mounting itself has errors and has a direct influence on the
machining accuracy.
 Mounting errors include:
- Locating error εc
- Clamping error εk
- Error of the jig εđg
- The setting error εđg is calculated by the formula:

- To determine the value εđg we use the formula:

164
3.4 Reasons of machining error
The influence of the measuring instrument and the measuring
method on machining accuracy
• The measuring instrument itself also has errors, so when using it to
determine the accuracy of the part will give us inaccurate results.
• In addition, the method of measurement (attaching the workpiece to
the measuring tool or jig, then adjusting the dimension series and
then taking measurements) also causes errors and affects machining
accuracy.
• In order to reduce the effect of metrology on machining accuracy, it
is necessary to choose the right measuring tools and methods.

165
3.5 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Statistical method of experience
• This method is based on "economic accuracy" for evaluation
 Economic accuracy is that achieved under normal production
conditions.
• Procedure:
 Work on one machine, one technology mode, worker skills under
standard conditions and see how precision is achieved.
 Doing so many times, statistics on the results achieved and
tabulated
 This method should be used for reference only and should be
based on specific production conditions when applying it.

166
3.5 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Statistical method of experience

167
3.5 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Analytically-calculable method.
• While working on corrected machine the total error ΔZ is
determined by following formula:

Where:

Δp- dimension error which appears owing to plastic deformation of

technological system.
ε - Workholding/Setup error (location error, clamp error, error of jig and
fixture).
ΔC - Error causing by correction of machine.
ΔW - Error causing by tool wear.
ΔZ - Error causing by heat deformation of technological system.
ΔF - Total figure geometric error causing by error of machine and
deformation of working piece.
168
3.6 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Probability statistical method
• Often used in mass production
• When machining a series of workpieces on a pre-calibrated
machine, the actual workpiece size is a random quantity distributed
according to the standard law. Theoretically this law is described by
the Gaussian curve.

169
3.6 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Probability statistical method
• How to construct an experimental distribution curve
 Assume a lot has 100 workpieces and the actual dimensions are
between 50.00 and 50.36 mm. These dimensions are divided into
7 ranges and are indicated in the table

170
3.6 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Probability statistical method
• How to construct an experimental distribution curve
 As the number of parts in the series increases, decreases the
interval value and increases the number of divisions, the
meandering curve will closely coincide with the theoretical
Gaussian curve.

Dimension distribution of working piece

1- distribution property, 2- experimental curved line
171
3.6 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Probability statistical method
• Standard Law (Gauss)
 Within ±3σ the area accounts for about 99.73% of the entire
limited area of the curve.
 As σ increases, the ymax pitch decreases, and the 6σ distribution
field increases, so the curve expands, which means that accuracy
decreases.
 The smaller quantity σ, the smaller the dispersion of the
dimension, so the higher machining accuracy

172
3.6 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Probability statistical method
• Standard Law (Gauss)
 If the distribution center coincides with the tolerance center, the
operation has no defects if the following conditions are met:
Where:
Δp - Field of distribution, equal to 6σ,
δ - Operation tolerance.
 Systematic error (adjustment of machine error, or replacement of
worn tool) does not affect the shape of the distribution curve but
only moves it by a corresponding value.
 Then the operation will have no defects if the following
conditions are satisfied:

173
3.6 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Probability statistical method
• Actual workpiece size: Standard Law (Gauss)
Mass production with
high machining accuracy

• Cutting tool wear: Regular probability law

174
3.6 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Probability statistical method
• Rigidity of technology system: Simpson law

• Eccentricity, run out, oval, perpendicularity, parallelism, pitch

error: Marwell law

175
3.6 Methods for determination of machining accuracy
Probability statistical method
• Combination of distribution curves
 In fact, sometimes there are curves that are a combination of the
distribution curves above.
 For example, when excitation factors (tool wear) are present and
many random factors are present at the same time, a distribution
curve A the dispersion of the combinatorial size Δ2 = Δ1 + l is
obtained.
The influence of stimulants and random
factors on the field of the size
distribution of parts.
Δ1 - size scattering due to the effect of
random factors;
l - size dispersion due to excitation
effects (tool wear)
n Δ2 - size dispersion due to the effects of
a combination of factors.

176
3.7 System adjustment
Adjust the system to ensure the accuracy of each task
• System adjustment is the process of setting cutting tools, jigs and
other devices to ensure correlation between the workpiece and the
cutting tool in order to achieve the required machining precision.
• The system adjustment also includes selecting a cutting mode.
• System adjustment method
 Static adjustment
- Setup a cutting tool to determine the distance from it to the
positioning standard of a part on a machine that is not moving
(when not cut).
- Set the field distribution properly suitable for the tolerance field
limits.
 Dynamic adjustment
- Machining a group of parts and make additional adjustments to
the static adjustment dimensions if necessary.
- The work is repeated until the average group size is within the
adjustable tolerance

177
3.7 System adjustment
Adjust the system to ensure the accuracy of each task

178
 CHAPTER 4

LOCATING PRINCIPLES

179
 Content

4.1 Notion and classification

4.2 Workholding process
4.3 Six-point principle when locating
4.4 Locating error calculation
4.5 Rules for selecting locating surface

180
4.1 Notions and classification
Notion
• Every workpiece has the following surfaces
 Locating surfaces
 Clamping surfaces
 Machining surfaces
 Free surfaces

Machining surface

Clamping surface Locating surface

Free surface

181
4.1 Notions and classification
Notion
• In order to ensure the relative positions between machining surfaces
and other relevant surfaces, the workpiece need to be placed at a
specific location on the machine table.

182
4.1 Notions and classification
Notion
• A datum is a set of surfaces, lines or points of a workpiece which
can be used to determine the positions and orientation of other
surfaces, lines or points on the workpiece or on another workpiece”
• A datum can be one or more surfaces, lines or points. Locating
positions of surfaces, lines or points are determined during design,
machining, assembing and measuring process
• The datum determination of a machining operation is the
determination of the position between the cutting tool and the
machining surface of the part to ensure the technical and economic
requirements of that operation

183
4.1 Notions and classification
Notion
Datum

Design datum Manufacturing datum

Real Virtual Locating Assembling Measuring

datum datum datum

Finish datum Raw datum

Principal finish Auxiliary finish

datum datum

184
4.1 Notions and classification
Design datum
• It is a datum for determination of position of surfaces, of lines or of
points in design process.
• It is used in specifying the workpiece geometry (dimensions,
positions and orientations especially with tolerances) in terms of
design and functional requirements.
• Design datum maybe is real or virtual.

185
4.1 Notions and classification
Manufacturing datum
• It is defined to specify geometric relationships in manufacturing
processes of the workpieces including locating datum, assembling
datum and measuring datum
• Locating datum
 Locating datum are used to determine the position of surfaces, lines or points
of a workpiece during machining.
 Locating datum are always real datum
 Locating datum may or may not coincide with contact surface of workpiece
on the jig or on the machine table.
 The locating datum is also divided into raw and finish locating datum

186
4.1 Notions and classification
Manufacturing datum
• Locating datum
 Raw locating datum is the surface used as a datum but not yet machined.
- In most cases the raw locating datum are the true geometrical elements of the
unmachined workpiece.
- However, there are also some cases where the raw locating datum is
machined surfaces
 Finish locating datum are surfaces used as machined reference surfaces. It also
divided into primary and secondary finish locating datum
- If the finish datum is still used in the assembly process later on, it is called the
primary finish datum
- And finish datum is not used in later assembly is called secondary finish
datum

187
4.1 Notions and classification
Manufacturing datum
• Locating datum

Primary finish datum &

secondary finish datum

1 2
188
4.1 Notions and classification
Assembling datum
• Assembling datum is a base which is used for determination of
relative position of pieces in assembly process.
• For gears, assembling datum is the hole and flat surface.

Assembling datum

The requirement to ensure that the perpendicularity between the center of cylinder
hole F and center of crankshaft hole M is 0.05/100mm
189
4.1 Notions and classification
Measuring datum
• Measuring datum is a datum which is used for measure of different
dimension, position or orientation of workpiece.
Datum types
• Generate additional errors because of different datum for designing
and manufacturing

Machining requirements ensure the H1 size to ensure the compression

ratio of the engine

190
4.2 Locating and Clamping process - (Workholding)
Notions
• Locating process
 Locating process is to determine the workpiece position and orientation
relative to a fixture or cutting tool in specific setup.
• Clamping process
 Clamping process is to fix the position of a located workpiece to act against
the impact of external forces during the machining of the part to prevent the
workpiece from leaving the position.
• The setup process is always done in the following order: the
locating process the clamping process.

191
4.2 Work-holding process
Work-holding methods when machining
• Manual adjustment method
 It can be divided into two cases that are adjusting directly on the machine or
adjusting the marked layout
 In order to perform the adjustment method, some tools such as a machine
table or a punch, a gauge, an optical measuring system are used to determine
the position of the workpiece relative to the machine, cutting tools.

Adjusting directly on machine Adjusting based on marked line

192
4.2 Work-holding process
Work-holding methods for workpiece when machining
• Manual adjustment method

 Based on chalk
 Based on marking device
 Based on indicator

193
4.2 Work-holding process
Work-holding methods for workpiece when machining
• Manual adjustment method
 Advantages
- Obtain certain working precision based on adjustment if we use precise
indicator
- The effect of tool wear on machining accuracy can be excluded.
- It is possible to take advantage of a number of raw stock with large errors
- No need complicated clamping.
 Disadvantages
- Low productivity
- The quality depends on the worker skill
- Low accuracy
 Applications
- This method is commonly used in single-batch production, in repair and in
test fabrication.

194
4.2 Work-holding process
Work-holding methods for workpiece when machining
• Automatically obtaining dimension setup method
 Used in mass and batch production to ensure quality and productivity when
machining
 The determination of the relative position between the workpiece, the cutting
tool through the locator of the jig.

195
4.2 Work-holding process
Work-holding methods for workpiece when machining
• Automatically obtaining dimension setup method
 Advantages
- The machining precision is less dependent on the worker skill 
- capable of achieving high precision.
- Processing time is faster that improves productivity and reduces product
costs.
 Disadvantages
- The number of workpieces in a series must be large enough
- It is not possible to take advantage of a number of raw stock with too large
errors caused by stock preparation
 Applications
- Often used in batch or mass production

196
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a rigid workpiece
• Automatically obtaining dimension setup method
 The degree of freedom (DOF) in a certain direction of an solid object is the
ability of a rigid workpiece to move in a certain direction without being
obstructed.
 An rigid workpiece can move within a certain limit in one direction also
means that a rigid workpiece has degrees of freedom in that direction.
 A rigid workpiece cannot move in any direction, which means it is
 constraint in that direction.
 Any free rigid workpiece has six degrees of freedom (3 linear along 3 axis X,
Y, Z and 3 rotary about X, Y, Z

197
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid
• When the cube is contact to all three planes of the Cartesian
coordinate system, the cube is obstructed of all 6 movements or in
other words it is constrained by all 6 degrees of freedom.
 Linear motion along OX, OY, OZ
 Rotary motion around OX, OY, OZ

198
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid
1. Translating the cube in contact with 2. Translating the cube in contact with 3. Translating the cube in contact with
the XOY plane the YOZ plane the YOZ plane

The cube is controlled by the

movements: The cube is controlled by the The cube is controlled by the
1. Linear motion OZ movements: movements:
2. Rotary motion OY 4. Linear motion OX 6. Linear motion OY
3. Rotary motion OZ 5. Rotary motion OZ Rotary motion OX
Rotary motion OY Rotary motion OZ

199
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid
• When an rigid workpiece is constrained all 6 degrees of freedom, it
means that it has a exact position in space
• For a workpiece, in order to determine its position, we must control
the degrees of freedom in the necessary direction

200
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid
• In the machining process, the workpiece it is not necessary to
always have 6 degrees of freedom, but only the necessary degrees
of freedom as required by the task.
• It is not allowed to control without the necessary degrees of
freedom, but to allow control greater than the number of degrees of
freedom required to make setup process easier.
• The number of constrained degrees of freedom is not greater than
6, and if there is a degree of freedom that can be constrained more
than one time, it is called over-locating.
• The number of degrees of freedom to be limited depends on the
machining requirement at each operation step, on the size of the
locating surface, on the contact properties between the locating
surface of the workpiece and the surface of locator.

201
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid

Long V-block constrains 4 DOFs Short V-block constrains 2 DOFs

202
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid

Long dowel/pin constrains 4 DOFs Short dowel/pin constrains 2 DOFs

Both setup diagram total constrain 5 DOFs Diamond pin constrains 1 DOF (translate/rotate)

203
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid

Long three jaw chuck constrains 4 DOFs Two head centers constrain 5 DOFs

204
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid

Setup diagram constrains 6 DOFs Tapered pin constrains 3 DOFs

205
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid

206
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
The concept of the degree of freedom of a solid

MP: OZ(T), OX®, OY®; CTD: OX(T), OY(T), OX®, OY®

207
4.3 Six-Point locating principle
Notes

208
4.4 Calculation of setup errors
Setup error is calculated by the formula

Where:
Locating error;
Locating error;
Locating error;

• The above formula is the vector sum of the errors that are difficult to determine
• To determine the value we have the following formula:

209
4.4 Calculation of setup errors
Clamping error
• The clamping error is the displacement of the original base projected on the obtained
dimension caused by the varying clamping force.

Where:
Angle merged by the
machining dimension and the
displacement of the original
base
ymax - ymin: Maximum and
minimum displacement of the
original base when clamping
force changes.

210
4.4 Calculation of setup errors
Jig error
• Jig error caused by incorrect jig fabrication, its wear and inaccurate jig setup process

Where:
Error due to the fabrication of the jig
: Error due to wear of jig
: Error due to the installation of the jig on the machine

• Errors due to the fabrication of jigs are shown in the inaccuracy of the jig structure
when fabricated, such as locator, guiding mechanisms, tool gauges…

211
4.4 Calculation of setup errors
Jig error
• Wear error for jig, for example, the wear of the locator changes the position of the
setup.
 The wear of the locator depends on many factors such as structure, material,
size, weight and surface contact of the workpiece surface.
 When using plane pin, wear of pins is determined by the following experimental
formula

Where:
N: Number of contact of the workpiece surface or part with the plane
pin.
: Coefficients depend on surface conditions and contact conditions
between the workpiece or part and the stroke.

• Installation jig error on machine, this error can be determined in each specific
case of the jig on the machine, this error is not very large and can be adjusted to
reach the value of 0.

212
4.4 Calculation of setup errors
Locating error
• Locating error is the error that arises when the locating datum does not
coincide with the dimensional origin and has a value equal to the amount of
variation of the dimensional origin projected onto the implemented
dimensional dimension.
• The concept of dimension origin is only used in the technology scope, it
may or may not coincide with the design datum
• The technology dimension has a clear direction, going from the
original dimension to the machining surface

213
4.4 Calculation of setup errors
Locating error
• The dimension to be achieved when machining is a closed component of a
technology dimension chain, which is formed in a operation or a number of
operations
• The components of the size chain can be either variable dimensions or
constant dimensions

A x

a – x + B =0
B=-a+x
c(B) = =
214
4.4 Calculation of setup errors
Location error
• If L is the dimension to be achieved when machined, it depends on the variable
dimensions and the constant dimensions in a relevant dimension chain during
machining:

Where:
x1 x2 xn Variable dimensions
a1 a2 n Constant dimensions

• When calculating the locating error for a dimension L it means determining the
amount of variation of that dimension as the relevant dimensions change.
• If the variable quantity of dimension L is called L, it is determined by the sum of the
variable quantities of the relevant dimensions:

215
4.4 Calculation of setup errors
Location error
• Maximum and minimum method
 First of all, it is necessary to set up a technology dimension chain for the
dimensions for which the locating error L is calculated.
 When making technology dimension chain, it is necessary to follow the
principles: technology dimension chain starts from the machining surface to the
locating datum/adjust datum, to the original dimension, and then finally back to
the machining surface.
 Thus, when creating the dimension chain, it is necessary to ensure its closeness.

a a
b

L L b

Machining surface Locating surface Dimensional origin Machining surface Dimensional origin Locating surface

216
4.4 Calculation of setup errors

Locating errors
• Example 2: Shaft Dd, V block 2 . Calculation of locating
errors of H1, H2, H3.

217
4.4 Calculation of setup errors

Locating errors
• For H1:
a1-x1+x2-H1=0  H1=a1-x1+x2
Where: a1 = const, x1 and x2 are calculated as below:
x1=D/2 sin; x2=D/2

218
4.4 Calculation of setup errors

 Locating errors
• Applying the formula

( )

( )

Notes: 0 when =900 (2=1800). N=A=origin

219
4.5 Principle of locating datum choice
Principle of raw locating datum choice
• The raw locating datum is often used in the first operation in the machining
process.
• Choosing the raw locating datum is critical to the technology process,
affecting the following operations and on the machining accuracy of the part.
• When choosing a raw locating datum, keep following requirements:
 Distribute enough residue to the machined surfaces.
 Ensure the required accuracy of the relative position between non-
machined surfaces and machined surfaces.
B

O n
m

A
220
4.5 Principle of locating datum choice
Principle of raw locating datum choice
• Example 1: When machining face A, face B, and hole O of a casting workpiece. We
divide the following two cases:
 In the case of a solid hole (without holes),
- Operation 1: Face A can be used as a locating datum to create the hole,
- Operation 2: Use the hole as a locating datum to mill face A.
- Operation 3: Use face A as locating datum to mill face B.
 In the case of a solid hole (without holes),
- Operation 1: Face A can be used as a locating datum to create the hole,
- Operation 2: Use the hole as a locating datum to mill face A.
- Operation 3: Use face A as locating datum to mill face B.
B

O
n
m

A
221
4.5 Principle of locating datum choice
Principle of raw locating datum choice
• Example 2: When machining the cover of an electric motor, it is required to ensure
the wall thickness is regular
 Operation 1: Select hole A as the locating datum for machining the bottom
surface C.
 Operation 2: C as the locating datum for machining hole A, which will
ensure the concentricity with face B.

222
4.5 Principle of locating datum choice
Principle of raw locating datum choice
(1) If the workpiece has a non-machined surface, the surface should be selected as the
raw locating datum, as a change in the relative position between the machined surface
and the non- machined surface will be the smallest.

Using surface A for machining surfaces B, C, D in order to ensure their concentricity

with surface A

223
4.5 Principle of locating datum choice
Principle of raw locating datum choice
(2) If there are several non-machined surfaces, it is advisable to choose some non-
machined surface that requires the highest relavant position accuracy (for non-
machined surfaces) as the raw locating datum

Ϩ
Ϩ

Raw locating datum is unmachined surface having the highest relative position (A)

224
4.5 Principle of locating datum choice
Principle of raw locating datum choice
(3) In the surface to be machined, choose a surface with small residue and evenly as a
raw locating datum

While machining a guideway of a lathe

(method a) choosing surface A as raw locating datum to machine B,
(method b) using B as locating datum to machine A, because while casting surface B
is in below mould, so that B has good material structure, therefore B has a small
cutting layer.

225
4.5 Principle of locating datum choice
Principle of raw locating datum choice
(4) Try to choose a relatively flat surface that does not have burrs, feeder head, riser,
or too rough

(5) Raw locating datum should be used only once during the entire machining process.

226
4.5 Principle of locating datum choice
Principle of choosing a finish locating datum
(1) Try to choose the surface as the primary locating datum to minimize the error of the
relavant position when machining and working, which is very important when
finishing.

(2) Try to select the finish locating datum coinciding with the original dimension so that
the locating error is zero or minimum

227
4.5 Principle of locating datum choice
Principle of choosing a finish locating datum
(3) Select the finish locating datum so that when machining the workpiece, it is not
deformed due to shear force, clamping force and this surface must have enough locating
area.

(4) Choose a finish locating datum so that the structure of the jig is simple and
convenient to use.
(5) Try to choose a uniform datum so that the locating error is minimal. if the locating
datum is changed many times, it will generate cumulative error in the next mounting
times.
228
 CHAPTER 5

TRADITIONAL
MACHINING METHODS

229
 Cutting Methods

 Processes that involve removal of material from solid workpiece

Turning
Milling
Shaping (or planing)
Broaching
Drilling, Reaming, Boring
Grinding
 Turning

Processes to cut cylindrical stock into revolved shapes

Process character: high MRR, high surface, dimension control
Turning
Turning
Turning
Turning operations
Fixturing parts for turning
Geometry of the cutting tool
Geometry of the cutting tool

238
Geometry of the cutting tool

239
Setting up the cutting tool

240
 Modeling: Mechanism of cutting

Old model: crack propagation Current model: shear

 Milling

Versatile process to cut arbitrary 3D shapes

Process character: high MRR, high surface, dimension control

[source: Kalpakjian & Schmid]]

Milling

243
Cutting tool

244
Cutting tool

245
 Cutting tool

 Ballnose, bullnose, Flat

246
Cutting tool

247
Cutting tool

248
Cutting tool

249
Up and Down milling
Fixtures for Milling: Vise
Fixtures for Milling: Clamps
 Shaping

A process to plane the surface of a workpiece (or to reduce part thickness

Process character: High MRR, medium Surface finish, dimension control
Shaping

254
 Broaching

Precise process for mass-production of complex geometry parts

(complicated hole-shapes)

Process character: High MRR, Very good surface, dimension control, Expensive
 Drilling, Reaming, Boring

Processes to make holes

Process character: High MRR, Cheap, Medium-high surface, dimension control
 Drilling basics

- Softer materials  small point angle; hard, brittle material: larger point angle
- Length/Diameter ratio is large  gun-drilling (L/D ratio ~ 300)
- Very small diameter holes (e.g. < 0.5 mm): can’t drill (why?)
- F drilled hole > F drill: vibrations, misalignments, …
- Tight dimension control: drill  ream
- Spade drills: large, deep holes
- Coutersink/counterbore drills: multiple diameter hole  screws/bolts heads
 Tapping

Processes to make threads in holes

Process character: low MRR, Cheap, good surface, dimension control

Manual tap and die set Automated tapping

 Grinding, Abrasive Machining

Processes to finish and smooth surfaces

Process character: very low MRR, very high surface, dimension control

1. To improve the surface finish of a manufactured part

(a) Injection molding die: milling manual grinding/electro-grinding.
(b) Cylinders of engine: turning  grinding  honing  lapping

2. To improve the dimensional tolerance of a manufactured part

(a) ball-bearings: forging  grinding [control: < 15 mm]
(b) Knives: forged steel  hardened  grinding

3. To cut hard brittle materials

(a) Semiconductor IC chips: slicing and dicing

4. To remove unwanted materials of a cutting process

(a) Deburring parts made by drilling, milling
Abrasive tools and Machines
 CHAPTER 6

ADVANCED MACHINING
METHODS

261
Advanced machining methods

Chemical Machining (CM)

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM)

Laser cutting

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Water-Jet and Abrasive Water-Jet Machining

 Chemical Machining
Etching:

Chemical reaction between reagent (in gas, solution, or paste form)

and workpiece.

Main uses:
- Shallow, wide cavities on plates, forgings, castings  reduce weight
- Electronics manufacturing (wafer fabrication)
- Hydrogen Flouride, Hydrofloric acid: etching of glass
 Photo-Chemical Machining

Main uses:
- Flat springs, metal bookmarks, encoder wheels, lead frames for IC chips,
sieves for medical applications, microwave oven filters, heat-sinks for PCBs
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Reverse of electro-plating (workpiece is anode)

Main uses:
- Dies and glass-making molds, turbine and compressor blades, Holes, Deburring
 Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM)

Electrode EDM
- Sparks between electrode-workpiece
- Dielectric flushes the metal powder
- Inexpensive, precise, complex shapes
- Workpiece must be a conductor

Wire-cut EDM

[source: www.magnix.co.kr]
 Laser cutting

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

- High energy density (small focus area)

- Uses: Cutting, welding, precision holes
- Common lasers: CO2, Nd:YAG
- Continuous power or Pulsed (more precise)
 Ultrasonic Machining

Main uses of USM:

- Welding plastics (package sealing)
- Wire-bonding (IC chips)
- Machining brittle materials
 Water-Jet, Abrasive Water-Jet Machining

- Workpiece is fractured by impact from

high pressure (~400 MPa) water-jet

- No heat  no thermal stress, damage

Common applications:

- Fast and precise cutting of fabrics

- Vinyl, foam coverings of car dashboard panels
- Plastic and composite body panels used in the interior of cars
- Cutting glass and ceramic tiles
 Group activities & Discussions
Procedure
• Divide student classes (3-5 students a group)
• Select team leader
• Receive a workpiece for each group
• Discuss in team to complete some work
 Analyze working function of the workpiece
 Analyze the technical requirements of workpiece
 Identify important surfaces of workpiece
 Identify basic technical requirements for details
 Develop a setup plan for 2-3 operations
 Discuss and write the answers on papers
 Team leader present the tasks and solutions of groups
 Discuss and answer questions from teacher and other group members

270