CHM 416: Organic Synthesis

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: CHM 416
COURSE TITLE: ORGANIC SYNTHESIS

Course Developer/Writer: Adeniran, Oluremi Isola
Department of Chemistry
Faculty of Science
University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria.

MODULE 1 Oxidation Reactions
Unit 1 Oxidation reactions
Unit 2 Transformation of alkenes
Unit 3 Transformation of alcohols
Unit 4 Transformation of arenes
UNIT 1 Oxidation reactions

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Oxidizing Reagents
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Oxidation as defined in ionic and free radical reactions, is a process by which an element
undergoes a net loss of electrons. The concept as applied to organic covalent compounds,
where elements share electrons rather than losing or gaining them is the same, but it’s
often simplified and narrowed down to make it easier to recognize this process.
Therefore it must be kept in mind that, while the following definition in this unit is
grossly simplified, it serves the goal of quickly identifying oxidation process in many
organic reactions.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
i. Define oxidation reaction
ii. Recognize oxidation in organic reactions
iii. List some oxidizing reagents
3.0 Main content

3.1 Definitions
Oxidation in inorganic chemistry is considered as a loss of electrons. For inorganic
ions, as when Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+, this concept works well. Since most organic
compounds are uncharged, electron gain or loss is not apparent. Organic chemists
tend to think of oxidation as the result of adding an oxidizing agent such as O2, F2,
Cl2, and Br2.
In reference to organic molecules therefore, oxidation is broadly defined as either the
removal of hydrogen or the replacement of a hydrogen atom attached to a carbon
atom with another more electronegative element, most frequently oxygen.
This definition is illustrated by the following examples: (i) successive
dehydrogenation of ethane and (ii) oxidative series of transformation of methane.
3
(i) Successive (oxidative) dehydrogenation of ethane
When in an organic compound a carbon atom loses a bond to hydrogen and

forms a new bond to a heteroatom (or to another carbon), the compound is
said to have been dehydrogenated, or oxidized. The loss of C-H bonds to form
new C-C bonds in successive dehydrogenation (removal of hydrogen) of
ethane to ethylene is oxidation.
H H H H
H C C H C C H C C H
H H H H Ethylene
Ethene
Ethane
Increasing ordrer of oxidation Most oxidized
Most reduced
Note: The greater the bond multiplicity the more oxidized the molecule
i.e. single bond < double bond < triple bond. In this series of two-
carbon system each of the two carbon atoms loses a C-H bond and
gains a C-C bond in a stepwise manner, and thus is oxidized.
(ii) Oxidative transformation of methane.
Redox reactions in organic chemistry mostly deal with a small set of very
identifiable functional group transformations. Familiarity with the idea of
'oxidation states' as applied to organic functional groups is therefore essential.
Familiar functional groups can be arranged in order of increasing or
decreasing oxidation state by comparing the relative number of bonds to
hydrogen atoms. Consider a series of single carbon compounds as an
example. The degree of oxidation increases as you move methane, with four
carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds, is highly reduced. Following in the sequence
is methanol (three carbon-hydrogen bonds, one carbon-oxygen bond),
followed by methanal, methanoic acid, and finally carbon dioxide at the highly
oxidized end of the group.
H H H O
C C C O H C O C O
H H H OH OH
H H
H
Methane Methanol Methanal Methanoic acid Carbondioxide
Increasing ordrer of oxidation Most oxidized

Most reduced
Note: The more the C-O bonds or the less the less the C-H bonds, the more
oxidized the molecule.
4
You can now understand by considering the illustrations above that oxidation
of a Carbon atom in an organic compound involves one or more of the
following changes: (i) an increase in the multiple bond order of the Carbon
atom (ii) addition of Oxygen to a Carbon atom (iii) replacement of an
Hydrogen on a Carbon atom by a more electronegative element especially
Oxygen.
In section 3.3, the pattern adopted to illustrate oxidation in organic chemistry is

conversion of one functional group to another by oxidation. This choice is with an
intention of conveying a general sense of the application of oxidation in organic
synthesis. This includes transformations of alcohols to carbonyls, alkenes to epoxides
or diols, and alkenes to carbonyl compounds (oxidative cleavage).
SAQ I-1: Give a precise definition of oxidation as applied to organic chemistry.
3.2 Oxidizing Reagents
Several examples of oxidizing agents (reagents) exist. This section presents some of
these reagents, a simple method of preparation and some applications of each in
functional group transformation.
Chromic Acid (H2CrO4)
(a) Preparation
This reagent is prepared by reacting sodium or potassium dichromate with sulphuric

acid as shown in below:
H2SO4 H2O
Cr2O72- H2Cr2O7 2 H2CrO4
Dichromate ion Chromic acid
O O O O O
H2SO4 H2O
-
O Cr O Cr O- HO Cr O Cr OH 2 HO Cr OH
O O O O O
Dichromate ion Chromic acid
(b) Application in functional group transformation:
(i) Oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones:
5
CH3 CH3
K2Cr2O7
C OH C
H2SO4/H2O
H O
o Ketone
2 Alcohol
(ii) Oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids. The alcohol is first oxidized
to an aldehyde. Under the reaction conditions, a molecule of water adds to the
carbonyl group to form a hydrate which is subsequently oxidized to the
carboxylic acid.
H H H H H OH H OH
K2Cr2O7
Ph H2O Ph C
Ph
C C OH H2SO4/H2O C C C OH Ph
C C
H H H H
H O H O
Pyridinium Chlorochromate (PCC) – C5H5NH[CrO3Cl]
(a) Preparation
The original preparation, involves the reaction of pyridine with chromium trioxide
and concentrated hydrochloric acid:
C5H5N + HCl + CrO3 → [C5H5NH][CrO3Cl]
With pyridinium chlorochromate the oxidation of primary alcohols can be stopped at

aldehydes. In order to prevent aldehydes from further oxidation, it is necessary to
maintain anhydrous condition (avoid the addition of water to the carbonyl group).
PCC was developed as a non-aqueous alternative to chromic acid. PCC therefore
offered the advantage of the selective oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes. Using this
reagent, 2-phenylethanol may be oxidized to phenyl acetaldehyde without subsequent
oxidation to phenylacetic acid:
H H
H H
PCC
C C OH C C
CH2Cl2
O
H H H
2-phenylethanol phenyl acetaldehyde
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and Osmium tetroxide (OsO4)
(a) Preparation
Dissolve 3.3 g of reagent grade potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in 1 L of deionized

water and heat on a steam bath for two hrs. Cover and allow the solution to stand for 24
6
hrs. Filter through a fine porosity sintered glass crucible. Store the solution in a glass-
stoppered, amber-colored bottle. Avoid exposure to direct sunlight; cover the neck of
the bottle with a small beaker as a protection against dust. If manganese dioxide
precipitates on standing, refilter before use.
Osmium tetroxide (OsO4), or potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in aqueous base,

reacts with alkenes to yield 1,2-diols. These reagents are used to convert alkenes into
the corresponding 1,2-diols (glycols) by a stereospecific process called syn
hydroxylation or syn addition of two OH groups because they involve the formation of
intermediate cyclic inorganic "esters" that decompose to the diol in subsequent steps as
shown in the following illustrations. The reaction is thought to involve the formation of
an intermediate cyclic permanganate ester which is readily hydrolysed under the
reaction conditions to yield the 1,2-diol. A cyclic osmate ester is generated with OsO4.
O O
O O OH OH
R Os
R Os
C C O O O O
R
C C
R R R R
C C
R R
R
R R
cyclic osmate ester
O O
O O OH OH
R Mn
R Mn
C C O O O O
R
C C
R R R R
C C
R R
R
R R
cyclic permanganate ester
Osmium tetraoxide gives excellent yields of 1,2-diols, but it is toxic (it causes
blindness) and expensive. Potassium permanganate is inexpensive and safer to use, but
it gives much lower yields of diols. This is partly because it can cleave the C-C bond of
the diol as we describe in a subsequent section.
Since aqueous KMnO4 is purple, this reaction is often used as a qualitative test for the
presence of an alkene: a dilute solution of permanganate is added to a sample of the
unknown compound; if the color is discharged, the test is taken as positive. The
formation of a grey-black precipitate of manganese dioxide confirms the analysis.
Ozone (O3)
(a) Preparation
Ozone, O3, is an allotrope of oxygen. It is a highly reactive molecule that is

generated by passing a stream of oxygen over a high voltage electric discharge. It is
possible to smell ozone in the atmosphere after a lightning storm if the lightning has
struck nearby.
7
The reaction between ozone (O3) and an alkene involves direct addition of O3
across the double bond to give an unstable intermediate that decomposes to an
ozonide intermediate in a process called ozonolysis, an alkene is treated with ozone
to produce intermediates called ozonides which are reduced directly, generally with
zinc metal in acetic acid, to yield aldehydes or ketones, depending on the
substituents attached to the double bond of the initial alkene.
O
R1 R2
R1 R2 O O O O
Zn, HOAc
O3, CH2Cl2 C O + C O
C C C C
R1 R2 R1 R2
O R1 R2
R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
molozonide ozonide
Note that an aromatic ring is resistant to ozone. The value of ozonolysis lies in the
structural insight it affords a chemist who is trying to determine the identity of an
unknown compound.
Peroxy-acids or Peracids (RCO3H)

A number of peracids having the general formula, RCO3H have been used for the
oxidation of organic compounds. Some of the common peracids are: peracetic acid
(CH3CO3H), perbenzoic acid (PhCO3H), trifluoroacetic acid (CF3CO3H) and m-
chloroperbenzoic acid (m-ClC6H4CO3H).
(a) Preparation
Peroxycarboxylic acids (or peracids) are usually prepared in situby the reactions of
carboxylic acids with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as shown for peracetic acid.
O O
H O O H + H2 O
H3C C H 3C C
OH O OH
Acetic acid Peracetic acid
Most peroxy-acids are rather unstable and generally have to be prepared freshly
before use. Performic and peracetic acids, for example, are often prepared in situ, and
not isolated, by action of hydrogen peroxide on the carboxylic acid. Epoxidation with
peroxy-acids are highly stereoselective and take place by cis addition to the double
bond of the alkene.
8
(b) Application in functional group transformation
(i) Oxidation of alkenes
Oxidation of alkenes with peroxy-acids gives rise to epoxides (oxiranes) or

to trans-1,2-diols, depending on the experimental condition. A number of
peroxy-acids have been used in the past, including perbenzoic, performic
and peracetic acid, but these have now been largely superseded, for the
formation of epoxides at any rate, by m-chloroperbenzoic acid; it is
commercially available and is an excellent reagent for the epoxidation of
alkenes. It is more stable than the peroxy-acids and has even been used at an
elevated temperature (90oC) to effect the epoxidation of unreactive alkenes.
(ii) Oxidation of ketones
On oxidation with peroxy-acids, ketones are converted into esters or

lactones. This reaction was discovered in 1899 by Baeyer and Villiger.
Better yields are obtained with organic peroxy-acids such as perbenzoic
acid, peracetic acid and trifluoroperacetic acid; although in practice
nowadays most reactions are effected with m-chloroperbenzoic acid. This is
more stable than the other acids, which usually have to be prepared
immediately before use, and is commercially available. The reaction occurs
under mild conditions and has been widely used both in degradative work
and in synthesis. It is applicable to open chain and cyclic ketones and to
aromatic ketones, and has been used to prepare a variety of steroidal and
terpenoid lactones, as well as medium and large ring lactones which are
otherwise difficult to obtain. It also provides a route to alcohols from
ketones, through hydrolysis of esters formed, and of hydroxyl-acids from
cyclic ketones by way of the lactones; lithium aluminium hydride reduction
of the lactones gives diols with a defined disposition of the two hydroxyl
groups.
SAQ I-2: What does PCC stand for? Show the structure.
4.0 Conclusion
This unit treated the definition of oxidation reactions, explained oxidation in organic
reactions, and discussed the composition and applications of some oxidizing reagents.
5.0 Summary
Oxidation of a Carbon atom in an organic compound involves one or more of the

following changes: (i) an increase in the multiple bond order of the carbon (ii)
addition of oxygen to a carbon (iii) replacement of an hydrogen on a carbon by
oxygen. These criteria can be combined in the statement that "oxidation of organic
molecules involves an increase in the multiple bond order, a gain in oxygen and/or
loss of hydrogen".
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1. What product is formed when cyclopentene is reacted with osmium
tetroxide followed by treatment with basic hydrogen peroxide?
2. What functional groups result from the reaction of 2-
methylcyclopentene with (a) ozone followed by reaction with dimethyl
sulphide and (b) KMnO4 in acid with heating?
3. Which of the following reactions is oxidation: (a) formation of 1,2-
diiodoethane from ethene (ethylene), (b) formation of ethane from
ethene, and (c) formation of ethanol from ethene?
7.0 References/further reading
(1) Daniel R. Bloch. Organic Chemistry Demystified. McGraw-Hill, New
York 2006.
(2) Richard S. Monson. Advanced Organic Synthesis Methods and
Techniques. United Kingdom Edition, published by ACADEMIC
PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD. Berkeley Square House, London WlX
6BA, 1971.
10
Unit 2 Transformation of Alkenes to epoxides, diols and carbonyl compounds
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Conversion of alkenes to epoxides (epoxidation)
3.2 Conversion of alkenes to syn-1,2-diols (hydroxylation)
3.3 Ozonolysis of alkenes (oxidative cleavage)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
There are a variety of oxidation reactions in which C=C bonds add oxygen or are cleaved to
oxygenated products. When oxygen adds to C=C bonds, the products are epoxides or 1,2-
diols. Some of the most important reactions of alkenes involve oxidation. When we speak of
oxidation, we usually mean reactions that form carbon-oxygen bonds. (Halogens are
oxidizing agents, and the addition of a halogen molecule across a double bond is formally an
oxidation as well.) Oxidations are particularly important because many common functional
groups contain oxygen, and alkene oxidations are some of the best methods for introducing
oxygen into organic molecules. We will consider methods for epoxidation, hydroxylation,
and oxidative cleavage of alkene double bonds.
R 2C CR2
O O
O
O OH OH R2C O O CR2
R2C CR2 Oxidative cleavage

R2C CHR2
Epoxide Diol
2.0 Objectives
i. Discuss conversion of alkenes to epoxides
ii. Recognize oxidation in organic reactions
iii. List some oxidizing reagents
iv. Describe how functional group transformation can be achieved by oxidation
3.0 Main content
3.1 Conversion of alkenes to epoxides (epoxidation)
An epoxide is three-membered cyclic ether, also called an oxirane or

oxacyclopropane. Epoxides are valuable synthetic intermediates used for converting
alkenes to a variety of other functional groups. An alkene is converted to an epoxide
11
by a peroxyacid, a carboxylic acid that has an extra oxygen atom in a -O-O- (peroxy)
linkage.
R O O R O
C C + C C
C C +
O
OH OH
Alkene Peroxyacid Epoxide (oxirane) Acid
The epoxidation of an alkene is clearly an oxidation, since an oxygen atom is added.

Peroxyacids are highly selective oxidizing agents. A peroxyacid epoxidizes an alkene
by a concerted electrophilic reaction where several bonds are broken and several
others are formed at the same time. Starting with the alkene and the peroxyacid, a
one-step reaction gives the epoxide and the acid directly, without any intermediates.
The reaction mechanism is a single step (concerted) transfer of an oxygen atom to the
C=C. For example, using peroxycarboxylic acids such as m-chloroperbenzoic acid
(MCPBA), perbenzoic acid, or peracetic acid, 2,3-dimethyl-2-butene is converted to
the corresponding epoxide.
O
H3C CH3
MCPBA
C C
H3C CH3
H3C CH3
CH3 H3C
Trans-3-hexene can also be oxidized by peracetic acid as in the following equation.
O
C2H5 H O
C6H5 H
C C CH2Cl2 +
+ CH3COOH C C
CH3COOH
H C2H5 H C6H5
Like hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, peroxycarboxylic acids are oxidizing agents and are
often used for that purpose. Peroxycarboxylic acids are generally unstable and must be stored
in the cold or, preferably, be prepared as needed. An important exception is 3-
chloroperoxybenzoic acid, an exceptionally stable crystalline solid now available
commercially. This reagent provides a simple and convenient one-step route to epoxides.
12
O
COOH
COOH
O
CH2Cl2 +
CH3(CH2)3CH=CH2 +
H3C(H2C)3HC CH2 Cl
Cl
3-chloroperbenzoic acid 1-butyloxirane 3-chlorobenzoic acid
(MCPBA)
The mechanism of the reaction can be represented as a displacement reaction on an
electrophilic oxygen by a nucleophilic alkene.
O R C C
C O C -
+
O H O C R O + HO C R
C H O
C C
O O
The reaction may actually take place in a single step
O R O
C
C O C + C R
O
C H O C HO
3.2 Conversion of alkenes to syn-1,2-diols (hydroxylation)
Alkenes are oxidized readily by potassium permanganate, KMnO4, but the products
depend on the reaction conditions. Cold dilute potassium permanganate reacts with
double bonds to give vicinal diols, which are commonly called glycols.
C C + cold dilute C C
KMnO4
HO OH
Glycol(Diol)
Reaction conditions need to be carefully controlled. Yields are variable and usually
low. The reaction occurs with syn addition and is thought to involve an intermediate cyclic
manganate ester that is rapidly hydrolyzed.
13
H H
OH
O
C O
dil. KMnO4 H2 O
Mn
5oC
C
O O- OH
H H
Cis-1,2-cyclohexane diol
The same overall reaction can be accomplished with osmium tetroxide, which forms isolable
cyclic esters with alkenes.
O O
OH OH
Os
C C OsO4 O O
C C
C C
cyclic osmate ester
The cis-diol can be isolated from the osmate ester with H2S, but a more convenient
(and less expensive) procedure involves the combination of hydrogen peroxide with a
catalytic amount of osmium tetroxide. The osmate ester is formed but is converted by the
peroxide to the cis-diol. Osmium tetroxide is constantly regenerated, so that only a small
amount need be used.
OH
OsO4
+ H2O2
OH
When more concentrated solutions of potassium permanganate are used in the

oxidation of alkenes, the initially formed glycol is oxidized further. The product is a mixture
of ketones or carboxylic acids, depending on the extent of substitution of the double bond.
R R" O
cold dilute R''
R
C C KMnO4 C
C O +
R' H R'
OH
KMnO4
HCR CH2 RCOOH + CO2
14
This is not a common reaction in organic synthesis because the yields are usually low.
Oxidative cleavage of the double bond can generally be accomplished in better yield by
reaction with ozone.
SAQ I-3: What product is formed when cyclopentene is reacted with osmium tetroxide
followed by treatment with basic hydrogen peroxide?
3.3 Ozonolysis of alkenes (oxidative cleavage)
Reactions of alkenes with ozone are normally carried out by passing ozone-containing air
through a solution of the alkene in an inert solvent at low temperatures (usually-80oC).
Reaction is rapid and completion of reaction is determined by testing the effluent gas with
potassium iodide. Unreacted ozone, reacts to give iodine. Suitable solvents for ozonisations
include methylene chloride, alcohol and ethylacetate. The first formed addition product, the
molonozonide, rearranges rapidly, even at low temperatures, to the ozonide structure:
O
O O O O
O3
C C C C
C C
O
alkene molozonide
ozonide
In some cases polymeric structures are obtained. Some ozonides, especially the
polymeric structures, decompose with explosive violence on heating; hence, the ozonides are
generally not isolated but are decomposed directly to desired products. Hydrolysis with water
occurs readily to give carbonyl compounds and hydrogen peroxide.
O O
C C H2 O 2
+ H2 O C O + O C +
O
ozonide
Aldehydes are oxidized by hydrogen peroxide to carboxylic acids. Hence, reductions

are often used in decomposing the ozonides. Such conditions include zinc dust and acetic
acid, catalytic hydrogenation, and dimethyl sulphide.
15
O3 Zn
(CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH2CH=CH2 (CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH2CHO
CH3COOH
6-methyl-1-heptene 5-methylhexanal
CH3OH (CH3)2S n-C6H13CHO + (CH3)2SO + HCHO

n-C6H13CH=CH2 + O3
o
-60 C heptanal
1-octene
Treatment of the ozonide with sodium borohydride gives the corresponding alcohols.
O3 NaBH4
HOCH2(CH2)4CH2OH
CH3Cl
0oC
cyclohexene 1,6-hexanediol
SAQ I-4: (1) Explain the following terms: (i) hydroxylation (ii) oxidative
(iii) cleavage (iv) epoxidation of alkenes.
(2) Ozone reacts with tetrasubstituted alkenes to give --------
(a) aldehydes (b) ketones (c) aldehydes and ketones
(d) acids. Choose the correct option.
4.0 Conclusion
This unit discussed methods for epoxidation, hydroxylation, and oxidative cleavage of
alkene double bonds and how this functional group can be transformed by oxidation.
5.0 Summary
 Peroxyacids are good oxidizing agents, donating oxygen atoms to other molecules.
Peracids break the π bond in an alkene forming a three-membered ring, called an
epoxide or an oxirane. The oxygen atom bonds to an alkene in a syn manner. Epoxide
compounds are very reactive cyclic ethers.
 Two common methods for converting alkenes into alcohols containing two alcohol
(OH) groups on adjacent carbon atoms are: (i) oxidation with potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) under mild, basic conditions to give molecules called
dialcohols, 1,2-diols, vicinal diols, or glycols and (ii) osmium tetroxide (OsO4) in an
inert solvent. Both reactions for making diols involve a cyclic intermediate. The
cyclic structure necessarily attaches to both oxygen atoms on the same side of the
alkene molecule. This is called syn addition giving a cis-1,2-diol.
16
 Ozone reacts with an alkene to initially form a cyclic ozonide. In a subsequent step
the ozonide is reduced with dimethyl sulfide (CH3)2S to a carbonyl-containing (C=O)
compound. Ozone is a very reactive molecule (an oxidizing agent) and is able to
break the σ and π bonds in alkenes and alkynes, but it does not break isolated C-C
single σ bonds.

1. What product is formed when cyclopentene is reacted with osmium
tetroxide followed by treatment with basic hydrogen peroxide?
2. What functional groups result from the reaction of 2-
methylcyclopentene with (a) ozone followed by reaction with dimethyl
sulphide and (b) KMnO4 in acid with heating?
3. Which of the following reactions is oxidation: (a) formation of 1,2-
diiodoethane from ethene (ethylene), (b) formation of ethane from
ethene, and (c) formation of ethanol from ethene?

York 2006.
6BA, 1971.
17
Unit 3 Transformation of alcohols to carbonyls
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Oxidation of primary alcohols
3.2 Oxidation of secondary alcohols
3.3 Oxidation of tertiary alcohols
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Primary and secondary alcohols are easily oxidized by a variety of reagents, including
chromium reagents, permanganate, nitric acid, and even household bleach (NaOCl,
sodium hypochlorite). The choice of reagent depends on the amount and value of the
alcohol. We use cheap oxidants for large-scale oxidations of simple, inexpensive
alcohols. We use the most effective and selective reagents, regardless of cost, for
delicate and valuable alcohols. In this unit, we study only the oxidants that have the
widest range of uses and the best selectivity.
Alcohols are oxidized to a variety of carbonyl compounds. Primary alcohols are

oxidized to either aldehydes or carboxylic acids by replacing one or two C-H bonds
by C-O bonds. Secondary alcohols are oxidized to ketones by replacing the only C-H
bond in the molecule by a C-O bond. Tertiary alcohols do not have H atom on the
carbon atom bearing the OH functional group hence they are not easily oxidized.
H H R
R C OH R C OH R C OH
H R R
o
1 alcohol o
2 alcohol 3o alcohol
Two C-H bonds One C-H bond No C-H bonds
2.0 Objectives
i. Describe stages involved in oxidation of primary alcohols
ii. Give products of oxidation of secondary alcohols
iii. Explain why tertiary alcohols are not oxidized
18
3.0 Main content
3.1 Oxidation of primary alcohols
Primary alcohols can be oxidized to either aldehydes or further to carboxylic acids

depending on the reaction conditions. In aqueous media, the carboxylic acid is usually
the major product. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids
normally proceeds through the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an
aldehyde hydrate by reacting with water before it can be further oxidized to the
carboxylic acid.
H
O OH
Cr(VI) H2O
O
R C OH R C C
R OH R C
H
H OH
H
Aldehyde
1o alcohol Aldehyde hydrate carboxylic acid
Obtaining the aldehyde is often difficult; since most oxidizing agents are strong
enough to oxidize primary alcohols also oxidize aldehydes. Chromic acid generally
oxidizes a primary alcohol all the way to the carboxylic acid. Aldehydes formed from
oxidation of primary alcohols using Cr(VI) reagents are usually further oxidized to
carboxylic acids; this ‘over-oxidation’ is a practical problem. We can prevent this by
distilling the intermediate aldehyde from the reaction mixture as it forms before it is
oxidized further. This method is only successful for aldehydes of sufficiently low
molecular weight. In this way, 1- butanol gives butanal in 50% yield.
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH + H2Cr2O7 CH3CH2CH2CHO

1-Butanol Butanal
Only aldehydes that boil significantly below 100oC can be conveniently prepared in
this manner. Since this effectively limits the method to the production of few
aldehydes, it is not an important synthetic method. Other special oxidants have
developed that helped to circumvent this problem. By using modified Cr(VI) reagents
that is described in the paragraph following.
A common reagent that selectively oxidizes a primary alcohol to an aldehyde (and no

further) is pyridinium chlorochromate, (PCC) or pyridinium dichromate (PDC). These
reagents, (PCC) or (PDC), which are used in dichloromethane, allow the oxidation to
be stopped at the intermediate aldehyde.
19
H H H
H CH2OH H
H C
PCC or PDC H C C
C C C C O
H H CH2Cl2
H H
H H H H
If you used ethanol as a typical primary alcohol, you would produce the aldehyde
ethanal, (CH3CHO).
H H O
H
PCC
H C C OH H C C
CH2Cl2
H H H H
Ethanol Ethanal
3.2 Oxidation of secondary alcohols
Since ketones are more stable to general oxidation than aldehydes, chromic acid
oxidations are more important for secondary alcohols. In one common procedure a
20% excess of sodium dichromate is added to an aqueous mixture of the alcohol and a
stoichiometric amount of acid.
O
H OH
Na2Cr2O7
H2SO4
CH2CH3 CH2CH3
4 - Ethylcyclohexanol 4 - Ethylcyclohexanonone
An especially convenient oxidizing agent is Jones reagent, a solution of chromic acid

in dilute sulphuric acid. The secondary alcohol in acetone solution is “titrated” with
the reagent with stiring at 15-20oC. Oxidation is rapid and efficient. The green
chromic salts separate from the reaction mixture as a heavy sludge; the supernatant
liquid consists mainly of an acetone solution of the product ketone.
OH
O
H2CrO4
H H2SO4
Cyclooctanol Cyclooctanone
Chromic (VI) oxidations are known to proceed by way of a chromate ester of the
alcohol. If the alcohol has one or more hydrogen attached to the carbinol position, a
20
base-catalyzed elimination occurs, yielding the aldehyde or ketone and a chromium
(iv) species. The overall effect of these two consecutive reactions is oxidation of the
alcoholand reduction of the chromium.
O
R
(1) CHOH + H2CrO4 R2HC O Cr OH + H2O
R
O
(2) B: R2C O Cr OH R2 C O + HCrO3- + BH+
H O
Under conditions such as these, tertiary alcohols do not generally react, although
under proper conditions the chromate ester can be isolated.
2(CH3)3COH + H2CrO4 (H3C)3CO Cr OC(CH3)3 2H2O

+
Since there is no carbinol proton to eliminate in the case of a tertiary alcohol, such
esters are stable. If the chromate ester is treated with excess water, simple hydrolysis
occurs with regeneration of the tertiary alcohol and chromic acid.
More vigorous oxidizing conditions result in cleavage of C-C bonds. Aqueous nitric
acid is such a reagent. Oxidation all the way to carboxylic acid is the normal result.
Such oxidations appear to proceed by way of the intermediate ketone, which
undergoes further oxidation.
H OH
COOH
50% HNO3,
V2O5
55-60oC
COOH
Cylohexanol Adipic acid
Nitric acid may also be used as an oxidant for primary alcohols; again the product is a
carboxylic acid.
71% HNO3
ClCH2CH2CH2OH ClCH2CH2COOH
25-30oC
Instead of oxidation, direct dehydrogenation can be accomplished with various

catalysts and conditions. The reaction is of industrial interest but is not much used in the
laboratory because of the specialized equipment and conditions required. Catalysts include
copper metal, copper chromite, or copper-chromium oxides prepared in special ways.
Examples of dehydrogenation are:
21
Cu-Cr oxide on celite
CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 300-345oC CH3CH2CH2CHO
n-Butyl alcohol Butyraldehyde
HO H O
CuO
250-300oC
Cyclopentanol Cyclopentanone
3.3 Oxidation of tertiary alcohols
Tertiary alcohols are not oxidised by acidified sodium or potassium dichromate (VI)
solution. There is no reaction whatsoever. If you look at what is happening with
primary and secondary alcohols, you will see that the oxidising agent is removing the
hydrogen from the -OH group, and hydrogen from the carbon atom attached to the -
OH. Tertiary alcohols don't have a hydrogen atom attached to that carbon. You need
to be able to remove those two particular hydrogen atoms in order to set up the
carbon-oxygen double bond.
4.0 Conclusion
The unit described oxidation of different classes of alcohols with a discussion of the
possible functional group transformations of each class.
5.0 Summary
 Primary alcohols are oxidized to carboxylic acids in acidic solutions of

dichromate (Cr2O72-) or basic solutions of permanganate (MnO4-). The 1o
alcohol is first oxidized to an aldehyde, which is rapidly oxidized to a
carboxylic acid.
 Secondary alcohols are oxidized to ketones in acidic solutions of dichromate
or basic solutions of permanganate.
 Tertiary alcohols do not react with dichromate or permanganate. Oxidation of
3o alcohols would require cleavage of a carbon–carbon bond. Carbon–carbon
bond cleavage does not occur under conditions used to oxidize 1o and 2o
alcohols.
 Primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes (and not to acids) by reaction
with pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) in anhydrous solvents.

1. What product is formed when:
(a) CH3CH2OH reacts with acidic dichromate (Cr2O72-)?
(b) CH3CH2OH reacts with pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC)?
2. Give the product of each of the following reactions:
22
OH
(a) H2CrO4
H
H2SO4
H OH
(b)
50% HNO3,
V2O5
55-60oC

York 2006.
6BA, 1971.
23
Unit 4 Transformation of arenes (Benzene and other Aromatic Hydrocarbons)
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further reading
1.0 Introduction
The benzene ring is rather stable to oxidizing agents, and under appropriate conditions
side-chain alkyl groups are oxidized instead.
2.0 Objectives
i. Discuss oxidation of the alkylbenzenes
ii. Mention some industrially important reactions of the arenes
3.0 Main content
Sodium dichromate in aqueous sulphuric acid or acetic acid is a common laboratory

procedure, but aqueous nitric acid and potassium permanganate have also been used.
CH3 COOH
Na2Cr2O7
H2SO4,
NO2 NO2
p-Nitrotoluene p-Nitrobenzoic acid
CH3
COOH
aq. KMnO4
Cl
Cl
o-Chlorotoluene o-Chlorobenzoic acid
The detailed reaction mechanisms by which these oxidations occur are complex. They
involve numerous intermediates including chromate and permanganate esters, but
they also appear to involve an intermediate benzyl cation.
CH3 CH2+
[O]
24
As we have seen, this carbocation is relatively stable because of conjugation of the
positive charge with the benzene ring. Reaction with water yields benzyl alcohol,
which can oxidize further. Larger side chains can also be oxidized completely so long
as there is one benzylic hydrogen for the initial oxidation. Cleavage reactions of larger
side chains probably involve the formation of an intermediate alkene.
CH2CH2CH3 + CH=CHCH3 COOH

CHCH2CH3
+
[O] -H [O]
The more extensive oxidation required in these reactions often results in lower yields
so that they are not as useful for laboratory preparation as they are for structural
identification. When there is no benzylic hydrogen, the side chain resists oxidation.
For example, vigorous conditions are required for the oxidation of t-butylbenzene,
and the product is trimethylacetic acid, the product of oxidation of the benzene ring.
C(CH3)3
KMnO4
(CH3)3CCOOH
trimethylacetic acid
Oxidation of the side-chain methyl groups is an important industrial route to aromatic

carboxylic acids. The most important oxidizing agent for such reactions is air.
CH3 COOH
O2
Co(OAc)3
Mn(OAc)2 + H2O
An important industrial reaction of this general type is the oxidation of p-xylene to the
dicarboxylic acid.
CH3 COOH
O2
Co(OAc)3
Mn(OAc)2 + 2H2O
CH3 COOH
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you have learnt that the C-H bond transformation is a capable and
sustainable requirement of organic transformations. It also has some fundamental
25
features in organic molecules for a convenient and proficient benzylic C-H Oxidation
of alkyl and cycloalkyl arenes.
5.0 Summary
Benzene rings do not react with strong oxidants. However, the benzene ring
can activate the benzylic position of alkylbenzene toward oxidation with
strong oxidants such as KMnO4 and Na2Cr2O7 to give benzoic acids.

1. Show with the aid of equation the oxidation of p-xylene to the
dicarboxylic acid.
2. What product is formed when t-butylbenzene is oxidized under
vigorous conditions? Give reasons for the observed product.
3. Give the structure of benzylic cation.

York 2006.
6BA, 1971.
26
MODULE 2 Reduction Reactions
Unit 1Catalytic hydrogenation

Unit 2 Reduction of functional groups
Unit 3 Acetylenes
UNIT 1 Catalytic hydrogenation

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Types of Reduction Reaction
3.2.1 Catalytic hydrogenation
3.2.2 Reduction by Hydride-Transfer Reagents
3.2.3 Reduction by dissolving metals
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The reverse of each oxidation reaction in the previous sections is a reduction reaction. The
characteristics of reduction reactions are opposite to those of oxidation reactions. As a result,
organic molecules lose oxygen and/or gain hydrogen in reduction reactions.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, students should be able to

i. Define reduction reaction
ii. Recognize reduction in organic reactions
iii. Explain types of reduction reactions.
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Definitions
Reduction is any chemical reaction involving gaining of electrons. It can still be

defined in the sense of addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated group such as carbon-
carbon double bond, a carbonyl group or an aromatic nucleus, or addition of hydrogen
with concomitant fission of a bond between two atoms, as in the reduction of a
disulphide to a thiol or of an alkyl halide to a hydrocarbon.
Reductions are generally effected either chemically or by catalytic hydrogenation,

which is by the addition of molecular hydrogen to compounds under the influence of
catalyst. Each method has its advantages. In many reductions either method may be
used equally well. Complete reduction of an unsaturated compound can generally be
achieved without undue difficulty, but the aim is often selective reduction of one
group in a molecule in the presence of other unsaturated groups. Both catalytic and
27
chemical methods of reduction offer considerable scope in this direction, and the
method of choice in a particular case will often depend on the selectivity required and
on the stereochemistry of the desired product.
3.2 Types of Reduction Reactions
3.2.1 Catalytic hydrogenation
Of many methods available for reduction of organic compounds catalytic hydrogenation is

one of the convenient. Reaction is easily effected simply by stirring or shaking the substrate
with the catalyst in a suitable solvent, or without a solvent if the substance being reduced is a
liquid, in an atmosphere of hydrogen in an apparatus which is arranged so that the uptake of
hydrogen can be measured. At the end of the reaction the catalyst is filtered off and the
product is recovered from the filtrate, often in a high state of purity. The method is easily
adapted for work on a micro scale, or on a large, even industrial, scale. In many cases
reaction proceeds smoothly at or near room temperature and at atmospheric or slightly
elevated pressure. In other cases high temperature (100-200oC) and pressure (100-300
atmosphere) are necessary, requiring special high pressure equipment.
Catalytic hydrogenation may result simply in the addition of hydrogen to one or more
unsaturated groups in the molecule or it may be accompanied by fission of a bond between
atoms. The latter process is known as hydrogenolysis.
Most of the common unsaturated groups in organic chemistry, such as
C C C C , C O, COOR , C N, NO2 ,
,
and aromatic and heterocyclic nuclei can be reduced catalytically under appropriate
conditions, although they are not all reduced with equal ease.
Many different catalysts have been used for catalytic hydrogenations; they are mainly
finely divided metals, metallic oxides or sulphides. The most commonly used in the
laboratory are the platinum metals (platinum, palladium and to a lesser extent rhodium and
ruthenium), nickel and copper chromate. The catalysts are not specific and with the exception
of copper chromite may be used for a variety of different reductions.
For hydrogenation at high pressure the most common catalysts are Raney nickel and copper
chromite. Raney nickel is a porous, finely divided nickel obtained by treating a powdered
nickel-aluminium alloy with sodium hydroxide. It is generally used at high temperatures and
pressures, but with the more active catalysts many reactions can be effected at atmospheric
pressure and normal temperature. Nearly all unsaturated groups can be reduced with Raney
nickel but it is most frequently used for reduction of aromatic rings and hydrogenolysis of
sulphur compounds.
Many hydrogenations proceed satisfactorily under a wide range of conditions, but

where a selective reduction is wanted, conditions may be more critical. The choice for
28
catalyst for hydrogenation is governed by the activity and selectivity required. Selectivity is a
property of the metal, but it also depends to some extent on the activity of the catalyst and on
the reaction conditions. In general, the more active the catalyst the less discriminating it is in
its action, and for greatest selectivity reactions should be run with the least active catalyst and
under the mildest possible conditions consistent with a reasonable rate of reaction.
3.2.2 Reduction by Hydride-Transfer Reagents
A number of metal hydrides have been employed as reducing agents in organic

chemistry, but the most commonly used are lithium aluminium hydride and sodium
borohydride, both of which are commercially available. Another useful reagent is borane.
The anions of the two complex hydrides can be regarded as derived from lithium or
sodium hydride and either aluminium hydride or borane.
Li+AlH4-
LiH + AlH3
NaH + BH3 Na+BH4-
The anions are nucleophilic reagents and as such they normally attack polarised
multiple bonds such as C=O or C≡N by transfer of hydride ion to the more positive atom.
They do not usually reduce isolated carbon-carbon double or triple bonds.
With both reagents all four hydrogen atoms may be used for reduction being
transferred in a stepwise manner as illustrated below for the reduction of a ketone with
lithium aluminium hydride.
H CH3
H3C
H Al- H C O H C O Al-H3 CH3COCH3 H2Al-[-OCH(CH3)2]2
H H3C CH3
CH3COCH3
CH3
H3O+ CH3COCH3
4H C OH Al-[OCH(CH3)2]4 HAl-[OCH(CH3)2]3
CH3
There is evidence that in borohydride reductions a more complex path may be

followed. For reduction with lithium aluminium hydride (but not with sodium borohydride)
each successive transfer of hydride ion takes place more slowly than the one before, and this
has been exploited for the preparation of modified reagents which are less reactive and more
29
selective than lithium aluminium hydride itself by replacement of two or three of the
hydrogen atoms of the anion by alkoxy groups.
Lithium aluminium hydride is a more powerful reducing agent than sodium

boriohydride and reduces most of the commonly encountered organic functional groups. It
reacts readily with water and other compounds which contain active hydrogen atoms and
must be used under anhydrous conditions in a non-hydroxylic solvent; ether and
tetrahydrofuran are commonly employed. Sodium borohydride reacts slowly with water and
most alcohols at room temperature and reductions with this reagent are often effected in
ethanol solution. Being less reactive than lithium aluminium hydride, it is more
discriminating in its action. At room temperature in ethanol it readily reduces aldehydes and
ketones but it does not generally attack esters or amides and it is normally possible to reduce
aldehydes and ketones selectively with sodium borohydride in the presence of a variety of
other functional groups. Some typical examples are shown below:
O
OH H
H HO
NaBH4 +
C2H5OH
H C OC2H5 H C OC2H5
C
O OC2H5 O O
NaBH4,C2H5OH
O2N CHO O2N CH2OH
Lithium borohydride is also sometimes used. It is a more powerful reducing agent

than sodium borohydride and selective in its action but it has the advantage that it is soluble
in ether and tetrahdrofuran. An exception to the general rule that carbon-carbon double bonds
are not attacked by hydride reducing agents is found in the reduction of β-aryl-αβ-unsaturated
carbonyl compounds with lithium aluminium hydride, where the carbon-carbon double bond
is often reduced as well as the carbonyl group. Even in these cases, however, selective
reduction of the carbonyl group can generally be achieved by working at low temperatures or
by using sodium borohydride or aluminium hydride as reducing agent.
he r C6H5CH2CH2CH2OH
s L i AlH 4, et
exces o
35 C
C6H5CH=CHCHO NaBH
or
ethe 4 LiAlH4
r,-10 o
C C6H5CH=CHCH2OH
30
Lithium aluminium hydride and sodium borohydride have probably found their most
widespread use in the reduction of carbonyl compounds. Aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic
acids, esters and lactones can all be reduced smoothly to the corresponding alcohols under
mild conditions. Reaction with lithium aluminium hydride is the method of choice for the
reduction of carboxylic acids to primary alcohols. Substituted amides are converted into
amines or aldehydes, depending on the experimental conditions. To effect selective reduction
of the ester, the keto group of ethylacetoacetate for example, must be protected as its acetal,
and the ester reduced with lithium aluminium hydride. Mild acid hydrolysis then regenerates
the ketone to give the β-keto-alcohol.
OH
H+ O O (i) LiAlH4
OH,
CH3COCH2CO2C2H5 CH3CCH2CO2C2H5 CH3COCH2CH2OH
(ii) H3O+
Note that on reduction of ethyl acetoacetate with lithium aluminium hydride both the
ester and ketone functional groups are reduced to afford 1,3-butandiol, however, only the
keto group is reduced with the milder sodium borohydride to give ethyl-3-hydroxybutanoate.
LiAlH4
ether
CH3CHOHCH2CH2OH
CH3COCH2CO2C2H5
NaBH4
C2H5OH
CH3CHOHCH2CO2C2H5
3.2.3 Reduction by dissolving metals
Chemical methods of reduction are of two main types: those which take place by
addition of electrons to the unsaturated compound followed or accompanied by transfer of
protons; and those which take place by addition of hydride ion followed in a separate step by
protonation.
Reductions which follow the first path are generally effected by a metal, the source of
the electrons, and a proton donor which may be water, an alcohol or an acid. They can result
either in the addition of hydrogen atoms to a multiple bond or in fission of a single bond
between atoms, usually, in practice, a single bond between carbon and a heteroatom. In these
reactions an electron is transferred from the metal surface (or from the metal in solution) to
the organic molecule being reduced, giving, in the case of addition to a multiple bond, an
anion radical, which in many cases is immediately protonated. The resulting radical
subsequently takes up another electron from the metal to form an anion which may be
protonated immediately or remain as the anion until work-up. In the absence of a proton
source dimerization or polymerization of the anion-radical may take place. In some cases a
second electron may be added to the anion-radical to form a di-anion, or two anions in the
case of fission reactions.
31
The metals commonly employed in these reductions include the alkali metals, calcium, zinc,
magnesium, tin and iron. The alkali metals are often used in solution in liquid ammonia or as
suspensions in inert solvents such as ether or toluene, frequently with addition of an alcohol
or water to act as a proton source. Many reductions are also effected by direct addition of
sodium or, particularly, zinc, tin, or iron, to a solution of the compound being reduced in a
hydroxylic solvent such as ethanol, acetic acid or an aqueous mineral acid.
4.0 Conclusion
The unit described different methods of achieving reduction in organic chemistry. These
include catalytic hydrogenation, reduction by hydride-transfer reagents and reduction by
dissolving metals.
5.0 Summary
In reference to organic molecules, reduction is a process by which a carbon atom gains bonds
to less electronegative elements, most commonly hydrogen. It is obvious from this unit that
reductive processes are important in organic synthesis.
(1) Give five examples of metals that can be used in organic reduction reactions
(2) Show the product obtained when CH3COCH2COOC2H5 is reacted separately
with (i) NaBH4 and (ii) LiAlH4.
(3) Mention two catalysts used commonly in hydrogenation of unsaturated
organic compounds

(1) Daniel R. Bloch. Organic Chemistry Demystified. McGraw-Hill, New York
2006.
(2) Richard S. Monson. Advanced Organic Synthesis Methods and Techniques.
United Kingdom Edition, published by ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.
(LONDON) LTD. Berkeley Square House, London WlX 6BA, 1971.
32
Unit 2 Reduction of functional groups
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Reduction of Functional groups
3.1.1 Reduction of Alkenes
3.1.2 Reduction of Alkynes
3.1.3 Reduction of Aromatic compounds
3.1.4 Reduction of Aldehydes and ketone
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The reverse of each oxidation reaction in the previous sections is a reduction reaction. The
characteristics of reduction reactions are opposite to those of oxidation reactions. As a result,
organic molecules lose oxygen and/or gain hydrogen in reduction reactions.
2.0 Objectives

i Describe conversion of functional groups by reduction
ii. Give appropriate reagents for specific functional group transformation
iii Mention some named reduction reactions
iv Explain the mechanism of these named reactions
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Reduction of Functional groups
3.1.1 Reduction of Alkenes
Hydrogenation of carbon-carbon double bonds takes place easily and in most cases
can be effected under mild conditions. Only a few highly hindered alkenes are
resistant to hydrogenation and even these can generally be reduced under more
vigorous conditions. Platinum and palladium are the most frequently used catalysts.
Both are very active and the preference is determined by the nature of other functional
groups in the molecule and by the degree of selectivity required; platinum usually
brings about a more exhaustive reduction Raney nickel may also be in some cases.
Thus cinnamyl alcohol is reduced to the dihydro compound with Raney nickel in
ethanol at 20oC, and 1,2-dimethyl-cyclohexane with hydrogen and platinum oxide in
acetic acid is converted mainly into cis-1,2-dimethylcyclohexane.
33
CH3 CH3 CH3
H2, PtO2 +
CH3CO2H
CH3 CH3 CH3

(82%) (18%)
Rhodium and ruthenium catalysts have not been much used in hydrogenation
of alkenes, but they sometimes show useful selective properties. Rhodium is
particularly useful for hydrogenation of alkenes when concomitant hydrogenolysis of
an oxygen function is to be avoided. Thus, the plant toxin, toxol, on hydrogenation
over rhodium-alumina in ethanol was smoothly converted into the dihydro compound;
CH3 CH3
H H
OH OH
O O
H2, 5% Rh-Al2O3
H C2H5OH H
O C CH3 O CHCH3
CH2 CH3
With platinum and palladium catalysts, on the other hand, extensive

hydrogenolysis took place and a mixture of products was formed.
The ease of reduction of an alkene decreases with the degree of substitution of

the double bond, and this sometimes allows selective reduction of one double bond in
a molecule which contains several. Selective reduction of carbon-carbon double
bonds in compounds containing other unsaturated groups can usually be
accomplished, except in the presence of triple bonds, aromatic nitro groups and acyl
halides
The detailed reaction mechanism is complex and involves various types of

metal-carbon bonds. Since the two hydrogens are added to the double bond from the
surface of the metal, they are normally both added to the same face of the double
bond. This type of addition is referred to as syn, just as the addition of two “pieces” of
a reagent to opposite faces of a double bond is called anti, addition. In the case of
catalytic hydrogenation the alkene molecule is adsorbed to the catalyst surface with
one face of the double bond coordinated to the surface; the two hydrogens are both
added to this face.
34
H3C COOH
HOOC H
C HOOC COOH
H2 CH3
CH3 H3C
Pd
H3C
C C C C
C COOH
H
H3C COOH H
H
3.3.2 Reduction of Alkynes
Catalytic hydrogenation of alkynes takes place in a stepwise manner, and like alkene
and alkane can be isolated. Complete reduction of the alkynes to the saturated
compound is easily accomplished over platinum, palladium, or Raney nickel. A
complication which sometimes arises, particularly with platinum catalysts, is the
hydrogenolysis of propargylic (saturated C-atom adjacent to a triple bond) hydroxyl
groups.
H2,Pt
CH2C C CH2CH2CH2
OH HO OH HO
More useful from a synthetic point of view is the partial hydrogenation of

alkynes to Z-alkenes. This reaction can be effected in high yield with a palladium-
calcium carbonate catalyst which has been partially deactivated by addition of lead
acetate (Lindlar’s catalyst) or quinoline. It is aided by the fact that the more
electrophilic acetylenic compounds are adsorbed on the electron-rich catalyst surface
more strongly than the corresponding alkenes. An important feature of these
reductions is their high stereo selectivity. In most cases the product consists very
largely of the thermodynamically less stable Z-alkene, and partial catalytic
hydrogenation of alkynes provides one of the most convenient routes to Z-1,2-
disubstituted alkenes. Thus stearolic acid on reduction over Lindlar’s catalyst in ethyl
acetate solution affords a product containing 95% of oleic acid.
H3C(H2C)7 (CH2)7COOH
H2, Lindlar catalyst
CH3(CH2)7C C(CH2)7COOH C C
stearolic acid H H
oleic acid
Partial reduction of alkynes with Lindlar’s catalyst has been invaluable in the
synthesis of carotenoids and many other natural products with Z-distributed double
bonds.
35
3.3.3 Reduction of Aromatic Compounds
Reduction of aromatic rings by catalytic hydrogenation is more difficult than those of

most other functional groups, and selective reduction is not easy. The commonest
catalysts are platinum and rhodium, which can be used at ordinary temperatures, and
Raney nickel or ruthenium which require high temperatures and pressures.
Benzene itself can be reduced to cyclohexane with platinum oxide in acetic

acid solution. Derivatives of benzene such as benzoic acid, phenol or aniline are
reduced more easily. For large scale work the most convenient method is
hydrogenation over Raney nickel at 150-200oC and 100-200atm. hydrogenation of
phenols, followed by oxidation of the resulting cyclohexanol is a convenient method
for the large-scale preparation of substituted cyclohexanones.
OH O
CH3 CH3
(i) H2, Raney Nickel

(ii) chromic acid
CH3 CH3
Reduction of benzene derivatives carrying oxygen or nitrogen functions in

benzylic positions is complicated by the easy hydrogenolysis of such groups,
particularly over palladium catalysts. Preferential reduction of the benzene ring in
these compounds is best achieved with ruthenium, or preferably with rhodium,
catalysts which can be used under mild conditions. Thus mandelic acid is readily
converted into hexahydromandelic acid over rhodium-alumina in methanol solution,
whereas, with palladium, hydrogenolysis to phenylacetic acid is the main reaction.
CHOHCOOH
H2, Rh-Al2O3
CHOHCOOH
CH2COOH
H2, Pd-C
With polycyclic aromatic compounds it is often possible, by varying the conditions, to

obtain either partially or completely reduced products. Thus naphthalene can be
converted into tetrahydro or decahydro compound over Raney nickel depending on
the temperature. With anthracene and phenanthrene the 9,10-dihydro compounds are
obtained by hydrogenation over copper chromite, although in general, aromatic rings
are not reduced with this catalyst. To obtain more fully hydrogenated compounds
more active catalysts must be used.
36
3.3.4 Reduction of Aldehydes and ketones
Reduction of ketones or aldehydes transforms their C=O groups to alcohol groups

(ROH), or to CH2 groups.
3.3.4.1 Converversion of C=O group to OH
Aldehydes and ketones are easily reduced to the corresponding primary and
secondary alcohols, respectively.
O H
R C [H]
R C OH
H
H
R1
[H] OH
C O
R1 C
H
R
R
Many different reducing agents may be used. For laboratory applications the complex
metal hydrides are particularly effective. Lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) is a
powerful reducing agent that has been used for this purpose.
Reactions with LiAlH4 are normally carried out by adding an ether solution of
the aldehyde or ketone to an ether solution of LiAlH4. Reduction is rapid even at -
78oC (dry ice temperature). At the end of the reaction the alcohol is present as a
mixture of lithium and aluminium salts and must be liberated by hydrolysis.
H
ether
O + LiAlH4 OH
30oC, 1hr
The reagent also reduces many other oxygen- and nitrogen- containing
functional groups. The chief disadvantage of the reagent is its cost, which renders it
useful only for fairly small-scale laboratory applications, and the hazards involved in
handling it.
Sodium borohydride, NaBH4, offers certain advantages. This hydride is much

less reactive than LiAlH4 and is consequently more selective. Of the functional groups
that are reduced by LiAlH4, only aldehydes and ketones are reduced at a reasonable
rate by NaBH4. The reagent is moderately stable in aqueous and in alcoholic solution,
especially at basic pH. The example below illustrates the selectivity that may be
achieved with the reagent.
37
COOCH3
COOCH3
NaBH4
CH3OH
O OH
H
Br
Br
The carbonyl group is reduced rapidly and quantitatively by diborane in ether or THF.
The initial product is the ester of boric acid and an alcohol, a trialkyl borate. This
material is rapidly hydrolysed upon treatment with water.
H2 O
(CH3)2CHCHO + B2H6 [(CH3)2CHCH2O]3B (CH3)2CHCH2OH
Aldehydes and ketones may also be reduced to alcohols by hydrogen gas in

the presence of a metal catalyst (catalytic hydrogenation). The chief advantages of
this method are that it is relatively simple to accomplish and usually affords
quantitative yield of product because no complicated work-up procedure is required.
However, it suffers from the disadvantages that many of the catalysts used (Pd, Pt,
Ru, Rh) are relatively expensive and that other functional groups (C=C, -C≡C-, NO2, -
C≡N) also react.
OH
OH CH3
CH3
H2-Pt C
C
OH
C2H5OH
trace NaOH H
O
O
H
C
CH3 C OH
H2-Ni
CH3
3.3.4.2 Converversion of C=O group to CH2
Complete reduction to the alkane (CH2) is not possible using either metal-hydride reduction
or catalytic hydrogenation of aldehydes and ketones. These processes will stop at the alcohol
oxidation state. We can convert the C=O group of ketones and aldehydes into a CH2 group
by the Clemmensen reduction or the Wolff-Kishner reaction.
Clemmensen Reduction: We carry out this reaction by treating an aldehyde or ketone with
zinc amalgam (Zn treated with mercury metal (Hg) in aqueous HCl). Because this reaction
uses aqueous HCl, it is not useful for compounds that are sensitive to acid. (In those cases we
can use the reaction described in the next section.) A plausible reaction mechanism for the
reduction is as shown below.
38
O H
Zn(Hg), HCl H
[Clemmenssen reduction]
R C H 2O R C
R' R'
Mechanism:
O
O H O H
H 2e O H
R C R C R C
ketone activated R' R' from Zn R C
R' by protonation R'
H
H
R C OH2
R' H R C 2e -H2O O H
R' R C R C H
H from Zn R' R' R C
R'
H
H H
H
Mechanism of Clemmensen reduction of carbonyls
Wolff-Kishner Reaction: The mechanism of Wolff-Kishner reaction involves nucleophilic

addition of hydrazine to the C=O group to form the intermediate hydrazone. This
intermediate reacts further with H2O in the reaction mixture to form N2 and the final organic
product. Because the reaction medium is basic, we can use the Wolff-Kishner reaction with
compounds sensitive to the acidic conditions of the Clemmensen reduction.
O H
H
NH2-NH2 + N2 + H2 O [Wolff-Kishner reduction]
R C KOH, heat R C
R' R'
39
Mechanism:
O
NH2-NH2 N-NH2
R C KOH, heat H2O (Hydrazone is not isolated;
R C +
R' it reacts further)
R'
Hydrazone
H
N N OH N N H
H N N H H2O N N H
R C R C
R C from initial reaction
R' R' R' protonates carbanion R C
R'
H
base
abstracts HO
proton
HO + R C H2O -N2 N N
R' water
R C
H protonates
R' loss of R C
carbanion H nitrogen R'
H
Mechanism of Wolff-Kishner reduction of carbonyls
One drawback of the Wolff-Kishner reaction is that it involves the use of strong base (KOH)
at elevated temperatures, conditions which may affect other base sensitive functional groups
within the molecule.
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you have learnt that most of the reduction techniques, despite their differences in
mechanism and reagents, accomplish the same or similar functional group changes. The unit
described types of reduction, with a discussion of applicable functional group transformations
and correlates each type of reduction with its relative utility in organic synthesis.
5.0 Summary
In reference to organic molecules, reduction is a process by which a carbon atom gains bonds
to less electronegative elements, most commonly hydrogen. It is obvious from this unit that
reductive processes are important in organic synthesis.
Predict the product(s) in each of the following reactions:
40
H2, Lindlar catalyst
(i) CH3(CH2)7C C(CH2)7COOH
stearolic acid
(ii) CHOHCOOH
H2, Rh-Al2O3
(iii) CH3
H
OH
O
H2, 5% Rh-Al2O3
H C2H5OH
O C CH3
CH2
(iv) NH2-NH2
KOH, heat
(v) C6H5CH=CHCHO NaBH4 or LiAlH4

ether,-10oC
(vi) NaBH4
C2H5OH
C
O OC2H5
(vii) Zn(Hg)
HCl, H2O
(1) Carey, F. A.; Sundberg, R. J. In Advanced Organic Chemistry Part B, Springer:

New York, 2007.
(2) Larock, R.C. Comprehensive Organic Transformations, 2nd ed, Wiley-VCH, New
York, 1999.
(3) Hudlicky ́, M. Reductions in Organic Chemistry, Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester
1984.
41
Unit 3 Acetylenes
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature of –C≡C−H Bond
3.2 Acidity of Alkynes
3.3 Preparation of Alkynes
3.4 Alkylation Reaction (Synthetic application)
3.5 Synthesis of acetylenes from acetylides
3.6 Coupling Reactions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Alkynes are compounds that contain carbon-carbon triple bonds. The general
formula for an acyclic, mono-alkyne is CnH2n−2. There are two main classifications of
alkynes: terminal (RC≡CH) and internal (RC≡CR). The alkyne group is very reactive
and few molecules with a triple bond are found in nature. Acetylene (HC≡CH) is the
most widely used alkyne and is probably best known for its use in oxyacetylene
torches.
2.0 Objectives
i. Describe the nature of the bond in acetylenes
ii. Discuss the acidity of alkynes
iii. Explain how acetylenes can be prepared
iv. Give details of various methods of synthesis of alkynes
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Nature of –C≡C−H Bond
The simplest member of the alkyne family is acetylene, C2H2. It is a linear

molecule, all four atoms lying along a single line. Both carbon-hydrogen and carbon-
carbon bonds are cylindrically symmetrical about a line joining the nuclei, and are
therefore σ-bonds. The carbon-carbon “triple bond” is made up of one strong σ-bond
and two weaker π-bonds.
The triple bond (−C≡C−) is drawn with three identical lines suggesting all three bonds
are identical. This is not the case however; as one bond is a σ bond and the other two
bonds are π bonds. Each carbon atom in a triple bond is sp hybridized according to
hybrid atomic orbital theory. The alkyne carbon atom has two sp orbitals that are 180o
apart, which minimizes repulsion between electrons in these two orbitals. Each carbon
atom also has two unhybridized p orbitals. The p orbitals on one carbon atom (px and
pz) are in a common plane and perpendicular to each other. Two sp orbitals, one from
42
each carbon atom, overlap to form a σ bond. The two p orbitals on one carbon atom
overlap with the two p orbitals on the adjacent carbon atom to form two π bonds. The
overlapping p orbitals must be in the same plane for maximum overlap and bond
strength.
SAQ I-5: Why isn’t an alkyne bond three times as strong as a single bond?
3.2 Acidity of Alkynes
Very strong bases (such as sodium amide) deprotonate terminal acetylenes to

form carbanions called acetylide ions (or alkynide ions). Hydroxide ion and alkoxide
ions are not strong enough bases to deprotonate alkynes. Internal alkynes do not have
acetylenic protons, so they do not react.
CH3CH2 C C H + NaNH2 CH3CH2 C C:- Na+ + NH3

1-butyne, a terminal alkyne sodium amide sodium butynide
The hydrogens in terminal alkynes are relatively acidic; acetylene itself has a
pKa of about 25. It is a far weaker acid than water (pKa 15.7) or the alcohols pKa (16-
19), but is much more acidic than ammonia (pKa 35). Amide ion in liquid ammonia
converts acetylene and other terminal alkynes into the corresponding carbons.
Terminal alkynes act as acids in the presence of a strong base. The amide anion,
−
NH2, the conjugate base of ammonia (pKa = 35), is a strong enough base to
completely remove a proton from a terminal alkyne. The following equation shows
this reaction and the corresponding pKa values. This is an acid-base reaction where
RC≡CH is the acid on the left side of the equilibrium expression and ammonia, NH3,
is the conjugate acid on the right side of the expression. In acid-base reactions, the
rule is a survival of the weakest. Since ammonia is a weaker acid (pKa = 35) than the
alkyne (pKa = 25), the reaction is shifted strongly to the right. The larger the pKa
value, the weaker the acid. The conjugate base of this reaction is the acetylide anion,
RC≡C−.
RC CH + NH2- RC C- + NH3
acetylide pKa= 35
pKa= 25 anion
This reaction does not occur with alkenes or alkanes. Ethylene has a pKa of about 44
and methane has a pKa of about 50.
Electrons in s-orbitals are held, on the average, closer to the nucleus than they
are in p-orbitals. This increased electrostatic attraction means that s-electrons have
lower energy and greater stability than p-electrons. In general, the greater the amount
of s-orbital in a hybrid orbital containing a pair of electrons, the less basic is that pair
of electrons. Lower basicity corresponds to higher acidity of the conjugate acid.
Alkynes are quantitatively deprotonated by alkyllithium compounds.
43
CH3(CH2)3C CH + n-C4H9Li CH3(CH2)3C CLi + n-C4H10
The foregoing transformation is simply an acid-base reaction, with 1-hexyne being the
acid and n-buthyllithium being the base. Terminal alkynes give insoluble salts with a
number of heavy metal cations such as Ag+ and Cu+. The formation of the salts serves
as a useful chemical diagnosis for the RC≡CH function, but many of these salts are
explosively sensitive when dry and should always be kept moist.
3.3 Preparation of Alkynes
Acetylene or ethyne is the most important member of this series, and it may be
prepared by any of the following methods.
1) By the action of water on calcium carbide
CaC2 + 2H2O HC CH + Ca(OH)2
This method of preparation is used industrially.
2) By the action of ethanolic potassium hydroxide on ethylene dibromide.

In principle, a triple bond can be introduced into a molecule by elimination of two
molecules of HX from either a germinal (twin), or a vicinal (near) dihalide.
ethanol
BrCH2CH2Br + KOH H2C=CHBr + KBr + H2O
ethanol HC CH + KBr + H2O
H2C=CHBr + KOH
3.4 Synthesis of Alkynes
Two different approaches are commonly used for the synthesis of alkynes. In the first,
an appropriate electrophile undergoes nucleophilic attack by an acetylide ion. The
electrophile may be an unhindered primary alkyl halide (undergoes SN2), or it may be a
carbonyl compound (undergoes addition to give an alcohol). Either reaction joins two
fragments and gives a product with a lengthened carbon skeleton. This approach is used
in many laboratory syntheses of alkynes.
The second approach forms the triple bond by a double dehydrohalogenation of a
dihalide. This reaction does not enlarge the carbon skeleton. Isomerization of the triple
bond may occur (see Section 9-8), so dehydrohalogenation is useful only when the
desired product has the triple bond in a thermodynamically favoured position.
3.4.1 Alkylation Reaction (Synthetic application)
Organic chemistry includes the study of synthesizing molecules that are not readily
available from natural sources. The acetylide anion is a useful synthetic reagent.
These anions are strong bases and good nucleophiles. They have a nonbonding
electron pair they are willing to share with an electrophile. Acetylide anions react
readily with methyl compounds (CH3X) and primary alkyl compounds (RCH2X)
44
where X is a good leaving group like a halide or tosylate anion. An example of this
reaction is shown in the equation following. The C−X bond is polar when the X
atom/group is more electronegative than C. Bond polarity makes C partially positive
and electrophilic. The reaction shown below is called a nucleophilic substitution
reaction. The X group is replaced (substituted) with the acetylide group.
RC C- + CH3 X RC CCH3 + X-
Alkylation via an acetylide anion. (X- = Cl-, Br-, I- or tosylate)
(1) NaNH2 C C CH2CH3

C C H
(2) CH3CH2Br
Typical reaction conditions for formation of alkynes involve the use of molten
KOH, solid KOH moistened with alcohol, or concentrated alcoholic KOH
solutions at temperatures of 100-200oC. In practice, these conditions are so drastic
that the method is only useful for the preparation of certain kind of alkynes. Under
these highly basic conditions the triple bond can migrate along a chain.
alcohol KOH
CH3CH2C CH CH3CH2C CCH3
Disubstituted alkynes are thermodynamically more stable than terminal

alkynes (because of the preference for s-character in C-C bonds). Consequently
these conditions may be used only where such rearrangement is not possible.
Sodium amide is an effective strong base that is used in generating an
acetylide anion for synthesis of acetylenes. A nucleophilic substitution reaction is
a convenient way of making larger molecules containing an alkyne function. The
equation below shows a reaction scheme starting with acetylene.
1. NH2- 1. NH2-
HC CH RC CH RC CR'
2. RX 2. R'X
In the first step, a proton is removed from acetylene by the amide anion (−NH2). The
resulting acetylide anion reacts with a primary alkyl halide to give a terminal alkyne.
In the next step, amide anion is again used to remove the remaining acetylenic proton.
The resulting acetylide anion reacts with another alkyl halide molecule to give a
disubstituted internal alkyne. Only methyl and primary alkyl halide reagents can be
used in these reactions. Secondary and tertiary alkyl halide compounds tend to give
elimination reactions (alkene formation), not substitution reactions.
3.4.2 Addition of Acetylide Ions to Carbonyl Groups

Like other carbanions, acetylide ions are strong nucleophiles and strong bases. In
addition to displacing halide ions in SN2 reactions, they can add to carbonyl ( C = O )
45
groups. Because oxygen is more electronegative than carbon, the C = O double bond
is polarized. The oxygen atom has a partial negative charge balanced by an equal
amount of positive charge on the carbon atom.
An acetylide ion can serve as the nucIeophile in the nucleophilic addition to a

carbonyl group. The acetylide ion adds to the carbonyl group to form an alkoxide ion;
addition of dilute acid (in a separate step) protonates the alkoxide to give the alcohol.
R R
R
H3O+
R'C C:- + C O R'C C C O- R'C C C OH
acetylide R
anion
R R
3.4.3 Synthesis of Alkynes by Elimination Reactions
In some cases, we can generate a carbon-carbon triple bond by eliminating two
moleculesof HX from a dihalide. Dehydrohalogenation of a geminal or vicinal
dihalide gives a vinyl halide. Under strongly basic conditions, a second
dehydrohalogenation may occur to form an alkyne.
Conditions for Elimination: We have already seen many examples of

dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides. The second step is new, however, because it
involves dehydrohalogenation of a vinyl halide to give an alkyne. This second
dehydrohalogenation occurs only under extremely basic conditions for example, fused
(molten) KOH or alcoholic KOH in a sealed tube, usually heated to temperatures
close to 200°C. Sodium amide is also used for the double dehydrohalogenation. Since
the amide ion (-:NH2) is a much stronger base than hydroxide, the amide reaction
takes place at a lower temperature. The following reactions are carefully chosen to
form products that do not rearrange (see below).
Br Br
KOH (fused)
H3CH2C C C CH3
H3CH2C C C CH3
H H 200oC
2,3-dibromopentane 2-pentyne
(1) NaNH2, 150oC

CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCl2 H3CH2CH2CC CH
1,1-dichloropetane (2) H2O 1-pentyne
3.5 Coupling Reactions.
Carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds are found in many compounds that

exhibit important biological, pharmaceutical and materials properties. Due to the
importance of these bonds, there has been a need to develop mild and general
methods for their synthesis. Classically, the synthesis of these bonds involved
nucleophilic aromatic substitution reactions, which required the use of electron-
deficient aryl halides or N2 as a leaving group. The discovery of transition-metal
mediated reactions for the synthesis of carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds
was an important discovery for synthetic chemists. Cuprous acetylides undergo
oxidative coupling to aryl halides in the Castro-Stephens Coupling.
46
I
Pyridine C C
C C Cu +
120oC
Castro-Stevens coupling reaction
The Glaser coupling involves the oxidative coupling of a terminal acetylene to

produce a diacetylene.
CuCl Air
H Cu
NH4OH
3.0 Conclusion
Hydrocarbons that contain a carbon–carbon triple bond are called alkynes. Noncyclic
alkynes have the molecular formula CnH2n-2. Acetylene (HC≡CH) is the simplest
alkyne. We call compounds that have their triple bond at the end of a carbon-carbon
chain (RC≡CH) mono-substituted or terminal alkynes. Di-substituted alkynes
(RC≡CR) are said to have internal triple bonds. Alkynes have four electrons in their π
bonding system, two in each π bond. They are willing to share these electrons with
electrophiles (a species that wants electrons). Thus alkynes are nucleophilic. They
seek positively charged or electron-deficient species.
5.0 Summary
You have seen in this chapter that a carbon–carbon triple bond is a functional group,
reacting with many of the same reagents that react with the double bonds of alkenes.
The most distinctive aspect of the chemistry of acetylene and terminal alkynes is their
acidity. As a class, compounds of the type RC≡CH are the most acidic of all simple
hydrocarbons. The structural reasons for this property, as well as the ways in which it
is used to advantage in chemical synthesis, are important elements discussed in this
chapter.
1. Show how to synthesize 3-decyne from acetylene and any necessary alkyl
halides.
2. Propose a mechanism to show how 2-pentyne reacts with sodium amide to
give 1-pentyne.
3. (Z)-9-Tricosene [(Z)-CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)12CH3] is the sex pheromone of
the female housefly. Synthetic (Z)-9-tricosene is used as bait to lure male flies
to traps that contain insecticide. Using acetylene and alcohols of your choice
as starting materials, along with any necessary inorganic reagents, show how
you could prepare (Z )-9-tricosene.
47
(1) Wade L. G. Organic Chemistry. Sixth edition, Pearson Education, Inc 2006.
(2) R.H.Petrucci, W.S.Harwood and F.G.Herring "General Chemistry", 8th edn.
(Prentice-Hall 2002).
48
MODULE 3 Some named reactions
Unit 1 Aldol and Aldol-type Reactions
Unit 2 Wittig Synthesis of C=C bond
Unit 3 Diels-Alder Reaction
Unit 1 Aldol and Aldol-type Reactions

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Mechanism of Aldol condensation
3.2 Aldol-type condensation reactions
3.2.1 Reformatsky reaction
3.2.1 Perkin reaction
3.3 Synthetic Application: Aldol Cyclization

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In an "aldol addition" reaction an enol or enolate of an aldehyde or ketone reacts with a
second aldehyde or ketone forming a new carbon-carbon bond. This makes the aldol reaction
an important reaction for organic synthesis. Originally, the aldol reaction used ethanal and
therefore the product contained both an aldehyde and an alcohol functional group; thus it
became known as the aldol reaction.
2.0 Objectives

i. Explain the mechanism of the Aldol condensation
ii. Discuss some Aldol-type reactions
iii. State the applications and limitations of each of these reactions
iv. Give the synthetic applications of this type of reaction.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Mechanism of Aldol Condensation
Methylene groups that are α to the carbonyl function are acidic. They can therefore be
abstracted by a base, usually NaOH, Na2CO3, t-amine, or n-BuLi. This generates a
nucleophilic species which attacks the carbonyl group of another carbonyl compound. The
carbonyl compounds that may be involved include the following: (a) Aldehyde + aldehyde
(b) aldehyde + ketone and (c) ketone + ketone. In the above cases the aldehyde may be the
same or different or the ketones may be the same or different. When they are different it is
called mixed aldol condensation. The product of aldol condensation is a β-hydroxycarbonyl
hence the name aldol. It is an important reaction in organic chemistry because on
dehydration of the aldol it gives an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound.
49
First, the base deprotonates a hydrogen adjacent to the carbonyl:
O O O
H
OH
C C C
C CH2
H3C H2 H3C CH2
H3C
This resonance-stabilized enolate acts as a nucleophile on the aldehyde
O O O
C C C
CH2 CH3 CH2
H3C H H3C
C
H O
CH3
The alkoxide is then protonated to regenerate the hydroxide base:
O O
C C
CH2 CH2
H3C H3C + OH
H OH
C C
H O H OH
CH3 CH3
The base then deprotononates the α-carbon again to form an enolate:

O
O
C H
CH
C
H3C OH CH
H3C
C
H OH C
H OH
CH3
CH3
The enolate then forms an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl with the loss of hydroxide.
O
O
C
CH
H3C + OH
H3C
C
H OH H CH3
CH3
If the initial carbonyl has another α-proton to deprononate, then the entire process can happen
again and result in the addition of 2 aldehydes
O
O
O
H3C OH
+
C
H CH3
H CH3 H3C
CH3
50
3.2 Aldol-type Condensation reactions
The above is the general aldol condensation reaction. There are other aldol-like reactions
which are very important in organic synthesis. They include reactions such as Reformatsky
reaction and Perkin reaction.
3.2.1 Reformatsky Reaction
The Reformatsky reaction is an organic reaction which condenses aldehydes (or ketones),
with α‐halo esters, using metallic zinc to form β‐hydroxy‐esters. This on dehydration gives
an α,β-unsaturated ester which can be hydrolysed to the corresponding carboxylic acid. If
applied to an aromatic aldehyde it leads to formation of cinnamic acid derivatives.
OZnBr
OH
CHO C
CH2CO2R
Zn/I2 C
+ BrCH2CO2R H 2O CH2CO2R
H
H
-H2O
CH=CHCOOR
Cinnamate
Mechanism of the Reformatsky Reaction
Organozinc compounds are prepared from α‐halogenesters in the same manner as Grignard
reagents. This reaction is possible due to the stability of esters against organozincs. Due to
the very low basicity of zinc enolates, there is hardly any competition from proton transfer,
and the scope of carbonyl addition partners is quite broad. In presence of ketones or
aldehydes, the organozinc compounds react as the nucleophilic partner in an addition to give
β‐hydroxy esters.
An ester‐stabilized organozinc reagent compared to organolithiums and organomagnesium

halides (Grignard reagents), the organozinc halide reagents used in the Reformatsky reaction
are relatively stable, and many are available commercially.
3.2.2 Perkin Reaction
The Perkin reaction is an organic reaction developed by William Henry Perkin that can be
used to make cinnamic acids i.e. α‐β‐unsaturated aromatic acid by the aldol condensation of
aromatic aldehydes and acid anhydrides in the presence of an alkali salt of the acid. The
51
Perkin condensation is a very useful organic reaction which provides a way to add two
carbon atoms to the side chain of an aromatic ring. The mechanism of the Perkin reaction is
complex. It involves the attack of the enolate anion of the acetic anhydride on the aromatic
aldehyde. A series of rearrangement follows, with the overall effect of forming a carbon–
carbon double bond (loss of water) and hydrolyzing the anhydride function. Usually the
trans-isomer forms preferentially because it is more stable.
OH
O O
C CH2CO2H CH=CHC
CHO H3C C
-H2O OH
CH3CO2Na
O H
+
H3 C C
Note: This reaction is only applicable to aromatic aldehydes.
3.3 Synthetic Application: Aldol Cyclization
Intramolecular aldol reactions of diketones are often useful for making five- and six-
membered rings. Aldol cyclizations of rings larger than six and smaller than five are less
common because larger and smaller rings are less favoured by their energy and entropy. The
following reactions show how a 1,4-diketone can condense and dehydrate to give a
cyclopentenone and how a 1,5-diketone gives a cyclohexenone.
R R
R
O
H O
O
H OH
R' R'
R'
OH
O
Enolate of 1,4-diketone Aldol product
A cyclopentene
52
Examples:
O
OH O
H2O
O OH +
O OH
CH3 CH3
CH3
cis-8-undecene-2,5-dione cis-jasmone (a perfume)
aldol product
O O O
CH3 OH OH + H2O
O OH
CH3
CH3 CH3
3-methylcyclohex-2-enone
2,6-heptanedione
(a 1,5-diketone) aldol product
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you have learnt the mechanism for synthesis of an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl
compounds. The unit described other reactions that utilize the mechanism of Aldol
condensation to obtain compounds like α,β-unsaturated aromatic acid and α,β-unsaturated
esters.
5.0 Summary
Condensation reactions are molecular transformations that join together two molecules to
produce a larger molecule and also a smaller molecule (usually water, hence the name
condensation). Aldol reactions join two carbonyl containing molecules together forming a
new carbon-carbon bond between the alpha carbon of one molecule and the carbon of the
carbonyl of the second molecule. This forms a beta hydroxyl carbonyl compound. If this
product undergoes a subsequent dehydration, then an aldol condensation reaction has taken
place. Condensation reactions are a convenient way to synthesize a functionalized larger
molecule from smaller starting reagents. Condensation reactions are often utilized in the
manufacture of pharmaceuticals, coatings and plastics.
53
(1) Predict the product of the aldol condensation of acetophenone:
O
C CH3
2 NaOH
Acetophenone
(2) Predict the product of the aldol reaction shown. (Hint: No water is produced).
O
NaOH
2 CH3CH2C
H
(3) Predict the major products of the following base-catalyzed aldol condensations with
dehydration. (a) benzophenone ( PhCOPh ) + propionaldehyde
(b) 2,2-dimethylpropanal + acetophenone
(1) Weissermel, K, Arpe, H.-J., Industrial Organic Chemistry, 3rd Completely
Revised Edition, VCH, New York, 1997.
(2) Wade, L. G. Organic Chemistry (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall 2005. pp. 1056–66. ISBN 0-13-236731-9.
54
Unit 2 Wittig Synthesis of C=C bond
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Preparation of Reagents (ylides)
3.2 Mechanism and Stereochemistry of the Wittig reaction
3.2.1 The Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons (HWE) Reaction
3.3 Synthetic applications
3.4 Advantages of Wittig reaction over other methods
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The Wittig reaction is the overall substitution of a C=O bond with a C=C bond. It allows one
to selectively prepare alkenes in a manner unmatched by any other methodology. The starting
materials are an alkyl halide and an aldehyde or ketone. It is a reaction between a cabonyl
compound (aldehyde or ketone only) and a species known as a phosphonium ylide. An ylide
is a species with a positive and negative charge on adjacent atoms. A phosphonium ylide
carries its positive charge on phosphorus.
The reaction of a phosphorus ylide with an aldehyde or ketone, as first described in 1953 by
Wittig and Geissler, is probably the most widely recognized method for carbonyl olefination.
This so-called Wittig reaction has a number of advantages over other olefination methods; in
particular, it occurs with total positional selectivity (that is, an alkene always directly replaces
a carbonyl group). By comparison, a number of other carbonyl olefination reactions often
occur with double-bond rearrangement. In addition, the factors that influence E- and Z-
stereoselectivity are well understood and can be readily controlled through careful selection
of the phosphorus reagent and reaction conditions. A wide variety of phosphorus reagents are
known to participate in Wittig reactions and the exact nature of these species is commonly
used to divide the Wittig reaction into three main groups, namely the ‘‘classic’’ Wittig
reaction of phosphonium ylides, the Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction of phosphonate
anions, and the Horner–Wittig reaction of phosphine oxide anions. Each of these reaction
types has its own distinct advantages and limitations, and these must be taken into account
when selecting the appropriate method for a desired synthesis.
2.0 Objectives

i. Explain methods of preparation of phosphorus ylides
ii. Discuss the mechanism and stereochemistry of Wittig reaction
iii. Describe the Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons (HWE) reaction
iv. Give some synthetic applications of the Wittig reaction
v. List some advantages of the Wittig reacion
55
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Preparation of reagents (ylides)
Ylides are prepared from alkyl halides by a two-stage process.

The first step is a nucleophilic substitution whereby an alkyl halide is allowed to react with a
phosphine (triphenylphosphine) to give a four coordinate phosphine cation.
In the second step, the phosphonium salt is suspended in a solvent such as diethyl ether or
tetrahydrofuran (THF) and treated with a strong base (like n-butyl lithium) in order to remove
a proton from the carbon bonded to phosphorus to give a neutral compound called a
phosphorous ylide. The negatively charged carbon of the ylide can act as a nucleophile and
attacks the carbon of the aldehyde or ketone.
H2C CH3
BrCH2CH2CH3 (C6H5)3P C
P H
H
Triphenylphosphine
LiCH2CH2CH2CH3
H2C CH3 H2C CH3
(C6H5)3P C (C6H5)3P C
H H
Phosphorus ylide
3.2 Mechanism and Stereochemistry of the Wittig reaction
The mechanism of the Wittig reaction has long been considered to involve two intermediate
species, a diionic betaine and an oxaphosphetane, as shown in the scheme below.
PhLi
Ph3P CH3 I Ph3P CH2 Ph3P CH2
Ph
C O
Ph
H Ph Ph3P Ph3P
Ph3P=O + O O
Ph
Ph
H Ph Ph Ph
oxaphosphetane betaine
However, there has been much debate as to which of these two species plays the most
important mechanistic role and also as to how each influences the stereochemical outcome
under different reaction conditions. For many years, it was generally accepted that the betaine
is the more important intermediate; however, recent low temperature 31P NMR studies
suggest that this may not be the case. This supposition is further supported by recent
calculations that reveal that oxaphosphetanes are of lower energy than the corresponding
56
betaines. As such, the currently accepted mechanism for the Wittig reaction is as shown in
the scheme that follows.
R"
R"
PR3
R' R'
cis-oxaphosphetane (Z)-alkene
R' R"
C O + C PR3
H H
R" R"
PR3
R' R'
trans-oxaphosphetane (E)-alkene
The phosphine is very big and there is a major steric factor governing the stereochemistry of
the addition. The remarkable thing is that for simple compounds, the reaction is Z selective.
The reaction is under kinetic control.
The first step of the reaction between the ylide and the carbonyl involves the formation of an
intermediate called a betaine. The carbonyl approaches the ylide carbon turned at a 90° angle
with respect to the Carbon-Phosphorus bond. This path is the best path in terms of sterics and
is also consistent with a detailed molecular orbital analysis of the problem. Once the betaine
is formed the oxygen atom can swing over and form a new covalent bond to the phosphorous
atom. Phosphorous likes to form five bonds and forms very strong bonds to oxygen in
particular. The result of this new bond is a four membered ring compound called a
oxaphosphetane.
When the oxaphosphatane forms the stereochemistry of the substituents turns out to be cis.
This is due to the chosen path of the carbonyl when the betaine was formed. This means that
the favoured final alkene product will be the Z isomer.
CH3
CH3
CH2
CH2
H2 C CH3
O HC HC
+ +
(C6H5)3P C
C
C CH3 H3 C C
H H CH3 C C
C H2 H2 H
H2 H
kinetic product thermodynamic product
(Z-isomer) (E-isomer)
The Z isomer is not the thermodynamic product, it is the kinetic product. The key to a good
yield of the kinetic Z isomer is to minimize anything that would equilibrate the betaine and
thus the subsequent oxaphosphetane ring. Carrying out the reaction at low temperature helps,
so does minimizing extraneous salts that would help stabilize the charged intermediates.
But what if one wanted the thermodynamic product, the E isomer? Then one would want to
intentionally isomerize the betaine to lead to the more stable product. A method for doing this
57
has been discovered by a chemist named Schlosser. It involves the addition of a mole of
strong base, usually phenyl lithium, to the betaine. The added PhLi deprotonates the betaine
and leads to an isomerization. The E-alkene is the final result. The Wittig reaction works very
well with aldehydes. It can also be used with ketones, but the stereochemistry control is not
as good.
3.2.1 The Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons (HWE) Reaction
One limitation of the Wittig reaction is that phosphorous ylides that contain stabilizing
groups next to the negatively charged carbon are not reactive enough to undergo the desired
reaction with a carbonyl.
CH3
O
O
C
(C6H5)3P C
(C6H5)3P C
H
H
Examples of ylides with stabilizing groups
The stabilizing groups can spread out the negative charge via resonance and thus reduce the
nucleophilicity of the carbon atom. The way around the problem is to use a more reactive
phosphorous compound to form the ylide. The most popular method is the Horner-
Wadsworth-Emmons (HWE) reaction, which starts with triethyl phosphate to form a
phosphonate ester.
O
Br P
O O +
Br
O
P
O
(CH3CH2O)3P
The phophonate ester products will react with a base such as NaH to give ylides reactive
enough to carry out the reaction
58
O
Br P
O O +
Br
O
P
O
(CH3CH2O)3P
NaH
O
H
+
O P O
O O
O
P
H O
O
The HWE reaction is E selective with aldehydes
Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons (HWE) modification
The reaction is slow enough that it gives the thermodynamic E isomer. But what if we wanted
the Z isomer of a alkene derived from a stabilized ylide? People have worked on that problem
as well. A chemist named Still found that if you added electron withdrawing CF3 groups to
the phosphite you would get a more reactive ylide. The more reactive ylide reacts faster and
once again the reacton is under kinetic control. The Z isomer is the result.
H H
O
Br P
CF3 O CF3 F 3C O +
Br
O
P
O CF3
CF3
(CH3CH2O)3P
K
CH3
H3C N
Si Si
CH3
H3C
CH3 CH3
KHMDS
F3C O
H
+
O P O
O O
O
F3 C P
H O
O
Z-isomer F3C
CF3
The Still-HWE reaction is Z selective with aldehydes
The Still-HWE procedure involves the use of a special base, potassium hexamethyldisilamide
(KHMDS). Ketones are difficult to react with stabilized ylides and the stereochemical
selectivity is poor.
All of this sounds wonderful and it is, but one must realize that all of this is highly variable.
None of the reactions listed here are perfect and mixtures of isomers are the norm. In most
cases one can predict the predominant product stereochemistry, but in most cases one will
have to be prepared for a surprise.
59
CHO
Br Ph3P
NaOH CHO
2 Ph3P +
Br Ph3P
1,2-benzo-1,3,7-octatriene
+ C=PPh3
CH3
H3C CH3
H3C
Br-
Ph3P CH3
KOBu
H3C 100oC, 2 h
Camphor O
H3C
CH2
HO
O NO2
Br-
NO2 N
(1) Ph3PCH3, NaNH2
N N
THF
N (2) aq. HCl CH2
O
SAQ II-1: What product results when the ylide of triphenylphosphine and methyl bromide is
reacted with acetone?
3.4 Advantages of Wittig reaction over other methods
This Wittig reaction has a number of advantages over other olefination methods:
(1) It is more convenient than its rival, the Reformatsky reaction and has been used to
synthesize hitherto unknown compounds.
(2) The position of the carbon-carbon double (C=C) bond is certain. In particular, it
occurs with total positional selectivity (that is, an alkene always directly replaces a
carbonyl group). By comparison, a number of other carbonyl olefination reactions
often occur with double-bond rearrangement.
60
(3) The stereochemistry of the products can be controlled. The factors that influence E-
and Z-stereoselectivity are well understood and can be readily controlled through
careful selection of the phosphorus reagent and reaction conditions.
(4) The yield generally is greater than in Reformatsky.
(5) It can take place in the presence of ester group.
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, you have learnt about a very effective synthetic method for preparing alkenes.
The Wittig reaction (and its variants) is a predictable and reliable method for the synthesis of
a wide range of alkenes, often with high E- or Z-stereoselectivity. Also in the unit, it has been
shown that a judicious selection of the type of phosphorus reagent, carbonyl compound, and
reaction conditions can be used to produce a desired compound with high E- or Z-selectivity.
5.0 Summary
Wittig reaction involves a reaction between a phosphorus ylide and an aldehyde or ketone.
Ylides are prepared from alkyl halides by a two-stage process. The first step is a nucleophilic
substitution. Triphenylphosphine is the nucleophile. In the second step, the phosphonium salt
is treated with a strong base in order to remove a proton from the carbon bonded to
phosphorus. Typical strong bases include organolithium reagents (RLi), and the conjugate
base of dimethyl sulfoxide as its sodium salt [NaCH2S(O)CH3].
The Wittig reaction normally gives both cis- and trans- isomers; the cis-isomer predominates
if the reaction is fast while the trans-isomer predominates if the reaction is slow. Studies have
shown, however, that use of non-polar solvents and introduction of PhLi can improve the
yield of the trans isomer while the use of polar solvent such as DMF, introduction of Li-salts
and use of reactive ylides can lead predominantly to cis-isomers.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
(1) Explain how the phosphorous ylide is formed to initiate a Wittig reaction. Illustrate
your answer with appropriate chemical structures.
(2) Discuss the two possible intermediate species involved in the mechanism of Wittig
reaction.
(3) What do you understand by the Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons (HWE) reaction?
(1) W. Carruthers, Some Modern Methods of Organic Synthesis, Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge, UK, 1971.
(2) B. J. Walker, in Organophosphorus Reagents in Organic Synthesis (Ed.:J. I. G.
Cadogan), Academic Press, London, 1979.
61
Unit 3 Diels-Alder Reaction
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Reaction mechanism
3.2 Dienes and dienophile
3.2.1 Examples of dienes
3.2.2 Examples of dienenophile
3.3 Stereoselectivity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
One of the most powerful tools for the formation of cyclic molecules is the Diels-Alder
reaction. The reaction generally involves the combination of a diene with a "dienophile".
There are surprisingly few limitations on the character of either fragment, although the
presence of electron withdrawing substituents on the dienophile enhances the reaction rate.
The number of examples of this reaction that have been studied is vast, and the procedures
given here are typical.
2.0 Objectives

i. Describe the Diels-Alder reaction
ii. Show the mechanism involved in the reaction
iii. Give examples of dienes and dienophiles
iv. Present some applications of the reaction in synthesis
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Reaction mechanism
The Diels-Alder reaction is a conjugate addition reaction of a conjugated diene to an alkene

(the dienophile) to produce a cyclohexene. The simplest example is the reaction of 1,3-
butadiene with ethene to form cyclohexene:
heat
Diene Alkene Cyclohexene
The analogous reaction of 1,3-butadiene with ethyne to form 1,4-cyclohexadiene is also

known:
62
heat
Diene Alkyne 1,4-cyclohexadiene
Since the reaction forms a cyclic product, via a cyclic transition state, it can also be described
as a "cycloaddition". The reaction is a concerted process:
Diene Alkene Cyclohexene
Due to the high degree of regio- and stereoselectivity (due to the concerted mechanism), the
Diels-Alder reaction is a very powerful reaction and is widely used in synthetic organic
chemistry.
3.2 Dienes and Dienophiles
The reaction is usually thermodynamically favourable due to the conversion of 2 π-bonds into
2 new stronger σ-bonds. The two reactions shown above require harsh reaction conditions,
but the normal Diels-Alder reaction is favoured by electron withdrawing groups on the
electrophilic dienophile and by electron donating groups on the nucleophilic diene. Some
common examples of the components are shown below:
3.2.1 Examples of Dienes
3.2.2 Examples of dienophiles
O
O O
CN CO2CH3 CO3CH3
CO2Me
O
CO2CH3
CO3CH3 O MeO2C
O
63
3.3 Stereoselectivity
The Diels-Alder reaction is stereospecific with respect to both the diene and the dienophile.
Addition is syn on both components (bonds form from same species at the same time). This is
illustrated by the examples below:
CO2CH3 CO2CH3
CO2CH3 CO2CH3
A cis-dienophile gives cis-substituents in the product as shown by the two ester groups in the
product above. On the other hand, a trans-dienophile gives trans-substituents in the product
as illustrated by the two ester groups in the product below:
CO2CH3
CO2CH3
H3CO2C CO2CH3
If the diene substituents have the same stereochemistry (in the illustration that follows they
are both E), then both diene substituents end up on the same face of the product. Consider the
two methyl groups in the reaction product that follows:
CH3
CH3
CO2CH3
CO2CH3
CO2CH3
CO2CH3
CH3
CH3
If the diene substituents have opposite stereochemistry (as in the illustration that follows one
is E and one Z), then the diene substituents end up on opposite faces of the product (look at
64
the two methyl groups in the product)
CH3
CH3 CO2CH3
CO2CH3
CH3 CO2CH3
CO2CH3
CH3
Cyclic dienes can give stereoisomeric products depending on whether the dienophile lies
under or away from the diene in the transition state. The endo product is usually the major
product (due to kinetic control).
O O
O
O O
0
O
endo
O
exo
Diene and dienophile aligned directly over each other gives the endo product
(dienophile under or in = endo)
0
O
O O endo
O
O
Diene and dienophile staggered with respect to each other gives the exo product
(dienophile exposed or out = exo)
O
O
O
O
O
O
exo
65
(i) Synthesis of steroids

One of the earliest and most important examples of the Diels–Alder reaction in
total synthesis was in syntheses of the steroids cortisone and cholesterol.
O
O O
CH3 CH3
CH3
aq.NaOH, dioxane
PhH, 100oC, 96h then aq.HCl
H3C
H3C H3C
HO HO
O
O O
CH3
O
OH
OH
CH3 H
CH3 H
O
Cortisone
(ii) Synthesis of tetracycline

Synthesis of the linear tetracyclic core of the antibiotic was achieved with a Diels–
Alder reaction. Thermally initiated, conrotatory opening of the benzocyclobutene
generated the o-quinodimethane, which reacted intermolecularly to give the
tetracycline skeleton.
66
NMe2
H
Me
O
+ N
OTES PhS
OH
OBn
OBn O O
85oC, 48h
CH3 N(CH3)2
H H
SPh OH
BnO TESO OBn
O O
H3C OH N(CH3)2
H H
OH
NH2
OH
O
OH O OH O
(-)-Tetracycline
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, you have learnt about the Diels-Alder reaction, the mechanism involved
in the reaction, examples of dienes and dienophiles and some applications of the
reaction in synthesis.
67
5.0 Summary
A Diels-Alder reaction is a [4+2]-cycloaddition. A [4+2]-cycloaddition is a reaction in which

a compound containing four π electrons reacts with a compound containing two π electrons to
form a new cyclic compound. Dienes containing electron-releasing groups (usually alkyl
groups) react faster, especially with dienophiles that contain electron-withdrawing groups
(almost always groups that contain electronegative atoms). The opposite combination also
gives relatively fast reactions, but the starting materials are unusual.
(1) What is the major product of the following reactions?

CH3
CO2CH3
CO2CH3
CH3
(2) Give the reactants (including stereochemistry) that would give the following Diels-Alder
product.
CN
OCH3
(1) Vollhardt, K. Peter C., and Neil E. Schore. Organic Chemistry: Structure and Function.
New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 2007.
(2) Carey, Francis. Advanced Organic Chemistry. 5th ed. Springer, 2007.
68

CHM 416: Organic Synthesis

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CHM 416: Organic Synthesis

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: CHM 416

COURSE TITLE: ORGANIC SYNTHESIS

University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria.

UNIT 1 Oxidation reactions

3.0 Main content

When in an organic compound a carbon atom loses a bond to hydrogen and

(ii) Oxidative transformation of methane.

Increasing ordrer of oxidation Most oxidized

In section 3.3, the pattern adopted to illustrate oxidation in organic chemistry is

SAQ I-1: Give a precise definition of oxidation as applied to organic chemistry.

3.2 Oxidizing Reagents

Chromic Acid (H2CrO4)

This reagent is prepared by reacting sodium or potassium dichromate with sulphuric

(b) Application in functional group transformation:

(i) Oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones:

Pyridinium Chlorochromate (PCC) – C5H5NH[CrO3Cl]

C5H5N + HCl + CrO3 → [C5H5NH][CrO3Cl]

(b) Application in functional group transformation:

With pyridinium chlorochromate the oxidation of primary alcohols can be stopped at

2-phenylethanol phenyl acetaldehyde

Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and Osmium tetroxide (OsO4)

Dissolve 3.3 g of reagent grade potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in 1 L of deionized

(b) Application in functional group transformation:

Osmium tetroxide (OsO4), or potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in aqueous base,

Ozone, O3, is an allotrope of oxygen. It is a highly reactive molecule that is

Peroxy-acids or Peracids (RCO3H)

(i) Oxidation of alkenes

Oxidation of alkenes with peroxy-acids gives rise to epoxides (oxiranes) or

(ii) Oxidation of ketones

On oxidation with peroxy-acids, ketones are converted into esters or

Oxidation of a Carbon atom in an organic compound involves one or more of the

R2C CR2 Oxidative cleavage

3.0 Main content

3.1 Conversion of alkenes to epoxides (epoxidation)

An epoxide is three-membered cyclic ether, also called an oxirane or

The epoxidation of an alkene is clearly an oxidation, since an oxygen atom is added.

Trans-3-hexene can also be oxidized by peracetic acid as in the following equation.

3.2 Conversion of alkenes to syn-1,2-diols (hydroxylation)

cyclic osmate ester

When more concentrated solutions of potassium permanganate are used in the

3.3 Ozonolysis of alkenes (oxidative cleavage)

Aldehydes are oxidized by hydrogen peroxide to carboxylic acids. Hence, reductions

CH3OH (CH3)2S n-C6H13CHO + (CH3)2SO + HCHO

(iii) cleavage (iv) epoxidation of alkenes.

(2) Ozone reacts with tetrasubstituted alkenes to give --------

(a) aldehydes (b) ketones (c) aldehydes and ketones

(d) acids. Choose the correct option.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/further reading

Alcohols are oxidized to a variety of carbonyl compounds. Primary alcohols are

3.1 Oxidation of primary alcohols

Primary alcohols can be oxidized to either aldehydes or further to carboxylic acids

CH3CH2CH2CH2OH + H2Cr2O7 CH3CH2CH2CHO

A common reagent that selectively oxidizes a primary alcohol to an aldehyde (and no

3.2 Oxidation of secondary alcohols

An especially convenient oxidizing agent is Jones reagent, a solution of chromic acid

(2) B: R2C O Cr OH R2 C O + HCrO3- + BH+

2(CH3)3COH + H2CrO4 (H3C)3CO Cr OC(CH3)3 2H2O