Kathmandu Engineering College

Department of Architecture

DESIGN STUDIO IV

URBAN PLANNING
RESEARCH PHASE REPORT

Submitted by
AARJU MALI (74002)
ANKITA SHRESTHA (74005)
JAGADISH SHUMSHER SHAHI (74013)
KABITA GHIMIRE (74016)
NIHARIKA SINGH (74025)
PUJJWAL SHRESTHA (74034)

Submitted to:
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE,
KATHMANDU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KALIMATI, KATHMANDU
ABSTRACT

We had made this report file on the topic “COMMERCIAL COMPLEX CUM MULTIPLEX”.
Here, it has tried to elucidate all the relevant detail to the topic to be included in the report.
While in the beginning we have tried to give a general view about this topic.

Our efforts and wholehearted co- corporation of each and every one has ended on a successful
note. We express our sincere gratitude to the design team who assisted us throughout the
preparation of this topic. We thank for providing the reinforcement, confidence and most
importantly the track for the topic wherever I needed it.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to our respected teachers’ who gave
us the golden opportunity to do this project. We would like to thank them for also giving us
such a wonderful opportunity to expand our knowledge for our own branch and giving us
guidelines to present a report.

We would like to thank all the managers on duty at the time of performing the case studies,
who helped us to make our work more organized and well stacked till the end. It would not
have been possible without the kind support and help of the many individuals and the
organization. Their kind hospitality in allowing us to interview and photograph has contributed
greatly to our project.

Secondly, we would like to express our gratitude towards our parents who patiently helped us
as we went through our work and helped to modify and eliminate some of the irrelevant or un-
necessary stuffs, despite their busy schedules. We would like to thank them for their
encouragement which helped us reach to the completion of this project.

Last but clearly not the least, we would like to thank the God Almighty for giving us the
strength, knowledge, ability and opportunity to undertake and complete this research

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract.............................................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................... ii
Table of contents .............................................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. xiv
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.1. Planning ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.2. Neighbourhood .................................................................................................................. 2
Definition ................................................................................................................... 2

Neighbourhood Planning ............................................................................................ 2

1.3. New Town ......................................................................................................................... 4

Definition ................................................................................................................... 4

Concept and history .................................................................................................... 4

1.4. Advantages of Planned Development ................................................................................. 5

Convenience Benefits: ................................................................................................ 5

Social Equity Benefits: ............................................................................................... 6

Health and Safety Benefits:......................................................................................... 6

Efficiency Benefits: .................................................................................................... 6

Environmental Benefits: ............................................................................................. 6

Amenity Benefits:....................................................................................................... 6

LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 9

2.1. Components of Planning .................................................................................................... 9
2.2. Principles of Neighbourhood Planning ............................................................................... 9
Site:............................................................................................................................ 9

Boundaries: ................................................................................................................ 9

Protective strips: ......................................................................................................... 9

Layout of building: ................................................................................................... 10

Shopping centres: ..................................................................................................... 10

Community centre: ................................................................................................... 10

Facilities:.................................................................................................................. 10

2.3. Theoretical Model of City Structure ................................................................................. 11

Burgess Concentric Model ........................................................................................ 12

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 Sector Model ............................................................................................................ 14

Multiple Nuclei Model ............................................................................................. 16

2.4. Central Place Theory ........................................................................................................ 17

Concept .................................................................................................................... 17

Threshold Population ................................................................................................ 17

Market Range ........................................................................................................... 18

Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 18

Defects of this Theory .............................................................................................. 18

2.5. Neighbourhood Planning Concept .................................................................................... 19

Modern Planning Thought ........................................................................................ 19

Neighnourhood Unit of Clarence Perry ..................................................................... 21

Garden City – Ebeneizer Howard.............................................................................. 22

Radburn Model – Clarence Stein and Henry Wright .................................................. 23

2.6. Form of a city................................................................................................................... 24

Introduction .............................................................................................................. 24

Types ....................................................................................................................... 25

2.7. Planning Norms and Standards ......................................................................................... 28

2.8. Housing Norms and Standards.......................................................................................... 29
Setback to neighboring boundary .............................................................................. 30

Ground coverage (GCR) ........................................................................................... 31

Right of way (ROW) and Roadside Setback (b) ........................................................ 31

2.9. Housing Densities ............................................................................................................ 32

Building Byelaws for Residential Housing Construction ........................................... 34

2.10. Land Development Schemes ............................................................................................ 34

Defining Land Development ..................................................................................... 34

Need for Land Development ..................................................................................... 35

Types or Schemes of Land Development .................................................................. 35

2.11. Land Use/ Land Division.................................................................................................. 39

Block Size ............................................................................................................... 40

Plot size.................................................................................................................... 41

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 Standards.................................................................................................................. 41

2.12. Housing Units .................................................................................................................. 41

Development of Housing .......................................................................................... 42

Types of Housing .................................................................................................... 42

General consideration for typical room size for housing ............................................ 45

Circulation ............................................................................................................... 45

2.13. Infrastructures .................................................................................................................. 46

Road Network .......................................................................................................... 47

Sewer And Storm Water ........................................................................................... 70

Solid Waste Management ......................................................................................... 75

Water Supply............................................................................................................ 77

Electricity And Communication ................................................................................ 80

Telecommunication .................................................................................................. 85

2.14. Facilities .......................................................................................................................... 88

Educational Facilities ............................................................................................... 91

Health Facilities ....................................................................................................... 94

Recreational Facilities .............................................................................................. 96

Commercial Facilities ..............................................................................................106

Other: ......................................................................................................................108

2.15. Planning a Sustainable Neighborhood .............................................................................114

A new strategy of sustainable neighborhood planning: five principles ......................115

Key Features Of Sustainable Neighbourhood: ..........................................................116

Principles of Sustainable Neighbourhood Planning ..................................................117

2.16. Urban Planning after pandemic: ......................................................................................123

Introduction .............................................................................................................123

Breaking Car Dependence to Recover from the Crisis: .............................................123

Case Study ..............................................................................................................125

Case study ............................................................................................................................. 131

3.1. Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra ................................................................................................131
General Information ................................................................................................131

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 History ....................................................................................................................131

Changes seen from planning to existing site .............................................................132

Density ....................................................................................................................132

Land division...........................................................................................................133

Housing ...................................................................................................................134

Bye Laws ................................................................................................................135

Physical Infrastructures ...........................................................................................135

Facilities and services ..............................................................................................140

3.2. Gandhinagar....................................................................................................................144
General Information ................................................................................................144

History ....................................................................................................................145

Density ....................................................................................................................145

Land division...........................................................................................................145

Sector 21 .................................................................................................................147

3.3. Fraiser Mills Waterfront Village Center ...........................................................................159

General information.................................................................................................159

General Background ................................................................................................159

History ....................................................................................................................160

Land Use .................................................................................................................161

Infrastructure Services .............................................................................................163

Residential ..............................................................................................................166

Commercial .............................................................................................................166

Parks and Open Space .............................................................................................168

Pedestrian and Cycling ............................................................................................170

Flood Proofing and Shoreline Protection ..................................................................171

Policies....................................................................................................................171

3.4. Other Cases .....................................................................................................................173

Apartment ...............................................................................................................173

Comparative Analysis ............................................................................................................ 177

Site analysis ........................................................................................................................... 184

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5.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................184
5.2. Demographic Data ..........................................................................................................184
5.3. Physical Aspects .............................................................................................................187
5.4. Social aspect ...................................................................................................................188
5.5. Economic aspect .............................................................................................................189
5.6. Cultural aspects ...............................................................................................................189
5.7. Proximity Analysis ..........................................................................................................189
5.8. Services ..........................................................................................................................191
Roads ......................................................................................................................191

Solid waste management .........................................................................................191

Water ......................................................................................................................191

5.9. SWOT Analysis ..............................................................................................................191

PROGRAMME FORMULATION ........................................................................................ 194
6.1. DENSITY: ......................................................................................................................194
6.2. Infrastructures: ................................................................................................................194
6.3. TARGETED GROUP: ....................................................................................................194
6.4. SALARY ........................................................................................................................194
Appendix ............................................................................................................................... 197
7.1. Checklist during site study ..............................................................................................197
7.2. Survey at kuleshwor ........................................................................................................200
With Committee of Kuleshwor Aawas Pariwar Kalyan Sanstha ...............................200

With a resident ........................................................................................................202

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 204

Bibliography.......................................................................................................................... 205

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Clarence Perry's "Neighbourhood Unit" Diagram, 1929. ................................................... 10

Figure 2: Anatomy of a Neighbourhood ........................................................................................... 10

Figure 3: Widely used models.......................................................................................................... 11

Figure 4: The Burgess Model........................................................................................................... 12

Figure 5 : Hoyt Sector Model .......................................................................................................... 14

Figure 6: Hoyt Sector Model ........................................................................................................... 15

Figure 7: Multiple Nuclei Model ..................................................................................................... 16

Figure 8: Threshold Population ........................................................................................................ 17

Figure 9: City of Chandigarh ........................................................................................................... 20

Figure 10: Concept of Neighborhood Unit ....................................................................................... 21

Figure 11: Neighborhood Planning by Clarence Perry ...................................................................... 21

Figure 12: Garden City .................................................................................................................... 22

Figure 13: A section of Garden City ................................................................................................ 22

Figure 14: Radiocentric Form .......................................................................................................... 25

Figure 15: Example of Radiocentric Form ....................................................................................... 25

Figure 16: Examples of Rectilinear Form......................................................................................... 25

Figure 17: Rectilinear Form ............................................................................................................. 25

Figure 18: Examples of Star Form ................................................................................................... 26

Figure 19: Star Form ....................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 20: Ring Form ...................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 21: Examples of Ring Form .................................................................................................. 26

Figure 22: Linear Form.................................................................................................................... 27

Figure 23: Example of Linear Form ................................................................................................. 27

Figure 24: Example of Branch Form ................................................................................................ 27

Figure 25: Branch Form................................................................................................................... 27

Figure 26: Sheet Form ..................................................................................................................... 27

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Figure 27: Satellite Form ................................................................................................................. 27

Figure 28: Detached Housing Layout ............................................................................................... 32

Figure 29: Semi Detached Housing Layout ...................................................................................... 32

Figure 30: Garden Apartment Schematic Layout .............................................................................. 33

Figure 31: Row Housing Layout ...................................................................................................... 33

Figure 32: Connection of cities through Ring road ........................................................................... 36

Figure 33: Aerial View of Golfutar, Kathmandu; an example of site an example of site and services
scheme in Nepal .............................................................................................................................. 37

Figure 34: Basic Concept of Land Pooling ....................................................................................... 38

Figure 35: Example of Land Pooling ............................................................................................... 38

Figure 36: Land Use Ratio in National Context ................................................................................ 39

Figure 37: Block Size ...................................................................................................................... 40

Figure 38: Horizontal Housing......................................................................................................... 42

Figure 39: Vertical Housing ............................................................................................................. 42

Figure 40: Detached Housing .......................................................................................................... 42

Figure 41: Semi - Detached Housing ............................................................................................... 43

Figure 42: Row Housing .................................................................................................................. 43

Figure 43: Apartment Building ........................................................................................................ 43

Figure 44 : Different Types of Apartments ....................................................................................... 43

Figure 45 : Duplexes ....................................................................................................................... 44

Figure 46 : Fourplex ........................................................................................................................ 44

Figure 47: Hierarchy of Roads ......................................................................................................... 50

Figure 48: Freeways and Expressways ............................................................................................. 50

Figure 49: Arterial Roads ................................................................................................................ 51

Figure 50: Sub-arterial Roads .......................................................................................................... 52

Figure 51: Collector Roads .............................................................................................................. 52

Figure 52: Local Streets ................................................................................................................... 53

Figure 53 : Distance between Bus Stops .......................................................................................... 53

Figure 54: Types of Road Junction .................................................................................................. 55

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Figure 55 : T- Junction .................................................................................................................... 56

Figure 56 : Cross Junctions .............................................................................................................. 56

Figure 57 : Roundabouts .................................................................................................................. 56

Figure 58 : Street ............................................................................................................................. 57

Figure 59 : Road Section ................................................................................................................. 58

Figure 60 : Typical Road Section with Service Inlays ...................................................................... 59

Figure 61 : Width of Footpath for different zones ............................................................................ 60

Figure 62 : 1:1 Ratio ........................................................................................................................ 61

Figure 63 : 2:1 Ratio ........................................................................................................................ 61

Figure 64 : Parallel Parking ............................................................................................................. 64

Figure 65 : Perpendicular Parking .................................................................................................... 64

Figure 66 : Angled Parking .............................................................................................................. 65

Figure 67 : Turning radius required for a standard car ...................................................................... 65

Figure 68 : Turning radius for circular path ...................................................................................... 65

Figure 69 : Intersection Bul-bout ..................................................................................................... 66

Figure 70 : Back-in / Head-out Angled Parking................................................................................ 67

Figure 71 : Bicycle lane widths ........................................................................................................ 68

Figure 72 : Proper bicycle lane widths ............................................................................................. 68

Figure 73 : Street around greenery ................................................................................................... 69

Figure 74 : Straight Street improved design ..................................................................................... 69

Figure 75 : Loop .............................................................................................................................. 69

Figure 76 : Cul-de-sac ..................................................................................................................... 69

Figure 77 : T-Junction improved design ........................................................................................... 69

Figure 78 : Distance between the supply lines .................................................................................. 71

Figure 79 : Separate System ............................................................................................................ 71

Figure 80 : Combined System .......................................................................................................... 72

Figure 81 : Partially Combined System ............................................................................................ 72

Figure 82 : Treatment Process Flow Chart ....................................................................................... 73

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Figure 83 : Sewage treatment flow diagram ..................................................................................... 74

Figure 84 : Waste Hierarchy ............................................................................................................ 76

Figure 85 : Pipe Position.................................................................................................................. 78

Figure 86 : Domestic demand (left) Commercial and institutional demand (right) ............................ 79

Figure 87 : Central water supply ...................................................................................................... 79

Figure 88 : Parallel water supply ...................................................................................................... 79

Figure 89 : Distribution of electricity from source ............................................................................ 80

Figure 90 : Height of poles required for different areas .................................................................... 81

Figure 91 : Alignment of poles ........................................................................................................ 82

Figure 92 : Concealed Wiring .......................................................................................................... 84

Figure 93 : Street Lighting ............................................................................................................... 84

Figure 94 : Proximity of Facilities ................................................................................................... 90

Figure 95 : Hospital Zone ................................................................................................................ 95

Figure 96 : Community Centre ........................................................................................................ 97

Figure 97 : Streets that meet at right angles (left) and streets that don't meet at right angles (right) . 103

Figure 98 : Dimension requirements for minor portions of public plazas ........................................ 103

Figure 99 : The relationship between major and minor portions of the public plaza ........................ 103

Figure 100 : Effect of providing balconies acting as surveillance ................................................... 110

Figure 101 : Process of Disaster Management ................................................................................ 110

Figure 102 : Upwind Building less noisy compared to downwind .................................................. 114

Figure 103 : Possible section for noise control ............................................................................... 114

Figure 104 : Burrard Slopes Planning ............................................................................................ 122

Figure 105 : Milan. New Cycling path along Corso Buenos Aires design sketch ............................ 127

Figure 106 : Implementation of New Cycling path along Corso Buenos Aires ................................ 127

Figure 107 Bari. New cycling path along Lungomare Nazario Sauro current (a) design sketch (b), Via
Manzoni current (c) and design sketch (d) ..................................................................................... 128

Figure 108 : Map of Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra .............................................................................. 131

Figure 109 : Conceptual Map of Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra ............................................................ 131

Figure 110 : Initial planning of road next to open spaces (left) and present condition (right) ........... 132

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Figure 111 : Land Use Division ..................................................................................................... 134

Figure 112 : Road Section ............................................................................................................ 136

Figure 113 : Types of Road network .............................................................................................. 136

Figure 114 : Manhole .................................................................................................................... 136

Figure 115 : Distance between manholes ....................................................................................... 137

Figure 116 : Sewage collection vehicle .......................................................................................... 137

Figure 117 : Solid waste collection using landfilling ...................................................................... 137

Figure 118 : Boring ....................................................................................................................... 138

Figure 119 : Underground Tank ..................................................................................................... 138

Figure 120 : Overhead Tank .......................................................................................................... 138

Figure 121 : Wells in green spaces ................................................................................................. 139

Figure 122 : Location of Poles and Transformers ........................................................................... 139

Figure 123 : Kuleshwor Awas Secondary School ........................................................................... 140

Figure 124 : Proximity of Schools near Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra ................................................. 140

Figure 125 : Kuleshwor Polyclinic ................................................................................................. 141

Figure 126 : Proximity of Health Institutes near Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra .................................... 141

Figure 127 : Proximity of Temples near Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra ................................................ 142

Figure 128 : Kuleshwor Tinkune Volleyball Ground ...................................................................... 143

Figure 129 : Maintained park in use by the locals........................................................................... 143

Figure 130 : Unmaintained green plots .......................................................................................... 143

Figure 131 : Fenced off green spaces ............................................................................................. 143

Figure 132 : Conversion of Green Spaces to Parking lots ............................................................... 143

Figure 133 : Big Mart .................................................................................................................... 144

Figure 134 : Master plan of Gujarat Town Planning ....................................................................... 144

Figure 135 : Swarnim Park (central vista) ...................................................................................... 145

Figure 136 : Land Use Map for Gandhinagar ................................................................................. 146

Figure 137 : Land Use Map of Sector 21........................................................................................ 147

Figure 138 : Visualization of street for redevelopment. .................................................................. 152

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Figure 139 : Thermal Power Station .............................................................................................. 154

Figure 140 : Solar PV Arrays ......................................................................................................... 155

Figure 143 : Central Vista .............................................................................................................. 157

Figure 141 : Garden Lake .............................................................................................................. 157

Figure 142 : Roads surrounded by greens....................................................................................... 157

Figure 144 : Children’s Park .......................................................................................................... 157

Figure 145 : Cambay golf ground .................................................................................................. 157

Figure 146: Illustration of redevelopment of dilapidated government housing ................................ 158

Figure 147 : Redevelopment Strategy ............................................................................................ 158

Figure 148 : Planned site (left) and Present Context (right) ............................................................ 159

Figure 149 : Land Use Map ........................................................................................................... 161

Figure 150 : Road Networks in Fraiser Mills.................................................................................. 164

Figure 151 : Water supply system in Fraiser Mills ......................................................................... 165

Figure 152 : Sanitation system in Fraiser Mills .............................................................................. 165

Figure 153 : Allocation of Green Spaces in Fraiser Mills ............................................................... 169

Figure 154 : Pedestrian Paths ......................................................................................................... 170

Figure 155 : Main Entrance ........................................................................................................... 173

Figure 156 : Guard Quarter ............................................................................................................ 173

Figure 157 : Block 3: Ground Floor Plan (left) and Typical Floor Plan (right) ................................ 174

Figure 158 : Parking Spaces .......................................................................................................... 175

Figure 159 : Open space ................................................................................................................ 175

Figure 160 : Fire Extinguisher ....................................................................................................... 175

Figure 161 : Graphical Site Analysis .............................................................................................. 188

Figure 162 : Educational Institutions near site ................................................................................ 189

Figure 163 : Health Institutions near site ........................................................................................ 189

Figure 164 : Temples near the site ................................................................................................. 190

Figure 165 : Monastery near the site .............................................................................................. 190

Figure 166 : Churches near the site ................................................................................................ 190

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: General consideration for typical room sizes ................................................................ 45

Table 2 : Requirements for Circulation ..................................................................................... 45

Table 3: Standards of Road Network ........................................................................................ 48

Table 4: Road Standards of Nepal ............................................................................................ 48

Table 5: Lane Widths ............................................................................................................. 48

Table 6: Driveway Width ....................................................................................................... 49

Table 7 : Width of streets .................................................................................................... 58

Table 8 : Street Design Standards ............................................................................................ 59

Table 9 : Consideration for Pedestrian Lane ....................................................................... 60

Table 10 : Zone of Footpath ................................................................................................ 62

Table 11 : Standard Dimensions for Parking Lots ...................................................................... 63

Table 12 : Bicycle path widths ................................................................................................ 68

Table 13: Separated two-way path widths ................................................................................. 69

Table 14 : Shared path widths ................................................................................................. 69

Table 15 : Separated one-way path widths ................................................................................ 69

Table 16 : Illumination for types of lights in road lanes .............................................................. 80

Table 17 : Area for provisions to accommodate the population .................................................... 88

Table 18 : Minimum proximity of facilities............................................................................... 89

Table 19 : List of Services, Requirements, and Location of Educational Services .......................... 93

Table 20: Level of Services, Requirement, and Location of Health Services ................................. 95

Table 21 : Open Space (within plot) in respect to height of buildings ........................................... 99

Table 22 : Various open spaces for a neighborhood ................................................................. 100

Table 23 : Parking and Circulation in respect to population....................................................... 107

Table 24 : Service Details ..................................................................................................... 107

Table 25 : COVID cases in the most populated 10 Italian Cities ................................................ 126

Table 26 : Division of Land Use ............................................................................................ 134

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Table 27: Sources of water ................................................................................................... 153

Table 28 : Health Infrastructure in GNA in 1997 ..................................................................... 155

Table 30 : Land Use in Fraiser Mills ...................................................................................... 162

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1
 INTRODUCTION

1.1. PLANNING

Planning is the process of preparing the work beforehand. It is the process of thinking about
the activities required to achieve a desired goal. Planning is the fundamental management
function, which involves deciding beforehand, what is to be done, when is it to be done, how
it is to be done and who is going to do it. Planning is nothing but thinking before the action
takes place. It helps us to take a peep into the future and decide in advance the way to deal with
the situations, which we are going to encounter in future. It involves logical thinking and
rational decision making. (Shrestha, 2020)

1.2. NEIGHBOURHOOD

DEFINITION

A neighbourhood is a geographically localized community within a

larger city, town, suburb or rural area. Neighbourhoods are often social communities with
considerable face-to-face interaction among members. Neighbourhood is generally
defined spatially as a specific geographic area and functionally as a set of social networks.
Neighbourhoods, then, are the spatial units in which face-to-face social interactions occur, the
personal settings and situations where residents seek to realize common values, socialize youth,
and maintain effective social control.

NEIGHBOURHOOD PLANNING

Neighbourhood planning is a technical and political process concerned with the development
and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure
passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportation, communications, and distribution
networks.

A Neighbourhood Plan (sometimes called a Neighbourhood Development Plan) is a way of

helping local communities to influence the planning of the area in which they live and work. It
can be used to develop a shared vision for your neighbourhood, choose where new homes,

2
shops, offices and other development should be built, identify and protect important local green
spaces and influence what new buildings should look like.

OBJECTIVE OF NEIGHBOURHOOD PLANNING

 To provide varying degrees of social encounter facilitated by the spatial characteristics

of the urban setting.
 To create opportunity for kinship and social networking.
 To promote the ability of the urban environment to function successfully as a peaceful
place for residence, social amenity, employment and leisure.
 To plan physical arrangements to provide security and sense of neighbourhood.
 To promote attributes of the physical environment that promote self-identity for both
individuals and communities.
 To promote the aesthetic quality of the neighbourhood as perceived by the user.
 To create a sustainable neighbourhood environmentally, physically, economically and
culturally.

SCOPE OF NEIGHBOURHOOD PLANNING IN NEPALESE CONTEXT

Nepal is one of the developing countries in which rate of urbanization is still very low.
According to the population census preliminary report 2011, total urban population has been
increased to 17% however; Kathmandu valley has witnessed a rapid growth of urbanization
during last two decades and remains the most urbanized region in Nepal. People are migrating
in the capital city from other parts of the country in search of better social and economic
opportunities. On the other hand, the origin residents of the city core are moving to the new
housing in the urban fringes because of degrading living qualities in the core area causing the
following problems:
 Increased population Density in urban area.
 Urban Sprawl.
 Lack of adequate infrastructures and services.
 Unplanned distribution of land causing randomness in the plan.
 Lack of Public open Spaces and green spaces.
 Lack of Social Security.
 Isolated walled construction causing individualism and lack of social interactions.

3
  Improper waste management causing pollution.
 Traffic contestation and air pollution
 Uneven distribution of land among different social class aiding discrimination.
 Overall decrease in quality of life.

To solve these problems, it is important to plan from a macro level to micro level proper
distribution of land, services and create harmony in the society. However, much efforts and
commitments are required to ensure adequate housing for all. The urban environment in
Kathmandu is fast deteriorating. It is important to keep in mind the diverse culture, the
economic condition, the psychology of the population to existing problems and the solutions
for it and planning standards and norms in Nepal.

1.3. NEW TOWN

DEFINITION

New town means a new urban activity centre and community designated on the future land use
map and located within a rural area or at the rural-urban urban fringe, clearly functionally
distinct or geographically separated from existing urban areas and other new towns. A new
town shall be of sufficient size, population and land use composition to support a variety of
economic and social activities consistent with an urban area designation. New town shall
include basic economic activities; all major land use categories, with the possible exception of
agricultural and industrial; and a centrally provided full range of public facilities and services.

CONCEPT AND HISTORY

The idea of "new town" appeared in modern times as a reaction to what was perceived at the
time as being problematic with the types of existing towns. Since the late eighteenth century
and especially in the nineteenth century, European cities have experienced a period of extreme
urbanization, previously unseen in the course of history. The population growth curve which
had evolved constantly, having a stable, but moderate value since medieval times, started to
rise almost vertically in graphs, marking the beginning of urbanization in modern times. With
this unprecedented rapid urbanization another series of problems invaded the modern city. The
so called "Slums" with their poor population, industry workers, families with many children,

4
unemployment, pollution, became increasingly present on city maps. Overcrowding was been
felt ever more acutely. The traditional type of housing and the existing built up areas became
gradually insufficient and below the standards required by modern life.

This city had to be small, so that people could be in direct contact with one another and also
easier to manage by administration. These towns were intended to be just the opposite of the
existing large cities. Instead of poverty, they would provide prosperity, instead of crowding,
more space, instead of unemployment, jobs, instead of families dissolution, a community spirit,
instead of dismantling families, a sense of family and social cohesion, instead of shame due to
poverty and misery, pride for the place they lived in and so on.

In time, new towns have taken on different shapes and displayed various qualities, but certain
features remained the same, especially the idea of the strict control over the city's development,
so as not exceed a certain size considered "ideal." In this regard also, it is no surprise that urban
planners insisted on the concept of limited development as a reaction to the perceived
"uncontrolled" and "chaotic" development of the existing large modern cities. Other basic
features of the "new towns" are: the importance acquired by the prestigious town centre, seen
as an element of civic cohesion; the hierarchical distribution of districts and sub-districts; the
attempt to equip each subdivision of the town with all major functions needed (housing,
commerce, culture, etc.); fairly uniform and equitable housing for all residents.

1.4. ADVANTAGES OF PLANNED DEVELOPMENT

CONVENIENCE BENEFITS:

This comes from:

 The construction of roads
 Provision of Public transport
 Location arrangements of land uses and the intensities of use which determine distances
from home to work, to school, to shops, to parks and to cinemas or stadium, determine
distances among activities related to industries, and which determine access to service
facilities.

5
 SOCIAL EQUITY BENEFITS:

 Increased fairness in access to necessities of life/ the distribution of the costs and
benefits of the use of land and space
 Increased choice for members of society, such as comes from greater role in decision
making, or from an increase in land supplies relative to demands.

HEALTH AND SAFETY BENEFITS:

 Traffic danger reduction

 Reduction of environmental hazards, including flooding, landslides, and earthquakes
 Increased effectiveness of sanitation systems and provision of water
 Better light and ventilation through building relationships and plot layout

EFFICIENCY BENEFITS:

Which comes from the reduction of

 The cost of land development
 Transport costs and energy costs
 Cost of provision of services
 Gaps between needs and the service facilities provided
 Land costs of meeting human needs (efficient use of land resource)

ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS:

 Reduction of air and water pollution / reduction of noise

 Protection of aquifers
 Protection of areas of ecological value
 Provision of public open spaces

AMENITY BENEFITS:

 Attractive and pleasant living environment

 Conservation of culturally important space and building

6
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

7
8
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. COMPONENTS OF PLANNING

1. Commute
2. Dwellings
3. Educational institutes
4. Recreation
5. Cultural site
6. Employment areas
7. Hospitals
8. Markets
9. Open spaces

2.2. PRINCIPLES OF NEIGHBOURHOOD PLANNING

SITE:

The town is divided into self- contained units or sectors of 10,000 population and this is further
divided into smaller units called neighbourhood units with 2000 to 5000 population based on
the requirement of one primary school. The size of the unit is therefore limited to about 1 to
1.5 sq. km that is, within walkable distance of 10 to 15 minutes.

BOUNDARIES:

The unit should be bounded on all its sides by main road, wide enough for through traffic.

PROTECTIVE STRIPS:

These are necessary to protect the neighbourhood from annoyance of through traffic and to
provide suitable facilities for development parks, playgrounds and road widening scheme in
future. These are also called: “minor green belts”.

9
 LAYOUT OF BUILDING:

To encourage neighbourhood relation and secure social

stability and balance, houses to suit the different
income group should be provided such as single-family
houses, double family houses, cottages, flats etc.

SHOPPING CENTRES:

Each shop should be located on the circumference of

the unit, preferably at traffic junctions and adjacent to
the neighbourhood units.

Figure 1: Clarence Perry's "Neighbourhood

Unit" Diagram, 1929.
COMMUNITY CENTRE:

Each community will have its centre with social, culture and recreational amenities.

FACILITIES:

All public facilities require for the family for their comfort and convenience should be in easy
reach.

Figure 2: Anatomy of a Neighbourhood

10
2.3. THEORETICAL MODEL OF CITY STRUCTURE

City structure depends on kind, location and density of activities distributed across space in
urban areas. They are urban neighborhoods having physical elements such as buildings,
landscapes, open space and transport network. (Shrestha, 2020)
A model is a representation of a reality or expression of certain relevant characteristics of the
observed reality. Reality consists of the objects or system that exists, have existed or may exist.
Urban patterns of city structures are influenced by,
 Concentrations- refers to different distribution of population and economic activities
focused on the centre of city and clustering around important activity points such as
transportation routes, factories or major stores.
 Decentralization - location of activity away from the centre of the city.
 Segregation - sorting out of population groups; the individual’s role in the total
organization of city life.
Many factors influence the location of an activity within a city. The answer is to create models
that describe and simplify the relationship among the different social, economic and geographic
factors.
Three most widely used models are:
1. Burgess Concentric Model
2. Sector Model
3. Multiple Nuclei Model

Figure 3: Widely used models

11
 BURGESS CONCENTRIC MODEL

Ernest W. Burgess, a sociologist at the

University of Chicago – 1925 Based on human
ecology theories done by Burgess and applied
on Chicago give the explanation of distribution
of social groups within urban areas. It is
effectively an urban version of Von Thunen's
regional land use model developed a century
earlier. Composite effect of market forces upon
land use arrangement: Depicts the use of urban
land as a set of five concentric rings with each
ring devoted to different land use.
The five concentric zones according to socio- Figure 4: The Burgess Model

economic status identified are as follows:

1. The centre was the CBD
2. The transition zone of mixed residential, industrial and commercial uses
3. Working class (low class) residential (inner suburbs)
4. Better quality middle-class residential (outer suburbs) or Zone of better Housing
5. Commuters zone (high class residential)
(Shrestha, 2020)
1. Central Business District (CBD)
 A central business district CBD is a central activities district which is highly
commercial and often geographic heart of a city.
 The central business district (CBD) has the following characteristics –
o Has the departmental shops, large offices, main railway and bus stations, many
churches, pubs, clubs and cinemas and the town hall
o The main roads head into the CBD.
o The value of the land is greatest here
o Due to the high cost of the land, buildings are built upwards
o CBDs suffer from the worst traffic congestion
o It is often the oldest part of the city
o It may have a grid-iron street pattern, that is parallel straight roads and other
roads running at right angles

12
2. Zone of Transition
 Area between the factory zone and the working class zone
 The zone of transition is an area of flux where the land use is changing.
 It encircles the Central Business District (CBD).
 The buildings are changing from CBD usage to residential land use.
 Characterized by a mixed pattern of commercial and residential land uses.
 Rooming houses, small apartment and tenements exist here, which attract low-income
groups.
 ‘Slums’ are liable to be found with their submerged regions of poverty, degradation and
disease and their underworlds of crime.
 Zone for regeneration: commercial activities rapidly displace residents as CBD
expands.

3. Working Class Residential Homes

 The third zone which is inhabited by workers who have escaped from the area of
deterioration but who desire to live within easy access of their work.
 Not haphazard settlement as in transition zone but closely built houses are
characteristics of this zone.
 There is no vehicular movement in this zone and hence the residents have to go to CBD
for easy transportation.

4. Better Quality Middle-class Homes

 The fourth zone is the middle class residential zone lies between working class and high
class residential zone.
 The quality of housing is better than working class homes with slightly lower density
 Semi-detached houses with little bit gardens

5. Commuter Zone (High Class Housing)

 The last zone is the commuter’s zone consisting of higher income families clustered
together.
 This zone is filled with spacious lots and large houses > rich pressed outward to avoid
the increasing congestion
 Social heterogeneity brought to their area by an expansion of fourth zone.

13
Before 1870’s, American city had mixed neighbourhoods. In 1871, great Chicago fire burnt
out the core leaving one-third of its buildings. The city was rebuilt on a new concentric pattern.
In Chicago, all five zones were in its early history. The actual map of Chicago does not exactly
match the simplicity of Burgess’s Concentric Zone. It is evident that the wealthy continue to
monopolize certain high value sites within other rings especially “Chicago’s" Gold Coast
which should be parts of zone of transition.

Criticism
 Though portions of each zone did exist in most cities, rarely were they linked in such a
way as to totally surround the city
 Burgess, as a sociologist, overemphasized residential pattern and did not give proper
credit to other land uses.
 Despite these criticisms Concentric Zone Theory was fairly accurate in describing the
cities of 1925.
 In fact, many of the zones can still be seen in contemporary cities, particularly the zone
of transition (Slums) around the central business district.

SECTOR MODEL

 The sector model, also known as the

Hoyt model, is a model of urban land
use proposed in 1939 by economist
Homer Hoyt.
 It is a modification of the concentric
zone model of city development.
 States that a city develops in sectors, not
in rings Figure 5 : Hoyt Sector Model

 Certain areas are more attractive for different activities because of an environmental
factor or by mere chance.
 Hoyt modified the concentric zone model to account for major transportation routes
 According to this model most major cities evolved around the nexus of several
important transport facilities such as railroads, sea ports, and trolley lines that emanated
from the city's centre.

14
 Hoyt theorized that cities would tend to grow in wedge-shaped patterns, or sectors,
emanating from the CBD and cantered on major transportation routes.

 It is a monocentric representation of urban areas. He posited a CBD around which other

land uses cluster
 But important factor is not distance from CBD as in the concentric zone model, but
direction away from CBD
 As growth occurs, similar activities stay in the same area and extend outwards
 The Hoyt model realized that transportation (in particular) and access to resources
caused a disruption of the Burgess model.
 Recognizes the existence of land use zones, but suggests that there are sectors or wedges
of land uses in the city
 In this model, zones are pie shaped wedges radiating along main transportation route.
 Poorer people live adjacent to industrial near their jobs
 Rich live on the opposite side of town far from the industry and poor >>middle income
in between
 Hoyt’s sector model is simply a concentric model modified to account for the impact
of transportation systems on accessibility

Figure 6: Hoyt Sector Model

15
 MULTIPLE NUCLEI MODEL

 In 1945, two geographers, Chauncay

Harris and Edward Ullman suggested
multiple nuclei model.
 A city developed with equal intensity
- 'Multiple nuclei".
 The CBD cannot be a sole generator
of change.
 Equal weight must be given other
centres - the old community, industrial
district, a low-income area that
developed because of some stigma
attached to the site.
 Multiple-Nuclei model is a model of
urban land use in which a city grows
from several independent points rather
than from one central business district.
 Each point acts as a growth centre Figure 7: Multiple Nuclei Model

from a particular kind of land use, such as industry, retail, or high-quality housing.
 As these expand, they merge to form a single urban area. The CBD is not the only
generator of change. Some centres or nodes include; ports, universities, airports, parks,
neighbourhood business centres.
 The number of nuclei, around which the city expands, depends upon the situational as
well as historical factors.
Harris and Ullman rooted their model in four geographic principles.
1. Certain activities require highly specialized facilities, such as accessible transportation
for a factory or large area of open land for a housing tract.
2. Certain activities cluster together because they profit from mutual association. One such
cluster could be banks, used car lots, and jewellery stores
3. Certain activities repel each other and will not be found in the same area e.g. high rent
residential and industrial areas.
4. Certain activities could not make profit if they paid high rent of the most desirable
locations.

16
2.4. CENTRAL PLACE THEORY

(Shrestha, 2020)
 Central place theory is a geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and
location (spacing) of human settlements in an urban system.
 It was developed by German geographer Walter Christaller in 1933.
 Central place theory is the idea that urban locations are arranged spatially in a pattern
of hexagons that are nested based on the size of the urban location.
 The central place is so called because it is centrally located to maximize accessibility
from the surrounding region.
 Hierarchy of economic activity from the population size and the distance
 A central place is any location that offers a service or a product to its surrounding
market region
 The task is to delineate the geographical relationship among different central places
 However, the theory is only concerned with the intensity and location of service
industry; hence provide only partial explanation of regional structure.

CONCEPT

Classification of Service Activities

Classified into four homogenous trade groups on the basis of functional qualities:
a) Repair work and other services
b) Distribution and transport of goods
c) Processing and distribution of information
d) Various personal and collective needs such as security and health

THRESHOLD POPULATION

 It is the minimum population necessary to support

any service activity
 If the population falls below the threshold level,
the activity will run at a loss or will have to be
closed at last and vice versa
 Frequency of use of the service is vital for the
threshold population
Figure 8: Threshold Population

17
 MARKET RANGE

 It is the distance which people are willing to travel to reach the service
 Upper (farthest) and lower (shortest) limits
 More expensive and specialized goods upper limit is high
 But for more frequently demanded goods (cheaper goods) the upper limit range is
smaller
 Though seems to be simple function of linear distance, it is influenced by time, cost
factor, importance of the service area and income level

ASSUMPTIONS

To develop the theory, Christaller made the following simplifying assumptions:

 An isotropic (all flat), homogeneous and limitless surface
 An evenly distributed population
 Evenly distributed resources
 All settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern.
 Perfect competition and all sellers are economic men maximizing their profits.
 Consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour.
 All consumers have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services.
 Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand.
 They minimize the distance to be travelled.
 No provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a
monopoly over a hinterland).
 There is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions.
 Transport cost is proportional to distance travelled in example, the longer the distance
travelled, the higher the transport cost.

DEFECTS OF THIS THEORY

 Only talks about the service element and no other factors such as natural resources,
institutions manufacturing centre etc.
 The theory is only ideal for rural areas for the assumption of isotropic land
 The theory also assumes a uniform distribution of population, services, income level
which is unlikely to occur.

18
2.5. NEIGHBOURHOOD PLANNING CONCEPT

MODERN PLANNING THOUGHT

 Le Corbusier is one of the pioneers who introduced the idea of living in a city that is
planned, designed and built.
 He promoted hugeness, hierarchy and centralism in city structure.
 He proposed cities could be anywhere: free of context, history, or tradition.
 According to him, a planner should treat a city as a blank piece of paper or a clean table
cloth where structures are to be erected.
 Being the member of International Congress of Modern Architects (CIAM), he re-
examined and created four basic elements of urban biology; sun, space (air), vegetation,
and concrete & steel.
 Sun - represents ample amount of heat and light
 Space - represents the volume
 Vegetation - represents the open spaces with greenery
 Steel and concrete - represents the skyscrapers with steel structures and curtain
panels.
 By investigating city’s character, he resulted as forms of “3 Human Establishments”;
farming unit, radio-centric city and linear city.
 Farming unit: Refers to the space for agriculture and village that serve it.
 Radio-centric city: The urban concept of city with high level of concentration.
It is centralized with high density tall skyscrapers with large parks around it.
This is also called tower of the park. The low rise residential buildings are
placed around it.
 Linear city: Stated that the town should be along the lines of railway tracks or
river banks or highways in linear forms with easy accessibility of services.
 He used the concept of urban settlement which was fusion between the concentric form
of the garden city and ribbon form of the linear city.
 Centre of the city: consist mainly skyscrapers > high rise high density living >
exclusively for commercial use leaving more open space (built up area not exceeding
5% with 95% greeneries) > surrounded by belts of residential areas in the staggered
form with setbacks.

19
City of Chandigarh
 Initially, Plan was prepared by American
Architect Albert Mayer and Mathew Nowicki
 Later on, it was planned and designed by Le
Corbusier.
 Le Corbusier conceived the master plan of
Chandigarh as analogous to human body
 Head (the Capitol Complex, Sector 1),
 Heart (the City Centre Sector-17),
Figure 9: City of Chandigarh
 Lungs (the leisure valley, innumerable
open spaces and sector greens),
 Brain (the cultural and educational institutions),
 Circulatory system (the network of roads, the 7Vs) and
 Intestines (the Industrial Area).
 Some Features of Chandigarh Planning done by Le Corbusier
 The shape of the city was changed from a leaf to a rectangle
 Planned on a rigid rectangular grid iron pattern of roads
 Used modular system, module of 800m X 1200m
 Envisioned for the 5 lakh (0.5 million) inhabitants
 Planned in various sectors, each having human contents varying in numbers
 Sectors are separated by fast moving traffic arteries known as V2 and V3 and
connected with a central green flowing from south to north in the direction of great
mountains.
 The entire network of sectors was woven with a so called efficient system of traffic
and transportation governed by the rule of 7 Vs, changed by adding V8 to suit the
specific needs of the city
 The industrial area was placed on the south-east of the city to eliminate any
possibility of heavy traffic entering the city
 A 500 feet wide green belt provided an organic green to seal the residential sectors
from industrial fumes and noise.

20
 NEIGHNOURHOOD UNIT OF CLARENCE PERRY

 Chicago-trained sociologist Clarence Arthur Perry

(1872–1944) became one of the principal theorists of
and advocates for the traditional neighbourhood as a
basis for the planning of new towns and urban areas
and for the redevelopment of blighted slums.
 Perry identified six neighbourhood unit design
Figure 10: Concept of Neighborhood Unit
principles.
1. First, the unit was to be ideally a shape in which all sides were fairly equidistant
from the centre, and its size was to be fixed.
2. Secondly, a central neighbourhood or community centre was to contain various
institutional sites, including a school, grouped round a central green space.
3. Thirdly, local shops or shops and apartments were to be located at the outer
corners of the neighbourhood.
4. Fourthly, scattered small parks and open spaces, located in each quadrant of
the neighbourhood, were to form 10 per cent of the total area.
5. Fifthly, arterial streets were to bound each side of the neighbourhood while
6. Sixthly, the layout of the internal street was to be a combination of curvilinear
and diagonal roads to discourage through traffic. Vehicular and pedestrian
traffic was to be segregated.
 Perry’s concept of the neighbourhood was as a relatively self-contained building block
of the city, hence the addition of the word unit to his concept.

Figure 11: Neighborhood Planning by Clarence Perry

21
 GARDEN CITY – EBENEIZER HOWARD

 The garden city movement is a method of urban planning that was initiated in 1898 by
Sir Ebenezer Howard in the UK.
 Ebenezer Howard was born in Fore Street, London
 Garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by
"greenbelts" (parks), containing proportionate areas of residences, industry and
agriculture.

MAIN FEATURES OF GARDEN CITY

 The dwellings for all classes of people

should be distributed about a large central
court in which the public buildings would
be located
 The Shopping centre to be located on the
edge of the town
 The employment facilities for all features
of people to be provided by starting a
variety of Industries Figure 12: Garden City

 The industries to be located on the

outskirts of the town
 The city with a maximum population of
30,000 - 35,000 in an area of 1,000 acres
 The city should be surrounded by a
permanent belt of agricultural land of
3,000 – 5,000 acres
 The city with the advantage of both rural
and urban life
 To eliminate the private ownership and
whole of the land to be brought under
cooperative basis or held in trust for the
community Figure 13: A section of Garden City

22
 MAIN FEATURES OF HOWARD’S SCHEME:

 The purchase of a large area of agricultural land within a ring fence

 The planning of a compact town surrounded by a wide rural belt
 The accommodation of residents, industry, and agriculture within the town
 The limitation of the extent of the town and prevention of encroachment of rural belt
and the natural rise in land values to be used for the town's own general welfare
 Howard contended that his scheme was practicable for two main reasons:
 If land were purchased at agricultural value and a large population brought to it,
the increment in the land value would be sufficient to provide a substantial
economic foundation.
 As manufacturers were establishing works on the outskirts of towns and in
country villages, because they found the costs and conditions of working in the
cities too difficult, a concerted movement of industries could be organized from
the overburdened cities to the Garden Cities.

RADBURN MODEL – CLARENCE STEIN AND HENRY WRIGHT

The design of the Radburn neighbourhood model was in essence a hierarchical one comprising
of four levels: (Shrestha, 2020)

ENCLAVE
 The fundamental component was an enclave of twenty or so houses.
 These houses were arrayed in a U-formation about a short vehicular street called a lane,
really a cul-de-sac court with access to individual garages.
 While the back of each house faced this court the front of the house had a garden.

BLOCK
 Three or more of these enclaves were lined together to form a block. Enclaves within
the block were separated from one another by a pedestrian pathway that ran between
the front gardens of all the houses.
 The blocks, usually four in number, were arranged around the sides of a central parkway
in such a manner so as to enclose the open green space.

23
SUPERBLOCK
 The clustered 5 blocks together with the central parkway comprised what Stein and
Wright termed a superblock.

NEIGHBORHOOD
 Four to six superblocks commonly formed a neighbourhood that was bounded by major
roads or natural features.
 At one end of the parkway there could be a small school with community rooms. Roads
in the neighbourhood were to be hierarchical - major through traffic roads to border
each neighbourhood, distributor roads to surround each superblock, and cul-de-sac to
provide access to individual property lots.
 Stein emphasized that the prime goal was to design a town for the automobile age. In
fact the title on the drawing of the town plan was “A town for the motor age (Stein,
1928).”

OVERLAPPING NEIGHBOURHOODS
 Although Stein and Wright considered neighbourhoods as each being relatively
self-contained they arranged them in an overlapping manner to support joint use of
facilities such as hospitals, high schools, and theatres.
 They visualized the neighbourhood as forming the building block of the city
whereas previously the lot and the city were the basis for town design.

2.6. FORM OF A CITY

INTRODUCTION

Urban ‘Form’ and ‘Structure’ are often interchangeably used, but they are not similar. ‘Urban
Structure’ refers to kind, location & density of activities distributed across space in urban areas.
‘Urban form’ refers to physical shape of a city. It refers to the visible appearance of an urban
area determined by arrangement of physical elements (road network, buildings, landscape,
open spaces etc.).

24
 TYPES

RADIOCENTRIC

 Most frequently found city form

 A large circle with radial corridors of intense development
emanating from the centre.
o E.g. Garden city of Howard ,Hyderabad, Delhi etc
Figure 14: Radiocentric Form

Figure 15: Example of Radiocentric Form

RECTILINEAR

 It usually has two corridors of intense development crossing at the

centre.
 It is the Radio-centric form with right angles.
 The Rectilinear form is found in small cities rather than large ones.
o Eg. :Chandigarh-Le Corbusier
Figure 17: Rectilinear Form

Figure 16: Examples of Rectilinear Form

25
 STAR

 A star shape is a radio-centric form with open spaces

between the outreaching corridors of development.
 The star like settlements develops on the sites and places
where several metalled or unmetalled roads converge.
 In this form of settlements, houses spread out along the
sides of roads in all direction.

Figure 19: Star Form

Figure 18: Examples of Star Form

RING

 A ring shape is a city built around a large open space

 The San Francisco Bay is such an open space for the cities of
the bay area
 A ring and a star may be found in combination, particularly
where a loop road is built around the outskirts of an expanding
Figure 20: Ring Form
metropolis.

Figure 21: Examples of Ring Form

26
 LINEAR

 The linear shape is usually the result of natural topography,

which restricts growth, or the result of a transportation spin. Figure 22: Linear Form

 Leningrad in Soviet Union was planned as a linear city.

 The metropolis on the East Coast (cities from Maine to Florida) has become a vast
metropolitan with linear configuration.

Figure 23: Example of Linear Form

BRANCH

 The branch form is a linear spine with connecting arms.

Figure 25: Branch Form Figure 24: Example of Branch

Form

SHEET

 A vast urban area with little or no articulation

Figure 26: Sheet Form

SATELLITE

 The satellite is a constellation of cities around a main centre

 The satellite growth implies dependency on parent city but
still possessing its own identity
Figure 27: Satellite Form

27
2.7. PLANNING NORMS AND STANDARDS

For this Planning Norms and Standards, only the theme of urban infrastructure services has
been dealt. They are presented in the following tables.
Since we are planning for 1000 families, we approximately consider the population to be 5000
which makes our project fall in the category of sub city. (Development, 2013)

Sub City (10,000 to 40,000 population)

28
2.8. HOUSING NORMS AND STANDARDS

 Main road that connects the existing public roads should be 8m wide.
 In case of Secured Physical Planning, such main road should have separate entrance
and exit lanes up to a length of 20m inside the project with separate entrance and exit
gates.
 Buildings up to 10m ht. should be accessed by 6m wide roads.
 Buildings >10m ht. should be accessed by roads with 8m or larger width.
 Min. radius of curvature of road at turnings should be 3.5m.
 In case the land is filled for more than 1m depth, soil bearing capacity assessment report
is required.
 In case of row housing, buildings should be of uniform ht. and up to 3 storied only.
 The project should allocate min. 15% land for road and 5% land for open space.
 The area of the open space should not be less than 80sqm and its width should not be
less than 8m.
 The open space should not be adjacent to outer boundary of the project.
 Commercial building is not allowed to be built within residential area.

29
 SETBACK TO NEIGHBORING BOUNDARY

BUILDING UP TO 10M HEIGHT: 1.5M

In case the wall is blank without any door, window or ventilator, setback is not needed.
Building 1 Building 2

Height <=10Metre

Height

BUILDING HEIGHT BETWEEN 10M AND 17M:

 3m is for public buildings (school, hospital, cinema, multiplex, hotel, hall etc.)
 2m for other buildings (residential and residential cum commercial)

Building 1 Building 2

17M > Height >10M

4.0 m

Setback = 2.0 m

COMMERCIAL BUILDING UP TO 17M HEIGHT IN MAIN MARKET AREAS:

Setback = Building Height/4. But should not be less than 5 m.

50M Ht. .Building

19M Ht..Building 30M Ht. Building

Min. 5 M 5M 7.5M 7.5M 12.5M

30
 GROUND COVERAGE (GCR)

S.N. Building Type GCR

1. Residential Building
a. Site area <=250 sq. m. (0-7-3-1.8) 70%
b. Site area >250 sq. m. (0-7-3-1.8) 60%
2. Other buildings 50%
3. Buildings at old settlement area According to decision of local council

RIGHT OF WAY (ROW) AND ROADSIDE SETBACK (B)

a. New Planned Road b. Existing road width < 4M:

ROW: 6m ROW: 4m
Roadside setback: min. 1.5m Roadside setback: min.1.5m

c. Existing dead end/ cul-de-sac road: d. Widened road to cover right of way:
ROW: 3m ROW: road width
Roadside setback: min. 1.5m Roadside setback: 0

31
2.9. HOUSING DENSITIES
(Watson, 2003)

Figure 28: Detached Housing Layout

Figure 29: Semi Detached Housing Layout

32
 Figure 31: Row Housing Layout

Figure 30: Garden Apartment Schematic Layout

33
It can be inferred from the above figures that highest density can be achieved in row houses.
Roughly, for a detached house, lot size of 72’ x 100’ is required. For a semidetached house,
54’x 100’ is required where 2 attached buildings can be in one plot. Row housing requires 26’
x 30’ for one house plot. Garden apartments require 70’ x 140’ plot for one housing unit.

BUILDING BYELAWS FOR RESIDENTIAL HOUSING CONSTRUCTION

For group housing:

In heavy mixed residential sub-zone:
 Maximum ground coverage for plot upto 4 anna: 80%
 Maximum ground coverage upto 8 anna: 70%
 Maximum ground coverage upto 12 anna: 60%
 Maximum ground coverage :50%
 Far: 2.5

In other Residential sub-zone:

 Maximum ground coverage for plot upto 4 anna: 80%
 Maximum ground coverage upto 8 anna: 70%
 Maximum ground coverage upto 12 anna: 60%
 Maximum ground coverage :50%
 Far: 1.75

2.10. LAND DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES

DEFINING LAND DEVELOPMENT

Land development can be defined as conversion of raw land into construction ready housing,
commercial, or industrial building sites. Land development is about creating places for people
that will be cherished for generations to come and investments with growth potential and lasting
value. In a poetic sense, a proper land development is listening to the land and to respect its
spirit, individuality and beauty. Land development has been practiced throughout the world in
various forms. Nepal, as a developing country, has undergone a series of trials and errors in
land development processes. Basically, land development in Nepal have not been as successful
as in the developed countries; however, refined schemes have developed over time.

34
 NEED FOR LAND DEVELOPMENT

Land development projects encourage successful planning projects and policies which
eventually is for the betterment of lives of people. This helps create an environment of peace
and prosperity that everyone wishes for. Land development also highlights the potential
environmental impacts, resource sustainability and their resulting regulatory context. Land
development is an urban management approach that opens to the possibilities that government,
without surrendering its responsibilities, can utilize private sector initiative, energy, and
resources to execute tasks which it has traditionally thought government must do.

TYPES OR SCHEMES OF LAND DEVELOPMENT

Land Development can be achieved in various ways. Throughout the modern history, various
schemes have been tested in Nepal. Basically, there are three main schemes or tools used for
Land Development in Nepal:
 Guided Land Development: Ring Road, road extension in the valley
 Site and Services: Kuleshwor area, Golfutar area
 Land Pooling: Kamalbinayak, Saibu

GUIDED LAND DEVELOPMENT

The land development technique in which the development is guided by the advancement of
various infrastructures is the guided land development. It is a participatory process in which
the landowners donate their land for better land value and proper services. It guides the
conversion of privately owned land parcels in the urban boundary from rural to urban uses
through the infrastructure systems.

In the context of our country Nepal, Guided land development program is basically a road
widening and extension process in and around the municipalities. This land development
scheme can be considered to be one of the first techniques to be used for controlled land
development in Nepal.

Nepal is a developing country with rapidly growing population. This has led to urban sprawls
in most major urban areas of the country. Guided land development is needed as a guide for
planned urban expansion.

35
Advantages
 It is a participatory process so the land is acquired with minimum conflict for
development.
 In the context of our country, the guided land development program has been successful
for widening of roads for proper right of way.
 The ongoing guided land development scheme has provided a framework and basis for
development in the haphazardly urbanizing fringe areas of municipalities
 Encourages land owners to realize the increased value of their privately governed land.

Though this land development is an effective participatory technique, it has some

shortcomings.
Disadvantages
 It does not help to develop the plots of any area.
 No proper compensations are provided to the landowners who are left with too little
space after this process is carried out, which has discouraged the people from
participating in this process.
 Most land owners still consider that a contribution of land for this program is a loss
 In our country’s context this scheme has not been carried out with proper management
which has caused traffic problems and also pollution.

The construction of Ring road can be considered a proper

example of the guided land development. Ring road is a four
lane two way road circling around the cities of Kathmandu
and Lalitpur connecting major roads and places. The ring
road was mainly constructed as an attempt to bind the growth
of the city within its boundary and thus preventing the urban
sprawl. On the contrary, the construction of ring road has
caused even more unmanaged growth in its periphery. Figure 32: Connection of cities
through Ring road

Kathmandu ring road improvement project has been initiated and the stretch of road from
Kalanki to Koteshwor is to be made into an eight lane road with cycle lanes and pedestrian
lanes. This is being executed with Chinese assistance.

36
 SITE AND SERVICES

Site and services scheme is a programme carried out either by the government or private
organization which involves facilitating a particular area with the essential infrastructural
amenities so that private individuals or corporate bodies can carry out developments in such
area at affordable cost. (Bello Nurudeen Akinsola, 2014)

The key components of a housing scheme are the plot of land, infrastructure (like roads, water
supply, drainage, electricity or a sanitary network), and the house itself. Various inputs that go
into them include finance, building materials/technology, and labour. (Srinivas, n.d.)The
beneficiaries either lease or buy the allocated land. Often, they are provided access to a loan
with reasonable terms as well as an additional loan for the construction of a house. Although
typically not included in the project, it is expected that the plot owner would eventually build
a house of reasonable standard.

Site and services scheme has various advantages.

 It provides the most difficult needs of individuals and communities
 It organizes, facilitates and speeds up the incremental process.
 It helps families mobilize savings for shelter and promotes community cohesion and
shared responsibilities.
 It gives participating households legitimate ownership with rights and obligations.

With several assumptions and

misconceptions regarding low-
income families, sites-and-
services projects have been subject
to many shortcomings in its
conception, identification of
beneficiaries, implementation and
cost recovery. Thus sites-and-
Figure 33: Aerial View of Golfutar, Kathmandu; an example of site an
services schemes have often been example of site and services scheme in Nepal
rendered unaffordable or inaccessible for the lowest-income groups by bureaucratic
procedures, institutional requirements and political problems. (Srinivas, n.d.)

37
 LAND POOLING/ LAND READJUSTMENT

Source: Oli, land pooling: the public private participatory urban development in Nepal, n.d

Land pooling/readjustment is a technique for managing the planned development of urban

fringe lands, whereby a government agency consolidates a selected group of land parcels and
then designs, services and subdivides them into a layout of streets, open spaces and serviced
building plots, with the sale of some of the plots for cost recovery and the distribution of the
remaining plots back to the landowners to develop or to sell for development.

Figure 34: Basic Concept of Land Pooling

The scattered various shape parcels are consolidated

to uniform shape and sizes, cost of the project are
born by deducting the land- proportional to the land
area and inversely proportional to land value,
comfortable urban environment is developed, and
cadastral land maps and records updated with public
and private participation.

Advantages Figure 35: Example of Land Pooling

 It helps to control haphazard urban development and creates healthy urban environment.
 It is quite fair and transparent participatory approach.
 It provides open space and some community space for the community,
 It provides efficient residential plots to meet increasing housing demand with suitable urban
infrastructure to reduce the urban sprawl.

38
 The irregular and dispersed land parcels of a landowner are consolidated and returned with
appropriate shape and sizes.
 It also helps to solve disputes regarding existing shape, area and boundary of the plots.

Disadvantages
 The planners have less freedom to use planning principles to develop the area
 Due to its long process, generally it takes long time to implement the project.
 It requires some funds in the beginning to launch the project and to develop some basic
infrastructures and it is always problem to manage this fund.
 Zoning within the project area is usually very difficult because landowners always prefer
to get their land back at the existing location.

2.11. LAND USE/ LAND DIVISION

Land-use planning is the process of regulating the use of land in an effort to promote more
desirable social and environmental outcomes as well as a more efficient use of resources. Goals
of land use planning may include environmental conservation, restraint of urban sprawl,
minimization of transport costs, prevention of land use conflicts, and a reduction in exposure
to pollutants.
 The process of planning is started by dividing the entire area into blocks by roads.
 Plots for open spaces, parks, and community facilities are delineated.
 Then other service like hotels, Entertainment catering tourism, market place, parks, etc. are
added to create job opportunities.
 These blocks are further divided into smaller block areas by providing smaller roads.
 These smaller blocks will be subdivided into individual housing plots in such a way that
each plot will have access to
LAND DIVISION
road, drainage, water supply,
Streets
electricity, telephone. 20%

Service Plot
In national context, land use ratio is 6%
Open Space
planned in following categories: 4%
Residential
70%

Figure 36: Land Use Ratio in National Context

39
 BLOCK SIZE

Block is the space made by the road network. Its shape and size
depend on the road network.
The block is further divided into plots for the required units.
The basis for employing block size as a measure of connectivity
is that a block is an impenetrable area, therefore the larger the
block the greater its obstruction of movement through the Figure 37: Block Size

environment.
The three primary block-based connectivity measures are:
 Block Perimeter Length
 Block Area
 Block Face Length

STANDARD CONTEXT:

Block size
 Length - 100 to 200 meters.
 Breakage with pedestrian link when blocks are over 130 meters.
 Depth - 40 to 80 meters.

NATIONAL CONTEXT:

Blocks are divided based on:

 Plot size
 Number of Houses
 Pressure of urbanization and
 Reserve area
Special emphasis will be given to the following matter to layout block and plots:
 Access to highway and planned roads
 Junction points − Existed buildings and infrastructures
 Natural topography and slopes
 The blocks are generally designed longitudinal direction of main roads and the distance
between two open spaces will be 100-200 m.
 The width of road will be at least 7.5 m. with 1.5m setback except the existing houses.
 We can choose range of block size to create diversity.

40
 PLOT SIZE

The blocks are subdivided to provide access road to each plot and open spaces can be located
Centrally and planned clustery in order to have social harmony.

STANDARDS

 Minimum Size: 80 sq. m.

 Frontage: 6m
 Depths : Varies from 30m to 50m
 Generally, plot depth: 2.2-2.5 X frontage; and not exceeding 3 X frontage

2.12. HOUSING UNITS

A housing unit, or dwelling unit, is a structure or the part of a structure or the space that is used
as a home, residence, or sleeping place by one person or more people who maintain a common
household. It is the layout and development of residential unit in which people can live in
pleasant, peaceful and healthy surroundings with social, cultural and recreational facilities.

Points to be considered for good housing units:

 It is not enough to just provide structurally stable structure but must be located and
designed that it afford convenience, amenity, and social life to the community.
 The success and failure of the town planning scheme rests on the effective provision of
housing.
 Houses should be designed in different types and with pleasing elevation.
 Houses should be planned in harmony with the surroundings like lake, streams,
greeneries etc.
 Houses should be properly oriented to get maximum advantage of the sun, wind and
topography.
 Density of population should be in accordance with the standards specified by the
authority.
 Houses for different income group should be grouped
together to build the spirit of neighbourhood.
 Staggered arrangement of houses ensures proper circulation
of air as compared to grid house.

41
 DEVELOPMENT OF HOUSING

HORIZONTAL HOUSING

The skyline looks refreshing in horizontal

housing. Horizontal Housing gives much
more freedom of design than the apartment
blocks. Vertical circulation is minimized and
FAR is generally less. Traditional Nepalese
street elevation provides the concept of
horizontal housing. Light and ventilation is Figure 38: Horizontal Housing

much better in horizontal housing.

VERTICAL HOUSING

Vertical development is ideal in the context of increasing

land price and scarcity of land. Apartment blocks may
vary considerably, from two-storey blocks to high-rise
towers or skyscrapers. Vertical development has become
viable after the development of reinforced concrete and
made more effective due to the development of lift.

Figure 39: Vertical Housing

TYPES OF HOUSING

DETACHED HOUSING

A stand-alone house (also called a single-detached

dwelling, detached residence or detached house) is a
free-standing residential building. It is sometimes
referred to as a single-family home, as opposed to a
multi-family residential dwelling. It is set on a separate
lot. Includes ownership rights. And there is advantage of Figure 40: Detached Housing

addition of some rooms for the landowner if needed. A single detached dwelling contains only one
dwelling unit and is completely separated by open space on all sides from any other structure, except
its own garage or shed. Most single family homes are built on lots larger than the structure itself,
adding an area surrounding the house.

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 SEMI – DETACHED HOUSING

A semi-detached house is a single family duplex dwelling

house that shares one common wall with the next house. The
name distinguishes this style of house from detached houses,
with no shared walls, and terraced houses, with a shared wall on
both sides. It has separate entrances and often the plans are
mirror images of each other
Figure 41: Semi - Detached Housing

ROW HOUSING

A row of identical houses connected side by side and shares

common wall with the houses next to it

Figure 42: Row Housing

APARTMENT BUILDING

An apartment, or flat, is a self-contained housing unit that

occupies only part of a building, generally on a single storey.
It can be walking up buildings where upper floors are served
by stairs or elevator buildings. It can have internal stairways
to serve two or more levels.
Figure 43: Apartment Building

2.12.2.4.1. LOW RISE OR MEDIUM RISE APARTMENT

Building usually over G+8 -25 stories are medium rise and below 8 are low rise apartment
provided with an elevator. Plot coverage is moderate (50% - 70%)

Figure 44 : Different Types of Apartments

43
 Unit types Story Units per House area Parking units
hectare (m2)
Detached 1 15 111.48 15 on-site parking
houses
Semi detached 2 40 118.92 40 on-site parking

Row houses 2 45 119.66 55 on-site parking

2.5 60 118.92 55 on-site parking

3 95 123.19 65 on-site parking

Apartment Low rise 90 111.67 25 on each side street =50

+40 on site

Medium 137 111.67 110 on-site parking

High rise 257 110.37 105 on-site parking

DUPLEXES

In this type, two or more housing units form a group and common
party walls are jointly owned. It is a single structure with a single
owner, featuring two residences (either side by side or upstairs and
downstairs) with private entrances.

Figure 45 : Duplexes

QUADRUPLE/FOURPLEX

The consolidation of four single-family houses into one structure

utilizing common wall is present here. Greater use of total site for
outdoor living is achieved.

Figure 46 : Fourplex

44
 GENERAL CONSIDERATION FOR TYPICAL ROOM SIZE FOR HOUSING

Table 1: General consideration for typical room sizes

Room Type Small Average Large

Halls 3’-0” wide 3’ -6” wide 3’9” wide
Area 10 x 20 20 x 20 22 x 25
Storage wall 6’ deep 12’ deep 18’ deep
Bedroom 8 x 10 10 x 12 12 x 18
Family room 12 x 15 15 x 18 15 x 22
Closet 2x4 2x8 2x15
One-Rod wall-in closet 4x3 4x6 4x8
Two-Rod wall-in closet 6x4 6x6 6x8
Porch 6x8 8 x 12 12 x 20
Entry 6x6 8 x 10 8 x 15
One-car garage 11 x 19 13 x 25 16 x 25
Two-car garage 20 x 20 22 x 22 25 x 25

CIRCULATION

Table 2 : Requirements for Circulation

Road Type Single Family Multifamily

Street width 50 ft 60 ft
Pavements width curbs 26 ft 32 ft
Straight curb recommended same
Width 4 ft minimum same
Set back 3 ft minimum, if no trees; 7 ft min with trees same
Horizontal alignment 200 ft minimum sight distance Same

Vertical alignment 6-8% maximum grade desirable; Same

3-4% per 100 ft maximum rate of change
Cul- de- sac 400-500 ft maximum length Same
Turnarounds 40 ft minimum curb radius without parking; Same
50 ft min curb radius with parking
Pavements Non-skid with strength to carry traffic loads Same

45
2.13. INFRASTRUCTURES

Infrastructure is basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a
society or enterprise, or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function.
It can be generally defined as the set of interconnected structural elements that provide
framework supporting an entire structure of development. (Various, Science Daily, n.d.)

In neighborhood planning we study the three major infrastructures that impacts the planning,
they are:
1. Physical infrastructures
2. Social infrastructures
3. Economic infrastructures

Physical infrastructure
Physical infrastructure refers to the basic physical structures required for an economy to
function. It includes:
 Road network
 Sewerage system
 Solid waste management
 Electricity and communication
 Water supply

Social infrastructure
Social infrastructure includes physical facilities and spaces where the community can access
social services. Types of social infrastructure include:
 Educational institutes
 Housing
 Community centres
 Hospitals
 Open spaces

46
Economic infrastructure (Reddy, 2018)
Economic infrastructure refers to the facilities, activities and services which support operation
and development of other sectors of the economy. These facilities, activities and services help
in increasing the overall productivity of the economy. They also play an essential role in
facilitating the smooth running of all the sectors of the economy. Types of economic
infrastructures are:
 Banks
 Commercial centres
 Retail stores

ROAD NETWORK

A road is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places that has been paved or
otherwise improved to allow travel by foot or some form of conveyance, including a motor
vehicle, cart, bicycle, or horse. Roads that are available for use by the public may be referred
to as parkways, avenues, freeways, interstates, highways, or primary, secondary, and tertiary
local roads. (Various, Types of Road, n.d.)

FUNCTION OF ROADS

The main functions of road are:

 To provide a channel of movement of people and goods between various centre of the
town.
 To provide means of approach to all the residential places.
 To provide air and light to the building abutting on their edges.
 To provide space for laying the public utility service such as water means, drainage
pipes, telephone lines, cables, both overhead and underground

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS OF ROAD NETWORK

 Pedestrian accommodation should be separated from vehicle travel lanes by street trees
and/or on-street parking.
 Sidewalks may use between 10 to 20 % of road’s right of way
 In a motorized city,
o 30% of the surface devoted to road
o 20% required for off street parking
o Everyday parking should be within 100 m parking

47
 o Max. parking distant should not exceed 200 m from the store
Table 3: Standards of Road Network
Type Width
Fire lanes 20 ft. (6.1m)
Curb parking lane 6-8 ft. (2.03 m min.)
Parking + traffic lane 18 ft. (5.49m min.)
No parking (One way) 10 ft. (3.05m min.)
No parking (Two way) 16 ft. (4.88m min.)
Driveway for 1 car 8 ft. (2.44 m max.)

The most distant parking should be no more than 200m (600ft) from the stores; everyday
parking should be within 100m (300ft).

2.13.1.2.1. ROAD STANDARDS OF NEPAL

 Road joining planning areas should be 7 meters wide

 The road joining the blocks should be 7 m wide
 Road joining the plots should be 4 m wide

Table 4: Road Standards of Nepal

Lanes
All of these dimensions are for Table 5: Lane Widths
public streets. Local regulations
and standards often specify
similar dimensions for parking
lot lanes. The Uniform Fire Code
requires that fire lanes are a minimum of 20 ft. (6.09 m) wide, have a height clearance of at
least 13.5 ft. (4.11 m), have a 40 ft. (11.98 m) minimum radius on curves, and a maximum dead
end length of 150 ft. (46.3 m).

48
Driveway location
The existing street and pedestrian network must be evaluated before designing a parking lot to
determine the best location for entrances and exits. Local codes normally limit the size, number
and location of access points. Consideration in locating access points include:
Avoid crossing busy pedestrian routes.
Minimize the number and size of curb cuts to reduce conflicts with pedestrian and street traffic.
Integrate driveways into the street system. Place entrances off alleys when possible; otherwise
integrate the driveways with intersections. If neither if these is feasible place driveways far
away from intersections to avoid turning conflicts. Entrances must be “upstream” from exits.
Avoid left turns across traffic if possible (provide turn lanes where volume is significant).
Keep internal traffic flow simple.
Avoid requiring cars to back up onto sidewalks in order to exit a parking stall.
Entry control devices require at least a two-space off-street reservoir.

Driveway width
Driveway width should be kept to a minimum to limit sidewalk curb cut lengths and to
minimize pavement. However, sufficient width must be given to accommodate traffic flow.
Table 6: Driveway Width

Number of driveway lanes

For large lots, the standard method for determining the number of lanes entering or exiting a
lot is based on the highest demand for the lot during any 15-minute period. For example, we
should design stadium parking lots so that they can empty in 30 minutes.
 Limited exit capacity may be an adjunct to increased parking fees for jurisdictions
wishing to reduce auto travel in downtowns.
 The rate at which cars may enter a lot is affected by

49
 o The angle of approach to the lot (in order of ease: straight approach, left turn to
entrance, right turn to entrance),
o Drivers’ familiarity with the lot (e.g., commuters are more familiar with a lot
than are tourists).
 Rates up to 1000 cars per lane per hour are possible.
 Entrance fee and control booths reduce the entrance rate by 50 to 83%.
 Attendants can park 8 to 16 cars per hour per attendant.
 The standard formula for the number of lanes is
N=(S×R)/ (P×U).
 N is number of lanes,
 S is number of stalls,
 R is the percent of lot capacity moving at peak hour.
 P is the peak hour factor,
 U is the design capacity of the lane.

HIERARCHY OF ROADS

The hierarchy of roads categorizes roads according

to their functions and capacities. While sources
differ on the exact nomenclature, the basic hierarchy
comprises freeways, arterials, collectors, and local
roads. The related concept of access management
aims to provide access to land development, while
Figure 47: Hierarchy of Roads
ensuring traffic flows freely and safely on
surrounding roads.

CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN ROADS

1. Freeways or Express ways

 At the top of the hierarchy are
limited access roads Freeways or
Expressways, including most toll
roads.
 These roads provide largely Figure 48: Freeways and Expressways
uninterrupted travel, often using partial or full access control

50
  Designed for high speeds.
 Pedestrians not allowed.
 Connect main markets, important places.
 Complete separation of opposite moving traffic by a divide or median.
 Level crossing, sharp curves, steep gradients avoided.
 Telephone facility, highway police, servicing stations, refreshment facilities available
at regular intervals.

2. Arterial streets
 Arterials are major through roads that are expected to carry large volumes of traffic.
 They are often divided into major and minor arterials, and rural and urban arterials.
 The primary function of an arterial road is to deliver traffic from collector roads to
freeways or expressways, and between urban centres at the highest level of service
possible.
 For the heavy or important traffic inside the city.
 Usually along the expressways serving as principal network of traffic flow.
 Join central business district (CBD) with outside residential areas.
 Parking, loading and unloading is prohibited.
 Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections.
 Frontage roads are often used to reduce the conflict between the high-speed nature of
an arterial and property access concerns.

Figure 49: Arterial Roads

51
3. Sub-arterial streets
 These roads are also known as the major
roads or secondary roads.
 It connects arterial roads to areas of
development, and carrying traffic directly
from one part of a region to another.
 Spacing may vary from about 0.5 km in the
central business district to 3 to 5 km in the
Figure 50: Sub-arterial Roads
suburban fringes.
 They are contained within city limits and they connect important town centres.
 These roads serve slow moving traffic over short distances.
 The intersection on these roads are provided with suitable traffic signals.
 Less traffic than arterial streets
 Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections
 Parking, loading, unloading usually restricted and controlled.

4. Collector streets
 Carry traffic from Minor Street to Major Street.
 Meant for collecting the traffic from local streets to arterial streets
 Traffic using a collector is usually going to or coming from somewhere nearby.
 Full access allowed from properties alongside.
 Situated In residential, commercial, industrial areas.

Figure 51: Collector Roads

52
5. Local streets
 At the bottom of the
hierarchy are local streets
and roads.
 It runs parallel to an
expressway and allows local
traffic to gain access to
Figure 52: Local Streets
property.
 These roads have the lowest speed
limit and carry low volumes of
traffic.
 In some areas, these roads may be
unpaved.
 Open access from residents,
business or other properties
 Does not carry large volume of
Figure 53 : Distance between Bus Stops
traffic
 May be residential, commercial or industrial, depending on the predominant use of the
adjoining land.
 Allow unrestricted parking and pedestrian movements.

ELEMENTS OF ROADS

Shoulder
 To protect the edge of road and for emergency use of vehicles. (minimum
width:0.6m/recommended 1.8-2.4m)
Median:
 Road barrier between two opposing lanes (min. width: 5m/ 3m in exceptional cases).
 Provide median for roads having 4 or more lanes
Travel lane:
 Single lane width (3.75m) but minimum width of lanes are generally (2.5-3.25m)

53
 TYPES OF ROAD NETWORKS

Different pattern of roads could be planned, based on the planning concept, existing network
and the topography.

1. Grid iron pattern

 In this pattern, the whole area is divided into rectangular blocks of plots, with streets
intersecting at right angles.
 Straight and continuous roads are arranged in a parallel manner with certain spacing,
crossing at 90 degree with another row of parallel straight and continuous roads.
 The main road which passes through the centre of the area should be sufficiently wide
and other branch roads may be comparatively narrow.
 Traffic flow in this pattern is distributed in every direction.
 This pattern is simple and easy to adapt and implement. As a result, blocks and plot
subdivisions are also simple and efficient in space utilization
 The main road is provided a direct approach to outside the city.
 Streets run at right angles to each other, forming a grid
 Facilitates the movement of people and product throughout the city.

2. Radial network
 The centre of radial loop road network is the site with the highest accessibility.
 Public service and facilities, commerce, business land and park green land are
extremely easy to form at the centre.
 Based on star layout
 Inner outer ring roads linked by radiating roads
 Core has the business area
 Industrial area interspersed within the residential.
 Due to these facts traffic flow might be concentrated on squares or in the central area
and thereby congestion problem might occur unless alternative linkages are developed.

3. Organic layout
 This kind of pattern is observed in spontaneously formed and developed cities
 It is usually formed due to unplanned and haphazard development
 Amoebic layout and wastage of spaces

54
  Roads placed wherever necessary.
 Narrow passageways and bottlenecks might occur.
 Lack of acute pointed angles.
 Costly for infrastructure provision and congestion.
 Parabolic in nature.

ROAD JUNCTION

A junction, or intersection, is the general area where two or more roads join. A disproportionate
amount of traffic accidents occur at junctions, and thus from a traffic safety aspect junctions
require attention and careful design.

Design Requirement:
 Intersections on major links of vehicle only or
high order requires a minimum space of 500m
mixed usage streets.
 Generally an intersection should not be located
on a curve with a super elevation greater than 6
percent.
 An intersection should not be located on grades
steeper than 3 percent
 Lateral obstruction of sight distance should also
be considered when the location of an
intersection is being determined.
 Preferably, roads should meet near or at right
angles.
 Angles of skew between 600 and 1200 are
desirable for passenger cars. Figure 54: Types of Road Junction

2.13.1.7.1. TYPES OF JUNCTIONS

1. T-Junctions
2. Cross-Junctions
3. Roundabouts
4. Grade-Separated Junction

55
2.13.1.7.1.1. T-JUNCTIONS:
 The basic junction layout for urban roads is the T-junction with the major road traffic
having priority over the minor road traffic.
 Applications of T-junctions include staggered T-junction, which caters to cross-traffic.

Figure 55 : T- Junction

2.13.1.7.1.2.CROSS –JUNCTIONS:
 A cross junction has four legs and is present where two
highways cross each other.
 Overall principles of design, island arrangements, use of
turning lanes, and other parameters are similar to those
used in T-junctions.
Figure 56 : Cross Junctions

2.13.1.7.1.3. ROUNDABOUTS
 It is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is controlled
by markings and signs.
 Priority is given to traffic already in the roundabout.
 For low to medium flows, minimal delays at lower flows.
 Shown to be safer than priority junctions.
 Requires attention to pedestrian movements and accommodation of slow-moving
traffic.

Figure 57 : Roundabouts

56
The following factors influence the choice of selecting a roundabout over some other form of
intersection control.
1. Safety: Roundabouts should not be introduced on urban roads where the design speeds
of adjacent sections are 90 km/h or greater. For design speeds approaching this value,
consideration should be given to the use of rumble strips and warning signs at the
approaches to warn the driver to anticipate the roundabout.

2. Traffic Flow: High proportions of turning movements favour roundabouts.

Roundabouts should generally be used if the minor road flow is greater than one third
of the major road flow. Roundabouts are also an advantage where peak flows are 50
percent greater than the average flows. The roundabout shown below is acceptable for
traffic volumes of up to 15,000.

3. Site Conditions: Roundabouts generally take up more land than fully canalized
junctions do. The additional land acquisition costs for roundabouts should be balanced
against the increased capacity offered.

4. Driver Behaviour: Roundabouts regularize traffic flow and should reduce accidents as
well as increase capacity.

STREET

A Street is a public thoroughfare (usually paved) in a

built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining
buildings in an urban context, on which people may
freely assemble, interact, and move about. A Street can
be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often
paved with a hard, durable surface such as concrete,
cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed
with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise
prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic. Figure 58 : Street
Circulation, or less broadly, transportation, is perhaps a street's most visible use, and certainly
among the most important. The unrestricted movement of people and goods within a city is
essential to its commerce and vitality, and streets provide the physical space for this activity.

57
In the interest of order and efficiency, an effort may be made to segregate different types of
traffic.

Figure 59 : Road Section

2.13.1.8.1.GENERAL STANDARDS FOR THE STREETS DESIGN

In an urban neighbourhood the streetscape might represent as much as 35% of the total
neighbourhood area, and include all of the public or common space. In most cases the greatest
direct environmental impact of development results from the construction and use of streets,
roads, and parking lots. Suburban street width design requirements range from 16 ft. to 36 ft.
Although some regional differences are appropriate, the typical suburban residential cart way
need not be wider than 24 ft. This allows for parking on both sides and one clear traffic lane,
or two generous traffic lanes and parking limited to one side.
Table 7 : Width of streets

58
Table 8 : Street Design Standards

2.13.1.8.2.STREET SECTION

 Trunk sewer line depth: 2 to 6m (1’-6” to 5’-0” diameter)

 Water supply line: 1 to 1.5m (water supply and sewer line should have minimum
distance of 10’ between each other and have 4” diameter not more than 4’-0” and not
less than 1’-6” below the finished GL.)
 Electric cable: 1 to 1.5m
 Drain pipe: should be at 1/3 of the edge of curb and centre of road. (8” diameter)

Figure 60 : Typical Road Section with Service Inlays

59
2.13.1.8.3.TYPES OF STREET TRAFFIC

2.13.1.8.3.1.PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC
Standards for Pedestrian Ways:

 Pedestrian ways should be provided on both sides of arterial roads.

 For collector and local streets provision, Local Development Plans, Detail Plans,
and other studies applicable should indicate location and size of pedestrian ways.
 Pedestrian ways should be raised 15-20 cm above the carriageways.
 Minimum drainage slope for such streets should be 2.5 percent.
 The capacity of footways should be 30 to 50 persons per minute per meter width
after deducing approximately 0.9 m dead width in shopping areas and 0.45m
elsewhere.
 The gradient of continuous ramps should not be steeper than 10 percent.
 Minimum height of 2.3 m should be provided for pedestrian ways.

Table 9 : Consideration for Pedestrian Lane

Width of footpath:
 Single Lane : 3.75 m
 Two lanes (without raised Krebs): 7m
 Two lanes (with raised Krebs): 7.50m
 Multi-lane pavements : 3.50m per lane

Achieving an aesthetic for comfort, character and

use of the street. The pedestrian friendly street
shows the relation between building and the street.
Pedestrian Friendly Street relies on how public
space is defined by a building. Building enclosure
Figure 61 : Width of Footpath for different zones

60
is defined by ratio of building separation to building height. Walkability of street relies on
comfort and safety. Ratio between the building and the street goes from 1:1 to 2:1.

Figure 63 : 2:1 Ratio Figure 62 : 1:1 Ratio

Zones of footpath:
1. Kerb zone:
 Defines the limit of the pedestrian environment
 Prevents roadway water run-off entering the footpath.
 Deters vehicles from using footpath
 Is a major tactile cue for vision impaired pedestrians

2. Street furniture zone:

 Used for placing features such as signal poles, lighting columns, hatch covers, sandwich
boards, seats and parking meters.
 Can be used for soft landscaping/vegetation.
 Creates a psychological buffer between motorized vehicles and pedestrians.
 Reduces passing vehicles splashing pedestrians.
 Provides space for driveway gradients.

3. Through route or clear width:

 The area where pedestrians normally choose to travel (this should be kept free of
obstructions at all the time)

4. Frontage Zone:
 The area adjacent to the property line where transitions between the public sidewalk
and the space within buildings occur

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Table 10 : Zone of Footpath

2.13.1.8.3.2.VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

The operator of a motor vehicle may (incompletely) regard a street as merely a thoroughfare
for vehicular travel or parking. As far as concerns the driver, a street can be one way or two-
way: vehicles on one-way streets may travel in only one direction, while those on two-way
streets may travel both ways. One-way streets typically have signs reading “ONE WAY” and
an arrow showing the direction of allowed travel. Most two-way streets are wide enough for at
least two lanes of traffic.

Which lane is for which direction of traffic depends on what country the street is located in.
On broader two-way streets, there is often a centre line marked down the middle of the street
separating those lanes on which vehicular traffic goes in one direction from other lanes in which
traffic goes in the opposite direction. Occasionally, there may be a median strip separating
lanes of opposing traffic. If there is more than one lane going in one direction on a main street,
these lanes may be separated by intermittent lane lines, marked on the street pavement. Side
streets often do not have centre lines or lane lines.

2.13.1.8.3.2.1.PARKING

Parking lots can be massive seas of asphalt, contributing to the degradation of local water
quality and to increases in urban heat. In addition to the environmental consequences, parking

62
 lots are, by function if not design, a place where people and vehicles mix fairly freely, a contest
to which the vehicle is better suited. There are two types of parking facilities:
 On street facilities: On street curb can be divided into two, unrestricted curb parking
and restricted curb parking. The restricted curb parking could be police controlled
(through enforcing, restriction, posted sign or meter control).
 Off-street parking facilities: There two basic type of off street parking area, surface
lots and multi floor structure.

Table 11 : Standard Dimensions for Parking Lots

The parking on street provision is required when the residential or mixed used densities exceeds
20 dwellings/ha or the carriageway is less than 7.5 meters wide. Parking plans are required
when the proposed neighbourhood access street will provide access to:
 Lots less than 12.5 meters.
 A multiple residential development including up to 6 dwelling unit.
Street carriageway
In a 5.5m road the on-street parking can block the in and out of driveways whereas in 7.5 m
road the carriageway provides greater opportunities for on-street parking. In a 5.5 m road
parking is suitable if the lot has at least 10m of width or 50% of lot has 12 m width.

Disturbance when
vehicles enter or exit Lot width if
the driveways if around 10m-
parked on street 12m then,
parking at
5.5m street is
comfortable.

63
2.13.1.8.3.2.1.1.TYPES OF PARKING:

1. Parallel parking
For the designer, the parallel
parking configuration can be used
where suitable off-street parking
cannot be accommodated or is not
practical. For the driver, parallel
Figure 64 : Parallel Parking
parking requires experience,
confidence, and patience. Parking spaces should be a minimum of 7.5 meters long and at least
2.75 meters wide. On-street parallel parking spaces should be 3.35 meters wide.
Advantages
 Works well in extremely narrow, linear spaces.
 Requires minimum pavement area.
Disadvantages
 Difficult manoeuvring for most drivers.
 Less than ideal visibility of adjacent traffic.
 Inefficient use of on-street space.

2. Perpendicular parking
Especially effective in low turnover rate or long term
parking areas, the perpendicular, or 90 degree
parking configuration is the most efficient and
economical since it accommodates the most vehicles
per linear meter. Standard dimensions for this
configuration are:
 Parking space width: 2.75 m
 Parking space length: 6m
 Driving aisle width (2 way): 7m
 Two rows plus aisle width: 19m
Figure 65 : Perpendicular Parking
Advantages
 Works well with either one- or two-way aisles.
 Handles the most vehicles per square meter of pavement.
 Handles most vehicles per linear meter.

64
Disadvantages
 Requires widest area.
 Difficult manoeuvring for some drivers.
 Two-way traffic can create some visibility problems.

3. Angled parking
Standard dimensions for this configuration are:
 Parking space width: 2.75 meters
 Parking space length: 6 meters
 Driving aisle width (1-way): 4.5 meters
 Two rows plus aisle width: 14 meters
Advantages
 Reduced width requirements for layout.
 Easy manoeuvring in and out of parking spaces.
 Good visibility to the rear.
Figure 66 : Angled Parking
Disadvantages
 Doesn't work well with two-way aisles.
 Requires more pavement per vehicle than perpendicular parking configuration.

2.13.1.8.3.2.2.TURNING
The type, size and shape of a turning place in a road
depends on the road use in that particular area. It also
has to be suitable for the needs of the road user a user
and must meet town planning requirements.

Figure 67 : Turning radius required for a

standard car

Figure 68 : Turning radius for circular path

65
2.13.1.8.3.2.3.TRAFFIC CALMING:
Traffic calming involves physical measures that:
 Reduce the negative effects of motor vehicle use,
 Alter driver behaviour,
 Improve the conditions for non-motorized street users.
Typically, traffic calming slows motorists to a “desired” speed and develops the street(s) in a
context-sensitive way to meet the goals and objectives of the community (e.g., homeowners,
business owners, etc.)
Traffic calming can be accomplished by:
 Retrofitting the existing streets with regularly spaced measures, and/or,
 Rebuilding the streets to include new cross-sections
Traffic calming is becoming an increasingly important part of the effort for cities, towns, and
villages to become safer and increasingly liveable, economically successful, and sustainable.
Traffic calming has a myriad of applications in urban areas but is also an option for rural towns
and villages where the rural highway enters the town and becomes the main street.

2.13.1.8.3.2.4.NARROWING:
While there is no definitive published guideline relating street width and design speed, there is
a widespread understanding that narrow street width reduces speed. The width between
buildings has a similar effect.

Figure 69 : Intersection Bul-bout

66
2.13.1.8.3.2.4.1. ON-STREET PARKING

On-street parking slows motor vehicle speeds by

narrowing the travel lanes. This narrowing is
particularly effective because of the height of the
parked cars and the articulation (irregular
appearance) of the enclosure that the parked cars
provide. Further, the occasional parking manoeuvres
of slowing or stopping cars are a frequent reminder,
to motorists, of the other users of the street. Beyond
Figure 70 : Back-in / Head-out Angled
its immediate traffic calming effect, on-street Parking

parking greatly improves the pedestrian qualities of the street, by putting a barrier of parked
cars between the sidewalk and moving vehicles. Pedestrian benefits are increased through the
use of bulb-out, which result in more sidewalk space and shorter crosswalks at intersections.
Typical types of on-street parking include parallel parking and diagonal parking. These types
may be combined as desired, with parallel and diagonal patterns on opposite sides of the street
or alternating on the same side of the street to create or accentuate lateral shifts. A desirable
complement to on-street parking is the intersection bulb-out, which defines and shields the
parking, as well as provides a better street corner for pedestrians.

Though only one row of trees can be accommodated in the median, the appearance of a double
row of trees can then be created. “Back-in/head-out” diagonal parking is superior to
conventional “head-in/back-out” diagonal parking. Both types of diagonal parking have
common dimensions, but the back-in/head-out is superior for safety reasons due to better
visibility when leaving. This is particularly important on busy streets or where drivers find their
views blocked by large vehicles, tinted windows, etc., in adjacent vehicles in the case of
heading/ back-out angled parking.

Furthermore, with back-in/head-out parking, the open doors of the parked vehicle block
pedestrian access to the travel lane and guide pedestrians to the sidewalk, which is a safety
benefit, particularly for children. Further, back-in/ head-out parking puts most cargo loading
(into trunks, tailgates) on the curb, rather than in the street.

67
2.13.1.8.3.3.BICYCLE TRAFFIC

In most jurisdictions, bicycles are legally allowed to

use streets, and required to follow the same traffic
laws as motor vehicle traffic. Where the volume of
bicycle traffic warrants and available right-of-way
allows, provisions may be made to separate cyclists
from motor vehicle traffic. Wider lanes may be
provided next to the curb, or shoulders may be
Figure 71 : Bicycle lane widths
provided. Bicycle lanes may be used on busy streets
to provide some separation between bicycle traffic and motor vehicle traffic.

The bicycle lane may be placed between the travel lanes and the parking lanes, between the
parking lanes and the curb, or for increased safety for cyclists, between curb and sidewalk.
These poor designs can lead to dooming incidents and are unsafe for cycling.

2.13.1.8.3.3.1.BICYCLE LANES

Paths for cyclists can be shared with people

walking (shared paths) or bicycle only paths. Paths
need to be built wide enough to cater for the
current and future number of users. The accepted
minimum width for shared paths is 2.5m, with
paths expecting commuter traffic at least 3.0m
wide. Paths with heavy commuter and recreational
traffic should be at least 3.5m wide or provide Figure 72 : Proper bicycle lane widths
separate paths for cycling and walking.

Table 12 : Bicycle path widths

68
 Table 14 : Shared path widths

Table 13: Separated two-way path widths

Table 15 : Separated one-way path widths

2.13.1.8.3.4.TYPES OF STREET ARRANGEMENT

Figure 74 : Straight Street improved design

Figure 76 : Cul-de-sac

Figure 73 : Street around greenery

Figure 77 : T-Junction improved design

Figure 75 : Loop

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 SEWER AND STORM WATER

Sanitary Sewer:
The sanitary sewer mains are generally located on the centreline of the road. The line is a clay
tile pipe. If it were located in the planting strip, the roots of the trees might cause breaks in the
pipes. The centreline location also locates the pipe equidistant from building lines on both sides
of the street. The sewer line should be located below the water supply mains.

Storm Sewer:
Storm sewers are generally located one-third the distance from the curb line to the centreline
of street. It is always located on the opposite side of the street from the waterline. This is to
prevent any possible contamination.

Sewerage
Sewerage is the system for collection and conveyance of municipal waste water to the point of
disposal or sewerage treatment point. A sewerage is a converging network of sewers (building
connection, lateral sewers, main sewers, trunk sewers, intercepting sewers)
 Building sewers: Begins beyond a building foundation conveying sewage from the
building to the lateral sewer.
 Lateral/branch sewer: First element of the sewerage system, receives sewerage from
the buildings and conveys to main sewers.
 Main sewer: Receives sewage from the lateral sewers and conveys to trunk sewers or
intercepting sewers.
 Trunk sewers: Large sewers conveying sewage from main sewers to disposable
facilities or treatment point or to large intercepting sewers.
 Intercepting sewers: Large sewers used to intercept a number of main or trunk sewers
and convey sewage to treatment point or disposable facilities.

Sizes and position

 Lateral sewers have a larger radius than building sewers. Building sewers are either
100mm or 150mm size and 150mm is the recommended minimum size for gravity
sewer.
 Removal and disposal of sewage and surface water by sewers.
 Man holes shouldn’t be placed @ a distance greater than 100-150.

70
Connection of sewer line and water supply
 Water supply pipe should be min 1m above the
sewer system.
 Sewer line and water line should be more than 3
m apart.

Figure 78 : Distance between the supply lines

Norms and standards for Drainage, Sanitary and Water Supply Lines
 In no case shall a sanitary sewer be placed above a water main
 A minimum depth of 2 to 2.5m below ground level is sufficient for sanitary sewer in
parts of the city where basements are frequent.
 Water supply line not less than 750mm and not more than 1350mm unless in a duct.
 1m min Sewer pipe line
 A depth of 1.25m of sanitary sewer line may be sufficient to provide protection against
superimposed loads.
 Manholes of drainage system are required wherever a drain changes size, slope or
alignment also where a tributary drain joins a main line; and at intervals of not more
than 150 m along a line.
 Fire hydrants should not be more than 150 m apart to avoid excessive head loss in small
diameter hose.
 Minimum design requirement to locate water supply lines is 3 m from the nearest sewer
or gas main.
 Water wells are recommended to be at minimum distances of 15 m from septic tanks
and sewers, 30 m from drainage fields, and 45 m from cesspools
 Storm sewers should generally be located at one-third the distance from the curb line
to the centreline of the streets.

TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM

1. Separate system
 Carries surface run off and waste water separately
 Sewage by sanitary and storm water are collected
separately.
Figure 79 : Separate System

71
  Good for areas of irregular heavy rainfall.
 Can provide higher level of hygiene and comfort.
 Defects in pipes and manholes and illegal connections can result in storm water flow
into sanitary sewerage.
 Capital cost is higher than that of combined sewerage.

2. Combined system
 Underground network of pipes collecting and
conveying domestic sewage, industrial wastewater
and storm water.
 Required no on-site pre-treatment and storage.
 Sewers are laid beneath roads at > 1 to 3m depth
(avoids damage from traffic loads on roads.) Figure 80 : Combined System
 Manholes at regular intervals.
 Designed for gravity flow.
 Pumping stations are used when the sewers become too deep.
 Higher capital cost.
 Maintenance is costly and required trained personnel.

3. Partially combined system

A partially separate system is a combination of a combined sewerage system and separate
sewerage systems. This type of sewerage system helps decrease the load from a combined
sewerage system because only the water from initial rain falls(water from acid rain) is added
to sewage water and after than this system work as separate system.

Figure 81 : Partially Combined System

72
 TYPES OF SEWAGE AND WASTE WATER SYSTEMS:

a. Sewage treatment plant

b. Cesspools
c. Pumped station
d. Septic tank
e. Soak ways
f. Grease managements

SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT:

Sewage treatment plant is the packaged sewage works that converts raw sewage into water and
solid waste. The sewage sludge that is produced in sewage treatment plants undergoes sludge
treatment. It undergoes oil water separator, clarifier roughing filter, carbon filtration and electro
dialysis reversal system.

Figure 82 : Treatment Process Flow Chart

The treatment of wastewater is divided into three phases: pre-treatment, primary treatment
and secondary treatment.
Pre Treatment:
Large solids (i.e. those with a diameter of more than 2cm) and grit (heavy solids) are
removed by screening. These are disposed of in landfills.

Primary Treatment:
The water is left to stand so that solids can sink to the bottom and oil and grease can rise
to the surface. The solids are scraped off the bottom and the scum is washed off with water
jets. These two substances are combined to form sludge.

73
 Secondary Treatment:
The sludge is further treated in 'sludge digesters': large heated tanks in which its chemical
decomposition is catalysed by microorganisms. The sludge is largely converted to 'biogas',
a mixture of CH4 and CO2, which is used to generate electricity for the plant. The liquid
is treated by bacteria which break down the organic matter remaining in solution. It is then
sent to oxidation ponds where heterotrophic bacteria continue the breakdown of the
organics and solar UV light destroys the harmful bacteria.

Figure 83 : Sewage treatment flow diagram

2.13.2.3.1.SIZES OF PIPES

Proper drainage facility is a must in any neighbourhood planning. While planning any
neighbourhood, we have to consider much of factors like:
 Size of pipe 8" for the mains, lateral and 6" pipe for house branches
 Manholes placed not more than 100 to 150 m apart
 Min. diameter of sewer draining to street= 300m sewer lines below the water mains
 Min. diameter for the water mains=6“
 Min. depth of 2 to 2.5m below ground level is sufficient for sanitary sewer in parts of
the city where basements are frequent.

74
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste management or waste disposal are all the activities and actions required to manage waste
from its inception to its final disposal. This includes amongst other things collection, transport,
treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and regulation. It also encompasses
the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste management encompassing guidance
on recycling. The main steps involved in a solid waste management system are:
 Generation
 Storage and Collection
 Transportation
 Processing/ Recovery
 Final Disposal

TYPES OF SOLID WASTE:

 Solid waste
 Liquid waste
 Gaseous waste
 Animal by-product
 Biodegradable waste
 Biomedical waste
 Bulky waste
 Business waste

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN NEPAL

A survey conducted in all 58

municipalities of Nepal in 2012
found that the average municipal
solid waste generation was 317
grams per capita per day. This
translates into 1,435 tons per day or
524,000 tons per year of municipal
solid waste generation in Nepal.

75
 CENTRAL PRINCIPLES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

a. Waste Hierarchy
The waste hierarchy refers to
the "3 R’s" reduce, reuse and
recycle, which classifies waste
management strategies
according to their desirability
in terms of waste
minimization. The aim of the
waste hierarchy is to extract the
maximum practical benefits
Figure 84 : Waste Hierarchy
from products and to generate
the minimum amount of end waste.

b. Life cycle of a product

The life cycle begins with design, and then proceeds through manufacture, distribution,
and primary use and then follows through the waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse
and recycle.

c. Resource efficiency
Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production
and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to last use and
disposal. This process of resource efficiency can address sustainability.

d. Polluter pays principle

The polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting party pays for the impact to the
environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the
requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable
material

76
 METHODS OF WASTE COLLECTION

 Sweepers who sweep about 3 km of road on daily basis.

 Vans, rickshaws and handcarts for waste collection.
 Two modes of collection system
 Door-to-door collection
 Roadside pick-up service in other wards
The door-to-door collection system is undertaken by different private organizations involved
in waste management.

METHODS OF WASTE DISPOSAL

1. Controlled tipping
2. Land filling
3. Trenching
4. Dumping into the sea
5. Pulverization
6. Incineration

CHALLENGES IN WASTE MANAGEMENT IN:

 Human resources
 Economic resources
 Site management
 Transportations facilities
 Low Priority

WATER SUPPLY

It is one of the major utilities that is needed for the city to establish, as we know that water is
the essential part of life. Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial,
organization, community, endeavours on by individuals usually via a system of pumps and
pipe, irrigation.

Water supply mains may be located under the sidewalk, in the planting strip, or under the street.
Minimum design requirements will locate them at least 10 ft. from the nearest sewer or gas
main and above the highest sewer or gas main. Some engineers place water mains on the north

77
side of the East-West Street, and on the east side of a North-South Street, so that the rays of
the sun will be more effective in preventing freezing. Wells are used; they should be located
sufficiently distant from septic tanks, sewers, cesspools, and drainage fields. The usual
recommended minimum distances are 50 ft. from septic tanks and sewers, 100 ft. from drainage
fields, and 150 ft. from cesspools.

Water supply mains may be located:

 Under the side walk
 In the planning strip
 Under the street

The purpose of water supply is to provide water to consumer with appropriate quality, quantity
and pressure.

REQUIREMENT OF GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

 Water quality should not get deteriorated.

 Water should be supplied to desired place with sufficient pressure head.
 All the distribution pipes should be at least 1m away from the sewer line.

LAYOUTS OF DISTRIBUTION NETWORK:

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such there layout
follow the layout of road.

2.13.4.2.1.TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ARE:

a. Dead end system

b. Radial system
c. Grid iron
d. Ring system

PIPE POSITION

All underground pipework except for pipes laid

under a building should be laid at a depth of no less
than 750mm from the finished ground level and no
more than 1,350mm.
Figure 85 : Pipe Position

78
 PIPE DIAMETER

 The main pipe line = 4’’

 Sub pipe line
 Generally =1/2’’ (residence)
 According to the customer’s requirement = 1’’ or 2’’ diameter
 General pipe line of main water supply =20 to 25m
 In every 6m connection fixtures are required

DEMAND

 For domestic use : 235 litres/ person

Figure 86 : Domestic demand (left) Commercial and institutional demand (right)

METHODS OF WATER SUPPLY

a. Gravity system
b. Pumping system
c. Dual system

TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY

a. Central water supply

b. Parallel water supply

Figure 87 : Central water supply Figure 88 : Parallel water supply

79
 ELECTRICITY AND COMMUNICATION

Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric
charge.

Figure 89 : Distribution of electricity from source

REQUIREMENTS

 At entrances, intersections and steps, dead ends and remote walk ways.
 Proper safety and security of the neighbourhood and its people.
 Mounting height of the street lamps is 9m standard and
 Should be placed at the distance of 45m to 60m.

DOMESTIC SUPPLY OF ELECTRICITY:

 Domestic electric supply usually effected through distribution system and described as
single phase or three phase. Normally, in small building are supplied with single phase
(two wires) and gives a voltage of 240V the loading of the supply wiring is balanced
between the phases in rotation so that each one services every third building.
 In three phase, four wires bring 420/240V, 50 cycles per second. The voltage between
any two of the phase wire is 415V. And between any phase wire and neutral is 240. The
balancing of load is then achieved by serving different areas of the building by different
phases.
Table 16 : Illumination for types of lights in road lanes

80
 REQUIRED FOR PLANNING:

 Transmission tower: 80-100 sq. m.

 Distribution tower: 20-25 sq. m.
 40-100 Watt solar Home System

CLEARANCES AND DISTANCES:

 Head clearance of a street light from street surface should be a minimum of 6.85m.
 Location of the post (or place) to which the street light is fixed should be a minimum
of 0.5m from the edge of the street or the outer of the adjoining pedestrian walking,
should the width of the walking be within 2m.
 Where major electricity cables are not laid underground, head clearance of all overhead
electricity lines from street level should be a minimum of 5m.
 The location of a pole (or post) carrying overhead electricity lines should be a minimum
of 2m from the edge of the street.
 9.9 meter high on local roads, 10.7 meters high on collector road and 12.5 meter high
on arterial road.
 Minimum distance between the poles is
 16.5 m distance for 9.9 m to 10.7 m high poles
 20 m distance for 12.5 m high poles.

Figure 90 : Height of poles required for different areas

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 NORMS AND STANDARDS

TYPES OF SUPPLY

1. Overhead supply
2. Underground supply

2.13.5.6.1. OVERHEAD SUPPLY

An overhead power line is a structure used in electrical power transmission and distribution to
transmit electricity along large distances. It consists of one or more conductors (commonly
multiples of three) suspended by tower or poles. Since most of the insulation is provided by
air, overhead power lines are generally the lowest cost method of power transmission for large
quality of electrical energy.

Pole Placement:
 Maximum number of customer
services: in order to minimize costs, poles
should be positioned so as to maximize the
number of customers serviced from one
pole.
 Street lighting: Distribution poles are
Figure 91 : Alignment of poles
used to carry streetlights. Therefore,
they should be positioned considering the street lighting design requirements.
 Driveway crossovers: Poles and stays should not be located within 1m of an existing
or planned driveway crossover.

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Height of pole
 High or local roads-9.9m
 Collector road -10.7m
 Arterial road-12.5m
 Distance between the poles for 9.9m to 10.7m high pole -16.5m
 For 12.5m high poles-20m

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2.13.5.6.2.UNDERGROUND SUPPLY

The underground system of electrical distribution of power in large cities in increasingly being
adopted, although it is costly system of distribution as compared to overhead system. An
underground cable consists of one or more conductors covered with some suitable insulating
material and surrounded by a protecting cover. The cable is laid underground to transmit
electrical power. It ensures the continuity of supply apart from the following advantages:
 It ensures non-interrupted continuity of supply.
 Its maintenance is less.
 It has a long life.
 Its appearance is good.
 It eliminates hazards of electrocution due to breakage of overhead conductors.

Figure 92 : Concealed Wiring

STREET LIGHTING

Street lighting is one of the most important design

components of the pedestrian‘s environment after dark.
High levels of illumination have been found to reduce
pedestrian accidents, and to improve pedestrian security
and area image.
Balanced light distribution is based on the use of
luminaries with the most efficient lighting patterns for
the particular space and by spacing lighting poles for
Figure 93 : Street Lighting
efficient overlapping of lighting patterns. et lighting is one of the most important design
components of the pedestrian‘s environment after dark. High levels of illumination have been

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found to reduce pedestrian accidents, and to improve pedestrian security and area image.
Balanced light distribution is based on the use of luminaries with the most efficient lighting
patterns for the particular space and by spacing lighting poles for efficient overlapping of
lighting patterns.

TELECOMMUNICATION

Similar to electric power, telephone lines can be located either above or below ground. In the
past almost all lines were above ground and either utilized the electric line poles or set up an
additional line. It is intended to facilitate and maintain a communication network for public or
private use on an intra or intercommunity basis. These services are becoming increasingly more
important; expansion or such facilities can be expected. In either case, they are unsightly and
subject to disruption by the weather. Telephone lines, TV cables, and other special lines should
all be located underground. Some attempts have been made to combine all electrical, telephone,
and TV cables into a common underground trench that would simplify additional installations
and maintenance. These lines may also be located at the rear-lot easement, if necessary.

 Where an HV overhead power line runs alongside an overhead telephone line, both with
their own supporting poles, the minimum distance to be complied with is:
 2 meters for bare conductors
 1 meter for insulated conductors

 Telephone lines may be supported, in whole or in part, on the same poles as an HV

power line, in which case, the power line must be above the telephone line by at least 2
meters for bare or insulated conductors.

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 When a LV overhead power line and a telephone line are supported by common poles,
the power line is to be located above at a minimum distance of 0.25 meters.

 A minimum distance of 0.20 meters is to be observed at the junction of two buried

electrical ducts and the junction of a buried electrical duct and a telephone cable.

 The following minimum distances are to be observed in the vicinity of a buried

electrical duct (not being a junction):
 0.50 meters in respect of a telecommunications cable buried directly into the
ground.
 0.20 meters in respect of a telecommunications cable within a sheath

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 A minimum distance of 0.20 metres is to be observed in the vicinity of a buried
electrical duct and a water pipe, or pipeline, or gas pipe, compressed air or steam pipe
(whether a junction or otherwise).
 Such distances can be reduced provided the facilities are separated by a device ensuring
sufficient protection against shocks from metal hand-tools.

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2.14. FACILITIES

Community service can be defined as those facilities which provide services to the members
of a community, who live in a geographically congruous area and share the major portion of
daily transactions of sustain needs. The provision of sufficient public facilities and good
accessibility is important to create an educated, healthy, productive, unified and prosperous
community. Extensive distribution of public facilities also increases the residents’ satisfaction
towards the provision of the public facilities in their neighbourhood area.

In general,
Table 17 : Area for provisions to accommodate the population

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PROXIMITY
Each facility has a different radius of
influence, according to its scale of service.
The distance from each point of the
neighbourhood to the different facilities is
expressed in meters or minutes walking.
Facilities with the smallest radius of
influence are nursery school and playground
(250 m – 5 min), from 500 to 600 meters
distance (10 minutes walking) and have to
be located facilities at hyper-block level
(primary school, kids centre, old age centre)
and the rest of facilities possess a radius of
influence between 600 and 800 meters (12-
16 minutes).

Neighbourhood level facilities are divided in two groups: daily use facilities, from 600 to 700
meters distance (e.g., market, secondary school, religious centre) and not daily use facilities,
between 700 and 800 meters (e.g., sport camp, municipal office, police station). Finally, city
level facilities can be located at more than 1.000 m distance from each point of the
neighbourhood, as they serve the whole city.

Table 18 : Minimum proximity of facilities

Community Facilities Walking Distance (m) Walking Time ( minutes)
Local Shop, Bus Stop Within 400 m Approx. 5 mins
Nursery School, Primary Within 600 m Approx. 7 mins
School, Community Facilities

Local Centre, Post Office, Within 800 m Approx. 10 mins

Restaurant
Secondary School Within 1000 m Approx. 12 mins
District Centre, Superstore, Within 2000 m Approx. 25 mins
Leisure Centre

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Figure 94 : Proximity of Facilities

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 EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

This category includes pre-school and formal school services. In general, the neighbourhood
components will include a child-care centre, nursery schools, and kindergartens in the pre-
school group, and elementary schools in the latter group.

CRÈCHE/ NURSERY SCHOOL:

 Will be provided for limited community so it should be within walking distance of

residential units.
 Facilities can be clustered with primary schools, community centres, local park \ open
space etc.
 Should be accessible by pedestrian pathways without having to cross major streets. And
where streets are crossed these should be minor streets.
 Maximum travel time: 10 minutes (whether by foot or vehicle).
 A maximum walking distance of 400-500 m.

PRIMARY & PREP SCHOOL:

 Should be located within easy reach of the local areas which it is intended to serve. As
a result, it needs to be located close to, but not necessarily along, a public transport
route.
 Primary schools can be combined with a number of other facilities to form a cluster (i.e.
a high school, community hall, playground, park, etc.).
 Should ideally be accessible by foot, bicycle and vehicle.
 Maximum travel time: 20 minutes (whether by foot, bicycle or by vehicle).
 Maximum walking distance: 750 – 1500 m.

SECONDARY SCHOOL:

 School should be situated on a major transport route with public transport stops.
 Maximum travel time: 30minutes.
 Maximum walking distance: 2250 m.

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 TERTIARY FACILITIES:

Adult learning centres are not usually provided as stand-alone facilities and generally “double
up” with some other form of facility (i.e. a community centre, hall, school etc.). No figures
have therefore been given as the most efficient provision is through doubling up where existing
space is adapted for adult learning classes.

LIBRARY:

Library performs a range of functions in society. Academic libraries obtain, collect and store
literature for education and research purposes and are generally open to the general public.
Public libraries provide communities with a wide choice of more general literature and other
media, with as much as possible displayed on open shelves. The functions of academics and
public libraries are often combined in a single library in large town. It is also very effective and
convenient for public. In academic libraries, reference rooms are provided, counters for the
loan from the close stacks, free access to the open shelves of the magazines, books or separately
presented educational materials in reading rooms.

The design should include large, open, extendible multipurpose areas which are roughly square
and organized horizontally rather than vertically and an inviting entrance. Areas for adult users
can have five or six shelf levels (max. reach 1.80m); in the children's area there should be four
shelf levels with a reach height of around 1.20m. Shelf aisles should not be more than 3m long
and can also be used to produce niches and exhibition stands. Library should be located in or
near community centre and at street level if possible.

2.14.1.5.1.NEED OF LIBRARY IN COMMUNITY:

 Library is the centre where they come to know themselves and their community
 It helps people of community to gain knowledge and develop new ideas.
 It can attract people of all generation.
 Can minimize the gap between the new and old generation
 Library help revitalize struggling or depressed neighbourhood
 Library is important partner in sustainability
 Helps to preserve the historic artefacts, oral, digital history projects and monographs
relevant to the community.

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 AS PER NEPAL STANDARD:

 Primary schools: 1 per 3000 populations at a distance of 0.4–0.8 km – 0.2 ha per site.
 Higher Secondary school: 1 per 7500 populations at a distance of 30min in public
transportation – 0.65 ha per site.
 Graduate/ Post graduate: 1 per 25,000 populations at a distance of 45min in public
transportation
 University: 1 per 40,000 populations at a distance of 1hr in public transportation
 Day Care Centres: The day care Centres should contain a minimum of 5000 sq. ft.1-
day care for every 500 families.
 Nursery School and Kindergarten: The Maximum size is 20-30 children per class.
No. of children of nursery is 15-20% children per family.
 Elementary School: No. of children of elementary school: 25-50% children per family.

Table 19 : List of Services, Requirements, and Location of Educational Services

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 HEALTH FACILITIES

CLINICS

 Clinics should be accessible to the greatest number of people and as such should be
located close to public transport stops.
 The facility need not be located along a major route and can be located a block or two
back, in quieter surroundings.
 Maximum walking distance: 2 km.
o Where it is not possible for the facility to be placed within walking distance, it
must be easily reached via public transport, with a maximum walk of 5 minutes
from the public transport stop to the facility.
o Maximum travel time of 30 minutes to reach the facility.
 The size of the clinic will vary according to the number of people the clinic will serve
- the more people the greater number of services required, and as a result the larger the
facility.
 The following guidelines are suggested:
 0.1 ha per 5 000 people
 0.2 ha per 10 000 people
 0.5 ha per 20 000 people
 1 ha per 40 000 people
 1.5 ha per 60 - 80 000 people.
 An estimated minimum of 5 000 people.

HOSPITALS

These are regional facilities, which must be located along major transport routes near public
transport stops. Regional scale of facility means that they would be planned for in terms of a
development framework and not when designing specific living environments.

 Hospital must be located in clear lines of road transportation.

 Community hospitals may be medium sized to large with 200 to 600 beds.
 Centre of catchment area - Within residential area; near intersection of residential roads.
 Maximum 14 mins distance from the centre of catchment area.

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Table 20: Level of Services, Requirement, and Location of Health Services

Figure 95 : Hospital Zone

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 RECREATIONAL FACILITIES

Recreation is one of the important parts which contribute to the general health and well-being
of the community. It brings enjoyment of living, encourages relaxation, and helps to utilize the
leisurely hour of all the age group young and old alike into the desirable activities thus making
the people to live a richer and contented life.

BUILT RECREATIONAL SPACES (COMMUNITY CENTERS):

Standards for community centres:

 Walking distance: 1.5 km – 2.25 km
 5 minutes walking distance of a public transport stop
 Maximum travel time: 20 – 30 minutes
 Estimated minimum size: 2500 m2 per 5000 people

2.14.3.1.1. RESTAURANT

A restaurant is a business which prepares and serves food and drink to customers in return for
money, either paid before the meal, after the meal, or with an open account. Meals are generally
served and eaten on premises, but many restaurants also offer take-out and food delivery
services. Restaurants vary greatly in appearance and offerings, including a wide variety of the
main chef's cuisines and service models. Need of Restaurants in the Community in present
context, living in communities are defined, not by common acquaintance, knowledge and
culture but rather by geography and economics. Thus, to create an environment where people
can interact and build communities that can reflect and embrace the diversity of ethnicity, race
and culture, restaurants can be considered as a node where people with common interest can
interact or people interacting can develop common interests and goals.

2.14.3.1.2.EXHIBITION SPACE:

Exhibition is a formal space for displaying various items of art and craft. Spaces provided can
be for permanent, semi-permanent or special exhibits that are held from time to time. Care
should be taken while fixing devices and furniture in walls, floors and ceilings so that maximum
space is left vacant.

96
For planning and designing of a gallery or an exhibition hall, following considerations
have to be made:
 A clear idea of what would be exhibited.
 Number of exhibits planned per year.
 Change in the kind of exhibits.
 Number of pieces in view in case of permanent exhibits.
 Scale of displays.
 3-d objects to be displayed in cases or pedestal.
 Planning depends on type of collection and the lighting needed for the same.
 Size and height of room > nature and the dimensions of the objects.
 Large sculptures -14 to 20 feet.

2.14.3.1.3.COMMUNITY CENTERS

Figure 96 : Community Centre

Ideally, the community centre should be as close as to the heart of the community, near other
facilities and accessible by public transport. A flat site is preferable and should have adequate
space for parking cars and bicycles. Economic planning is necessary to keep costs down.

By their nature community buildings must serve a variety of functions among which are:
 Meetings Child care  Parties receptions
 Children’s’ activities  Exhibitions Sporting
 Concerts and plays  Leisure activities, and
 Dances  Adult education

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 2.14.3.1.4. MULTIPURPOSE HALL

 To accommodate activities like general meetings, social recreation, games, dancing,

dramatics, concerts and banquets.
 The area of the room should be approx. 2000-3000 sq. ft.
 12 sq. ft. per person is allocated.
 The floor should be of non-skid surface to pre-vent many common accidents

OPEN SPACE

Various forms of recreation amenities:

 Children’s parks  Reservation
 Neighbourhood parks  Botanical parks
 Neighbourhood gardens  Zoological parks
 Town parks  National parks

1. Pre-schoolers:
Pre-schoolers require continual visual supervision. So, they are mostly confined to playing
right outside the kitchen door. Lots should be located where parents can observe the
children. As it is not possible to provide numerous of tot lots, they should be located within
clusters of units.
2. Children Ages 6 to 13:
Older children require larger play spaces and like to play without supervision, some
distance from their homes. Since the children are generally quite active and noisy, their
play areas should be removed from dwelling areas and separated by dense plantings.
3. Teenagers:
Teenagers have two distinct recreation needs, informal gathering places where they can
socialize and be away from their homes. They also engage in very active group games that
require a hard court or a field. E.g.: basketball, football, etc.
4. Elderly:
Sittings area for socializing and passive activities is important. They should be located
separately from intrusion and noise and well shaded. They should be convenient to the
dwelling units of most elderly residents.

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2.14.3.2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN SPACES

2.14.3.2.1.1. PRIVATE OR SEMIPRIVATE SPACES:

 Each family is entitled to its own outdoor space.
 The space shall be minimum of 12ft deep and extend the width of the unit.
 Complete enclosure is desirable. However the wooden fences or free standing walls
should be located to either side of the space.
 The ground plane should include a 100 ft2 paved patio.
 The remaining area may be lawn or ground cover.
 The end of the space opposite the face of building may be contained with a planting
screen.

2.14.3.2.1.2.ACTIVITY SPACE:
 Generous expanses of lawn area are desirable and will provide a setting for a limitless
number of informal games and activities. They may be visually accessible to the general
public, but are only to be used by the residents.
 should be varied in size and shape
 Min. dimensions should be 40X 90 ft.
Table 21 : Open Space (within plot) in respect to height of buildings

 The individual play courts should be located away from private or semiprivate spaces.
 Planting, grading or architectural elements may also be used to buffer these two zones.
 There should be one play court for every 100 bedrooms.
 Each of the play courts must have a minimum of five separate activities.
 A partial list of elements of recreation for activity space and their area are as follows:

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2.14.3.2.1.3. NEIGHBORHOOD SPACE
 Includes :
 Outdoor facilities clustered about the neighbourhood centre and
 The various play courts located throughout the development.
 The major emphasis in the development of outdoor facilities included at the
neighbourhood centre should be to provide a spectrum of activities which can
accommodate all age groups.
 The facilities and activities should be arranged in a manner which keeps user conflict
to a minimum.
 The minimum area for a neighbourhood park should be 5 acres
 The maximum area should be 10arces where 2acres area is needed for 1000 population.

Open space standards:

 0.5 hectare for 1000 people (age group 6-12)
 10 ropanies (only for children playground)
 Enclosed area for play lots based on a ruin of 10 sq. ft. per child equivalent to 21 sq. ft.
per family.
 Minimum enclosed area of approx. 2000 sq.ft. will serve 30 preschool (about 100
families)
 For 100 families 30 preschool is required.
Table 22 : Various open spaces for a neighborhood

Designs which is strongly for either ‘social’ or ‘private’ approach may not satisfy the majority
of occupants. Dwellings opening directly onto busy public spaces and access decks designed
to encourage social contact and neighbourliness may also suffer intolerable intrusion, while
screening designed to provide ‘defensible space’ may result in roads and footpaths bounded by
blank walls and fences. The balance obviously varies according to individual character,

100
temperament and age so no perfect solution is possible, but good layout will at least allow some
degree of individual choice.

Either approach is likely to lead to feelings of insecurity and dissatisfaction amongst residents.
In high-density layouts, in particular, user satisfaction is likely to be enhanced, and the
incidence of vandalism reduced, by sub-division of large anonymous public areas into smaller
spaces related to identifiable groups of dwellings. For houses, a public access road may lead to
a mixed-use pedestrian /vehicle court, with psychologically restricted entry, related to a group
of 20 or so houses and then to a further transition zone provided by a front garden to each
individual house.

2.14.3.2.2.DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR OPEN SPACE

Location:
The best location is the area that can attract all variety of users and may be both active and
passive. It may function as visual setback for a building, transition zone, lunchtime relaxation,
bus waiting, side walk café, display of exhibits and performances etc.

Visual complexity:
The design should incorporate a wide variety of forms, colours, and textures— fountains,
sculptures different places to sit, nooks and corners, plants and shrubs, changes in level

Uses and activities:

To encourage people to stop and linger in the plaza, it should have dense furnishings, attractive
focal elements, and defined edges.

Microclimate:
Comfortable outdoor conditions can be modified by bioclimatic design, including shading,
planting and evaporative cooling in summer and solar exposure and wind protection in winter.
Easy indoor/outdoor access to and from conditioned indoor public spaces should also be
considered for greater variability. The plaza should be sited to receive maximum, year-round
sunshine.

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Boundaries:
A plaza should be perceived as a distinct place, and yet must be visible and functionally
accessible to passer-by. Exposure to adjacent sidewalks is essential; a successful plaza has one
of preferably two sides exposed to public rights-of-way, the more likely that they are to feel
invited into it; thus, an extension of plaza planting onto the sidewalk may imply to passer-by
that they are already in the plaza.

Subspaces:
Plazas must be designed for large public gatherings, markets, or rallies. Large plazas should be
divided into subspaces, that is, smaller and recognizable units, to encourage use. Subspaces
separated from one another without creating a sense of isolation for users.

Circulation:
Plaza design is predicts the route by which people will flow in and out of a building, to ensure
an unimpeded path for their movement. It is designed to mesh with, or enhance, existing
downtown circulation patterns. Plaza layout also allow easy access to a café, bank, or retail
establishment peripheral to the plaza; access to seating or viewing areas; and opportunities for
shortcuts or pleasant walkthroughs is a need or desire to guide pedestrian flows, have physical
barriers such as walls, planters, bollards, or distinct changes in level or texture been used to do
so, rather than colour or pattern changes in paving.

Planting:
The variety and quality of textural, colour, massing, aural, and olfactory effects created by a
careful planting plan can add immeasurable to the plaza‘s use.

Seating:
William Whyte‘s study of Manhattan plazas, reported: ―After three months of checking our
various factors—such as sun angles, size of spaces, nearness to transit— we came to a
spectacular conclusion: people sit most where there are places to sit. Other things matter too,
food, fountains, tables, sunlight, shade, trees—but this simplest of amenities, a place to sit, is
far and away the most important element in plaza use.

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Visibility:
Public plazas are required to be completely visible when viewed from any adjacent street
frontage. However, to maintain design flexibility for certain public plazas that are located on
corners where streets do not meet at 90 degree angles, the visibility requirements only require
complete visibility from one street frontage and at least 50% visibility from the other street
frontage, as shown in the diagram below.

Figure 97 : Streets that meet at right angles (left) and streets that don't meet at right angles (right)

Plaza area is fully visible when viewed perpendicular from each street frontage. Plaza area is
fully visible when viewed perpendicular from one street frontage and more than 50% is visible
when viewed from the other street frontage

Figure 98 : Dimension requirements for minor portions of public plazas

Figure 99 : The relationship between major and minor portions of the public plaza

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2.14.3.2.3. TYPES OF OPEN SPACE

2.14.3.2.3.1.PARK:
A park is an area of open space provided for recreational use. It can be in its natural or semi
natural state, or planted, and is set aside for human enjoyment or for the protection of wildlife
or natural habitats. It may consist of rocks, soil, water, flora and fauna and grass areas, but may
also contain buildings and other artifacts such as play grounds. Many natural parks are
protected by law. An aesthetic of landscape design began in these stately home parks where
the natural landscape was enhanced.

2.14.3.2.3.2.URBAN PLAZA:
a) The street plaza:
The street plaza is a small portion of public open space immediately adjacent to the sidewalk
and closely connected to the street. It sometimes is a widening of the sidewalk itself or an
extension of it under an arcade. Such spaces are generally used for brief periods of sitting,
waiting, and watching.
 The seating edge: A seating height wall of stepped edge to a sidewalk
 The widened sidewalk: A widened portion of the sidewalk that is furnished with
seating blocks, steps, or bollards, Used primarily for viewing passer-by.
 The bus waiting place: A portion of the sidewalk at a bus stop, furnished with a bench,
shelter, kiosk, or litter container.
 The pedestrian link: An outdoor passage or alley that connects two blocks or,
sometimes, two plazas.

b) The urban oasis

The urban oasis is a type of plaza that is more heavily planted, has a garden or park image, and
is partially secluded from the street. Its location and design deliberately set this place apart
from the noise and activity of the city. It is often popular for lunchtime eating, reading,
socializing, and it is the one category that tends to attract more women than men, or at least
equal proportions of each.

c) The grand public place:

The grand public space also known to be the heart of the city are spaces close to the old-world
town square or piazza. When located near a diversity of land uses (office, retail, warehouse,
and transit) it tends to attract users from a greater distance and in greater variety than do other

104
plazas. Such a plaza is often big and flexible enough to host brown-bag lunch crowds; outdoor
cafes; passers through; and the occasional concerts, art shows, exhibits, and rallies.

d) The city square:

A centrally located, often historic place where major thoroughfares intersect. Unlike many
other kinds of plazas, it is not attached to a particular building/.

2.14.3.2.3.3.LANDSCAPE:
Landscape is vital, as it plays an important part in making an environment friendly and pleasant.
When it is designed well the landscape becomes an important component of the road network.
 It is one of the key elements that contribute to the character of an area – the combination
of landscape and built form helps provide a unique sense of place of value to the
community.
 It helps integrate or fit the road into its setting.
 It provides structure and a three dimensional scale to the road corridor.
 It makes the area more attractive by altering the existing design, adding ornamental
features, and planting trees and shrubs.
 It helps unify the road corridor environment, providing interest and a milestone to users
as well as helping create a simple, strong and intuitive driving experience.
 It provides shade for pedestrian areas and buildings and a setting to take a break from
driving in rest areas along the road network.
 It screens undesirable views of roads and traffic, helps filter air and water pollutants,
suppresses weed growth, helps reconnect habitat, and can help recover threatened
species.
 It also minimizes the carbon ‘footprint’ of road works – for at least the lifetime of the
landscape.
 It can contribute to a safer road, for example, by screening headlight glare, slowing
errant vehicles and helping create an intuitive, self-explaining driving experience.
 It helps stabilize slopes and minimize erosion.
Landscape must be safe to construct and maintain and safe for road users and pedestrians. It
should be designed to help improve road safety and where possible encourage safer driver
behaviour.

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 COMMERCIAL FACILITIES

The typical neighbourhood shopping centre is a highly special merchandising entity, it is a

careful section of complementary stores, each making its own contribution to the drawing
power of the group. Its first appeal is the supermarket; its competitive advantage lies in its
parking facilities. Except for the very small centre, which might serve a community of 250-300
families, a min. of 500 families is considered necessary to support a centre of 10-12 shops, and
1000-3000 families to support a large one of 25-40 shops. With the supermarket, are grouped
other stores of the basic service type: a drugstore, dry cleaner, laundry agency, shoe repair
shop, etc.

Shopping centres often draw a sizable portion of their volume from areas outside what might
be considered the normal or tributary area. This is particularly true if convenient parking is
provided. Adequate off-street parking should be an integral part of the shopping centre, with
good balance between front and rear parking. Best plan is to provide a moderate-sized parking
area in front of the shops to take care of normal parking and a larger area to the sides and rear
to accommodate automobiles during the peak period. If all parking is in front of the shops, store
fronts must be an excessive distance from the street, presenting an unattractive paved area
during off-peak periods. Conversely, if all parking is to the rear, the motorist is often
discouraged in seeking parking space.

Under average conditions, 2’-2” of off-street parking space should be permanently reserved for
each square foot of store area. Where the amount of pedestrian trade is expected to be relatively
high, the ratio may be lowered somewhat. Where the drive-in trade will form the bulk of
patronage, ratios up to 3 to 1 may be required for adequate parking.

2.14.4.1.1. RETAIL OUTLETS

A retail shop is one that is designed to merchandise in addition to looking good. Retail shops
initiates the sale, and the interior consummates it. The storefront and the design of the façade
must be attractive in order to catch the shopper’s attention and to draw the customers in from
the street. As determined by the real estate value and merchandising, structure, fixture, and
aisle space requirement, shops with one customer aisle only usually 12 to 15 feet wide by 50
to 60 feet long. Ground floor are preferably approximately 12’ high if no mezzanine is
included.

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2.14.4.1.2. SUPERMARKETS

The supermarket is a large scale emporium of merchandise

 Up to 400 m² : Retail floor space 3.00 m
 Over 400 m² : Retail floor space 3.30 m
 Over 1500 m² : Retail floor space 3.50 m

Table 23 : Parking and Circulation in respect to population

2.14.4.1.3.REGIONAL SHOPPING CENTER

 Site should be selected within the trade area.

 Location should be easily accessible to at least one existing or shortly to be constructed
major highways.
 Adequate size and suitable shape to permit proper planning of the merchandising area
and a proper number of parking spaces.
 Area required for 1000 population = 0.12 ha
Table 24 : Service Details

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 OTHER:

SECURITY AND SAFETY:

Safe neighbourhoods are a sign that people care about their community and are interested in
keeping it crime-free. These are usually groups of people in the neighbourhood or community
who take it upon themselves to report suspicious behaviour and keep an eye on who's coming
in and out of the area.

Police Services/ Security

 0.1 ha per market centre.
 Police station – 1 for 90,000 population.
 Police post -1 for 0.4 to 0.5 lakh population.
 District office and battalion-1 for 10 lakh.
 Police line is less in metro city.

The basic factors that affects the crime and their nature are:
1. Presence and proximity of neighbours
2. Signage of dogs, security/ burglar alarm
3. design of potential entry points

2.14.5.1.1.1.COMFORT AND SECURITY:

Physical comfort/ safety Safe: Attractive and secure pathways and links between centres,
landmarks and neighbourhoods. Improved accessibility to public services and facilities. Places
a high priority on walking, cycling and public transport. Emphasis on universal design.
Environmental comfort/ safety: Along with microclimate - and its modulation by topography
(as, say, in night-time temperature inversion), width and orientation of spaces, degree of
shading and admission of sun and so urn determines comfort. Proper shading, street lights,
pavements and furniture's desired.
Psychological comfort/ safety: Treating streets and other thoroughfares as positive spaces
with multiple functions. Providing formal and informal opportunities for social and cultural
interaction. Sympathetic mix of activities within a neighbourhood.

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2.14.5.1.1.2.THEORIES OF CRIME PREVENTION
1. Social Control
2. Enclose/Access Control
3. Criminal Justice
4. Defensible Space

2.14.5.1.1.2.1.SOCIAL CONTROL

Based on the work of Jane Jacobs (1961) this approach suggests that streets are populated by
strangers and that natural or passive surveillance (unconscious social control) will result from
diversity of use. Business establishments provide people with a proprietary interest in the street
directly in front of them, and shops give people a reason for using the streets. Jacob’s view of
the role of commercial facilities reversed the notion that these intensely public areas attracted
crime.

2.14.5.1.1.2.2. ENCLOSE/ACCESS CONTROL

This is the traditional target hardening approach to security design. The theory is that if good
security provided at the perimeter of a community or multi-occupancy dwelling, the potential
for live social interaction with the community increases and thus the likelihood of a stranger
gaining access and committing a crime diminishes. The environment can be designed to
discourage, even prevent, criminal access (e.g. airports are designed with security checks in
order to prevent weapons being taken on board). Unfortunately even elaborate measures are
not always certain to succeed. In the domestic environment smaller scale measures are
suggested which range from residential door intercoms to complex alarm systems. However,
in order for these to work, the community around which these security measures are
implemented needs to be homogeneous. In addition the formation of such enclaves can, as
previously noted, create problems by eliciting a more violent response from the external
intruder or by the displacement of crime to the surrounding areas.

2.14.5.1.1.2.3.CRIMINAL JUSTICE

This approach focuses on the presence of a security force as a primary deterrent to crime. This
may mean crime prevention through the presence of a high police profile or, as in parts of
Northern Ireland, the use of a military presence. The design of housing is focused on the

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provision of through roads giving optimum access for security patrols. Streets are laid out on a
grid in order to provide clear unambiguous access allowing the opportunity for patrol cars to
pass through all areas. Cul-de-sac are not used since these are viewed as dead ends and, in some
cases, potential traps.

2.14.5.1.1.2.4.DEFENSIBLE SPACE

This approach suggests that crime is less likely when

potential anti-social acts are framed in a physical
space that is under surveillance. The effect of
surveillance as a mechanism of social control
increases when observers know each other or when
they are linked by some common territorial marker.
This theory goes on to suggest that potential
criminals are more reluctant to commit crimes in the
areas which are perceived to be under the technical
Figure 100 : Effect of providing balconies acting
influences of a surrounding community. This as surveillance
implicitly suggests that a large number of crimes are spontaneous, occurring in response to
opportunities which present themselves in anonymous settings.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster Management can be defined as the organization and management of resources and
responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular
preparedness, response and recovery in order

Figure 101 : Process of Disaster Management

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2.14.5.2.1. FIRE PROTECTION:

Fire is source of energy is saves from, wild animals etc. yet it comes with boon and Ben. Instead
of its benefit it has capability of being cause for death of people and loss of property and money.
Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of potentially
destructive fires. Buildings must be constructed in accordance with the version of the building
code that is in effect when an application for a building permit is made. Thus safety measures
has to be taken from fire, which reads as follows:-
 A community of 10000 populations has a required fire flow of 10000 gal/min.
 All other residential buildings requires 1000 gal/min for two hours.
 Hydrants at each street intersections of 150m.

2.14.5.2.1.1.FIRE HYDRANT:
Spacing is based on the distance between hydrants along an approved access road.
 Fire hydrant shall be provided at spacing not to exceed 1000 ft to provide for transportation
hazard.
 Fire hydrant shall be installed no closer than 50ft and no further than 150 ft travelled path
distance to the dwelling.
 Water mains for fire hydrant shall be installed in accordance with National Fire Protection
Association and shall be a minimum of 6 inches in diameter.
 Fire hydrant shall be required on both side of the roadway wherever :
o Roadway easement width are greater than 6o ft.
o A centre median strip exist.
o The roadway has four or more traffic lanes.

2.14.5.2.1.2. EARTHQUAKE PREVENTION:

It is not possible to prevent earthquakes or change the likelihood of an earthquake occurring.
However, we can greatly increase our chances of safety and survival, by being aware and
prepared. Since knowledge and preparation are keys to your survival during and after an
earthquake, you should take steps to become informed.

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2.14.5.2.1.2.1. EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT MATERIALS

In the first half of the 20th century it was believed the heavier a building was, the safer it would
be in the face of an earthquake; however, recent architectural studies have found that buildings
made out of materials like concrete or bricks are actually at a disadvantage when experiencing
an earthquake. As the earth moves, the weight of the building slams against the structural pieces
from side to side. Therefore, the heavier the building, the more force it exerts on these structural
elements, and the more likely it is to come crashing down. However, buildings consisting
primarily of steel or other metals are much better at resisting earthquakes. Steel is much lighter
than concrete, but it still brings a great deal of durability to construction projects. More flexible
than concrete and other building materials, steel is more likely to bend instead of break when
experiencing seismic force. Because of these attributes, buildings constructed primarily from
steel require less earthquake proofing than those made from other materials. This means that
it’s easier to pass seismic tests and meet building codes in earthquake-prone communities when
your construction projects involve steel. Additionally, steel buildings require fewer repairs after
earthquakes, lowering maintenance and insurance costs for your project.

To make the city more disaster resilient, we need to follow some things as follows:
 Put in place organization and coordination to understand and reduce disaster risk, based
on participation of citizen groups and civil society. Build local alliances. Ensure that all
departments understand their role in disaster risk reduction and preparedness.
 Assign a budget for disaster risk reduction and provide incentives for homeowners, low
income families, communities, businesses and the public sector to invest in reducing
the risks they face.
 Maintain up to date data on hazards and vulnerabilities. Prepare risk assessments and
use these as the basis for urban development plans and decisions, ensure that this
information and the plans for your city’s resilience are readily available to the public
and fully discussed with them.
 Invest in and maintain critical infrastructure that reduces risk, such as flood drainage,
adjusted where needed to cope with climate change.
 Assess the safety of all schools and health facilities and upgrade these as necessary.

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  Apply and enforce realistic, risk compliant building regulations and land use-planning
principles. Identify safe land for low-income citizens and upgrade informal settlements,
wherever feasible.
 Ensure that education programs and training on disaster risk reduction are in place in
schools and local communities.
 Protect ecosystems and natural buffers to mitigate floods, storm surges and other
hazards to which your city may be vulnerable. Adapt to climate change by building on
good risk reduction practices.
 Install early warning systems and emergency management capacities in your city and
hold regular public preparedness drills.
 After any disaster, ensure that the needs of the affected population are placed at the
centre of reconstruction, with support for them and their community organizations to
design and help implement responses, including rebuilding homes and livelihoods.

UNIVERSAL ACCESSIBILITY

 Equitable use: The design is useful and accessible to people with diverse abilities.
 Flexibility in use: The design accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and
abilities.
 Simple and intuitive use: Use of the design is easy to understand, regardless of the user‘s
experience, knowledge, language skills or current concentration level.
 Perceptible information: The design communicates necessary information effectively to
the user, regardless of ambient condition or the user‘s sensory abilities.
 Tolerance for error: The design minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of
accidental or unintended actions.
 Low physical effort: The design can be used efficiently and comfortably and with a
minimum of fatigue.
 Size and space for approach and use: Appropriate size and space is provided for
approach, reach, manipulation and use, regardless of user‘s body size, posture or mobility.

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 NOISE POLLUTION CONTROL

Buildings can be arranged with noisy

and quiet sides. If the principal
source of noise is relatively near. The
rooms with low noise level criteria
located on the quite side and the
rooms with higher criteria are located
on the noisy side. The thoughtful
location and orientation of buildings Figure 102 : Upwind Building less noisy compared to downwind

on a site can aid in controlling noise. The other techniques are providing acoustical shields by
existing terrain, natural landscaping or wooded areas. The orientation and planning also plays
an important role.

Figure 103 : Possible section for noise control

2.15. PLANNING A SUSTAINABLE NEIGHBORHOOD

(HABITAT, 2015)
Sustainable is an important phenomenon that has been stressed over these days. Any
neighbourhood that we develop should be such that it reflects the wills and aspirations of the
people living in it, it utilizes the resources wisely in a balanced manner without affecting the
right of future generation towards those resources. Sustainable design (also called
environmental design, environmentally sustainable design, environmentally conscious design,
etc.) is the philosophy of designing physical objects, the built environment, and services to
comply with the principles of social, economic and ecological sustainability.

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 A NEW STRATEGY OF SUSTAINABLE NEIGHBORHOOD PLANNING:
FIVE PRINCIPLES

Cities of the future should build a different type of urban structure and space, where city life
thrives and the most common problems of current urbanization are addressed. UN-Habitat
proposes an approach that summarizes and refines existing sustainable urban planning theories
to help build a new and sustainable relationship between urban dwellers and urban space, and
to increase the value of urban land. This approach is based on 5 principles that support the 3
key features of sustainable neighbourhoods and cities: compact, integrated, connected.

The five principles are:

1. Adequate space for streets and an efficient street network:

The street network should occupy at least 30 per cent of the land and at least 18 km of street
length per km².

2. High density:
At least 15,000 people per km², that is 150 people/ha or 61 people/acre.

3. Mixed land-use:
At least 40 per cent of floor space should be allocated for economic use in any
neighbourhood.

4. Social mix:
The availability of houses in different price ranges and tenures in any given neighbourhood
to accommodate different incomes; 20 to 50 per cent of the residential floor area should be
for low cost housing; and each tenure type should be not more than 50 per cent of the total.

5. Limited land-use specialization:

This is to limit single function blocks or neighbourhoods; single function blocks should
cover less than 10 per cent of any neighbourhood.

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In supporting sustainable neighbourhoods, the Five Principles seek to:
 Promote high density urban growth, alleviate urban sprawl and maximize land
efficiency.
 Promote sustainable, diversified, socially equal and thriving communities in
economical ways.
 Encourage walkable neighbourhoods and reduce car dependency.
 Provide an interconnected network of streets which facilitate safe, efficient and pleasant
walking, cycling and driving.
 Foster local employment, local produce and local consumption.
 Provide a variety of lot sizes and housing types to cater for the diverse housing needs
of the community, at densities which can ultimately support the provision of local
services.

KEY FEATURES OF SUSTAINABLE NEIGHBOURHOOD:

The Five Principles promoted by UN-Habitat are meant to foster sustainable urban
development by creating liveable and efficient neighbourhoods. Sustainable cities are
prosperous, convenient, liveable, and safe. A sustainable city would possess the following key
features, which the Five Principles contribute to:

A vibrant street life:
Supporting and promoting street life by enabling a variety of activities, conducive frontage and
street width, and reducing the presence and role of private transport. The Five Principles encourage
high density and mixed land use which boost a lively street life. A high population density generates
sufficient industrial and commercial service demand while mixed land use provides adequate
manufacturing and service space. Cities consistent with the Five Principles are able to link demand
with supply and thus stimulate a prosperous city street life which satisfies people’s material and
spiritual needs and creates a safe and vibrant city life. This is a key feature of sustainable cities.

2. Walkability:

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Promoting walkability as a key measure to bring people into the public space, reduce congestion
and boost local economy and interactions. A vibrant street life encourages people to walk or cycle
around, while a rational street network enables necessary city administrative services to be offered
within walking or cycling distance and ensures security. High density, mixed land use and a social
mix make proximity to work, home and services possible. Walkability helps to reduce automobile
reliance and thus alleviate relevant congestion, air pollution and resource depletion issues. It is
healthier to “walk more and drive less”! Pedestrians add an incredible amount of vibrancy to city
life.

3. Affordability:
Supporting affordability of transactions and economic activities, as well as of services and housing,
by promoting proximity and reducing costs and building services for a diverse group of users.
Proximity, brought about by applying the Five Principles, helps to reduce wastage of time and
resources and thus brings down general service costs. Furthermore, the social mix principle tries to
promote a rational distribution of urban public resources and provides adequate housing for
different revenue groups through city planning regulations - ensuring social equity and promoting
economic efficiency. An affordable and accommodating city is a core feature of a sustainable city.

PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE NEIGHBOURHOOD PLANNING

PRINCIPLE 1: ADEQUATE SPACE FOR STREETS AND AN EFFICIENT

STREET NETWORK

Principle 1 aims to develop an adequate level of street network that not only works for vehicles
and public transport but also specifically aims to attract pedestrians and cyclists. It will include
a street hierarchy with arterial routes and local streets based on traffic speed differences. The
street network will also shape the urban structure which, in turn, sets the pattern of development
blocks, streets, buildings, open spaces and landscape.

To design the street network in a high density city, the amount of land needed for roads and
parking needs to be determined. According to research on urban impervious surface coverage,

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complex functions and high population density require high street coverage. The research
indicates that 20-30 per cent of urban land and 40-60 per cent of commercial centre land is
used for roads and parking. In high density mixed-use urban areas, it is recommended that at
least 30 per cent of land is allocated for roads and parking.

Fig: Surface Coverage

To develop sustainable mobility, the design of the street network should differ from the
modernist practice in the following aspects:
 Streets are walkable and cyclist friendly
 Public transport is encouraged
 Road hierarchy is highly interconnected
 Sufficient parking space is provided

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These characteristics should be reflected in the street design and construction. Walkability in a
neighbourhood can be measured by the walking distance to key service; this is usually from
400 to 450 m.

PRINCIPLE 2: HIGH DENSITY

To prevent urban sprawl and promote sustainable urban extension, it is necessary to achieve
high density, which is the foundation of a sustainable neighbourhood. High density essentially
means a concentration of people and their activities.

To promote a high population density and stop the downward trend worldwide, Principle 2
defines a minimum of 150 p/ha for a sustainable neighbourhood – which is feasible, though
slightly above the average density of 129 p/ha.

Compared with low density, high density has economic, social and environmental benefits as
follows:
 Efficient land use slows down urban sprawl because high density neighbourhoods can
accommodate more people per area.
 Reduced public service costs. High density neighbourhoods tend to decrease the costs of
public services such as police and emergency response, school transport, roads, water and
sewage, etc.
 Support for better community service.
 Reduced car dependency and parking demand, and increased support for public transport.
 Provision of social equity.
 Support for better public open space.
 Increased energy efficiency and decreased pollution.

People may worry about the perceived connection between density and social problems,
such as crime, poverty and depression, but studies show no such correlation when factors
such as income and class are accounted for. A well-designed and organized high density
neighbourhood can be safe and comfortable, but a good quality design is essential to
achieve viable high density areas.

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 PRINCIPLE 3: MIXED LAND-USE

Principle 3 is aimed at developing a range of compatible land uses close together in appropriate
locations and flexible enough to adapt over time to the changing market. The purpose of mixed
land-use is to create local jobs, promote the local economy, reduce car dependency, encourage
pedestrian and cyclist traffic, reduce landscape fragmentation, provide closer public services
and support mixed communities.

Mixed land-use requires some combination of residential, commercial, industrial, office, or

other land-use. When different functions are mixed in one neighbourhood, economic and
residential land-use should be made compatible and well balanced by careful design and
management.
The suggested floor area distribution for a sustainable neighbourhood is: 40 to 60 per cent for
economic use, 30 to 50 per cent for residential use and 10 per cent for public services. The set
of recommended standards is a range to allow for flexibility so that different cities can adapt
them to their own situations. Mixed land-use is an inherent part of the nature of cities and is a
pillar of sustainable urban development.

PRINCIPLE 4: SOCIAL MIX

Principle 4 aims to promote the cohesion of and interaction between different social classes in
the same community and to ensure accessibility to equitable urban opportunities by providing
different types of housing. Social mix provides the basis for healthy social networks, which, in
turn are the driving force of city life.

Social mix and mixed land-use are interdependent and promote each other. Mixed land-use and
appropriate policy guidance lead to social mixing. In a mixed land-use neighbourhood, job
opportunities are generated for residents from different backgrounds and with different income
levels. People live and work in the same neighbourhood and form a diverse social network.
Social mix is a socio-spatial concept, with the following objectives:
o To promote more social interaction and social cohesion across groups;
o To generate job opportunities;
o To overcome place-based stigma;
o To attract additional services to the neighbourhood
o To sustain renewal/regeneration initiatives.

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It is recommended that between 20 and 50 per cent of the residential floor area is allocated to
affordable housing, and one single tenure type should not exceed 50 per cent of the residential
floor area.
Depending on their social and economic development stage, cities should select proper policies
to create a package that promotes a balanced, developed local community. Possible policies
include:
 Promoting social mix by mixing tenures and developing sales programmers within
public estates;
 Achieving social mix through allocation policies and the spatial distribution of poor
households.
 Investing in and improving public housing;
 Achieving social mix by urban and housing design;
 Promoting multi-level employment within the community;
 Working with private developers to increase public housing supply;
 Providing plots in different size and with different regulations, to increase the diversity
of housing styles.

PRINCIPLE 5: LIMITED LAND USE SPECIALIZATION

Principle 5 aims at adjusting/limiting the use of functional zoning to implement mixed land-
use policies. Zoning is a land use planning device used by local governments and urban
planners in many countries. Zoning may be use-based (regulating the uses to which land may
be put), or it may regulate building height, lot coverage and similar characteristics or a
combination of these. This principle focuses on the land-use aspect.

There are two ways to adjust zoning policies and apply Principle 5:
• To combine compatible land-uses into one block and neighbourhoods;
• To introduce mixed land-use zoning while respecting market demand and cities’ urban
by-laws and regulations.

In the process of implementing Principle 5, adjusting the zoning policy according to the needs
is important. To further illustrate how to implement limited land-use specialization, the
example of the Canadian city of Vancouver’s Burrard Slopes IC Districts is shown below.

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Burrard Slopes IC Districts, an area of 0.55 km², was created in the 1990s as an industrial-
only area. The zoning policies of Burrard Slopes have been adjusted several times since
1993 and the area is now an industrial, commercial, residential and mixed-use zone. In this
district, economic and residential land-use is well balanced by careful design and
management. Service and light industrial jobs have increased; residential development
projects have been introduced and population density and activities are growing. A single
function neighbourhood has been converted into a vibrant multi-functional community.

Burrard Slopes IC Districts’ successful experience illustrates the implementation of

Principle 5 by adjusting the zoning code. Reforming a single-function zoned
neighbourhood is not only a challenge but is also an opportunity for local governments and
urban planners.

Principle 5 is an urban planning tool to ensure the implementation of mixed land-use and
to increase economic diversity.

Figure 104 : Burrard Slopes Planning

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2.16. URBAN PLANNING AFTER PANDEMIC:

INTRODUCTION

COVID-19 has forced city governments to reconsider the relationship between mobility, urban
space and health in order to ensure physical distancing while meeting the travel needs of
inhabitants. Therefore, cities around the world are already involved in the transformation of
mobility through new models of sustainable transport. The World Health Organization (WHO)
guidelines on mobility during the COVID outbreak are mostly directed at creating more spaces
for cyclists and pedestrians, especially in densely populated urban areas, thus avoiding the
overloading of public transport and the use of private cars.

The ambition of the post-pandemic city should be not to return to “normal” but to build a better,
more sustainable and resilient society. The challenge is to respond to this health crisis by
planning a fair and sustainable environment for people, economies and the planet as a whole.
The “new normal” for cities should include new concrete measures that are put in place for
recovery that support the required transition to a more sustainable, low-carbon, inclusive and
healthier economy for people and the planet.

The short lockdown will not solve longer-term urban issues such as dependence on fossil fuels,
growing carbon emissions, loss of biodiversity, inequities in housing markets, divisions
between the rich and the poor and marginality. The COVID crisis has offered a new perspective
on these issues and the limits of the way that we have run our world to date. The real challenge
for post-pandemic cities is to make better choices than before.

One of the most rapid and significant impacts of the ongoing pandemic in urban areas, is related
to urban mobility. In particular the relationship between mobility, urban spaces and health,
needs immediate rethinking aimed at transforming urban environments through new
sustainable transport models.

BREAKING CAR DEPENDENCE TO RECOVER FROM THE CRISIS:

The ongoing pandemic has strictly connected mobility, urban spaces and health, highlighting
the need to act immediately in transforming cities through new sustainable transport models.

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People in cities are living the reality of travelling less, and the shifting of activities online. This
is a big opportunity to rethink our practices on work, leisure and retail habits, and debate on
encouraging affordable and sustainable travel for all. Action towards sustainable mobility can
produce large public health benefits because of the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions,
which leads to a cleaner environment. Policies towards sustainable mobility and better land-
use planning can effectively contribute to an increase in walking, cycling and the use of public
transit, as well as reducing community divisions and minimize unnecessary journeys.

Addressing urban mobility is therefore a pressing issue for the post COVID cities. In addition,
the need of social distancing required by the COVID crisis, implies that public transport
systems cannot run at full capacity. Therefore, public transit services may not be guaranteed to
work properly and may lose competitiveness compared to private cars. If people turn to cars
for their trips, cities could lose some of the greatest social and economic benefits of public
transit and will be overwhelmed by traffic and air pollution.

Most measures are oriented to enhance non-motorized mobility as well as the provision of
public spaces and services within the city. In particular, the most widespread measures are
oriented to change urban streets and public spaces and enhance the residents’ safety.
Emergency street design and transportation practices are at the front lines of city defence
against this health crisis and are essential to stopping future epidemics.
Many cities are moving quickly to take advantage of the opportunities offered by this state of
lower mobility, especially low car volumes, by implementing quality affordable mass transit
and pedestrian and cycling facilities. The aim is to drastically curb traffic and, in turn, providing
more road space for cycling and walking

Among the most common measures adopted by the front-line cities, the following are the most
effective:
1. Removing motor traffic from residential streets and extending pavements near shops,
schools and parks to make walking safe and enjoyable for transit and exercise;
2. Establishing safe cycling routes to and from schools, offices, and close to main roads,
by closing down roads and carriageways where necessary, so that people can have a
safer alternative to private cars and public transport;
3. Creating safe access routes on foot and bike as well as safe public spaces and green
areas at the neighbourhood scale, closing roads and squares to motorized traffic.

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The key principles in rethinking streets and public spaces for a post pandemic city are:
supporting public health guidance, considering physical distancing, increasing the outdoor
space available for people, creating safer street that priorities public transit, cycling and
walking, supporting local economies and bringing communities into the process. The report
includes descriptions of emerging practices from around the world as well as suggestions for
their implementation. The following street features are specifically addressed: dedicated lanes
for biking & rolling, sidewalk extensions, transit lanes, slow streets, pick-up & delivery zones,
outdoor dining and markets

These measures have already started to be implemented, although sparsely and not integrated
with other land use policies. However, the mayors participating in the newly formed economic
taskforce are working together to develop approaches to urban mobility and believe that this is
the way forward to more radical long-term measures that will help tackle inequality and the
climate crisis. There is a lot we can learn from this crisis as a springboard to the creation of
more permanent urban policy choices to make life more pleasant and safer for all.

Case Study

The Italian Case

Within the COVID-19 Pandemic, Italy is one of the countries that has paid the highest price,
both in terms of infections and deaths. Italy was the first European country heavily hit by the
pandemic as a consequence of several similarities with the countries where the infection
originated, mainly due to social and cultural factors that can influence infection rates

Data from the ten most populated Italian cities shows that almost a third of the Italian cases are
concentrated in metropolitan cities (over 65,000 cases, that represent 27% of the total Italian
cases) (Table 1). The data is even more relevant considering that the ten cities have a total
population of almost 9,000,000 inhabitants, which represent 14% of the entire Italian
population.

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 Table 25 : COVID cases in the most populated 10 Italian Cities

Sustainable mobility in urban areas is also the topic of “Post-Covid urban mobility” a document
released by Bikenomist, an agency of consulting, communication, training and research on
themes related to bicycles and cycling. The document, inspired by the NACTO guide, proposes
guidelines for new mobility. The proposal is centred on providing emergency mobility
networks for cyclist and pedestrians, as well as policies for restricted and traffic calming areas
in the inner cities. Technical solutions and best practices are also outlined in the document, in
order to offer a useful support to local government for non-motorized mobility policies and
implementations. Following these guidelines, research and debates, and after the observation
of the most effective international experiences, main Italian cities have developed urban
strategies to respond to post-COVID mobility needs.

2.16.3.1.1. Post Pandemic Mobility Programs

The post-COVID mobility project is the program launched by the municipality of Rome with
the aim to enhance sustainable urban mobility at the end of the lockdown. Delving in the details
of the plan, it provides 150 km of new temporary bike lanes, according to the Sustainable Urban
Mobility Plan recently approved by the municipality. The lanes, in part already under
construction, will become permanent in the near future.

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Figure 105 : Milan. New Cycling path along Corso Buenos Aires design sketch

Figure 106 : Implementation of New Cycling path along Corso Buenos Aires

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Figure 107 Bari. New cycling path along Lungomare Nazario Sauro current (a) design sketch (b), Via Manzoni
current (c) and design sketch (d)

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2.16.3.1.2. Conclusion

While urban life quickly returns back to the usual rhythms of work, leisure and other social
behaviours, our cities will never be the same, because of our newfound awareness that another
health crisis might strike. Consequently, the ongoing crisis has become the starting point for a
deep change in urban organization. In particular, urban mobility is going through a new kind
of green revolution. There is a remarkable change in the understanding that our streets and
public spaces are incredible assets that can be used to definitively change urban mobility.
Following the lessons of a number of cities around the world, the main Italian cities are
temporarily reallocating road space from cars to people, keeping them moving, during the
restart phase, healthy and active while socially distancing. Comparing the programs, we can
argue that the adopted actions, such as cycling lanes, pedestrian and traffic calming areas,
sharing mobility programs and others, are recurring in several programs

Points to be concluded

1. Maximize digital interfaces in order to make goods and food-distribution services

accessible to everyone by structuring an articulated and powerful system, capable of
replacing traditional methods of services distribution when needed.
2. Blurred lines between sectors, so that nonmedical settings such as hotels, convention
centres, and community spaces are designed up front to be more easily transformed into
emergency medical facilities on demand.
3. Increased use of limited to non-absorbent materials in our buildings (acoustic panel
ceilings, carpet, fabrics, etc.).
4. Increased flexibility and agility inherent in design and layout of spaces.
5. Walls and surfaces that are easily cleaned—whether that means more streamlined
shapes that avoid ledges and hard-to-reach corners, or materials that can withstand
being wiped down with disinfecting chemicals.
6. More widely available public amenities to support hygiene—public hand wash stations,
community showers, higher standards for restroom design and maintenance.
7. Flexible building use zones with “plug-and-play” building design (office to lab space,
car park to food production, warehouse to field hospital, etc.)
8. Economies that can be successful by minimizing the need to travel (Walkable Cities
Concept)

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CHAPTER 3

CASE STUDY

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 CASE STUDY

3.1. KULESHWOR AWAS CHHETRA

GENERAL INFORMATION

(Praveen Maharjan, 2020)

Name: Kuleshwor Town Planning
Location: Kuleshwor Height,
Kathmandu
Ward Number: 14
Area: 522 Ropanis (26.5 Hectare)
Climate: Moderate
Orientation: North - South
Population: 8000 approx.
Target group: Government officials Figure 108 : Map of Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra
Land use: Mixed
Topography: Site consists of high contour land and plain land which was separated through
a 7m wide road
Major access: Main entrance oriented to the East.
Landmark: Tinkune volleyball ground at the cross section of 3 roads.

HISTORY

 The Kuleshwor Town Planning was the

first planning under the concept of Site
and Services.
 The concept of design was based on
minimizing the road area and providing
maximum residential plot area.
 2033 B.S.: The government acquired the
land to utilize for the implementation of Figure 109 : Conceptual Map of Kuleshwor Awas
Chhetra
site and services.
 2039 B.S.: the plots were sold to the civil servants for the construction of their
residential units.
 2046 B.S.: The “Kuleshwor Awas Pariwar Kalyan Sanstha” was established.

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 Since 2049 B.S., the civil servants were permitted to sell their plots, which seemed like
a failure to the essence of the original scheme
 Market area was defined at the highest point of the contour. Open space were provided
at the centre of the Market area which were surrounded by building plots containing the
shutter area for shops facing towards open space.
 Open spaces were provided for the 127.18sq.m. (4 aana) and 190.78sq.m. (6 aana) land.
Altogether 26 open spaces were provided in Kuleshwor Area.
 The total allocation of land to open space was 4 % in Kuleshwor Awas.

CHANGES SEEN FROM PLANNING TO EXISTING SITE

 The major changes seen in public open space is its transformation of usage. In present
context, Tinkune community space is used as a playground, park and boring area.
 Encroachment of public open space by road expansion. The main reason for extending
2m road to 3m was for the ambulance and emergency vehicle entry. The expanded road
is now used by some local people for parking of car.

Figure 110 : Initial planning of road next to open spaces (left) and present condition (right)

 Construction of temples in open spaces. The construction of temples with compound

wall in place of green open space also seems to be problem because public open spaces
in each block were used for private parking purposes which are degrading the open
spaces. In present context 37 % of open space is fenced and not accessible to public.
 Also the market area initially designed for commercial purpose but now it is used for
parking and also contains fenced open space which is not accessible to public.

DENSITY

 1200 households catering the population of around 8000.

 Design Density: 400 PPHA

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 LAND DIVISION

The zoning of the town planning was done during the planning phase of the area where the
spaces for residential, educational, market area, etc. were proposed. The space allocated for the
market area is not much serving the same purpose today, rather it has been occupied by the
built spaces due to inefficiency of the market area.
Block size Plot size
 For small block, Average Depth of plot: 11m
Width=32m Average Frontage of plot: 17m
Depth=40m Land price during plot distribution
 4 Anna: Rs. 50,000
 For larger block,  6 Anna: Rs. 50,000
Width=52m  8 Anna: Rs. 75,000
Depth=30m  11 Anna: Rs. 85,000
 15 Anna: Rs. 95,000
Current land price: Rs. 60 lakh per Anna

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 4%
14% Residential
1% Commercial
2%
1% Institutional
Other Amenities
78% Road Network
Open Spaces

Figure 111 : Land Use Division

Table 26 : Division of Land Use

S.No. Land Use Area

1 Residential 77.5% of total area of total area

Average size of plot: 8 aana

2 Residential/mixed commercial 0.6% of total area

3 Religious 1% of total area

4 Institutional 1.2% of total area

5 Amenities 1.7% of total area

6 Road Network 14% of total area

Primary road of 7m and inner area connected through 5 -2m road

7 Open area 4% of total area

Tinkune volleyball ground at a distance of 286m from main road

HOUSING

 Row housing = 21.03% having uneven façade and floor height

 Detached houses= 78.97%
 Individual Bungalows
 Access: Vehicular (Few pedestrian path)
 Stories: 3-5
 Ground Coverage: 60%
 Open spaces: 40%

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 BYE LAWS

 Balcony, terrace, etc. must not be projected on the minimum setbacks mentioned.
 If road level is too low than the site, in difficult condition, garage can be made starting
from the end point of the road.
 For addition or renovation work, except first clause all must be followed.

PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURES

ROAD NETWORKS

The road network constitutes 14.3% of the total area.

3.1.8.1.1.HIERARCHY OF ROADS

Kuleshwor Town Planning is accessed from the East which is 7m wide. The primary road is
followed by 5m secondary roads, and 2-3m tertiary roads. The primary road separates the high
land and low land topography of the town planning.
 Primary road: 7m
 Secondary road: 5m
 Tertiary road: 2-3m
 43.45% have access of 2 to 3m road
 36.30% have access 4m-6m road
 20.25% have access to 7m road
 Public transportation is not available within the town planning
 Heavy vehicles are strictly prohibited
 No separate footpath made for pedestrians
 Haphazard On-street parking of vehicles due to lack of allocated parking lots

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 Figure 113 : Types of Road network

Figure 112 : Road Section

SEWER AND STORM WATER

 Concealed drainage system provided.

 Runs along the road network, collected
in manholes and dumped in the
Bishnumati river
 Setback for drainage from the plot: 2m.
 Sewers are maintained by the
Figure 114 : Manhole
government
 Opening inlets are seen for storm water on the sides of road
 Each manholes are provided to cater 3-4 households.
 Manhole size: 5 ’Dia. 6’ depths
 On-site septic tank provided in every household.

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Manhole

Figure 115 : Distance between manholes

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

 Solid waste collection is done by the municipal vehicles

twice a week normally and once a week on rainy seasons
 The dumping site is located 1.1 km from the Tinkune
ground.
 Land filling method used for the disposal of waste.

Figure 116 : Sewage collection vehicle

Figure 117 : Solid waste collection using landfilling

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 WATER SUPPLY

Sources of water:
i. Boring
The water supply for the entire town planning was pumped through the process of deep boring and
stored in an underground storage tank of capacity 1 lakh litres. This process is no longer in use.

Figure 118 : Boring

ii. Underground and overhead tank

Water from Sundarighat reserved in underground tank pumped to the overhead tank having
capacity of 80,000 litres which is then distributed to individual houses.
The water is distributed once a week for 2 hours which is not sufficient.

Figure 120 : Overhead Tank Figure 119 : Underground Tank

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 iii. Wells
 90% of the houses consist of water wells
 Community wells in the parks are also provided in some blocks

Figure 121 : Wells in green spaces

iv. Tankers and jars

ELECTRICITY AND COMMUNICATION

The electricity is transmitted from the NEA to the Kuleshwor substation, where the voltage is
converted through the transformers mounted on the electric poles, the wires from which are
taken and supplied to the individual households
 Number of transformers: 6
 Distance between poles: 21m average

Figure 122 : Location of Poles and Transformers

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 FACILITIES AND SERVICES

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE

A community school “Kuleshwor Awas Secondary

School” is located in the core area of the Kuleshwor Town
planning. 9 ropani was allocated for the school when the
town planning was done. The community school has a
hostel facility for 108 students. There is bus facility for day
scholars. Parking area for bus given within the school
premises.
Besides the community school, there are 5 other
private schools and a few preschools and day care
around the proximity of the town planning.
Kuleshwor Awas Secondary School
 Capacity: 800 students
 Area: 4578.63 Sq. M.
 Walking distance: 5 min
 Distance between similar facilities: 400m
Figure 123 : Kuleshwor Awas Secondary School

Nepal Academy of tourism

and Hotel Management New Horizon Pre-Primary and Secondary
School

Avant Garde Boarding

School

Kuleshwor Awas Paramount EM

Secondary School Secondary School

Action Pre-School
Figure 124 : Proximity of Schools near Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra

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 HEALTH INSTITUTES

Health institutes like pharmacy, dental clinic and polyclinics found on the outskirts of the
Kuleshwor town planning. The people from the community visit the Vayodha Hospital when
needed or according to their preferences.
Kuleshwor Polyclinic
 Lab test, OPD done
 Number of beds: 1
 Number of doctors: 10-11
 Walking distance: 5 min

Figure 125 : Kuleshwor Polyclinic

Kashishwor Pharma

Nyra Drug
Mart and
Polyclinic

Piya
Pharmacy

Aama Medical
Hill

Kuleshwor Polyclinic
Figure 126 : Proximity of Health Institutes near Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra

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 CULTURAL ASPECTS

 14 temples
 Pre=existing: 3
 Built by the community: 11
 The community comprises of people with different religions.
 Due to the presence of different religions, Temples and Stupas built between different
blocks.

Radha Krishna Ganesh Mandir

Mandir Sarbeshwor
Mandir

Kumari
Mandir

Kuleshwor
Ganesthan
Mandir

Gauri Shankar Chaitya Shree Kumari Mai

Mandir
Figure 127 : Proximity of Temples near Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra

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 OPEN SPACE

 Open spaces provided for every 22 plots.

 Tinkune Volleyball ground at the cross section
of 3 roads is the biggest open space
 Spaces allocated for activities like yoga and
bhajans for elder people, social interaction,
religious activities and parking
 Due to fenced green space most of the Figure 128 : Kuleshwor Tinkune Volleyball
Ground
respondent don’t have access to those spaces
and unfenced open spaces are poorly maintained
 Establishment of temples on some open spaces
has helped in keeping the space clean.
 Some open spaces have been converted to
parking

Figure 129 : Maintained park in use by the locals

Figure 131 : Fenced off green spaces

Figure 132 : Conversion of Green Spaces to Parking lots Figure 130 : Unmaintained green plots

143
 ECONOMIC ASPECTS

 Residents are mostly of upper class and upper

middle class.
 People are engaged in varieties of occupations
still most are in government jobs.
 Finance companies like Sayami Finance found
for money saving mechanism.
 A market area proposed initially replaced by Figure 133 : Big Mart
built spaces due to its inefficiency.
 Departmental stores like Big Mart near the Tinkune ground.

3.2. GANDHINAGAR

GENERAL INFORMATION

 Name: Gandhinagar Town Planning -

sector 21
 Location: Gujarat , Western India
 Town Area: 2250 hectare divided into
30 sectors of 75 hectare
 Sector area: 75 hectare
 Climate: Moderate
 Orientation: North - South
 Population: 8000 approx.
 Target group: mixed
 Land use: Mixed
Figure 134 : Master plan of Gujarat Town Planning
 Topography: Level and well drained
with a gentle slope from North east to South west
 Planning Approach : Town planning

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 HISTORY

Gandhinagar is the capital of the state of Gujarat in western India. It is located in the west
central point of the industrial corridor between Delhi, the political capital of India, and
Mumbai, the financial capital of India. Gujarat, being the birthplace of Mahatma Gandhi, there
was determination to make Gandhinagar a completely Indian enterprise. It is located at the
bank of river Sabarmati. Gandhinagar has seen rapid growth and development in eighties. The
administrative centre is slowly turning into a trade centre. It has not only made its presence felt
in terms of overall development nut also in its many eco drives for a sustainable future.
Gandhinagar has been approved by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy to be
developed as a solar city. It is the second planned city in India after Chandigarh.

Figure 135 : Swarnim Park (central vista)

DENSITY

 1200 households catering the population of around 8000.

 Design Density: 34.9 PPHA

LAND DIVISION

The character of a plan for a new city is influenced by various factors, such as the regional
setting, site conditions, dominant function, etc. Initially, the principal employer in the city
would be the state government and as such, the design population was based on the government
employment structure. In 1965, the city was planned for a population of 150,000 but can
accommodate double that population with increase in the floor space ratio from 1:2 in the areas
reserved for private development in all residential sectors. The total area of the site is about
5,738 hectares (14,180 acres) including and divided by the river. The area under river is about
800 hectares. The new city is planned on the western bank on 4,290 hectares (10,600 acres) of
land. Out of these, about 700 hectares (1,700 acres) along the river front (which is eroded land-
ravines) are left out for river side development. The area of the land in the eastern side of the

145
river, not proposed for immediate use, is about 650 hectares (1,600 acres). The planning is done
in Grid iron pattern and organic pattern and is considered as sector model.

The main work areas in the city are:

1. Capital complex and government offices.
2. Industrial areas.
3. City Centre.
4. Public institutions area.
5. Shopping, commercial and warehousing area.
6. Government housings
Private housings

Residential
16% 27%
Commercial
13% Institutional
3% Other Amenities
Industrial
2% Road Network
3%
Open Spaces
18%
21%
Figure 136 : Land Use Map for Gandhinagar

146
 SECTOR 21

16%
9% 50%
3% Residential

4% Commercial

5% Institutional
Other Amenities
7%
9% Industrial
Road Network

Open Spaces

Figure 137 : Land Use Map of Sector 21

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 UNIT TYPES

Almost 26% of the total site was covered by the household units. Eight categories of residential
plots, ranging from a minimum of 135 sq. m. To a maximum of 1600 sq. M are made available
for people in general. Each residential community has hierarchy of about four categories of
private plots and government quarters to achieve a balanced social and economic structure.
In summary:
 Block size: Varying block size block depth 25-70 m
 Plot size: A minimum of 135 sq. m. To a maximum of 1600 sq. m.

3.2.5.1.1.HOUSEHOLDS

According to ownership, there are three types of households in Gandhinagar: government

housing, private housing and ghb (Gujarat housing board) housing. Gandhinagar is considered
a ‘government town’ as it is the capital of Gujarat and all the important government offices are
located here. The ownership was initially more of the government employees but the land was
later sold to other people. Currently, private housings are more than government and ghb
housings

According to building type, households of Gandhinagar can be divide into 5 types. The amount
of these different types of housings are shown through the pie chart below:

9% semi-detached
6%
10% govt. quarter

60% apartment
3%
row house

15% bunglow

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 INFRASTRUCTURES AND SERVICES:

3.2.5.2.1. PHYSICAL

3.2.5.2.1.1. ROAD AND TRANSPORTATION

The pattern of the main city roads is generally rectangular forming a grid 1 km X ¾ km. The
roads have been oriented to form 30º north of west and 60º north of east to avoid direct facing
of morning and evening sun during journeys to and from work places. The total road area is
about 23.19%.
Road hierarchy:
 National highway : NH-(8-8C ) , SH 71
 Arterial road : GH road ,CH road, Road 7
 Sub-arterial road : Road no .(1,2,3,4,5,6) , KH road, G road , CHH road
 Collector road
 Local road
 Pedestrian lane: 88% of the study network has footpaths, while 12% is deprived of it,
but faces a major issue of discontinuity despite its availability. Pedestrian facilities like
zebra crossings are present but no FoB/Subway is present, even on stretches where
average speeds observed are > 55kmph.
 Total Road Network =441 km (excluding local roads153.46km)

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Road network in sector 21:
The overall planning in sector 21 is in organic pattern.
Primary road area: 9.82 hectare (excluding from
sector area)
Secondary road area: 3.12 hectare (4.12% of the
total area)
The roads that connects sector 21 are:
 Arterial road : CH road
 Sub arterial road : CHH road
 Collector roads
 Local roads and
 Pedestrian roads

Road section of local road and CHH road:

Local road

CHH road

Traffic and transportation

Ahmedabad Gandhinagar has largest share of passenger trips. At present the major means of
transport between two cities is the subsidized bus service. Gandhinagar has very weak rail
linkage. There is an existing broad gauge line on which daily a three coach local passenger
train comes twice and supports only 10-15 percent of the total population.

150
Road Network and dimensions:
Road length (in kms):

Where;
BSSL – Below standard single Lane-clear carriageway of width less than 3.75m.
SSL – Standard single Lane – clear carriage way of width 3.75m to 7m.
SDL – Standard double Lane – clear carriageway of width 7m to 10.5m.
SML – Standard Multi Lane- clear carriageway of width 10.5m and more.

Access roads to the city centre are 65 m wide. Road to the government offices from south –
west to north – west and the crescent road are 100 m wide. Rests of the roads are 45 m wide.
 No proper use of traffic lights and signals but traffic roundabouts placed in most of the
junctions that manages and slows down the traffic.
 Brick paved cycle tracks were a part of the original 1965 plan. However, the space has
been encroached by roads for motorized traffic

151
Incorporating green street network with cycle and pedestrian lanes is a part of revised
development plan-2024.

Figure 138 : Visualization of street for redevelopment.

It has proper mass transportation system through local buses and metro rails. Gujarat state Road
transport corporation (gsrtc) buses provide transport in and outside the state. Main gsrtc bus
depot is situated at sector-11 (pathikashram). Intercity buses between Ahmedabad and
Gandhinagar is also operated by gsrtc. Gandhinagar got its own city bus service in august 2009.
In the first phase of city based transportation service, a total of eleven buses running on
compressed natural gas (cng) have been allotted. Cng autorickshaws are available for local
transport. Gandhinagar capital railway station (gnc) is located in sector 14, providing
connections to many major cities of India. The city does not have an airport of its own but
sardar vallabhbhai patel international airport is situated 18km away in Ahmedabad, providing
domestic flights to other cities and many international flights too. The mega i.e. Metro link
express between Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad. It will have four lines. It was conceived in 2003
with an estimated cost of rupees 45 billion. The Delhi metro rail corporation conducted a
feasibility study for it in 2005-6.

3.2.5.2.1.2. WATER SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE:

The main sources of water for the city is the Sabarmati River and ground water. The water for
industrial purpose is supplied by three major sources: Gujarat water supply and sewerage
board, irrigation canal and Sarda Sarovar project, Narmada canal from Nabhoi pumping station

152
 through Gujarat Water Supply and Sewage Board. The pipeline are laid in grid iron pattern
along the grid of the roads.

Table 27: Sources of water

Ground Water Exploration:

The Ground Water Exploration was first taken up during 1971-74 under UNDP project and
thereafter under various programmes of Central Ground Water Board. During UNDP Project
two boreholes were drilled at Sardhav (Sardhao) in the north-western part of the district. These
were converted into piezometers. Subsequently, during 1985-86, three piezometers, tapping
different aquifers zones were constructed in the Sachivalay complex by CGWB under its
Piezometer Construction Programme. Two Deposit wells, down to 200 m depth, were also
constructed at Palej Agriculture Farm during 1981. Under Hydrology project five Piezometers
one each at Nardipur and Mansa and three at Kalol were constructed. One artificial recharge
well and one recharge well cum piezometer was constructed at IFFCO Kalol.
Drainage:
The entire district is a part of North Gujarat Alluvial plain with neither hill features nor any
prominent natural water bodies. The Sabarmati, the Khari and the Meshwo are important rivers
of the district. One of the most important feature of the drainage of the district is lack of any
definite drainage system in the western part and other is artificial drainage i.e. The Narmada
Canal System. The Sabarmati River, which flows through the district in north south direction,
is the principal river of the district. The Sabarmati flows through the central part of
Gandhinagar taluka. The Sabarmati was once a perennial river, however, after construction of
dam near Dharoi, it is generally dry during lean periods except for a small channel of flow due
to water released from Dharoi dam. Recently water from Narmada canal is being fed to the
river and the river retains water downstream of Narmada canal.

153
3.2.5.2.1.3.SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE:
As per the information of Capital
Project Division, Gandhinagar, the
current water supply in the city is
75 MLD. Sewerage system was
designed and constructed in 1970
in the city. The whole wastewater
from city is taken by underground
pipes and collected in Sargasan drainage pumping station. From this pumping system
wastewater is pumped and transferred to Jaspur wastewater treatment plant through rising
main and Sargasan STP. But Sargasan STP utilizes 50 % of its total capacity.

3.2.5.2.1.4.SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:

The solid waste is collected from the government and private sectors in containers and trucks.
The government does not have enough vehicles and mechanized equipment’s for proper
management of solid waste. It has provided two types of dustbins (blue and green) for
degradable and non-degradable wastes. However they are being mixed at the dumping site
which is located in sector 30, near the Sabarmati River. If the proposal for using solid waste
for thermal power generation is successful, it will be a great step for proper development.

3.2.5.2.1.5.ELECTRICITY AND COMMUNICATION:

Gandhinagar enjoys uninterrupted 24 hours power
supply. The main power station is located within
Gandhinagar: a 4000 kv service station, two 220 kv
stations and one 132 kv station is located for power
supply throughout the district. The power stations are
located on sector 30, on the outskirt of the city. It is
buffered from other areas by road and 2000 ft wide
green belts. The Gandhinagar thermal power station is a
coal fired power station in Gandhinagar.
Proposals have been made to utilize the solid
waste generated in the city for thermal power
generation. This will be a smart way to manage
solid waste as well as power generation

Figure 139 : Thermal Power Station

154
3.2.5.2.1.6.SOLAR PV ARRAYS AT SECTOR 21

Figure 140 : Solar PV Arrays

3.2.5.2.2.SOCIO-ECONOMIC

3.2.5.2.2.1.HEALTH FACILITIES:
Only one major hospital was planned with other
numerous dispensaries in each sector. This was
enough for the population that it was planned for
but the population has almost doubled. A hector
or two had been earmarked in original plan for
future extension of amenities. The development
of health facilities in those areas has been
proposed in the redevelopment plan 2024. The
existing single civil hospital is located near the
centre of the city, in sector 12 as shown in the
figure. There are in total 18 dispensaries and one
hospital in the area. A dispensary caters a single
or two sectors.

Table 28 : Health Infrastructure in GNA in 1997

155
3.2.5.2.2.2.EDUCATION FACILITIES:
The major institutional institutes: universities and
colleges were planned to be placed near the core
governmental sectors of the city as shown in the
figure. The universities have however been
developed not just in these parts but they are
located in different sectors and has acted as a point
of growth for the sectors. The schools up to the
higher secondary level were planned to be located
in each sector. Land was earmarked for future
development of these facilities. Completely
institutional sector to be developed, mirroring the
existing sectors. Iit (Indian institute of technology
is already located there that acts as a development point for this addition.

3.2.5.2.2.3.GREEN AND OPEN SPACES:

Gandhinagar town is considered one of the greenest city in India. There are many parks and
open spaces as well as recreational spaces designed in Gandhinagar town planning. But the
recreational spaces were less in Gandhinagar while planning. Children parks, zoos, green belt,
central vista, amusement parks, town hall parks, various stadiums, etc. were planned. Every
sector is provide with small to medium amount of green open space. Every roads are
surrounded by trees and vegetation’s which makes the city green city.

156
Figure 142 : Garden Lake Figure 141 : Central Vista

Figure 144 : Children’s Park Figure 143 : Roads surrounded by greens

Figure 145 : Cambay golf ground

157
 REDEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES:

Figure 146: Illustration of redevelopment of dilapidated government housing

In order to accommodate the growing population of the city, redevelopment proposals for
coming two decades have been made, based on the principles of affordability and sustainability.
The old government housings are to be converted into lig (low income group) housings through
amalgamation, providing 8000 affordable households for the low income group. The existing
blocks, built form and the proposed forms are shown in the figure below:

Figure 147 : Redevelopment Strategy

158
3.3. FRAISER MILLS WATERFRONT VILLAGE CENTER

GENERAL INFORMATION

Location: Fraiser Mill, Coquitlam, BC, Canada

Area: 36 ha (89 ac)
Population: 8000 people approx.
Design density: 222 Hectare/ person
No. of Residential Units: 3700 units
Planning Approach: Neighbourhood planning

Figure 148 : Planned site (left) and Present Context (right)

GENERAL BACKGROUND

The Waterfront Village Centre is envisioned as a neighbourhood where people can live, work,
shop and play in a mixed-use, riverfront village setting. Fundamental aspects of this
Neighbourhood Plan are to “reconnect” Coquitlam residents with the Fraser River through a
publicly accessible riverfront open space system, and the creation of a neighbourhood that
respects the history of this site. As home to an estimated 7,000 - 8,000 residents in a 36 ha (89
ac) neighbourhood, Fraser Mills will resemble other urbanized communities in the region. The
Waterfront Village Centre will provide residents with a range of multi-family dwelling types,
including medium density townhouses and apartments and high-density residential towers.
A gateway regional commercial area at United Boulevard will transition into the local
neighbourhood serving commercial component and culminate in a waterfront commercial area
on the river with smaller scale shops and restaurants. A number of amenities will draw people
of all ages to Fraser Mills. Residents and visitors will stroll the riverside trail, walk along the

159
Pier, play in the Riverfront Park, and visit the plaza at the terminus of the Main Retail Street.
Fraser Mills is also bound by a major transportation network, including rail, road and highway,
and the Fraser River.

HISTORY

Fraser Mills was once the largest sawmill in the British

Empire, and the site is considered the “birthplace” of
Coquitlam and the neighbourhood of Maillardville. The
historic mill site was also home to a multi-cultural and
diverse population who worked or lived in the area. The
community of Maillardville to the north of Fraser Mills was
a place of residence for French speaking migrants who
worked at the mill.

160
 LAND USE

Land uses that once surrounded Fraser Mills were originally

residential and was known to locals of the time as Mill Town.
These residences were home to mill workers and the area has
transformed over time. In particular, a mix of highway retail,
warehouse and distribution, service commercial, and
entertainment (i.e., Casino) uses has supplanted many
traditional industrial uses. Fraser Mills is also bound by a major transportation network,
including rail, road and highway, and the Fraser River.

Figure 149 : Land Use Map

161
Table 29 : Land Use in Fraiser Mills

GROSS FLOOR AREA SQ.M (sq.ft.)/LAND

GENERAL LAND USE AREA (hac)
377,400 sq.m (4,062,300 sq.ft.) /
Residential
12.55 ha (31 ac )
16,255 - 25,545 sq.m
Commercial
(175,000 – 275,000 sq.ft.)
Main Retail Street 6,500 - 9,290 sq.m
Commercial/Residential (70,000 – 100,000 sq.ft.)
Regional Commercial 5, 575 - 8,825 sq.m (60,000 - 95,000 sq.ft.)
Destination Commercial 465 - 930 (5,000 – 10,000 sq.ft.)
54,534 - 74,320 /6.0 ha (587,000–800,000 sq.ft.
Light Industrial/Business Park
/15 ac)
Amenity Space 6, 969 sq.m (75,000 sq.ft.)
Private Recreation (Amenity Building) 3, 485 sq.m (37,500 sq.ft.)
Private Amenity Area (Integrated into Residential
3 ,251 sq.m (35,000 sq.ft )
Buildings)
Public Amenity Area 233 sq.m (2,500 sq.ft.)
Parks and Open space 6.62 ha (16.35 acres )
Riverfront Park 1.72 ha (4.24 ac)
Riverside Linear Park 1.25 ha (3.1 ac)
Historic Como Greenway 2.00 ha (4.93 ac)
Greenway 0.28 ha (0.7 ac)
Main Retail Street Urban Plaza 0.35 ha (0.86 ac)
Habitat Area 0.89 ha (2.2 ac)
Crown Land- Parks and Open space 0.64 ha (1.58 acres )
Pier 0.16 ha (0.39 ac)
Viewing Decks 0.14 ha (0.35 ac)
Environmental Area 0.34 ha (0.84 ac)
Institutional
4, 925 sq.m (53,000 sq.ft.) / 0.45 ha (1.1 ac )
( Post-Secondary )
School/Commercial/ Park and Open Space 0.65 ha (1.6 ac )
Fraser River Viewing
0.13 ha (0.32 ac)
Decks
Total Site Acreage 36 ha (89ac)

162
 INFRASTRUCTURE SERVICES

For a planned urban development to be approved by the government, following set of rules
regarding infrastructures are strictly followed.

3.3.5.1.1.ROAD NETWORK AND STREETS

The circulation network has defined a street typology unique to the neighbourhood and been
planned to accommodate the actual function or use a street performs. Clipper and King Edward
Streets will connect with an East-West Street that parallels the Fraser River and are expected
to form the collector road system, feeding the local streets and lanes. The Main Retail Street
has been planned with angle parking to maximize opportunities for parking close to commercial
units and adding to the ambience of the street by slowing vehicle movements and discouraging
unnecessary through traffic. Local streets, known as Shared Streets, are envisioned to integrate
pedestrians, cyclists, parked and moving cars within the same street space. Various surface
treatments and the location of street furniture will help reinforce the Shared Street environment
while reducing vehicle speeds. A network of pathways and pedestrian- cycle-friendly streets
complements the street network and will connect the neighbourhood internally. The internal
transportation system will be designed using a holistic and optimal approach that reflects the
priorities placed on the different modes of transportation for the different elements in the
transportation system as identified the adjacent figures. Design details for the neighbourhood
circulation network, as it relates to surface materials, location of street furniture and
appropriate definition of travel mode widths within the ROWs will be integrated into the
Design Guidelines.

Road
 King Edward Street Collector: 20.9 m (68.6 feet)
 King Edward Street Local: 24.6 m (80.7 feet)
 East-West Collector and Clipper Street Collector: 20.4 m (66.9 feet)
 Main Retail Street: 23.4 m (76.8 feet)
 Local Street: 18.0 m (59.0 feet)
 North-South Shared Street: 18.0 m (59.0 feet)
 East-West Shared Street: 12.5 m (41.0 feet)
 North-South Lane: 12.0 m (39.4 feet)

163
  East-West Lane: 18.0 m (59.0 feet)
 Sidewalk widths vary between 1.8 and 3.5 m (5.9 and 11.5 feet)

Figure 150 : Road Networks in Fraiser Mills

3.3.5.1.2.PARKING

 Light Industrial/Business Park uses have 1.5 parking spaces per 100 m 2 (1,075 ft2.) of
floor area
 Commercial uses have 2.5 parking spaces per 100 m2 (1,075 ft2) floor area which is
inclusive of 0.5 spaces per 100 m2 (1,075 ft2) for staff parking.
 Institutional (Post-Secondary) parking have 3.5 spaces per 100 m2 (1,075 ft2)

3.3.5.1.3.WATER SUPPLY

 Potable water supply connected to the municipal water mains. The water distribution
system looped back to United Boulevard.

3.3.5.1.4. SEWER

 Two sanitary pump stations, one for the east half and one for the west half of the
neighbourhood

164
Figure 151 : Water supply system in Fraiser Mills

Figure 152 : Sanitation system in Fraiser Mills

165
 RESIDENTIAL

The Waterfront Village Centre offers a variety of multifamily housing choices. Fraser Mills
will accommodate a medium to high density urban development with specific residential
land use designations that include:
 Waterfront Centre Commercial/Residential
 Main Retail Street Commercial/Residential
 Apartment
 Townhouse

Varieties of multi-family housing forms are encouraged, including the following:

 Townhouses between 2-3 storeys, oriented to the street and accessible from the ground
floor;
 Stacked townhouses accessed from a common entry and/or the ground floor with
a maximum height of 4 storeys;
 Street-oriented townhouses with commercial operations on the first floor;
 Mid-rise buildings between 4 and 8 storeys;
 Mixed-use low-rise buildings overlooking the main retail street with a max height of 4
storeys
 High-rise apartment buildings with a maximum height of 38 storeys (for one building
only)

COMMERCIAL

Lifestyle and destination opportunities are integrated

into the Waterfront Centre Commercial/Residential
designation. The areas of activity include:
 Main Retail Street: acts as a commercial spine
 Pier and urban plaza
 Waterfront commercial/ residential centre
 Regional Commercial/Business Park
 Destination Commercial.
The Main Retail Street configuration of
the Neighbourhood Plan allows for a concentration of continuous street front retail commercial

166
uses. Continuous street front retail commercial opportunities create a sense of scale and synergy
among the individual businesses. Commercial uses that are neighbourhood serving are to be
located amid the residential component of the neighbourhood to encourage pedestrian access
to goods and services, and will be planned and tenanted to serve the needs of the estimated
7,000 to 8,000 residents.

Commercial uses that are neighbourhood serving generally consist of personal and business
services, in addition to convenience retail. Convenience retail includes product types that cater
to residents’ every day needs.

Commercial uses in the Main Street Commercial/Residential area that are neighbourhood
serving will provide a broader and more complete set of retail goods and services (e.g., grocery
store) than convenience retail alone. The Waterfront Centre Commercial/Residential
commercial area will consist of eating and drinking establishments, entertainment uses and
specialty retailers such as foods, housewares, arts and crafts. In this commercial area, the
complementary collection of retailers will create a sense of community and a distinct place.

Light Industrial/Business Park

Historically, the Fraser Mills site has been an
important employer in Coquitlam. A Light
Industrial/Business Park area has been designated to ensure
there is a continued significant employment function at Fraser
Mills.
Light Industrial/Business Park uses will be generally located
along the properties western edge along King Edward Street
and by and large east of the Historic Como Greenway
The Light Industrial/Business Park uses will also provide an
important employment function, in conjunction with the
employment generated by the retail uses.
The Light Industrial/Business Park uses will be of higher density than typical light
industrial development. The intent is to create a compact, business centre that respects the
historic employment function at Fraser Mills. This higher density may take the form of multi-
storey office buildings, or a combination of office with a warehouse or storage component.

167
The Waterfront Village Centre will accommodate a minimum of 54,534 m2 (587,000 ft2) and
a maximum of 74,320 m2 (800,000 ft2) of gross floor area in the Light Industrial/Business Park
land use area on 6 ha (15 ac) of land
The Light Industrial/Business Park uses will accommodate a variety of industrial and office
uses, in a range of building forms in accordance with the Development Permit Area guidelines,
including the following:
 Low-rise research and development campuses with 15 to 50 percent of space in
mezzanines or two-story office building with adjacent higher clear height space;
 Single-story to low-rise, large floor plate office buildings;
 Multi-tenant business park or institutional buildings, between two and five storeys; and
 Floor heights of at least 3.5m (11.5 ft) to preserve the opportunity for flexibility and
conversion to other uses

PARKS AND OPEN SPACE

The Waterfront Village Centre will have a variety of

recreation and leisure opportunities for neighbourhood
residents and the community at-large. The Parks and Open
Space land use has been programmed to be multi-purpose
and will include a variety of experiences ranging from active
play space and trails to passive opportunities, such as
riverfront seating areas. Parks and greenways, habitat areas,
semi-private podium gardens, plazas and viewing decks will
be woven together with the trails, streets and sidewalks to form a network of open space
The Coquitlam community have a strong connection to the Fraser River. One of the key
elements of the open space planning will be the creation of a publicly accessible riverfront.
This accessibility will be accomplished through:
 A multi-functional Riverfront Park
 A riverside trail and Linear Park
 A Main Retail Street Urban Plaza
 Fraser River Viewing Decks and a Pier.
The network of Parks and Open Spaces uses will contribute to the ecological, social and
economic health and well-being of the community residents.

168
Trails and greenways help improve air and water quality. For example, communities with trails
provide enjoyable and safe options for transportation, which reduces air pollution. By
protecting land along rivers and streams, greenways prevent soil erosion and filter pollution
caused by agricultural and road runoff.

Figure 153 : Allocation of Green Spaces in Fraiser Mills

The following active park amenities will be provided within the open spaces:
 A grassed, landscaped Riverfront Park approximately 1.72 ha (4.24 ac) in size west of
the Historic Como Greenway.
 Hard surface tennis and basketball courts in the Riverfront Park.
 A multi-use trail network to accommodate bike paths and pedestrian trails as generally
indicated on the Circulation Plan - Pedestrian and Cycling (Schedule G).
 A water, splash park and play area for children in the Riverfront Park.
 Two off-leash dog areas (one at the north end of the Historic Como Greenway and the
other on the northeast edge of the site, west of Clipper Street).
 An Urban Plaza at the south end of the Main Retail Street.
 A public indoor City of Coquitlam satellite office that is 233 sq.m (2,500 sq.ft.) GFA
that is adjacent to the Private Recreation building as shown on Schedule C - Illustrative
Concept Plan or in some other
 Two public washrooms (one located in the Riverfront Park and one located in the
vicinity of the Urban Plaza at the south end of the Main Retail Street).
 A Pier with water access

169
 PEDESTRIAN AND CYCLING

A key consideration for the design of the neighbourhood is the provision of a fine-grained
street, sidewalk and trail network. Walking is expected to be the primary form of travel for
short journeys within the Fraser Mills neighbourhood and cyclists of all ages and experiences
will be accommodated through various strategies. The neighbourhood will provide an
interconnected pedestrian and cycling network (including on street and off street trails and
sidewalks) to allow for a variety of route choices as identified in Schedule G - Circulation
Network – Pedestrians and Cyclists. The Waterfront Village Centre pedestrian and cycle
network will connect with the municipal and regional transportation network.

Multi-purpose off-street pathways within the neighbourhood will be encouraged to link to:
 The Fraser River Greenway Trail Network to the east of Como Creek
 United Boulevard along King Edward Street to the future Brunette River Trails and
Central Valley Greenway;
 Maillardville along a direct route within the King Edward Street corridor
 Community amenities internal to the neighbourhood, such as functional linkages
between the employment generating land uses, the Riverfront Park and Private
Recreation building, and the residential areas.

Figure 154 : Pedestrian Paths

170
 FLOOD PROOFING AND SHORELINE PROTECTION

The Ministry of Environment’s Guidelines for Management of Flood Protection Works in

British Columbia refers to the last “flood of record” as the designated flood risk for this portion
of the Fraser River. The flood of record (design/designated flood) occurred in 1894 and was
adjusted based on 1948 flood levels. For the Waterfront Village Centre, the designated flood
has been considered to determine the appropriate flood mitigation and shoreline protection
measures. In addition, modelling was conducted to examine the effects of a potential increase
in sea level resulting from climate change as well as the continued settlement of the delta
portion of the river to determine their impacts on the flood profile of the site.

Several elevations (geodetic datum) have been considered in developing the flood proofing and
protection measures for the site. The present elevation of the site varies, but is in the order of
3.5 to 4.0 metres (11.5 to 13 feet). The Flood Construction Level (FCL) is 5.0 metres (16.4
feet) for the site (“Lower Fraser River Hydraulic Model”, Northwest Hydraulic April 2007 for
the Fraser Basin Council). The actual Design Flood Profile Elevation is 4.4 metres (14.4 feet)
plus an additional 0.6 metres (1.9 feet) of freeboard to account for future uncertainties and
modelling assumptions.

Site and bank protection will be integrated into the design of the foreshore to mitigate the
effects of flow along the bank of the river, waves generated by marine traffic, and the
movement of water adjacent to the site.

POLICIES

1. The Waterfront Village Centre will be designed to ensure that the minimum elevation of
the habitable portion of residences and commercial spaces are designed to the FCL of
approximately 5.0 metres (16.4 feet) with an additional safety factor of 1.0 metres (3.2
feet) to result in a minimum elevation of 6.0 metres (19.6 feet) geodetic.
2. The ground level of the site will be elevated through fill to a final ground surface
elevation generally between 5.0 metres (16.4 feet) and 6.5 metres (21.3 feet).
3. Fraser River erosion protection along the neighbourhood’s river frontage will be
designed to extend generally to an elevation of 5.0 metres (16.4 feet) (FCL) and could

171
 include elevation changes and benches to ensure buildings and infrastructure are
adequately protected.
4. If any of the existing concrete shoreline structures are retained for visual interest, the
structures will be properly protected to function as the shoreline protection.
5. In most areas a 30 metre (98.4 feet) building setback from the high watermark along the
Fraser River and the Como Creek will be established for flood maintenance measures.
6. A 6 metre (19.6 feet) right-of-way will be designated within the Riverside Linear Park
and designed to accommodate emergency and service vehicle access for maintenance,
repair and/or emergency events. This area could allow the construction of a dyke if the
need were to ever arise.
7. Underground parking and other built areas not requiring construction to the minimum
FCL, but subject to inundation during flood events will employ methods, such as wet
flood proofing the built areas with water resistant construction materials, to ensure
limited loss of property.
8. Signage will be required to indicate areas that are not protected against inundation by
potential floodwaters.
9. Infrastructure services will be protected from potential flood inundation, using methods
such as special valves for sewer and water services, and designing any buried lines to
resist damage.
10. Any new exposed fill material and existing protection requiring remediation along the
bank of the Fraser River will be upgraded for bank stability with a variety of treatment
materials. Final bank treatments will be determined with the City of Coquitlam and/or
other regulatory agencies and prior to parkland being constructed.
11. To protect the development from potential erosion at the entrance to Como Creek, a
buried rip rap bank will be constructed upland of the existing top of bank to minimize
damage to the existing riparian area.
12. Any exposed portions of fill material along the east and west boundaries of the
neighbourhood will be protected against erosion to ensure buildings and infrastructure
are adequately protected.

172
3.4. OTHER CASES

APARTMENT

GENERAL INFORMATION

Name: Oriental Apartment (Phase II)

Location: Kuleshwor, Kathmandu
Ward: KMC Ward 14
Area: 4403.72 Sq. Ft. (8-10-2-0)
Owner: Sudhir Basnet
Population: 762 approx.

ENTRY GUARD QUARTER

Main access from East side  Guard post located at the entrance
 24×7 security provided

Figure 155 : Main Entrance Figure 156 : Guard Quarter

FLATS

Number of flats: 127

Type of apartments: 2 BHK, 3BHK and 4BHK
Price:
 For 2BHK: Rs. 70,00,000
 For 3BHK: Rs. 95,00,000
 For 4BHK: Rs. 1,30,00,000
Area
2BHK = 615 Sq. Ft.

173
Figure 157 : Block 3: Ground Floor Plan (left) and Typical Floor Plan (right)

SERVICES

3.4.1.5.1.SEWER AND STORM WATER

 Proper pipelines not allocated.

 Sewage pipes directly connected to the river

3.4.1.5.2.SOLID WASTE

 Method: Land filling

 Frequency of collection: once a week
 Dumping site distance: 800 m

3.4.1.5.3.WATER

 Source: Underground boring water

 Capacity: 5000 ltr. per block
 Consumption: 139 LPCD

3.4.1.5.4.ELECTRICITY

 Type: Overhead supply

 Number of transformer: 1

174
3.4.1.5.5.PARKING

 Cars: 32
 Bike: 100

Figure 158 : Parking Spaces

3.4.1.5.6.OPEN SPACE

 Area: 2000 sq. ft. approx.

 No entry allowed

3.4.1.5.7.EMERGENCY STAIRCASE

 No emergency staircase provided

Figure 159 : Open space

3.4.1.5.8.LIFT

 No lift provided

3.4.1.5.9.FIRE HAZARDS

 Fire extinguisher provided at the entry of all blocks

Proximity

Education institutes

Health
Figure 160 : Fire Extinguisher
Temples

175
CHAPTER 4

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

176
 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

Description Literature Kuleshwor town Gandhinagar Fraser mill Inference

review planning town planning waterfront village
center

General Introduction

Location Located in a Kuleshwor height, Gandhinagar, Faser Mill, 90% of houses

neighborhood Kathmandu Gujarat Coquitlam, BC , within 2 km
with minimum Ward No.: 14 Canada from motor
future road
deterioration

Area 26.5 Hectare 75.7 hectare 36 hectare -

Climate Moderate Hot and humid Oceanic -

Topography Site consists of Fairly flat -

high contour land
and plain land
separated through
a 7m wide road

Orientation North-South North-South North-South East-West North-South

Target group Mixed use Government Mixed use For middle to For all group
officials (4000 high income and classes
people) groups

Major access Accessible Accessible from Accessible from all United Boulevard Accessible
from all all surrounding surrounding major from all
surrounding major road road –arterial roads surrounding
major road networks major road
networks networks

Landmark Tinkune Gandhinagar Fraser River

volleyball ground gymkhana

Morphology -Grid iron No particular -Grid iron pattern Grid Iron pattern Grid network
pattern pattern and organic pattern gives the
for sectors lesser amount
-Radial of negative
spaces
-Linear

Site Easily accessible Easily accessible Easily

Feasibility from the major from the major accessible
areas areas from the
major areas

177
Description Literature Kuleshwor town Gandhinagar Fraser mill Inference
review planning town planning waterfront village
center

Density

Population 8000 approx. 13,34,455 8000

Density 200-300 400 PPHA 177 PPHA 222 PPHA 200 PPHA
design PPHA

Land division

Zone Mixed use Mixed use Mixed use Mixed use

Land Site and services Town Planning

development turned into land
scheme pooling

Block size Small block, Varying block size -

Width 60m Width=32m block depth 25-70
Depth 45-80m Depth=40m m
Larger block,
Width=52m
Depth=30m

Plot size 80 Sq. m. In small plots, A minimum of - Plot ratio

Width=16m 135 sq. m. To a should be 1:2
Ratio 1:2 Depth=8m maximum of min.
Ratio= 1:2 1600 Sq. M.
Width 6m minimum In larger plots:
Width=26m
Depth 2.2- Depth=15m
2.5×Frontage

Land use 20% for open

space

20% road

4% 1%5%
20% surface
14% 14% 17% parking
1% 11% 5%
2%
1% 63% 2%19
78% 22%
% 35%
20%
Residential
Residential Residential
Commercial
Institutional Commercial Commercial
Other Amenities Institutional Institutional
Road Network Other Amenities Other Amenities
Open Spaces Road Network
Open Spaces
Open Spaces

178
Description Literature Kuleshwor town Gandhinagar Fraser mill Inference
review planning town planning waterfront village
center

Road network

Area 20-30% of 14.3% of total 23.19% of total 22% of total area 20% of total
surface area area area

Hierarchy of Arterial road: Primary road: Arterial road: Arterial road

roads 30-40 m 7m 20 m – 25 m :14m
Sub-Arterial Secondary road: Collector road:
road: 5m 10 m to 12 m Collector
Collector road: Tertiary road: 2m- Local road: 5m - road: 10 m
20 m 3m 8m
Local road: 10 Local road:
m 6m

Type of road Grid network Grid network Grid iron pattern Grid network
Radial Organic pattern gives the
network lesser amount
Organic of negative
network spaces

Pedestrian 2-2.5m Footpath 88% of the network Pedestrian friendly 2-2.5 m with
access Minimum development has design buffering and
height of 2.3 m planning footpaths curbs
undergoing Bicycle lane
and on street
parking proposal

Single lane 3.75m 3.75m 3.75m 3.75 m

Two lane 7m 7m 3.75m 7m

Intersection 5-7 3 intersections per 2 intersections per 5-7

intersections 100m 100m intersections
per 100m per 100m

Footpath 2-2.5m No separate 88% of the network Sidewalk widths 2-2.5m

Minimum footpath allocated has footpaths vary between 1.8 Minimum
height of 2.3 m Future proposal and 3.5 meters (5.9 height of 2.3
(2024) for bicycle and 11.5 feet) m
lane and on street
parking

Capacity of 30-50 persons - 60-80 person per 30-50 persons

footways per minute per minute per meter per minute per
meter meter

Street 29 m apart Average 21m Average 21m apart 21 m apart

lighting apart

179
Description Literature Kuleshwor town Gandhinagar Fraser mill Inference
review planning town planning waterfront village
center

Street parking 20% of surface Haphazard on- Commercial: 2.5 Institutional: 3.5 20% of
street parking parking space per parking space per surface
100 sq. m. 100 sq. m.

Parking space in Commercial: 2.5

market area parking space per
100 sq. m.

Park: 1.5 parking

space per 100 sq. m.

Public Public -Not available City bus service Introduction

transport transportation within the town of smart
should be planning Rickshaw for local transportation
provided transportation to reduce
-Bus stops located pollution
outside the town Railway in close
planning proximity -

-On-street taxi
stand in the 7m
road entrance

Proximity 0.8 km radius 80 m radius 0.8 km radius

-

Universal Should be Not considered Part of revised Should be

design considered development plan- - considered
2024.

Present -Asphalt paved Asphalt paved

condition roads roads with green
belt
-Haphazard on
street parking on
all blocks

-Traffic
congestion on the
7m road due to
haphazard on-
street parking

-Encroachment of
open spaces due
to road expansion

180
Description Literature Kuleshwor town Gandhinagar Fraser mill Inference
review planning town planning waterfront village
center

Sewer and storm water

Location 1/3rd the Runs along the -The Narmada Storm water Storm water
distance from road network, Canal System drainage channels drainage must
the curb line to collected in -underground pipes provided through be separate
the center line manholes and -collected in three catchment area from the
of the streets dumped in the Sargasan drainage that ultimately sewerage
river. pumping station dumps onto the pipes that can
-pumped and Fraser River be further
transferred to used for
Jaspur ground water
wastewater recharge
treatment plant

Drainage -Concealed Concealed Concealed drainage Concealed drainage Concealed

types drainage drainage drainage

-Open
drainage

Types of -Separate Separate system Separate system Underground pipe Partially

sewerage system system combined
-Combined system
system
-Partially
combined
system

Solid waste management

Dumping site 1.1 km from Dumping site in Around 1.1

Distance Tinkune ground sector 30, near the - km
Sabarmati River.

Method Controlled Land filling Solid waste Whichever

tipping collected from suitable
Land filling the government
Trenching and private sectors
Dumping into in containers and
-
sea trucks.
Pulverization Proposal of solid
Incineration waste conversion
to generate
electricity.

Frequency of Twice a week Regularly

- -
collection

Collection 25% of solid Unmanaged Two types of 25% of solid

waste Collection dustbins (blue and waste
collected and green) for collected and
-
properly degradable and properly
disposed non-degradable disposed
wastes.

181
Description Literature Kuleshwor town Gandhinagar Fraser mill Inference
review planning town planning waterfront village
center

Water supply

Source Deep boring -Deep boring(not Main source Potable water Source should
Water storage in use) Sabarmati river supply connected to be near the
Tankers and -Underground • ground water the municipal water town planning
jars water tank • Wells (radial mains. The water
-Overhead Water collector , distribution system
tank intake ) looped back to
-Wells United Boulevard.
-Tankers and jars

Depth 1m below road 1m below road - 1m below

-
level level road level

Consumption 135 LPCD 125 LPCD 125 LPCD 135 LPCD

-
unit

Availability 24 hours Once a week for - Should be

almost 2 hours - adequate
(Not enough)

Type -Central water Central water -Central water As per

supply supply supply requiremnet
-
-Parallel water
supply

Method -Gravity Dual system Pipeline laid in Dual system

system gridiron pattern
-
-Pump system along the grid of
-Dual system the roads.

Rain water No No Should be

-
harvesting done

Electricity and communication

Types Overhead Overhead supply Overhead supply

supply Underground
-
Underground supply
supply

Sub station Kuleshwor • Thermal power

substation station
-
• Kalpatarupower
station

Number of 6 - As per
-
transformers requirement

Source Active Active energy Solar powered Active

Passive used on individual street lights Passive
-
houses

Distance 9.9m -10.7m 21 m 21m 9.9m -10.7m

between -
poles

182
CHAPTER 4

SITE ANALYSIS

183
 SITE ANALYSIS

5.1. INTRODUCTION

The site provided is situated in Nayapati, Gokarneshwor Municipality ward no 2. The site
consists of various elements. The site is accessed by 14m wide road which is proposed to be
30 m in the near future. The site surrounding has a significant cultural value.
The site is naturally contoured and is basically agricultural land. There is no definite street
pattern. There are various educational, commercial and other infrastructures present around the
site which needs to be considered while developing the community.
Agriculture is one of the important occupations of the people living there. Likewise, people
area also involved in local level commercial activities like grocery shops, seasonal farms,
furniture

5.2. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

The figure above shows the number of population of the municipality and the ward 2 where
our site is situated.

The figure above shows the number of families, its types and residential types.

184
The above bar diagram illustrates the number of peoples according to religions.

The bar diagram above illustrates the numbers of peoples according to different caste groups.

The bar diagram above illustrates the number of people according to different language which
are spoken.

185
The above bar graph illustrates the number of peoples of different age groups.

The above bar diagram illustrates the number of people according to the academic qualification.

The above bar diagram illustrates the number of livestock

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The above bar diagram illustrates the number of people according to the occupation.

The above bar diagram illustrates the number of people in different country for foreign
employment.

5.3. PHYSICAL ASPECTS

 Topography : Almost flat with little contour

 Warm temperate climate
 Bagmati river in the South
 Gradual slope towards river
 Minimum Traffic
 Agricultural Land

Access and approach

 Major approach road is Jorpati – Sundarijal road
 The road is 14 m wide road,

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Surrounding
 Main road of 4 lanes on North side.
 Syalmati Khola on East side.
 Bagmati Khola , Gokarna Forest on North side
 Kolmati Khola , Uttar Bahini on the West Side

Figure 161 : Graphical Site Analysis

5.4. SOCIAL ASPECT

 Mixed residential zone

 Newars, Tamang, Gurung are locals and Chaudhary, Rai, Sherpa are also there
 Recreational Area: Gokarna Forest Resort, Gulf Course, Gokarna gang callisthenic
park, Gokarna Sahid Smarak Park.

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5.5. ECONOMIC ASPECT

 Developing area
 Basic stores, Pharmacy , Banks are found in proximity area

5.6. CULTURAL ASPECTS

 Temples are found near the site

 Rich in cultural values
 Many monastery and churches are found in proximity

5.7. PROXIMITY ANALYSIS

Figure 162 : Educational Institutions near site

Figure 163 : Health Institutions near site

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 Figure 164 : Temples near the site

Figure 165 : Monastery near the site Figure 166 : Churches near the site

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5.8. SERVICES

ROADS

 Main Access : Jorpati – Sundarijal Road

 Artillery roads inside site
 a moderate amount of public transport is available in regular intervals of 10-15 mins ,
but it is not enough to sustain the amount of people going to work and colleges during
peak hour

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

 Frequency of collection: Once a week

 Dumping Site: Sisdol
 Gokarneshwor Municipality in collaboration with HITA Company of Japan, has
installed a sophisticated Japan-made machine for managing waste. The machine will
incinerate the waste and help keep the municipality clean.

WATER

 Distribution from Sundarijal once in 2 days,

 Jar water for drinking.

5.9. SWOT ANALYSIS

STRENGTHS

 Developing area
 No housing and planned settlement nearby
 Contour towards south (Active and Passive energy)
 Culturally potential area

WEAKNESS

 Agricultural land (Black cotton soil)

 Flooding (rivers and rivulet on 3 side)
 Foul odour from the rivers
 Threats of security due to sparse population.
 Far from developed area (lack of health facility, departmental stores, roads,

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 OPPORTUNITY

 Being a tourism area, good flow of people

 It will be an example for that area
 Job opportunity generation for the locals
 Unity in Diversity

THREAT

 Flood during monsoon

 Pollution
 Black cotton soil
 Wild life from Gokarna forest

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CHAPTER 5

PROGRAM FORMULATION

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 PROGRAMME FORMULATION

6.1. DENSITY:

 No. of household: 1000

 Total population: 5000
 Design density: 210 people/ ha
 Land area: 24 ha
 Area for each family: 7.5 anna (with infrastructures)

6.2. INFRASTRUCTURES:

 Roads: 20% (4.8 ha)

 Open Spaces: 10% (2.4 ha)
 Others: 15% (3.6 ha)
 Area for each family: 4.5 anna

6.3. TARGETED GROUP:

 Mixed group
 Tentative land cost around site per anna: Rs. 200000
 Min plot size: 2.5 anna

6.4. SALARY

 Economically weaker group: daily labours

 Lower-middle income group: Rs. 15,000-Rs. 30,000 monthly
 Upper-middle- income group: Rs. 30,000-Rs. 60,000 monthly
 High income group: Rs. 60,000-Rs. 100,000 monthly
 Affluent income group: Rs. 100,000 monthly and above

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Targeted group Number of families

Economically weaker group 200

Lower middle income group 200

Upper middle income group 200

High income group 200

Affluent income group 200

HOUSING
DISTRIBUTION 13.3Ha (55% of total land)
SN PARTICULAR AREA TOTAL TOTAL PERCENTAGE
FOR A LAND LAND OF
FAMILY (ANNA) (HECTARE) DISTRIBUTION

i) Economically 1.5anna 300 0.9 ≈ 1 7.5%

weaker group

ii) Lower Middle 2.5 anna 500 1.5 11.27%

income group

iii) Upper Middle 4 anna 800 2.4 18%

income group

iv) High income 6 anna 1200

group 3.6 27%

v) Affluent income 8 anna 1600

group 4.8 36.23%

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INFRASTRUCTURES

Facilities Type Level or Capacity Tentative Area

Educational Facilities Institutional +2 college 1 Ha

Health Facilities Health-post Health-post 0.1 HA

(communal)

Social Facilities Community hall, 4200 population

Library 1.5 HA

Economic Facilities Market, 1.5 Ha

Departmental
Open + Recreational Store 10% of the total site
Spaces =2.3Ha
Playgrounds,
Green waste Children Parks, 0.25 Ha
management area Community Parks

FACILITIES

Facilities Features Reasoning

Water Supply Government pipeline, To provide 90 litres per

Underground tank, overhead capita per day (lpcd).
tank, and onsite boring with
water treatment plant

Sewer Septic tank and soak pit

Storm water Rain water harvesting Treated water used as

irrigation facilities in the
community garden.

Solid Waste organic – Green waste

management system
inorganic – municipal
incinerate plant

Electricity and Underground supply of Energy efficient design

Communication electricity and
communication

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 APPENDIX

7.1. CHECKLIST DURING SITE STUDY

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198
199
7.2. SURVEY AT KULESHWOR

Questionnaire/Interview sessions

For the purpose of the case study, two interviews were taken in the Town Planning. One was
done with the Kuleshwor Awas Pariwar Kalyan Sanstha committee in their committee meeting
hall; while the other was done with a resident of the Kuleshwor Town Planning Prafulla Mali.
The questions asked and their answers have been shown below.

WITH COMMITTEE OF KULESHWOR AAWAS PARIWAR KALYAN

SANSTHA

Housing:

 Are homes mainly owner-occupied or rental?

 There is no definite answer to this; there has been an increase in rental, while
some still are owner-occupied.

 Is there any other kind of housing available?

 Generally 45 feet plan houses are there with 12-13 people inhabiting a plot.

Safety and Crime Prevention:

 Is there a Neighborhood Watch and/or a foot patrol in your neighborhood?

 There is a police bit.

Education, Literacy and Training:

 Are there educational opportunities in the neighborhood?

 Yes, there are many schools and colleges including Janamaitri Multiple
Campus.

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  Kuleshwor Awas Secondary English School is a school community school with
provisions of hostel.
 There are other private schools namely : Paramount, Avant Garde Boarding
School, New Horizon Secondary School, DPS School, Action Pre School,
Shikshya Kids Education, Southern Paradise Boarding School

 Are recreational programs available?

 Along with the Tinkune Volleyball ground where most games are played, the
Schools have individual playing grounds to cater to the needs of the students

 Are there any libraries?

 Yes, there is a library in the building of Kuleshwor Awas Pariwar Kalyan
Sanstha.

Neighborhood Support Networks (formal and informal):

 Are there health programs and facilities in the neighborhood?

 Yes, there are many clinics. Even the building of the Kuleshwor Awas Pariwar
Kalyan Sanstha has a health clinic.

 Are there other supports such as cultural centres, women’s groups, daycares,
neighbourhood outreach, seniors’ centres and services, and community kitchens?
 Kuleshwor Awas Pariwar Kalyan Sanstha itself.

Local Self-Reliance and Community-Building:

 Are community meetings and neighbourhood events held?

 In the hall of this building.

Natural Environment:

 Is environmental education available?

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  No. But, time to time, cleaning campaigns are carried out.

Built Environment:

 What is the condition of the streets and commercial corridors (i.e. sidewalks, lighting)?
 The road is not very standard. There is lack of footpath and it would have been
better if there was a two lane system rather than the prevailing one lane system.

Others:
 Is there provision of any planning bye-laws?
 Yes, there are some legal documents but they have not been strictly followed.

WITH A RESIDENT

PRAFULLA MALI

Safety and Crime Prevention:

 Is there a Neighbourhood Watch and/or a foot patrol in your neighbourhood?
 Not is a proper manner. Some watch or patrol is provided in a small scale and
upon necessity of time and events.

 What are traffic levels like?

 It is not very chaotic.
 Restrictions to heavy weight carrying trucks need to be made.

 Are there concerns regarding pedestrian safety?

 There is no pedestrian safety since there is lack of footpath.

Economic Development and Employment Opportunities in the Neighbourhood:

 Is the neighbourhood an attractive place for business?
 Not really, no. This is because it is developed to be for housing purpose.

 Are there employment opportunities for youth, seniors and/or persons with disabilities?
 Nothing as such. But, Kuleshwor Club does organize various programmes for
various people of the neighborhood.

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Natural Environment:
 Are there many neighbourhood parks?
 There are many green parks within the neighborhood. There is one open space
after every 1-2 houses.

 Are natural schoolyards and other play areas available?

 There is one big open space where various activities can be done.

 What is the condition of the open spaces?

 Some open spaces are well maintained while some have weeds growing in them.

 Are there neighbourhood gardens?

 Yes, the open spaces have been made into garden spaces at various points.

 Is environmental education available?

 Though various environment related programmes are organized at times, there
is no environmental education available.
Services:
 Is there facility for sewage collection?
 The sewage is collected once a week

 In what duration does id water supplied? Does it last till the next supply?
 Water is supplied once a week. The supply doesn’t last a week, many homes
have a well while some use a tanker.

 Is the supply of electricity constant?

 There is a constant supply of electricity

 Where do you go to buy your daily necessities?

 We buy our necessities from the shops around the main road near the slope entry
into the Awas Chhetra

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 CONCLUSION

Urban planning is a vast subject and incorporates various ideas, ideologies and thought process.
Any design project is incomplete without justifiable data and reference from live projects,
similar is the case for planning project. Hence, to better understand the project properly
literature studies as well as studies were done, out of which one a national level was planning
project and another was international level planning projects.

For national planning project, Kuleshwor Awas Chhetra was studied and for international
planning, Fraiser Mills Waterfront Village Centre projects was studied. After the study, we
were able to extract some valuable guidelines that can help us to better understand and design
a well-balanced urban built environment.

Urban planning, design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form,
economic functions, and social impacts of the urban environment and on the location of
different activities within it. Because urban planning draws urban upon engineering,
architectural, social, and political concerns, it is variously a technical profession, an endeavour
involving political will and public participation, and an academic discipline. Urban planning
concerns itself with both the development of open land and revitalization of existing parts of
the city, thereby involving goal setting, data collection and analysis, forecasting, design,
strategic thinking, and public consultation.

Hence, this project helped us understand that any settlement acts like a living organism with
origin, growth, decay the overall planning requirements, and understand the considerations to
be taken for neighbourhood planning. It familiarized us with the neighbourhood-planning
concept, basic infrastructure required for planning and its relation to the present site context as
well as future design planning

204
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